SC UK HEA : /KANTCHÉ IRRIGATED LIVELIHOOD ZONE Livelihood Profile

Magaria/Kantché Irrigated Livelihood zone December 20091 Zone Description Located in south-central Niger, in the southern part of Zinder region, this livelihood zone stretches across south-eastern Kantché department heading eastward over much of northern Magaria department. The zone is located in close proximity to northern Nigeria, sharing strong cultural, economic and historical links. This study focused on settled people, mainly Hausa, living within the villages rather than taking in to account minority residents living in hamlets around the villages with livelihood patterns distinct from those of their Hausa neighbors. The main towns are Matemey, Bande, Bangaza, Gouchi and Wacha. Magaria town is also located very nearby. The area by and large has a very good road network and there are two main (paved) commercial links to Nigeria (via Matameye to Mai Adua and via Magaria to Mutum). This zone is located in one of the most populous parts of Niger and has an estimated density of about 70-110 inhabitants per sq km. The topography of the zone is distinguished by a system of wet basins (cuvettes or bas fonds) tracing the Korama, a dry riverbed running through the center of the zone. In some places, the ground water table is actually exposed and visible on the surface. The area is characterized by scattered dunes, with an increasing pattern of dune encroachment as one moves eastward across the zone - this phenomenon is coupled with fewer opportunities for irrigated farming moving from west to east. There are scattered semi permanent and permanent ponds in the zone, again with a greater concentration of ponds in the western half of the zone. Permanent ponds are often home to fish. The vegetation in this wooded savanna is composed of trees and grasses. The dominant tree species are thorny Acacia albida and Balanites aegyptiaca and non-thorny species such as Adansonia digitata (Baobab), Piliostigma reticulatum and Lepatdenia pyrotecnica. Date palms, oil palms and mango trees are cultivated, though concentrated around fertile, wet basin (bas fond) areas. The grass coverage is predominately composed of three species: Eragrostis tremula, Cenchrus biflorus and Andropogon gayanus. There are two main seasons, the rainy season (from June to September) and the dry season. The dry season is comprised of a cold period (from December to March) and a hot period (from April to May). Maximum temperatures of around 40C are reached in May. Minimum temperatures of 5-10C are reached in December and January. Average annual rainfall is estimated at 500-600 mm/annum. Agricultural Production Soils are mostly sandy and low in fertility, though in the low-lying, basin areas, the soils are extremely fertile. The production potential of the zone is high, but population pressures have led to the division of land into smaller and smaller parcels. This area is marginally or non-food self-sufficient as the production potential is mainly focused on generating cash from non-staples which are in high demand in Nigerian markets. There are some pocket areas that are commonly in deficit mainly due to poor soil quality as well as a heightened susceptibility to crop pests- a trend that is increasingly the case as one moves eastward across the zone. Rainfed cereal production and irrigated cash crop production are both widely practiced within the zone- though there is a decided emphasis on cash crop production. Millet, sorghum, cowpeas and groundnuts are the principal rainfed crops. The main irrigated products are sugar cane, bell peppers, onions, cabbage, squash, manioc and tomatoes. The dominant cash crops are sugar cane, bell peppers as well as rainfed cowpeas and groundnuts. The crops produced mainly for household consumption are millet and sorghum. Fields are cleared and tilled by hand using simple tools such as hoes. Weeding and harvesting are the agricultural activities that require the most labor- middle and better-off households will hire labor from poorer households to carry out these as well as other activities (planting, thinning of garden seedlings, watering). Women participate in planting, thinning of seedlings and harvesting; men participate in land preparation, planting, thinning, weeding and harvesting. Children are involved as well and help out with planting and harvesting. Plant pests are a major concern in the livelihood zone, with aphids, grasshoppers and flower-

1Fieldwork for this profile was undertaken in December 2009. The information presented refers to September 2008-August 2009, a generally good year by local standards. Provided there are no fundamental and rapid shifts in the economy, the information in this profile is expected to remain valid for approximately five years (i.e. until 2014).

page 1 SC UK HEA NIGER: MAGARIA/KANTCHÉ IRRIGATED LIVELIHOOD ZONE visiting insects constituting the main threats. Aphids principally attack cash crops such as cowpeas, groundnuts, bell peppers and other vegetables. Grasshoppers ravage all crops, including cereals. Flower-visiting insects affect only millet. The treatment (pesticides) against aphids is purchased in the market. Treatments for other infestations (grasshoppers and flower-visiting insects) are provided by the government for free when there are large outbreaks and are available through the market. The use of agricultural inputs such as chemical fertilizers (DAP and NPK), manure, pesticides and improved seed varieties (for both cereal and vegetable production) is widespread throughout the livelihood zone, especially among wealthier households. Chemical fertilizers are available from the market and are also sometimes supplied through FAO at subsidized rates. Manure is collected from the households’ own animals. Improved seed varieties are available for purchase from seed farms and multipliers and are also provided through the National Institute for Agricultural Research of Niger (INRAN). Livestock Production Animal production is another key economic activity pursued in this zone, with cattle, sheep, goats and poultry characterizing the principal types of livestock. Donkeys are practically non-existent in the livelihood zone, as people prefer to use oxen to transport goods as well as to pull carts. Oxen are stronger than donkeys, as have a much higher resale price (so that older/larger oxen are often sold at a profit and replaced with younger bull-calves). Selected cattle (males) are stall-fed and fattened. Females, if they have not been entrusted to nomadic herders, graze on nearby pastures. Many male goats and sheep are also stall-fed, while the female animals free graze in the pastures around the homestead. Cattle, sheep and goats feed on straw, crop residues and cereal husks. Households may purchase animal feed, such as hay and crop residues during the lean season (March to May) when feed and pasture are scarce. The investment of labour and money in stall-feeding reflects the high prices received for fattened animals in Nigeria, including sheep for annual festivals such as Tabaski. During the rainy season, animals are watered at wells, bore holes, streams and ponds. During the dry season, when surface water sources rapidly dry up, people depend on wells, bore holes and permanent ponds to water their animals. Pastures can only be used in a given season if there is a sufficiently nearby water-source: cattle in particular need the most frequent watering and so cannot be trekked far between water sources. The vast majority of female cows are entrusted to nomadic herders so it is relatively uncommon for households in this zone to drink cow milk from their own animals. Most households do not regularly milk their goats despite the cultural acceptability of the practice. Households will purchase back small quantities of cow milk throughout the year rather than keeping one or two milking cows at home. Male cattle are usually sold once they reach 3 years of age. Milking cows are only sold after they have ceased to be productive (after about 10 years). Sheep and goats are generally sold from the age of one year; but it is quite common for poorer people in need of immediate cash to sell goats at well under one year, whilst wealthier people can afford to keep a few to mature for two years or so to profit from the selling prices. Generally, women are charged with the care and management of sheep and goats, while men look after the cattle. Pests and diseases affecting livestock in this livelihood zone are Pasteurellosis, Newcastle disease and internal parasites. Pasteurellosis affects cattle and shoats and is treated with Pastobovac, antihelminthics and antibiotics that are provided both through the government and partner agencies such as UNICEF and FAO for free or for purchase at subsidized prices. Newcastle disease affects poultry - there is no treatment available, but preventative vaccinations (Itanew) are available from the government at subsidized rates as well as for cash in the market. Internal parasites affecting cattle and shoats are treated with antihelminthics such as Albendazole 2500, which is available both from the government (free) and from the market. The biggest costs for animal maintanence are therefore drugs (antihelminthics) and grain husks from millet, sorghum and wheat (which is purchased) for extra feed. Animal drugs are available either through the market or are provided by the government for free or at subsidized rates, depending on the situation. Compared to the neighboring central zone, the irrigated zone has a larger amount of green pasture for animals to graze-- grasses are more abundant between fields and greener longer because of the wetness of the area. Animal fattening (especially of cattle) is practiced less intensively in this zone than in the central zone, partly because of the more abundant pastures, cattle need less additional fodder than in required in the central zone. Other Economic Activities Other important economic activities undertaken by poorer households include labor (migrant work as well as local agricultural labor) and a number of ‘self-employment’ activities. The types of self-employment depend on the resources available. For middle and better-off households this refers mainly to the rental of ox carts and the production and sale of groundnut oil. For poorer households, self-employment income is generated though a number of activities such as delivery of water, handicraft production, firewood sales and a smaller amount of groundnut oil production. It is poorer households who tend to go on migrant work opportunities mainly to Nigerian cities, though there are some households from the middle wealth group who also seek work opportunities abroad as well.

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SC UK HEA NIGER: MAGARIA/KANTCHÉ IRRIGATED LIVELIHOOD ZONE

Markets Market access is very good in this livelihood zone. Considerable efforts have been made to develop the roads network and there are now laterite roads connecting irrigated cash crop producing villages to market centers (Matemaye, Bande, Magaria). It is also not uncommon for wholesalers from Zinder, Tessaoua, Nigeria and go directly to the villages themselves with trucks and purchase entire fields of sugar cane, cabbage and peppers. There are a number of good-sized markets located within the zone as well as major markets located just across the border in Nigeria (Mai’ Adoua, Maigatari). The main crops that are sold are cowpeas, groundnuts, sugar cane and market-garden vegetables. Cowpeas and groundnuts are sold from local markets to Matemaye or Magaria and are then sold on to the northern Nigerian markets. Sugar cane is traded on from local markets to Matemaye or Magaria and from there is traded to Tessaoua, Mayahi, and Agadez in the north. Cabbage, onions and peppers are destined for Nigeria and Saban Machi. Cattle and sheep are raised primarily to answer the demand of the Nigerian market and are traded from local markets to Matemaye or Magaria and then on to either Mai’ Adoua or Maigatari. Goats, on the other hand, are generally reserved for local consumption and are sold no further than the local markets. All households in the zone purchase cereals at some point in the year, the main staples being millet and sorghum. Millet is imported into the zone from Tanout, Tessaoua and Gouré. The sorghum is sourced from the two large markets in Northern Nigeria. Concerning the labor market, about two thirds of paid work amongst the households is carried out within the zone and the remaining third is pursued outside the zone in Nigeria. Seasonal Calendar Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep Staple Crops Millet Harvest Sales Land preparation Planting Weeding Green Cs Sorghum Harvest Sales Land preparation Planting Weeding Cash Crops Cowpea Harvest Sales Land preparation Planting Green Consumption Groundnut Harvest Sales Land preparation Planting Weeding Green Cs Peppers P Weeding/Watering H Sales Sugar Cane Harvest Sales Planting Harvest Other Garden Crops Weeding/Watering Harvest Sales Planting Livestock Cattle (milk production) Goats (milk production) Animal migration Return Depart Fodder purchase Animal purchase/sales Purchase and sale of shoats Purchase and sale of cattle Livestock disease Poultry disease Labor Local agricultural labor Rainfed Crops Irrigated Crops Rainfed Crops Other local labor Migrant work Handicraft production Other Staple food purchase Wholesale Consumers Hunger season Wild food collection Loans and debts Repayment Loans Malaria and other disease Respiratory infections Malaria Social events and festivals Average annual rainfall (mm/annum)

Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sep

There are two main seasons: the rainy season (from June to September) and the dry season. The dry season is comprised of a cold period (from December to March) and a hot period (from April to May). The consumption year begins in September with the harvest of ‘petit mil’, small and hardly matured heads of millet that has not fully succeeded; this is especially important to poorer households as it is the first food available and marks the end of the hunger season. Generally speaking, millet is planted in May/June and the main harvest is in November; sorghum is planted in July and harvested in October; cowpeas are planted in June and harvested in August; groundnuts are planted in June and harvested in September. All rainfed crops tend to be intercropped and grown together on the same plots though sometimes groundnuts are grown in separate patches. Off-season gardening on irrigated plots picks up once harvesting and processing activities of rainfed crops is completed and there is more labor available to begin the preparation of beds and begin planting. Sugar cane and manioc have different production patterns, in that they may be harvested at anytime. Labor availability is the driving factor for when these crops are planted. Animals

page 3 SC UK HEA NIGER: MAGARIA/KANTCHÉ IRRIGATED LIVELIHOOD ZONE migrations, of mainly female cattle entrusted to nomadic herders, depart in June toward the east or north (often to the Takieta forest reserve) and return in November. A number of wild foods are collected throughout the year including leaves from Cassia tora (tafassa), Leptadenia hastata (yadia), Gui (kaoutchi) and Adansonia digitata (kouka or boabab). Fruits too are collected from Hyphaene thebaica (doum palm) and from Balanites aegyptiaca (adoua), Ziziphus mauritiana (Indian plums). Wealth Breakdown

Wealth Group Information Land area Irrigated area HH size culitivated cultivated (Sq. Livestock Holdings Other Assets (ha) Meters)

0-1 Ox from Kyo, 1-4 goats from Kyo, Very Poor 6-8 0.5-1.5 150 2-4 poultry

1 Ox from Kyo, 1-3 goats from Kyo, 0- Poor 7-10 1-2 200 2 goats, 4-7 poultry

1-2 oxen, 6-8 goats, 2-5 sheep, 7-10 Middle 9-11 2-4 1500 1 ox cart poultry

2-3 oxen, 6-10 cattle, 12-17 goats, 8- Better-off 14-16 4-7 3000 1-2 ox carts 12 sheep, 12-17 poultry % of households 0% 20% 40%

Wealth was differentiated by key informants in the villages in terms of the land area cultivated (both irrigated and non-irrigated fields) and livestock holdings. Household size too is linked to wealth status with poorer households having fewer members than wealthier households, who may have as many as 16. The estimate of the population breakdown is very poor 30%; poor 35%; middle 25% and better-off 10%. All households, even the very poor, cultivate irrigated crops, but plot sizes vary considerably. Wealthier households having access to much larger fields and the labor necessary to plant and care for irrigated crops (both household and hired labor). The very poor tend to grow sugar cane, squash and onions- sugar cane requiring much less labor and inputs to maintain than other market vegetable crops. Other wealth groups also grow manioc, tomatoes and cabbage. All households in the zone cultivate the same rainfed crops (millet, sorghum, cowpeas and groundnuts), but again it is the amount of land (and therefore overall production) that varies. The poorest households cultivate between 0.5 and 1.5 ha of rainfed crops while wealthier households cultivate between 4-7 ha. The reasons cited for the better-off not cultivating a greater volume of crops are the difficulty in accessing additional land due to population pressures and the encroachment of dunes on arable lands and fertile irrigated basins. Better-off households try to overcome some of these limitations by using manure to enrich the soil, by purchasing land from poorer households to expand land holdings and by seeking to improve techniques used in irrigated farming. Livestock holdings vary significantly between wealth groups as well. A system of animal loans called Kyo is a mechanism that helps to address the difference in livestock holdings between rich and poor. Wealthier households entrust the care and feeding of one or more of their animals to a poorer household in which they have confidence. In exchange the poorer household receives 50% of the price when the animal is sold, and in the case of female animals is given outright one out of every three animals born. The importance of the kyo system to very poor households is that without it, they would only be able to benefit from the sale of a few chickens; as it is the constant shortage of cash means that they tend to sell quickly any animal gained from births under kyo. Poor households, who may have their own goats, also benefit from kyo and are able to expand their production of livestock to include cattle as well as additional goats. Middle and better- off households are differentiated in that better-off households own more animals over all and in addition to working oxen, the better-off own 6-10 other cattle. The reasons why better-off households do not increase livestock holdings include a limit of the available pasture, a lack of technical knowledge of improved livestock rearing techniques as well as the high cost of animal inputs. These limitations are addressed both by contracting with nomadic herders and by the use of crop residues for animal fodder when pasture is scarce. Animals, along with any of their offspring that are entrusted to nomadic herders remain the property of the owner. Opportunities for the intensification of other economic activities by poorer households such as petty trade, oil extraction and handicrafts are limited by a lack of credit. There are some finance options available through Microfinance Institutions, but interest rates tend to be high and repayment periods too short.

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SC UK HEA NIGER: MAGARIA/KANTCHÉ IRRIGATED LIVELIHOOD ZONE

Sources of Food

The difference in access to total food needs shows that 120% there is a clear distinction of consumption patterns for poorer versus wealthier groups. Very poor and poor 100% households were not meeting minimum food requirements (with an estimated total 94% and 96% of 80% food needs met respectively) in what was a satisfactory Stocks year in terms of the relevant harvest. The middle and Loans better-off on the other hand both exceed 110% of total 60% Purchase food needs. Payment In-kind 40% Livestock Products Crops Crops All households produce the same food crops (millet, 20% sorghum and cowpeas) and some households also consume a small amount of manioc. The principle 0% source of food for wealthier households is their own Very Poor Poor Middle Better-Off crops, which provides over 60% of food requirements. Poorer households derive only 20-25% of their food Sources of the basic food consumed by typical from their own production. The middle graph shows households that households from the middle and better-off in fact In this graph, food access is expressed as a percentage of produce enough to meet between 85-95% of their total minimum food requirements, taken as an average food energy intake of 2100 kcals per person per day. food needs. Much of this production is used as payment in-kind for agricultural labor and as gifts as part of zakat system (which requires that 10% of all food crop production be given to priests and to the needy). 120% Wealthier households also give part of their production to poorer households as loans and use the remaining grain as needed for seeds and reserves. Payment in- 100% kind, gifts, loans, seeds and stocks are classed as ‘other’ in the graph to the right. Though not significant 80% in terms of caloric needs (but giving dietary diversity), 'Other' households in this zone have more access to vegetables 60% through their own production and consume modest Sold / Exchanged Consumed amounts of squash, onions or cabbage. 40%

Purchase 20% Purchase is the next most important source of food for all wealth groups. All households purchase millet and sorghum. All but the very poorest also purchase a small 0% amount of rice. Other foods purchased by all Very Poor Poor Middle Better-off households include sugar, milk, meat and oil – but in Production and use of crops by typical households very different amounts. This graph expresses the use of cereals and cowpeas as a percentage of total household food requirements.

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Payment In-kind Payment in-kind is a very important source of food for 100% Milk poorer households. This includes payment from better- 90% off households for agricultural labor such as weeding, Meat 80% garden activities and husking of millet as well as grain Oil 70% sent or brought back by migrant workers. The amount Sugar 60% paid in-kind is based on the price of millet on the Pasta market as a function of the current labor rates. In-kind 50% Tubers payments are generally made at the end of each day of 40% Legumes work. 30% Rice 20% Loans Maize Only households in the poor wealth group receive loans 10% of millet. These loans are generally given during the 0% Sorghum lean season (June, July, August) and are to be repaid in Very Poor Poor Middle Better-off Millet grain during the next harvest without interest. These loans are based on trust as well as the capacity to repay Types of food consumed by typical households the loan and are generally established along family ties Note: HEA is not a study on nutrition as it tracks only households’ access to total energy needs (kilocalories). HEA or on other social relationships. In many cases, does not take in to account access to essential micronutrients. wealthier households do not have the confidence in the Meals taken outside the household by migrant laborer have ability of very poor households to repay these loans and been included as part of ‘millet’ as these meals consist mainly thus do not offer them. of grain. Livestock Products Middle and better-off households who have larger numbers of goats receive only about 1% of total calories from the consumption of their own goat meat. Thus nobody here eats much meat, and many poorer households get meat only at festival times, if only as gifts from wealthier neighbours who have slaughtered. It is notable that even the wealthiest household do not consume milk from their own animals- but rather purchase it. Better-off households also had access to stocks remaining from the previous year’s harvest, which contributed 2-4% of food needs.

Dietary Diversity Compared to the neighboring Central livelihood zone, even poorer households in this zone tend to have a more varied diet. Households in this zone produce fewer cereals, but may have access to vegetables through their own production. Sources of Revenue

Very Poor Middle

Crop Sales Crop Sales Livestock Sales Livestock Sales Labor Labor Self-Employment Self-Employment Petty Trade

Poor Better-Off

Crop Sales Crop Sales Livestock Sales Livestock Sales Labor Self-Employment Self-Employment Petty Trade Petty Trade Savings

The graphs above show the proportion of cash income from the different sources for each wealth group

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SC UK HEA NIGER: MAGARIA/KANTCHÉ IRRIGATED LIVELIHOOD ZONE

Crop Sales The first point to make about incomes in the Irrigated zone is the importance of livestock. This is perhaps surprising to find in a zone known principally for its vegetable and sugar cane production. The second thing to note is that while irrigated crops are indeed the top cash earners for crop sales overall, sales of rainfed cash crops such as cowpeas and groundnuts are also big earners. In fact, 40% of all income from crop sales is generated from the sale of cowpeas and groundnuts. (The top cash crops in order of income generated are sugar cane, bell peppers, groundnuts and cowpeas.) Labor Income Poorer households are able to sell only a very small amount 1,800,000 of their production and depend in large part on income from labor, two-thirds of which is local agricultural labor. 1,600,000 The remaining third is earned by migrant workers, who 1,400,000 seek work in Nigerian cities for an average four months out 1,200,000 of the year. Occasionally, individuals from the middle Savings wealth group will also earn cash as migrant workers. 1,000,000 Petty Trade Self-Employment 800,000 Livestock Sales Labor

Livestock sales are the main income earner for wealthier 600,000 Livestock Sales households, with cattle alone accounting for 65-75% of Crop Sales total income from livestock for these wealthier households. 400,000

Poorer households are also able to benefit from income 200,000 from livestock sale in large part due to the kyo system: 85% of income from livestock sales for the very poor and 0 65% of livestock sales for the poor are benefits from the Very Poor Poor Middle Better-Off sale of kyo animals. It is clear that even in a locality with substantial cash crops, the profitability of livestock is The graph above shows the median of the sources and outstanding, with prices influenced by Nigerian demand. amounts of cash income in the reference year for typical This may have policy implications for relative expenditure households in each wealth group. on veterinary services. Expenditure Patterns

Very Poor Middle Staple Food Staple Food Other Food Other Food Household Items Household Items Water Inputs Inputs

Social Services Social Services Clothing Clothing Taxes Taxes Gifts Gifts Transport Transport Loan repayment

Staple Food Poor Staple Food Better-off Other Food Other Food Household Items Household Items Water Inputs Inputs

Social Services Social Services

Clothing Clothing

Taxes Taxes

Gifts Gifts

Transport Transport

The graphs above provide a breakdown by wealth group of the proportion of cash expenditure according to category

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45-55% of total spending for poor and very poor households is on staple foods - demonstrating the degree to which their lack of production capacity (land/household labour/inputs) makes them dependent on the market as a source of food. For middle and better-off households, spending on staple food drops to 15-20%. Wealthier households however spend a greater proportion on the purchase of other foods (sugar, oil, meat, milk). Spending on household items (tea, cola, salt, condiments, grinding, batteries and utensils) is roughly equal in proportion (ranging from 10-20%), but with wealthier households of course spending more in overall terms. An important distinction was noted in the quantities and timing of staple food purchased by the better-off, who are able to purchase large quantities when prices are lower (just after the harvest). Poorer, cash strapped households often pay higher prices for grain as they must purchase smaller amounts throughout the year, including times when prices are at their peak during the hunger season (June, July, August). The largest category of spending for middle and better-off households is on inputs. This includes payments for local agricultural labor, investment in additional livestock and chemical fertilizers. Poorer households may also purchase a small amount of pesticides, seeds and livestock drugs as well. Spending on social services includes expenses related to education as well as health services (both traditional and modern medicine).

Education-related costs include not only fees but also 1,600,000 materials such as notebooks and money to purchase snacks. 1,400,000 Wealthier households spend more on education, but much Loan repayment Transport of this is probably because there are a much greater number 1,200,000 of school-aged children in their households. Households Gifts are also just as likely to support the education for girls as 1,000,000 Taxes Clothing for boy- though the level to which all children are educated 800,000 remains by in large limited to the primary level. Compared Social Services to the neighboring central zone, households in this 600,000 Inputs livelihood zone are spending more on the education of their Water 400,000 children - this difference is especially striking when Household Items comparing the amounts spent by middle and better-off 200,000 Other Food households who are spending 2-4 times more on education Staple Food 2 0 than these same wealth groups in the Central zone . Very Poor Poor Middle Better-off

The graph provides a breakdown by wealth group of the proportions of cash expenditure according to category. Hazards The main hazards facing farmers within this zone are summarised in the table below: Crop Late rains (especially the ‘planting rain’) and false starts of the ‘planting rain’ leading to multiple reseeding. Insufficient rain overall Poor spread of rain Insects (aphids, grasshoppers) Encroachment of dunes and decreasing fertility of irrigated fields as a result. Livestock Livestock diseases Livestock & Price shocks including high price of staple foods Crops Households adapt to these hazards by adopting a number of coping strategies. These strategies vary as poorer households have fewer assets upon which to draw. When faced with a threatened failure of the main millet harvest, as brought about by weak, delayed and false starts of the rains (typically one year in four), all households will shift their priorities to ensuring as best they can the performance of the leguminous cash crops as well as sorghum. Better-off households will also intensify off-season gardening activities while poorer households will often seek additional migrant labor opportunities. When faced with crop pests and diseases, the response by all households is to come together for collective prayers and notify government extension agents who might be able to provide technical assistance and chemical treatments. People cope with outbreaks of livestock disease (occurring one out of three years) by using vaccinations when possible as well as through the use of animal drugs. Extension agents are also notified in case further assistance is necessary. The principle manner in which households adapt to price shocks varies according to wealth group with poorer households first changing dietary habits are reducing the number of meals taken and secondly intensifying income activities through increased migratory labor and intensification of self-employment activities. Better-off households will reduce spending on other non-staple food in favor of purchasing additional staple grains and will also fall back on any grain reserves they may have. Middle and better-off household will also increase the sale of livestock, especially goats and sheep, to generate additional income for the purchase of staple foods.

2 There are relatively fewer schools in the Central zone, with less than half of the villages visited having a primary school. In one instance, even in a village where there was a school less than 2km away, parents were hesitant to send their children. page 8