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Beyond Extractivism #2 Feminist Reflections DEZ. 2018 he current extractivist development model is in crisis on the African continent. After the shining discourse Tof an “Africa rising” to prosperity and being able to free itself from the colonial dependencies and the claws of poverty through the exploration of it’s resources, the socio-economic realities of African people did not really change for the better. Economic growth did not translate into welfare, did not transform the living conditions for the majority of African people or free Africans from exploitation by creating decent jobs. Much on the contrary, the kind of capitalist development that is taken forward BEYOND EXTRACTIVISM: in the countries of the continent, is broadening the divide between rich and poor, deepening conficts on land and furthering militarism and authoritarianism. This paper Feminist alternatives for provides an analysis of the current development models from a feminist perspective and presents ideas for socially and gender just alternatives to the extractivist economic a socially and gender just system. The frst section analyses the characteristics of the development in Africa economic framework of extractivism, including the local, national, regional and global interconnections. The second section explores its hidden environmental Zo Randriamaro and social costs, followed by the analysis of the gender dimensions of extractivism in the third section. The last section discusses the necessary steps and the existing building blocks towards alternative development models. BEYOND EXTRACTIVISM: FEMINIST ALTERNATIVES FOR A SOCIALLY AND GENDER JUST DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA he current extractivist development and authoritarianism. This paper provides an model is in crisis on the African continent. analysis of the current development models TAfter the shining discourse of an “Africa from a feminist perspective and presents rising” to prosperity and being able to free ideas for socially and gender just alternatives itself from the colonial dependencies and the to the extractivist economic system. claws of poverty through the exploration of The frst section analyses the characteristics it’s resources, the socio-economic realities of of the economic framework of extractivism, African people did not really change for the including the local, national, regional and better. Economic growth did not translate global interconnections. The second section into welfare, did not transform the living explores its hidden environmental and conditions for the majority of African people social costs, followed by the analysis of the or free Africans from exploitation by creating gender dimensions of extractivism in the decent jobs. Much on the contrary, the kind of third section. The last section discusses the capitalist development that is taken forward necessary steps and the existing building in the countries of the continent, is broadening blocks towards alternative development the divide between rich and poor, deepening models. conficts on land and furthering militarism 1 1. The economic framework of -The second element refers to the conditions under which this extraction process takes place, and whose extractivism interests it serves, in the framework of a dom- vercoming extractivism requires confront- inant and highly unequal model of develop- Oing multiple social, economic and envi- ment which is geared for the exploitation and ronmental problems in the short and longer marketing of natural resources in the global term. But frst and foremost, it implies a clear South for export to the rich economies of the understanding of the workings of the ex- global North. tractivist system. Therefore this frst section As such, this extractivist development model is meant to provide conceptual clarity about “organizes the political, socio-economic the economic framework of extractivism. To and cultural relations within the respective that end, it starts with the defnition of the country or region: the economy and class key elements of the concept of extractivism structures, gender relations, the state and and its economic, political and social impli- public discourse” (Brand, 2013, cited in cations. The typology and the main drivers of WoMin, 2014). extractivism in Africa are also explored, along with its impacts on economic development. This extractivist development model has been in place and perpetuated since colonial times, regardless of the sustainability of the The concept of extractivism extractive projects and resource exhaustion. he defnition of the term “extractivism” has It originates in the process of “primitive Ttwo key elements: accumulation” in the colonial context, whereby ‘“the extraction of natural resources - The first element refers to the process of extraction in the colonies fed the colonial centres with of raw materials such as minerals, oil and gas, the raw materials, energy, minerals and food as well as water, fsh and forest products, the colonisers needed to accumulate capital new forms of energy such as hydroelectrici- and fuel their development’ (Galeano, 1971). ty, and industrial forms of agriculture, which Most of the time, extractivism has created often involve land and water grabbing by the relations of dependency and domination extractive industries. between the providers and consumers of raw materials. While the post-colonial nation states gained their political independence, they remained trapped in their subordinate position as providers of cheap raw materials and low-cost labour in a system of transnational capitalism. The commodifcation and privatization of land and the forceful expulsion of peasant populations; conversion of various forms of property rights – common, collective, state, etc. – into exclusive private property rights; suppression of rights to the commons; commodifcation of labour power and the suppression of alternative, indigenous, forms of production and consumption; colonial, neo-colonial and imperial processes of appropriation of assets, including natural 2 resources; monetization of exchange and conficts over natural resources and further taxation, particularly of land; slave trade; externalization of social and environmental and usury, the national debt and ultimately costs to communities, without meaningful the credit system (Harvey, 2004, p.74). employment opportunities and improved living conditions in these affected Under both the colonial and post-colonial communities. periods, the required dispossession of peasants and accumulation of the natural considers resources essential for the global North’s (b) Cautious or moderate extractivism some social and environmental concerns, as industrial development and prosperity is well as some level of community participation. done through a violent series of capitalist However, this type of extractivism fails to extraction. substantially change the current structure of accumulation and move away from predatory The typology of extractivism appropriation of nature. hree types of extractivism have been (c) Indispensable extraction is not a model of Tidentifed by Eduardo Gudynas (2010): extractivism because its intent and practice is reduced resource extraction and promotion (a) Predatory extractivism is currently the of sustainability through recycling, tightening dominant form in Africa as well as in other up laws, policies and regulatory systems regions of the world, with serious social, to close unfair material and resource fows, environmental, economic and political radically reduce pressures on eco-systems impacts discussed in more detail in section and minimise contributions to emissions 2. This category includes neo-extractivism, (Gudynas, 2010). which has emerged as a result of the efforts by some progressive and/or socialist States in Latin America and Africa1 to strengthen the role of the State in the exploitation and ownership of natural resources over the past decade (Gudynas, 2010; Aguilar, 2012). Thus, laws and policies have been established to ensure national redistribution through the provision of public and social services. The fnancing for those services comes directly from the benefts of natural resource The drivers of extractivism in Africa extraction that accrue to the States. xtractivism has been a constant in the However, according to some analysts, Eeconomic, social and political trajectories ‘Latin American neo-extractivism has of many African countries, with varying demonstrated the limitations of this model degrees of intensity. Since colonial of expecting exports and foreign investment times, the abundance of natural resources to solve historical and structural problems that characterises those countries has of inequality, inequity, and above all, the contributed to determine their position as destruction of the environment ...’ (Aguilar, primary commodity export economies in the 2012, p. 7). As such, in this new development global economic order. The predominance of model, extractivism is intensifed by extractivism in African economies is not only governments, thereby inducing more due to colonisation, but also to the hegemony 1 These countries include Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, of the neoliberal ideology underlying the Uruguay, Bolivia and Zimbabwe. global economic order. 3 raw materials and a cycle of high prices. However, the recently decreasing prices of minerals and hydrocarbons has led to further expansion of extractive frontiers to offset the fall in prices. Extractivism is also driven by the overconsumption of energy in rich and emerging economies, the increasing
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