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Conflict, Coping and Covid RESEARCH REPORT CONFLICT, COPING AND COVID Changing human smuggling and trafficking dynamics in North Africa and the Sahel Mark Micallef in 2019 and 2020 Matt Herbert Rupert Horsley Alexandre Bish Alice Fereday Peter Tinti APRIL 2021 CONFLICT, COPING AND COVID Changing human smuggling and trafficking dynamics ww in North Africa and the Sahel in 2019 and 2020 Mark Micallef | Matt Herbert | Rupert Horsley Alexandre Bish | Alice Fereday | Peter Tinti April 2021 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The report would not have been possible without the continuous support and advice of Jessica Gerken, Younes Nanis, Aladdin Attiga, Raouf Farrah, Emadeddin Badi, Rebecca Murray, Jalel Harchaoui and several other consulting researchers and fixers from Libya, Tunisia, Niger, Chad and Mali who cannot be named for their security. Mark Ronan, Sophy Kohler, Peter Bosman, Nadya Glawé and Claudio Landi have been key collaborators, editing and laying out, producing visuals and maps for this report and the ongoing monitoring reports that it synthesizes, and ensuring that the exacting standards of delivery are met. We would also like to acknowledge the dedicated efforts of a large number of local researchers engaged by the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime (GI-TOC) across the region. While we will not name them for their safety, they have our profound gratitude and respect for the excellent work they do under difficult circumstances. The research for this report was supported by funding under the North Africa and the Sahel and Lake Chad windows of the European Union Emergency Trust Fund for Africa. The contents of this report are the sole responsibility of the GI-TOC and do not necessarily reflect the views of the European Union. ABOUT THE AUTHORS Mark Micallef is the director for the North Africa and Sahel Observatory at the GI-TOC. He is a researcher specialized on smuggling and trafficking networks in Libya and the Sahel and an investigative journalist by background. Micallef designed and led the research programme that contributed to this study. Dr Matt Herbert is the Research Manager for the North Africa and Sahel Observatory at the GI-TOC. He specializes in North African irregular migration, border security and security-sector reform and governance. Rupert Horsley is a senior analyst at the GI-TOC. He is a Libya expert, focusing on migration, organized crime, security and conflict trends in the country. He specializes in complex analysis and research in difficult to access communities. Alexandre Bish is a senior analyst at the GI-TOC. He is an expert on human smuggling and organized crime dynamics in Niger and Chad. He is also doing a PhD in Security and Crime Science at University College London, funded by the UK’s Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council. Alice Fereday is a senior analyst at the GI-TOC. She researches trafficking and smuggling dynamics in Niger, Chad and Libya. Alice is also specialized in armed conflict mediation in the region with a focus on southern Libya. Peter Tinti is a senior research fellow at the GI-TOC and an independent journalist, focusing on conflict, human rights and organized crime. He has written and contributed to several reports on organized crime in the Sahel and Central America, as well as migrant smuggling networks in Africa, Asia and Europe. © 2020 Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the Global Initiative. Cover: A Sudanese migrant walks out of the main dormitory at a detention centre in al-Khoms. © Mark Micallef Cover design and illustration: Flame Design Cartography: Genene Hart Please direct inquiries to: The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime Avenue de France 23 Geneva, CH-1202 Switzerland www.globalinitiative.net CONTENTS Abbreviations and acronyms ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������iv Introduction ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 1 Methodology ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4 Country highlights ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 6 Libya ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7 Tunisia ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9 Sahel ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 10 Libya ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 12 Smuggling dynamics remain stable in spite of war and COVID-19 �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 13 Tripoli war arrests development in western Libya �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 21 LAAF campaign in the Fezzan does not impact human smuggling �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 36 LAAF involvement in human smuggling and organized crime in the Cyrenaica ���������������������������������������������������������44 Tunisia ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 50 Irregular migration surges to levels not seen since 2011 ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 51 Niger ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 62 COVID-19 deals smuggling industry a blow after recovery from law-enforcement campaign ������������������������������63 Chad ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 80 Gold mining and mercenaries keep smuggling industry in business ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� 81 Mali ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 88 Smuggling networks return to pre-pandemic trends ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 89 Notes ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 98 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS CID Western Criminal Investigation Directorate CMA Coordination des mouvements de l’Azawad DCIM Directorate for the Combat of Illegal Immigration ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States GDF Gathering and Departure Facility (Tripoli) GNA Government of National Accord IDU Investigation and Deportation Units IOM International Organization for Migration KCF Kufra Construction Fund LAAF Libyan Arab Armed Forces LCG Libyan Coast Guard MJRN Movement for Justice and the Rehabilitation of Niger NINA Numéro d’Identification National (Mali) TRB Tripoli Revolutionaries Brigade UFPR Union of Patriotic Forces for the Rebuilding of the Republic UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees iv Libyan army troops clash with the armed forces of Khalifa Haftar in the Salahaddin region, Libya, May 2020. © Amru Salahuddien/Anadolu Agency via Getty Images v INTRODUCTION Migrants from sub-Saharan Africa at a detention centre in Tripoli, after they were arrested before boarding boats for Europe. © Hazem Turkia/Anadolu Agency/Getty Images ince 2018, the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime (GI-TOC) has undertaken monthly monitoring of human smuggling and traf- Sficking in Libya, Tunisia, Niger, Chad and Mali. The first report of the project, ‘The human conveyor belt broken’, published in early 2019, described the fall of the protection racket by Libyan militias that underpinned the surge in irregular migration between 2014 and 2017. That report, in turn, updated information published by the GI-TOC publication ‘The human conveyor belt’, released in March 2017.1 This report builds on these studies and maps human smuggling trends and dynam- ics between 2019 and 2020, as well as the political and security dynamics that impacted and influenced smuggling and trafficking during the period. It underscores both the continuing importance
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