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Indigenous Extractivism in Boreal Canada: Colonial Legacies, Contemporary Struggles and Sovereign Futures

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Indigenous Extractivism in Boreal Canada: Colonial Legacies, Contemporary Struggles and Sovereign Futures humanities Article Indigenous ExtrACTIVISM in Boreal Canada: Colonial Legacies, Contemporary Struggles and Sovereign Futures Anna J. Willow Department of Anthropology, The Ohio State University, 111 Morrill Hall, 1465 Mt. Vernon Ave., Marion, OH 43302, USA; [email protected]; Tel.: +1-740-725-6259 Academic Editors: Karen L Thornber and Tom Havens Received: 30 October 2015; Accepted: 12 January 2016; Published: 15 July 2016 Abstract: This article approaches contemporary extractivism as an environmentally and socially destructive extension of an enduring colonial societal structure. Manifested in massive hydroelectric developments, clearcut logging, mining, and unconventional oil and gas production, extractivism removes natural resources from their points of origin and dislocates the emplaced benefits they provide. Because externally imposed resource extraction threatens Indigenous peoples’ land-based self-determination, industrial sites often become contested, politicized landscapes. Consequently, I also illuminate the struggles of those who strive to turn dreams for sovereign futures into reality through extrACTIVIST resistance to extractivist schemes. Presenting four case synopses—from across Canada’s boreal forest and spanning a broad range of extractive undertakings—that highlight both sides of the extractivism/ACTIVISM formulation, this article exposes the political roots of resource-related conflicts and contributes to an emerging comparative political ecology of settler colonialism. While extractivism’s environmental effects are immediate and arresting, these physical transformations have significant cultural consequences that are underlain by profound political inequities. I ultimately suggest that because extractivism is colonial in its causal logic, effective opposition cannot emerge from environmentalism alone, but will instead arise from movements that pose systemic challenges to conjoined processes of social, economic, and environmental injustice. Keywords: activism; Canada; clearcutting; extractivism; First Nations; hydroelectric development; mining; natural resource conflicts; settler colonialism; tar sands 1. Introduction Glimpses of black bears, wolves, and lynx punctuate my transect. Foxes, otters, beavers, and snowshoe hares are here, at home, along with smaller amphibious and invertebrate inhabitants and 300 species of summer birds [1]. My flyover reveals a carpet of conifers, poplars, and willows; a sea of green sporadically broken by muskegs, fish-rich lakes, First Nations settlements, and extractive industrial megadevelopments. I am envisioning Canada’s boreal forest—more than two million square miles concurrently claimed as a biological treasure, Indigenous homeland, and extractivist frontier (Figure1). Extractivism removes resources from their points of origin, dislocating the emplaced benefits they provide. Massive hydroelectric dams, clearcut logging, mining, and unconventional oil and gas production represent extractivism in action.1 Because capturing resources on such an enormous scale requires the physical rearrangement of landscapes and/or complex chemical processes, 1 The term unconventional refers to recent technological innovations used to extract oil and natural gas from shale formations, sands, and coal seams. Humanities 2016, 5, 55; doi:10.3390/h5030055 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities Humanities 2016, 5, 55 2 of 15 Humanities 2016, 5, 55 undesirable environmental effects often ensue. Economically, Economically, extractivism extractivism is is associated associated with with a reliancereliance on primary commodities, an an export export market market orientation, orientation, and and (as (as its its critics point out) high poverty levels levels and and inequitable inequitable wealth wealth concentrations concentrations [2]. [2 Politically,]. Politically, it has it hasbeen been tied tiedover over time timeand spaceand space to imperialist to imperialist states that states pave that the pave way the for wayextractive for extractive industries’ industries’ success—a success—a political formation political internationalformation international development development sociologists sociologists Henry HenryVeltmeyer Veltmeyer and andJames James Petras Petras call call “extractive imperialism”imperialism” [3[3].]. With With interwoven interwoven systems systems of ecological of ecological and social and destruction, social destruction, extractivist extractivist production productionleads to local leads dispossession. to local Sitesdispossession. of ongoing Sites extractivism of ongoing almost extractivism always become almost contested, always politicized become contested,landscapes politicized [4–8]. landscapes [4–8]. Figure 1. TheThe approximate approximate extent extent of of Canada’s Canada’s boreal boreal forest, forest, the the main main subarctic subarctic Indigenous Indigenous groups, groups, andand the major extraction sites noted in the text [9]. [9]. Extractivism doesdoes not not simply simply mean mean the usetheof naturaluse of resources,natural resources, which is somethingwhich is humans—insomething humans—inthe boreal forest the andboreal elsewhere—have forest and elsewhere—have been doing all along. been Unlikedoing extraction,all along. extractivUnlike ismextraction,is both extractivprincipleism and is practice. both principle As activist and authorpractice. Naomi As activist Klein seesauthor it, extractivismNaomi Klein is sees rooted it, extractivism in “the central is rootedfiction onin “the which central our economic fiction on model which is our based: economic that nature model is is limitless, based: that that nature we will is limitless, always be that able we to willfind always more of be what able weto find need, more and of that what if something we need, and runs that out if it something can be seamlessly runs out replacedit can be seamlessly by another replacedresource thatby another we can resource endlessly that extract” we can [10 endlessly]. Relentless extract” in its [10]. quest Relentless to obtain in far its more quest than to obtain needed far to moremeet basicthan subsistenceneeded to needs, meet extractivismbasic subsistence values needs, natural extractivism resources not values primarily natural in and resources of themselves, not primarilybut for the in profits and theyof themselves, can yield. Under but for extractivism, the profits natural they can resources yield. becomeUnder vehiclesextractivism, for increasing natural resourcespersonal wealth become without vehicles regard for increasing for potential personal costs to wealth others. Simplywithout stated, regard extractivism for potential transforms costs to “nature”others. Simply into a stated, tool for extractivism the promotion transforms of social “nature” injustice. into More a thantool justfor the a way promotion of using of the social land, injustice.extractivism More is alsothan a just way a ofway thinking. of using It the is a land, way ofextractivism being in the is world; also a away way of of thinking. positioning It is ourselves a way of beingin a relationship in the world; to a theway natural of positioning worlds ourselves we occupy. in a Extractivismrelationship to is the thus natural a political worlds as we well occupy. as an Extractivismenvironmental is project, thus a both political a social as and well an ecologicalas an environmental problem. project, both a social and an ecologicalWhile problem. its most deliberated consequences may be environmental, therefore, Canadian extractivism can alsoWhile be contemplatedits most deliberated as a contemporary consequences manifestation may be of settlerenvironmental, colonialism—one therefore, that isCanadian situated extractivismin a boreal forest can also that sustainsbe contemplated hundreds as of a First contemporary Nations communities manifestation and of is settler configured colonialism—one in its current thatincarnation is situated by a globalin a boreal capitalist forest political that economy.sustains Likewise,hundreds while of First Indigenous Nations objectors communities to extractivist and is configuredprojects call in consistently its current and incarnation vehemently by for a environmentalglobal capitalist protection, political they economy. struggle Likewise, simultaneously while Indigenous objectors to extractivist projects call consistently and vehemently for environmental protection, they struggle simultaneously for social justice and political empowerment. Far from 2 Humanities 2016, 5, 55 3 of 15 for social justice and political empowerment. Far from personifying romanticized “ecological Indians”, today’s Indigenous activists are engaged in an enduring political battle to defend their ability to live in their own way, on their own land [11,12]. This article illuminates social and political dimensions of intensive natural resource extraction in Canada’s boreal forest, thereby revealing contemporary extractivism’s historical colonial foundations and contributing to a comparative political ecology of settler colonialism and its legacies [13].2 At the same time, it sheds light on the struggles of those working to turn dreams for sovereign futures into reality through activist engagement. Selected for their salience, the four case synopses presented here—from across the boreal and spanning multiple extractive undertakings—highlight both sides of the extractivism/ACTIVISM formulation in order to expose the political roots of resource-related conflict.3 2. Origins As Ecuadorian economist Alberto Acosta argues, extractivism’s guises
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