Friendship and Masculinity in The Lord of the Rings:

The Influence of World War I

Evelien De Pauw Studentennummer: 01000777

Promotor: Prof. dr. Marysa Demoor

Masterproef voorgelegd voor het behalen van de graad Master in de Taal- en Letterkunde: Engels.

Academiejaar: 2017 - 2018

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1. Acknowledgements I would like to thank my promotor prof. dr. Demoor for allowing me to choose a subject that I thought was very interesting and helping me explore how to do that in the best way possible.

I would of course also like to thank my parents for allowing me to study and pursue a university degree, and supporting me in every way possible. My brother and the rest of my family for their support. My dear friends who also support me in everything I endeavour.

I would also like to thank my uncle Bart, who now dwells in the Halls of Mandos, and introduced me to Middle-earth as a little girl.

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Content

1. Acknowledgements

2. Introduction

3. Tolkien and the Great War

2.1 Tolkien during the Great War

2.2 The Great War and The Lord of the Rings

2.3 Sam and Frodo in Mordor

2.4 Orcs, Haradrim and Germans

2.5 War Without End

2.6 The Hobbits as Returning Veterans

2.7 The Passing of an Age

4. Masculinities in The Lord of the Rings

4.1. Constructing and Deconstructing Masculinity

4.2. Femininity in Relation to Masculinity

4.3. Masculinity in The Lord of the Rings

4.4. Masculinity as a Hierarchy: Aragorn, Boromir and Faramir

5. Friendship in The Lord of the Rings

5.1. Homoerotiscism

5.2. Master-Servant Relationships

5.3. The Common Quest

6. The Influence of World War I on Masculinities and Friendship in The Lord of the

Rings

7. Conclusion De Pauw 4

8. Bibliography

Word count: 22 480 De Pauw 5

2. Introduction

In this dissertation I will discuss the themes of friendship and masculinity in J. R. R.

Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings (first published in 1954 and 1955), and the influence of

World War I. World War I had an enormous impact on Tolkien’s life and I thought it would be interesting to discuss the friendships and relationship dynamics of characters in his epic high-fantasy classic, The Lord of the Rings.

Firstly, I will discuss Tolkien and the Great War, in which I will provide an overview of Tolkien’s history during the war. He was sent relatively late in 1916 because he was able to first finish his degree at Oxford University. There he met three friends whom would form a group with. Eventually all four of them were sent to war and only two returned, one of them being Tolkien himself. This would leave an enormous impact on Tolkien and could perhaps be an influence on his later work. I will also discuss The Lord of the Rings in relation to World War I. Certain clear parallels can be drawn between known war experiences and evidence from the text, like e.g. the landscapes from nightmares and the desolation of Mordor. Related to that would be Sam and Frodo making their way through

Mordor, with the help of the creature Gollum. A comparison could also be made between the Orcs and Haradrim on one hand, and the Germans on the other. But Tolkien himself did not hate the Germans necessarily, but the Nazi propaganda and destruction was something that rightfully angered him, especially the glorifying of Nordic culture and heritage. The general sense hopelessness is also a theme that is present in The Lord of the Rings that was also present among British soldiers during the Great War. The Hobbits can also be seen as returning veterans, all of them coping in different ways with the De Pauw 6

aftermath of war and grief and loss. The Passing of an Age, at last is also a concept that is present in The Lord of the Rings.

Secondly, I will discuss Masculinities in The Lord of the Rings. I will begin with trying to define what masculinity is through constructing and deconstructing it. It is a feminist post-structuralist goal to disrupt the inequality of gender roles and expectations through critical reflections of texts. By deconstructing how language constructs gender, readers may be able to question and challenge the inequalities that exist. It is suggested that, although the books themselves do not invite criticism of hegemonic masculine values, it can provoke multiple discussions about its various messages about masculinity.

Masculinity cannot exist without femininity, so it is also interesting to take a look at femininity in relation to masculinity. It is a well-known fact that are a lot more male characters in The Lord of the Rings than female. The female characters also get a rather small role compared to their brethren. However, I will discuss the characters of Galadriel and Éowyn briefly. Both of these female characters possess traits that can be ascribed to femininity on the one hand, and masculinity on the other. The femininity is also present in the portrayals of the friendship between Frodo and Sam. I will also discuss masculinity as a hierarchy with the characters Aragorn, Boromir, and Faramir.

Thirdly, I will discuss friendship in The Lord of the Rings. Friendship can be considered almost as a motif in the books. It is a very important element to the trilogy, since new friendships are made and develop further as the story progresses. Most friendships seem to follow the traditional views on friendship, but Frodo and Sam’s friendship seems to challenge those views. The question of homoeroticism arises. The physicality between Frodo and Sam seems to support such views. There are also several De Pauw 7

master-servant relationships present in the trilogy, Frodo and Sam’s being one of them, but also Merry and Théoden, and Pippin and Denethor. Another aspect that could help form the friendships in The Lord of the Rings is the common quest bringing them together.

This is apparent in the relationship between Gimli and Legolas. They are enemies at first but become great friends later on in the story.

And finally, I will try to bring all these arguments together in a chapter and try to answer the question: Has World War I influenced Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings in friendships and masculinities?

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3. Tolkien and the Great War

One has indeed personally to come under the shadow of war to feel fully its

oppression; but as the years go by it seems now often forgotten that to be

caught in youth by 1914 was no less hideous and experience than to be

involved in 1939 and the following years. By 1918 all but one of my close

friends were dead. (Tolkien, Foreword to The Lord of the Rings)

In this section I will look at how the First World War had an influence in Tolkien’s life and work. Tolkien was born in 1892 and was a young adult during the Great War. In

1916, at the age of 24, he left to fight in France together with a group of friends he met while studying at Oxford.

Nancy Marie Ott’s essay (2018) takes a speculative look at how J.R.R. Tolkien’s service in the British Army during World War I may have influenced his fiction, and particularly The Lord of the Rings. While it might not be an allegory of World War I, she points at a number of similarities between it and the war. Ott also makes the important statement that it is dangerous to assume that an author’s life experiences are directly reflected in his or her fiction.

Tolkien is not a World War I writer in the sense that, say, Siegfried Sassoon,

Robert Graves, or Ernest Hemingway are. These writers directly portrayed

their war experience in their stories and poetry. Instead, Tolkien’s war

experiences are sublimated in his fiction. They surface in the sense of loss

that suffuses the story, in the ghastly landscapes of places like Mordor, in

the sense of gathering darkness, and in the fates of his Hobbit

protagonists. (Ott 2018) De Pauw 9

Tolkien himself stated that the war had a limited influence on his writing. In the

Foreword to The Lord of the Rings, Tolkien himself states that his work is not allegorical.

But in a letter to his son Christopher he once wrote that he “took to ‘escapism’: or really transforming experience into another form and symbol with Morgoth and Orcs and the Eldalie (representing beauty and grace of life and artefact) and so on; and it has stood me in good stead in many hard years since and I still draw on the conceptions then hammered out.” (Letter 73, Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien)

Ott adds that World War I represented everything that Tolkien hated: the destruction of nature, the deadly application of technology, the abuse and corruption of authority, and the triumph of industrialisation. It interrupted his career, separated him from his wife, and damaged his health. Yet at the same time it gave him an appreciation for the virtues of ordinary people, for friendships, and for what beauty he could find amidst ugliness. (Ott 2018)

3.1 Tolkien during the Great War

When World War I broke out in 1914, Tolkien was working on his degree in English

Language and Literature at Oxford. He was unwilling to leave Oxford but joined the

Officers Training Corps, which deferred his enlistment until after he had finished his degree. His three closest friends, Christopher Wiseman, Rob Gilson, and G.B. Smith, also enlisted. The group of friends called themselves the TCBS (Tea Club and Barrovian Society, named for their fondness for meeting for tea at Barrow’s stores.)

(Ott 2018) De Pauw 10

After obtaining his degree in 1915, he enlisted in the New Army, the volunteer army that succeeded Britain's small professional army, which had been decimated early in the war. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the 13th Lancashire Fusiliers and eventually was appointed battalion signalling officer. Tolkien married his long-time love,

Edith Bratt, in March, 1916. The terrible casualty rate among the British forces made it clear that he might never return from France, adds Ott.

Tolkien was sent to France in June 1916, where he received three weeks of training at the British camp at Étaples, during which he was transferred to the 11th

Lancashire Fusiliers. As battalion signalling officer, Tolkien was responsible for maintaining communication between officers in the field and the Army staff responsible for directing the battle. This information would be used to direct artillery fire to where it was needed, send or withdraw reinforcements, and support any gains the attackers made against the German lines. He would have learned how to make use of field telephones, flares, signal lamps, Morse code buzzers, carrier pigeons, runners, and other devices deemed necessary to keep the lines of communication open. Finally, when preparations were complete, his battalion was sent to the Front to join the great joint British-French attack that was supposed to break through the German lines: the attack that later was known as the Battle of the Somme. (Ott 2018)

Fortunately for Tolkien, remarks Ott, his battalion was assigned to the reserves at the beginning of the battle. It did not take part in the initial British attack on the dug-in

German positions on the Somme, which failed to achieve its predicted breakthrough and led to massive loss of life. The Battle of the Somme continued for months as the British unsuccessfully attempted to break through the German lines, although they did manage De Pauw 11

to push them back. French forces fared somewhat better, but they too did not achieve the dramatic breakthrough that the generals had initially envisioned. Tolkien took part in two major offensives against the Germans. On his first day in the trenches, his battalion was part of an unsuccessful attack on Orvillers, a village held by the Germans. The barbed wire had not been cut and many men in his battalion were killed by machine gun fire. His battalion also took part in the attack on the Schwaben Redoubt (a strongly fortified

German position) at the end of September, 1916. Battlefield conditions made his job as battalion signal officer extremely difficult. Conditions were far more chaotic than anyone had expected, with tangled wires, damaged equipment, and mud everywhere. Signallers could not use field telephones for important messages, as the

Germans had managed to tap into the British telephone network. Even Morse code buzzers were forbidden, forcing signallers to use runners and sometimes even carrier pigeons. Tolkien's time in the army was not completely wasted in terms of his creative life, claims Ott. As he later wrote to his son Christopher, some of the earliest development of his mythology and languages was done in canteens, at lectures, in crowded and noisy huts, by candle-light in tents, and even in dugouts under shell-fire. He admitted that it did not make him a good officer.

Despite the action he had seen, Tolkien was not wounded. His friends from the

TCBS were not so fortunate. One was killed on July 1; another was killed in

December. “The deaths of his friends affected him greatly, paradoxically inspiring him to continue with his own work so that the legacy of their friendship would not be lost.” (Ott

2018) De Pauw 12

In late October, Tolkien contracted trench fever (a disease carried by lice) and was sent home to recuperate. He spent the rest of 1916 and early 1917 in hospital until his fever finally subsided. He was then posted to camps in England until the end of the war.

Tolkien was reunited with his wife Edith and their first child was born during this period.

He also began composing some of the tales that would later become the Silmarillion – in particular, the story of the sack of Gondolin and the story of Lúthien and Beren (inspired by watching Edith dance and sing while they were walking in a hemlock wood).

3.2 The Great War and The Lord of the Rings

Ott (2018) focuses on the landscapes of nightmare present in his works. She states “the most noticeable way in which Tolkien’s wartime experiences in The Lord of the Rings is in his descriptions of the landscaped of evil. Key elements of the landscapes of Mordor, the desolation of Mordo, and the Dead Marshes are directly inspired from the landscapes of the trenches and No-man’s land of World War I”. She continues that “Tolkien clearly drew on his memories of the Western Front when describing the lands by Sauron”. This idea is supported by a statement in Tolkien’s letters: “The Dead Marshes and the approaches to the Morannon owe something to Northern France after the Battle of the

Somme”. (Letter 226: From a letter to Professor L. W. Forster 31 December 1960, The

Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien p. 321)

Ott further examines the parallels between the landscapes of No-Man’s Land (the area between the German and Allied front line trenches) and Tolkien’s landscapes of nightmare as striking: “Mordor is a dry, gasping land pocked by pits that are very much like shell craters. Sam Gamgee and Frodo Baggins even hide in one of these pits when De Pauw 13

escaping from an Orc band, much as a soldier might have hidden in a shell hole while trying to evade an enemy patrol.” (Ott 2018) Like No-Man’s Land, Mordor is empty of all life except the soldiers of the Enemy. Almost nothing grows there or lives there. The natural world has been almost annihilated by Sauron’s power, much as modern weaponry almost annihilated the natural world on the Western Front.

The desolation before the gates of Mordor is another savage landscape inspired by the Western Front, writes Ott: “It is full of pits and heaps of torn earth and ash, some with an oily sump at the bottom. It is the product of centuries of destructive activity by

Sauron’s slaves, a destruction that Tolkien stated would endure long after Sauron was vanquished.” The following excerpt from The Two Towers captures this:

Dreadful as the Dead Marshes had been, and the arid moors of the Noman-

lands, more loathsome by far was the country that the crawling day now

slowly unveiled to his shrinking eyes. … Here nothing lived, not even the

leprous growths that feed on rottenness. The gasping pools were choked

with ash and crawling muds, sickly white and grey, as if the mountains had

vomited the filth of their entrails on the lands about. (The Two Towers, Book

IV, Chapter 2: "The Passage of the Marshes")

The sickly white and grey mud mentioned in this passage is very like the terrain of

No-Man’s Land on the Somme, where the underlying chalk bedrock was churned up by artillery bombardment and turned the ground grey and white.

The horror of these landscapes comes from the fact that they are not naturally produced but they are a product of man’s destructive misuse of technology. Battles like they were fought during World War I, simply did not exist before. In earlies wars, the De Pauw 14

armies would meet on the battlefield where they would engage in fighting and when the fight was over, they would leave. One can imagine that the development of new, more destructive weapons (artillery in particular) would change the ways of warfare. The battlefields of World War I experienced constant shelling and digging. Ott thinks it is not surprising that Tolkien's imagination should seize on these images of destruction as the embodiment of power and evil. These landscapes are similarly unnatural: a product of

Sauron's destructiveness and his misuse of his power.

They had come to the desolation that lay before Mordor: the lasting

monument to the dark labour of its slaves that should endure when all

purposes were made void; a land defiled, diseased beyond all healing –

unless the Great Sea should enter in and wash it with oblivion. ‘I feel sick,’

said Sam. Frodo did not speak. (The Two Towers, Book IV, Chapter 2: “The

Passage of the Marshes”)

Frodo and Sam are aghast at this destruction of the natural world and feel physically sick as they journey through this blasted landscape, like it is all a hideous dream. Later in the story, some of the soldiers of Gondor cannot bear even to pass though this area. They too feel that the desolation of Mordor is a hideous dream; many show signs of what sounds suspiciously like shell shock.

On the fourth day from the cross-roads, they came at last to the end of the living lands and began to pass into the desolation that lay before the gates of the Pass of Cirith Gorgor. They could behold the marshes and the desert that stretched north and west to the Emyn Muil. These places were so desolate, and the horror that De Pauw 15

lay before them was so deep that some of the host were unmanned and could neither walk nor ride further north:

Aragorn looked at them, and there was pity in his eyes, for these were young

man from Rohan, from Westfold far away, or husbandmen from Lossarnach,

and to them Mordor had been from childhood a name of evil and yet unreal,

a legend that had no part in their simple life; and now they walked like men

in a hideous dream made true and they understood not this war nor why fate

should lead them to such a pass. (The Return of the King, Book I, Chapter

10: "The Black Gate Opens")

In contrast to how shell-shocked men were often treated in World War I, Ott points out that Aragorn has compassion for his stricken troops. He does not force them to cross the desolation of Mordor, but instead sets them to an alternative task of recapturing the island of Cair Andros.

The landscape of the Dead Marshes is also inspired by the Western Front, Ott remarks. As Frodo, Sam, and their guide Gollum cross the Marshes, they see the ghostly, rotting forms of the dead soldiers of a war that had swept across the region thousands of years before. As Frodo tells Sam and Gollum:

They lie in all the pools, pale faces, deep deep under the dark water. I saw

them: grim faces and evil, noble faces and sad. Many faces proud and fair,

with weeds in their silver hair. But all foul, all rotting, all dead. (The Two

Towers, Book II, Chapter 2: “The Passage of the Marshes")

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The dead lying in pools of mud is a powerful image of trench warfare on the

Western Front and is something that Tolkien would have undoubtedly seen during his wartime service. As the autumn rains fell, the battlefield of the Somme turned into a stinking mire seeded with the rotting corpses of men and animals. The dead men that

Frodo and Sam see are not physically present – only their ghostly shapes have been preserved – but their forms inspire horror and pity, writes Ott.

Ott links the the landscape of Ithliien to the landscape of rural France. According to her, there are some ways in which they are alike: “Although there is evidence of the nearby conflict – a few damaged buildings, some shell craters, and the general debris of war – the landscape is otherwise natural and unspoiled. It has not fallen fully under the dominion of war. So too is Ithilien, the deserted province of Gondor that had recently fallen under the dominion of Sauron.” Although Sauron's Orcs have been at work, Ithilien retains some of its natural beauty. Sam and Frodo's feelings rise when they reach Ithilien, much as the spirits of soldiers rose when they were relieved of their tours in the trenches and could return to the comforts of the rear areas.

Another similarity between Ithilien, Ott continues, and the rear areas in France is their close proximity to areas of deadly danger – either to the front or to the frontiers of

Mordor. Behind the lines, the sounds of the bombardment were never far off. On the horizon the flashes of gunfire and the smoke and dust thrown up by the explosions might appear like a mountainous wall – similar to how Sam and Frodo see Mount Doom erupting in the lands beyond the Mountains of Shadow.

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3.3 Sam and Frodo in Mordor, or a soldier on the Western Front?

Many of the ordeals that Sam and Frodo endure echo the physical torments that soldiers faced during World War I. Ott suggests it is possible that they too were inspired by

Tolkien’s wartime experiences: “The great thirst and hunger that Frodo and Sam often suffer during their journey into Mordor are reminiscent of the sufferings of soldiers in the trenches when food and water supplies could not get through.” (Ott 2018) Soldiers did not typically carry much food or water with them. Supplies of food and water could be interrupted by shelling and often could not be brought out to men in forward positions like observation posts out in No-man’s land. Thirst was especially a torment in the summer, as there was often no drinkable water on the battlefield.

The clouds of ash and fumes that leave Frodo and Sam gasping for air on their journey through Mordor are also reminiscent of the use of poison gas in trench warfare. The following excerpt from The Two Towers illustrates this:

Presently it grew altogether dark: the air itself seemed black and heavy to

breathe. When lights appeared Sam rubbed his eyes: he thought his head

was going queer. He first saw one with the corner of his left eye, a wisp of

pale sheen that faded away; but others appeared soon after: some like dimly

shining smoke, some like misty flames flickering slowly above unseen

candles; here and there they twisted like ghostly sheets unfurled by hidden

hands. But neither of his companions spoke a word. (The Two Towers, Book

IV, Chapter 2: “The Passage of the Marshes”)

British gas masks were effective but uncomfortable and difficult to fight in. Gas often lingered in low spots like trenches and shell holes, precisely where men would go De Pauw 18

to shelter from machine gun fire and bombardments. While most kinds of poison gas were intended to kill or injure, some types of gas were intended merely to make the enemy miserable.

Tolkien often describes places where the Shadow has been at work (such as the

Dead Marshes) as having a foul or bitter smell. Frodo, Sam, Gollum, and other characters are forced to endure the stink of these places. Ott suggests this is another echo of the battlefields of World War I, which stank of chemicals and death. The horrible smell was a torment to the soldiers fighting in the trenches. Draft animals (such as horses and mules) that were killed by enemy fire were usually left to rot because there simply was not enough time to dispose of them. The bodies of men who were killed in battle often could not be retrieved and buried, especially those who had died near enemy lines. Many men were literally blown to pieces by artillery fire, their bodies virtually unrecoverable. The stinking mud of the Dead Marshes also echoes the battlefields of Flanders, where men literally drowned in the mud.

From their positions of comparative safety in the trenches, the soldiers could only observe the skies: sunrises, clouds, sunsets, the stars and moon at night, birds, and airplanes. At quiet times, bird song gave an eerie air of normality to the destroyed landscape of the front. This is another part of trench life that is echoed in The Lord of the

Rings, according to Ott. While journeying towards Mount Doom with Frodo, Sam looks up from the barren No-Man’s land of Mordor and sees the beauty of the night sky above the devastation:

Far above the Ephel Duath in the West the night-sky was still dim and pale.

There, peeping among the cloud-wrack above a dark tor high in the De Pauw 19

mountains, Sam saw a white star twinkle for a while. The beauty of it smote

his heart, as he looked up out of the forsaken land, and courage returned

to him. For like a shaft, clear and cold, the thought pierced him that in the

end, the Shadow was only a small and passing thing; there was light and

high beauty forever beyond its reach. (The Return of the King, Book VI,

Chapter 2: "The Land of Shadow”)

Ott compares Sam's vision of beauty with an account by an officer who served on the Somme and wrote under the pseudonym Mark VII:

The stars shine brilliantly and (these trenches facing north) I gaze at The

Plough dipping towards High Wood. What joy it is to know that you in

England and I out here at least can look upon the same beauty in the sky!

… They have become seers – images of divine stability – guardians of a

peace and order beyond the power of weak and petty madness. … They,

at least, will outlast the war and still be beautiful.

(“Night in the trenches," A Subaltern on the Somme)

Ott notes that Tolkien had a great deal of respect for the privates and NCOs (non- commissioned officers) with whom he served in France. Officers did not make friends among the enlisted men, of course; the system did not allow it and there was a wide gulf of class differences between them, Ott remarks: Officers generally came from the upper and middle classes; enlisted men usually came from the lower classes. However, each officer was assigned a batman – a servant who looked after his belongings and took care of him. De Pauw 20

Tolkien got to know several of his batmen very well. These men and other men in

Tolkien's battalion served as inspiration for the character Sam Gamgee. As Tolkien later wrote, "My 'Sam Gamgee' is indeed a reflection of the English soldier, of the privates and batmen I knew in the 1914 war, and recognized as so far superior to myself." Sam represents the courage, endurance and steadfastness of the British soldier, as well as his limited imagination and parochial viewpoint. Sam is stubbornly optimistic and refuses to give up, even when things seem hopeless, Ott adds. Indeed, the resiliency of Hobbits in general, their love of comfort, their sometimes-hidden courage, and their conservative outlook owe much to Tolkien’s view of ordinary enlisted men. These traits enabled British soldiers not only to survive their tours of duty on the terrible battlefields of France, but to bravely attack and counter-attack the Germans.

Ott writes that he officer/batman paradigm also describes some aspects of Sam and Frodo's relationship. It is clearly not a formal one in a military sense, but it goes beyond that of an ordinary, civilian master and servant. Their relationship encompasses the closeness of soldiers who have been in combat together and who have depended on their comrades for their lives (Ott 2018). Sam is steadfastly loyal to Frodo. He looks after

Frodo's physical comfort – cooking, fetching water, and so forth – and helps Frodo on his quest as much as he possibly can, even carrying him up the slopes of Mount Doom when

Frodo's strength gives out. He loves Frodo although he does not completely understand him. Sam also defends Frodo from danger when he is attacked by Shelob and rescues him from the Tower of Cirith Ungol. Sam and Frodo had been through terror and were tested against the lure of the Ring together and were closer than a master-servant relationship would imply. De Pauw 21

3.4 Orcs, Haradrim and Germans

It's often theorised that Orcs represent German soldiers. There certainly are similarities between them. Ott writes that Orcs are almost caricatures of the German enemy of trench warfare: the hordes of grey, pitiless warriors who overwhelm the brave and outnumbered defenders of the West. The Germans were aggressors in World War I; during their occupation of France and Belgium, they committed atrocities on the civilian population, burned libraries, and deliberately destroyed buildings of historical significance. The case for Orcs representing Germans gets stronger if their behaviour in World War II is considered, where they committed acts of great evil including genocide. (Ott 2018)

Tolkien’s Orcs may have initially been inspired by his war experiences according to Ott. She continues that the description of the sack of Gondolin in The Book of Lost

Tales, Part II, written in 1917, has an eerie similarity to the type of industrialised warfare that Tolkien would have witnessed during the war. Morgoth’s dark and remorseless forces use great iron vehicles that seem much like tanks. Their sheer numbers and powerful, fiery weapons overwhelm the valiant Elvish warriors of Gondolin.

However, Tolkien himself dismissed claims that the Orcs represented a particular race or ethnic group, much less wartime Germans. "I've said somewhere else, even the goblins weren't evil to begin with. They were corrupted. I've never had those feelings about the Germans. I'm very anti that kind of thing." Tolkien admired the industriousness and spirit of the German people and railed against Adolph Hitler for perverting what he called the "noble Northern spirit" by associating it so closely with Nazism. He and Hitler’s propagandists had mined the same vein of Northern European mythology, with De Pauw 22

completely opposite results. Tolkien also often compared nasty and crude people who he encountered to Orcs. Clearly, Orcishness knows no national boundaries.

So, what then are the Orcs? They may have been inspired by images of the rampaging Turkish, Mongol, and Persian armies that assailed Europe during the Middle

Ages, Ott writes. They may also have been inspired by archetypal figures of evil and destruction: the Huns of Allied propaganda in both wars, she adds. Oddly enough, Kaiser

Wilhelm II was the first to characterize German troops as 'Huns' during the European war with China in 1900, although he meant it as inspiration! This image of the pitiless Hun was later seized upon by Allied propagandists and used to demonize the Germans; a typical example is shown in the following British propaganda poster.

The people in The Lord of the Rings who seem most similar to the Germans are not the Orcs, but the Haradrim, Ott concludes. Like the Germans, the Haradrim are citizens of a powerful nation that is not inherently wicked but has been misled and corrupted by evil leaders. The Haradrim held old grudges against Gondor that were inflamed by Sauron to encourage them to go to war – again, similar to the situation in

Germany during and between the two World Wars.

Unlike the Orcs, the essential humanity of the Haradrim is never in question. In one passage, Sam witnesses the death of a Haradrim soldier and in a flash of insight recognises that his enemy is very much like he is:

He was glad that he could not see the dead face. He wondered what the

man's name was and where he came from; and if he was really evil at heart,

or what lies or threats had led him on the long march from his home; and if De Pauw 23

he would not really rather have stayed there in peace. (The Two Towers,

Book II, Chapter 4: "Of Herbs and Stewed Rabbit”)

Ott points out that at the end of the War of the Ring, the Haradrim and other

Southrons and Easterling groups are shown mercy and are permitted to surrender – unlike the surviving Orcs, who are hunted down and killed. As king, Aragorn pardons the

Easterlings and Southrons who gave themselves up and ends Gondor’s ancient conflict with Harad. This kind of peace-making is what should have happened after World War I, but did not.

3.5 War Without End

Ott writes that the events in the War of the Ring have some parallels with World War I, although they are clearly different in scope and development. Tolkien may have been thinking of how it felt to be caught up in a terrible, seemingly unstoppable war when he was writing about the War of the Ring. The war against Sauron and the forces of darkness never ends. All victories are transitory, as Gandalf notes early in the story. "Always after a defeat and a respite, the Shadow takes another shape and grows again." Despite their valour, the forces of good cannot hope to gain victory by might of arms. All that the defenders of the West can hope for is to hold off their defeat for as long as possible. (Ott

2018)

Although the War of the Ring progresses in a very different manner than World

War I did, the sense of their both being endless, unwinnable wars is much the same, according to Ott. Galadriel’s thought that she has been fighting a long defeat echoes the bleakest years of World War I, when despite the combined efforts of the Allies, the Central De Pauw 24

Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary seemingly could not be defeated. In Middle- earth as in the real world, victory on the battlefield was transitory and often offered little gain for the lives lost. (Ott 2018)

The gathering darkness of the War of the Ring especially affects the people of

Minas Tirith, who have borne the brunt of Sauron’s hatred. With Mordor only the width of the valley of the Anduin River away, they are well aware of their peril and grasp at even the slimmest tidings of hope. Pippin Took and Gandalf’s arrival in Minas Tirith set off a hopeful rumour that swept through the city. Pippin was supposedly the Prince of the

Halflings who has come to offer allegiance to Denethor; every Rider of Rohan who comes to the aid of the beleaguered city was said to be bearing a Halfling warrior behind him.

Ott compares this rumour to a very similar popular one in England during the early part of World War I. Russia supposedly had sent troops to England’s aid; the Russians were said to travel on unmarked trains and could be identified by the snow still clinging to their boots! Pippin regretfully had to destroy the hopeful rumour about the Halfling warriors; the rumour about the Russian troops in England died when they never materialized. Ott suggests that Tolkien perhaps included this incident to show that the population of Gondor suffered from the same wartime stresses as the population of England.

3.6 The Hobbits as Returning Veterans

The fates of Sam Gamgee, Frodo Baggins, Pippin Took and Merry Brandybuck after they return to the Shire are in many ways reflections of the fates that faced veterans returning after the war, according to Ott. De Pauw 25

Merry and Pippin did not experience the terror and the sheer physical ordeal of bearing the One Ring to Mount Doom. Although they fought and were wounded in battle, they were not subjected to the constant and unending stress that Sam and Frodo were.

It is as if they were members of an armed service that did not spend time in the trenches,

Ott remarks. After the war, they resume life as well-connected, upper-class Hobbits. Their experiences have matured them and trained them to take on leadership roles – as can be seen in their military planning to remove intruders from the Shire and in their direction

(with Sam Gamgee) of restoration efforts after the Scouring of the Shire. (Ott 2018)

Sam and Frodo’s experiences during the war were much more hellish, resembling that of soldiers who had long tours of duty in the trenches, Ott compares. Of the two, Sam came through best. Like many veterans, Ott writes, he was able to put the terror of his wartime experiences behind him and successfully coped with the trauma of his journey to Mordor. His Hobbit resiliency and his focus on Frodo’s needs helped as well. Sam’s experiences broadened his parochial viewpoint and taught him wisdom. On his return to the Shire, he is hailed as a hero. Like Merry and Pippin, Sam takes on a leadership role in the restoration of the Shire. He marries his girlfriend, starts a family, and is elected mayor. Ott compares Sam’s fate with Tolkien’s: Sam’s fate in some ways parallels

Tolkien’s, who returned from the war, was reunited with his wife, started a family, and embarked on a successful academic and literary career.

On the other hand, Ott points out that Frodo could not put the War of the Ring behind him and had a difficult time coping with the trauma he suffered. In many ways, he is like the shell-shocked veteran of the trenches whose minds and spirits never recovered from the horrors they witnessed, she continues. The stress of his journey to Mordor was De Pauw 26

multiplied by the trauma he suffered from bearing the One Ring. Frodo had intrusive memories of being wounded by the Witch King’s knife, Shelob’s stinger, and Gollum’s teeth. He was often ill and eventually dropped out of the social life of the Shire. His spirit was broken by the evil effect of the Ring, to which he finally succumbed. Frodo cannot find peace or rest in the Shire and must leave it to seek healing in the Blessed Realm. (Ott

2018)

3.7 The Passing of an Age

One final point of similarity between World War I and The Lord of the Rings is according to Ott an emotional one: the sense of loss and sorrow at the passing of an age.

Most of Europe had known peace for over a generation before 1914. Europeans had made great strides in the sciences and the arts. Socialists preached the brotherhood of the working classes. Progress was considered to be proper and inevitable. Exciting new technologies would bring great benefit to people. World War I saw the destruction of this world according to Ott. European society was wrenched into new patters as the war grew bloodier and the entire population became involved in the war effort. After the war,

Europe never returned to what it was before, writes Ott. Science and technology had proved to be easily misused in the cause of war. Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary had fallen, their leaders unforgiven by the citizenry whose sons had been fed to the

Moloch of the industrialized battlefield. Much that was beautiful in Europe lay in ruins.

Millions of young men who would have contributed much to society were dead or maimed, their families and communities overwhelmed at dealing with this trauma. Non-combatants everywhere had suffered greatly. There was personal grief at the deaths of loved ones, De Pauw 27

and grief at the death of a way of life. In many ways, the new Modern age seemed a lesser one.

The Lord of the Rings is suffused with a similar sense of grief and sorrow according to Ott: “It too is about the end of an era. The age of the Elves is finished and the time of the dominion of Men is at hand. After the War of the Ring, the last of the Noldor or High

Elves return across the sundering seas to the Blessed Land of Valinor. The passing of the High Elves represents the loss of the highest traits of humanity: artistry, craftsmanship, nobility, splendour” (Ott 2018). All outcomes of the war are fraught with sorrow. If the One Ring is found, Sauron wins and will cover Middle-earth in a new darkness. If the One Ring is destroyed, Sauron is vanquished but the Elves will suffer great loss. Though necessary to defeat evil, the destruction of the One Ring will cause the three Elven Rings to fail because their power is based on it. As Galadriel says to

Frodo:

Do you not see how your coming to us is as the footsteps of Doom? For if

you fail, then we are laid bare to the Enemy. Yet if you succeed, then our

power is diminished and Lothlórien will fade, and the tides of Time will

sweep it away. (The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter 7: "The Mirror

of Galadriel")

After Sauron’s defeat, the Elves will fade and pass into the West, the Dwarves will eventually dwindle, and much knowledge and beauty will be lost. Aragorn as King of

Gondor will be left holding the pieces in an attempt to preserve what he can of the era that has ended and pave the way for the coming dominance of Men in Middle-earth. There De Pauw 28

is grief at the passing of the Elves and grief at the end of a way of life that had existed for thousands of years. The new Fourth Age of Middle-earth will be a lesser one.

The fact that The Lord of the Rings does not really have a happy ending gives it realism (Ott 2018). Ott elaborates that Tolkien certainly knew that not everyone who returned from the war would be able to resume the lives they had left in England.

Moreover, she continues, he could not have forgotten that many of the men who went so eagerly to war never returned. Neither group would be able to enjoy what they had fought for. In one of the most moving passages of the book, Frodo speaks for all who have been destroyed by the war:

… I have been too deeply hurt, Sam. I tried to save the Shire, and it has

been saved, but not for me. It must often be so, Sam, when things are in

danger: someone has to give them up, lose them so that others may keep

them. (The Return of the King: Book II, Chapter 9: "The Grey Havens")

Ott concludes that perhaps Tolkien was thinking of his dead TCBS friends when he wrote this, or of the men who were forever lost on the battlefields of France. Perhaps he was thinking of the men maimed in body and mind who could not savour the end of the war and the Allied victory over Germany, she adds. This is the true aftermath of war: not just celebration and relief, but terrible loss and sorrow (Ott 2018).

De Pauw 29

4. Masculinity in The Lord of the Rings

In this section I will discuss masculinity in relation to Tolkien’s The Lord of the

Rings trilogy. The friendships that exist between the characters are an important element to the story, and all of them are between male characters. The lack of female characters can be seen as problematic, or, it can be argued that the few women that are present in the trilogy, can count for more.

Leanna Madill writes that “The Lord of the Rings is a fantastic and magically woven narrative of adventure, courage, and friendship. Romance and mystique abound in the physical and spiritual journey that a small Hobbit makes with a Fellowship of eight other members of Middle Earth. Of course, this world, not unlike our own, suffers from greed, misused power, and war. In other words, it is a world dominated by men.” She continues that identity is shaped by the multiple experiences a person has in the world. Davies

(1989) suggests that “our subjectivities are experienced as if they were entirely our own because we take on the discursive practices and story-lines as if they were our own and make sense of them in terms of our own particular experiences” (230). In other words, Madill writes that our individual perceptions and feelings (subjectivities) of the world come from shared discourses and interpretations of texts. Of course, we must also respect that the “reader” of discourses brings past experiences, values, and beliefs that influence her understanding of the new discourses and interpretations (Rosenblatt,

1986, 1990, 1991). DeBlase (2003) suggests that “Transactions with literacy engage individuals not as passive recipients of text and culture but as coproducers of culture”

(625) so that gender, class, and racial identities are being created and maintained in complex ways. De Pauw 30

4.1 Constructing and Deconstructing Masculinity

A long-term goal of feminist post-structuralists is to disrupt the inequality of gender roles and expectations through critical reflection with texts. By deconstructing how language constructs gender, readers may be able to question and challenge the inequalities that exist. Madill refers to researchers such as Connell (1995, 1996), Davies (1997), Kimmel

(1993), and Martino (1995a, 1995b) who suggest that the construction of masculinity be given specific examination because the depiction of one ‘correct’ version of masculinity is problematic and works to maintain a patriarchal hierarchy in societies that value a hegemonic masculinity over other masculinities and femininities. Martino

(1995b) explains that the purpose in exposing students to deconstructing masculinity in texts is not to change their attitudes, “but to make available a space for students to consider other possibilities for making meaning and to consider other gendered positions”

(210).

The Lord of the Rings is not a text that invites criticism of hegemonic masculine values, but it is a text that can provoke multiple discussions about its various messages about masculinity, Madill suggests. According to Connell (1996) and Martino (1995b), the social practice and ideology of masculinity differs between cultures and throughout history; therefore, multiple definitions of masculinity exist or have existed and are transformative (Connell 1996). However, some masculinities are valued more than others; the culturally accepted masculinity is referred to as hegemonic masculinity. “The hegemonic form need not be the most common form of masculinity” but it is “highly visible”

(3). Often only a few males in a society practice hegemonic masculinity closely, but other De Pauw 31

males feel pressure to conform to this visible performance of what a society considers normal for men. Madill adds that hegemonic masculinity and femininity establishes narrow expectations that leave many males and females to be considered and treated as outside the norm. Masculinity and femininity, therefore, need to be deconstructed so that males can understand how masculinity has been constructed, through texts, institutions, and media, but also to create a space for discovering alternative gendered identities to admire and adhere, she adds to that. Through the deconstruction of texts, the power structure of patriarchy can be disrupted and gender equality can be possible.

In her text, Leanna Madill also refers to the feminist post-structuralist perspective that “understands that power imbalances are created and maintained through language, so that in deconstructing and reconstructing words, images, and other language constructs, power imbalances can be disrupted and changed”. Riemer (1987), who teaches men’s studies, explains that just as feminist literary criticism and theory have changed how we perceive women, so can the examination of men in literature affect and broaden the way we perceive men.

Therefore, in considering the popularity of the The Lord of the Rings, an important consideration is to explore the ways that masculinity in the The Lord of the Rings can be read and understood, Madill continues: “Readers can deconstruct the portrayal of gender by examining the role of hero, friendships, leadership, conflict resolution, and relationship to the environment. The complex depiction of friendships and the role of femininity in relation to masculinity are examined here as an example of how examination of language can provide multiple interpretations”.

De Pauw 32

4.2 Femininity in Relation to Masculinity

Madill writes that the typically feminine traits that appear in the portrayal of Sam and

Frodo’s friendship are juxtaposed by the typically masculine traits that the female characters exhibit. Often female characters are portrayed as inferior to male characters and are not represented proportionately. The Lord of the Rings is no exception to this unequal representation. The trilogy has only three significant female characters: Arwen,

Galadriel, and Éowyn and not one of these women is part of the Fellowship. They also have very small roles within the story. The trilogy is dominated by male characters who are deemed more significant in most ways. However, the purpose of examining the female characters in The Lord of the Rings is to question what these female characters reveal about masculinity. Reimer (1987) suggests that studying male-female relationships in literature can “disclose the central role that women play in developing the male’s sense of masculinity” (296) through her passive role, her definition of, and reinforcement of manly behaviour. Examining the female characters from this perspective sheds light on the potential of masculinity and femininity as fluid ways of being.

Galadriel portrays both traditional masculine and traditional feminine qualities. She is first introduced as sitting “side by side” (The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter 6:

“Lothlórien”) with Celeborn, the male Elven leader and her spouse. “Very tall they were, and the lady no less tall than the Lord; and they were grave and beautiful” (The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter 6). Madill writes that by describing both the male and female leader as ‘grave’, a traditionally masculine trait, and ‘beautiful,’ an adjective traditionally used for a female, suggests that both the male and female character are equal in status and that they both admirably share masculine and feminine qualities. De Pauw 33

The juxtaposition of Galadriel’s characteristics, Madill suggests, that masculinity and femininity are not clearly defined ways of being; there can be movement between masculine and feminine characteristics which can be admired, no matter whether a male or female portrays them. Galadriel’s voice, wisdom, and spirit are all portrayed with hints of masculinity. “Her voice was clear and musical, but deeper than a woman’s wont” (The

Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter 6). Her wisdom, comparable to Gandalf’s and

Elrond’s, is revealed when she admits to having initiated the meeting of the Council that created the Fellowship. Moreover, Aragorn defends her to others who are unsure of her power and intentions: “There is in her and in this land no evil, unless a man bring it hither himself” (465). In this statement, she represents a higher power and purity than the males, who are mostly portrayed in this trilogy as the leaders who sacrifice and deserve honour.

She is also described later in the chapter as serving a drink to Celeborn. The juxtaposition of Galadriel’s characteristics suggests that masculinity and femininity are not clearly defined ways of being; there can be movement between masculine and feminine characteristics which can be admired, no matter whether a male or female portrays them, concludes Madill.

The third main female is Éowyn who is not Elven, but part of the human race in

Middle-earth. Éowyn represents the oppression of women that hegemonic masculinity endorses in restricting women to limited roles and expectations, according to Madill.

Similar to Arwen and Galadriel, Éowyn is described beyond simply having typical feminine features. Her “long hair was like a river of gold” (The Two Towers, Book I,

Chapter 6: “The King of the Golden Hall), but in the next sentence it says, “strong she seemed and stern as steel” (The Two Towers, Book I, Chapter 6). This juxtaposition of De Pauw 34

warmth and cold is repeated in descriptions of Éowyn and represents her struggle between the typical feminine practice of nurturing and loving, and the typical masculine practice of being emotionless and stoic.

Her strength and respect from the people are revealed when she is named as the one to rule the people in the King’s absence at war. The irony of this honour is that there are no men left to rule except the elderly and very young, Madill writes. Éowyn confronts the reality that, although she may have traditional masculine qualities of strength, fearlessness, and fighting ability, because she is a woman, she will not be allowed the prestige and honour as given to the men:

And she answered: ‘All your words are but to say: you are a woman, and

your part is in the house. But when the men have died in battle and honour,

you have leave to be burned in the house, for the men will need it no more.

But I am of the House of Éorl and not a serving-woman. I can ride and wield

blade, and I do not fear either pain or death.’ (The Return of the King, Part

I, Chapter 3: “The Muster of Rohan”)

Since masculine qualities are more valued, she has attempted to embody all of them so that she can escape the “cage” (163) that she is trapped in: being a female who is not perceived or treated as equal. Consequently, Éowyn changes her appearance (and her name), as other women in history (Joan of Arc, Elizabeth I) have done to be involved in arenas typically expected of men, notes Madill.

Another irony of the value of masculinity and femininity occurs during the event in which Éowyn proves her strength, courage, and swordsmanship against a Nazgûl and its rider. However, Éowyn’s healing seems to occur when she gains the love and respect of De Pauw 35

another (Faramir). Madill points out that she stops feeling the need to practice the hegemonic masculine traits and instead embraces the strengths that she can be proud of: “I will be a shield maiden no longer, nor vie with the great Riders, nor take joy only in the songs of slaying. I will be a healer, and love all things that grow and are not barren” (The Return of the King 294). Although others may read her resolve not to be a Rider nor practice typical masculine characteristics as a backward step for Éowyn,

Madill would argue that it is only a step back if we, as readers, do not value healing, loving, and nurturing, traditionally feminine qualities.

Madill underlines that masculinity is not the opposite of femininity. Masculinity is only a word used to describe characteristics that are traditionally associated with male actions; the ideologies of what masculinity and femininity mean restrict our identity construction.

Hegemonic masculinity is opposite to hegemonic femininity. “Hegemonic masculinity is an idea of masculinity (as well as something practiced by men) that we generally refer to when we go along with those generalizations that make all men not only superior in terms of strength and power to women, but also opposite to women” (Davies,

2001, 283). Masculinity is not the opposite of femininity. Masculinity is only a word used to describe characteristics that are traditionally associated with male actions; the ideologies of what masculinity and femininity mean restrict our identity construction. Madill explains that the portrayal of Galadriel and Éowyn serve to create disruptions in the way a reader considers femininity in relation to masculinity and reveals the complex nature of being human instead of solely defining people into gendered ways of being. De Pauw 36

The Lord of the Rings may seem to present a simple approach to masculinity, but upon closer examination of the language used, hegemonic masculinity becomes expanded and even disrupted when considering the portrayal of heroes, friendships, and femininity according to Madill. Without a close examination of the words that are used to describe these characters, readers of The Lord of the Rings may not notice the descriptions that contradict their own values and assumptions about masculinity and femininity.

In her text, Madill raises the question of why one masculinity is more valued than other versions of masculinity. Can someone ever portray only one version of masculinity or are there multiple masculinities that are practices depending on the context?

Another useful reference is Martino and Mellor’s (2000) book Gendered

Fictions. Included in the book are short stories of males and females who do not fit into hegemonic gendered roles and discussion questions to provoke further thoughts about our own values and expectations of gender roles. Madill also refers to the movie remake of The Lord of the Rings trilogy (Alliance Atlantis, 2001, 2002, 2003) that could also be watched and critiqued regarding Peter Jackson’s decisions to change or omit particular aspects than the novels. Madill explains that by critiquing the movie in comparison to the novels, allows for a discussion about how definitions of masculinity and femininity depend on society’s expectations. For example the movie portrays Frodo and Sam’s friendship less intimately; Sam never calls Frodo “dear” as he does in the novels, and they hold hands less in the movie; the women’s roles are also not as complex as the novels suggest.

De Pauw 37

4.3 Masculinity in The Lord of the Rings

It is important to understand that masculinity cannot exist without femininity. At first, it is required to define masculinity as a rational concept. R. W. Connell’s work (1995) on the historical development of masculinity can be used to examine the construction of masculinity in Tolkien’s imagined world of Middle-earth.

Connell states that for masculinity to exist it not only requires the contrasting concept of femininity, but also the knowledge that it is a culturally specific term.

Masculinity does not exist except in contrast with femininity. A culture which does not treat women and men as bearers of polarized character types, at least in principle, does not have a concept of masculinity in the sense of modern European/American culture.

(Connell 1995, 68)

Obviously, in Connell’s view the presence of femininity acts as a binary other for the contrasts of feminine and masculine characteristics. Yet, it has been noted by many of Tolkien’s critics that there is a distinct lack of female characters throughout the text. This scarcity operates as a focus on, and critique of, the relational model of constructing masculinity and femininity. John Miller highlights this when he states:

The Lord of the Rings includes a number of female characters, all of whom,

however, tend to play conventional roles in the plot: Galadriel commands

the mystery, fascination, and generative power of a Goddess figure; Eowyn,

betrayed by desire and resentment of her station, rebels against her own

gender until domesticated by a male of appropriate status; Shelob, redolent

of disgust with the female body, attempts to prey upon virginal male

characters; Arwen descends as if from heaven (she is known as Evenstar) De Pauw 38

to sacrifice herself for love of the hero whose errantry is accomplished in

her name. (Miller 2003: 185)

Madill is mainly concerned with the shaping of a reader’s gendered identity during his/her transaction with texts, such as The Lord of the Rings: “Tolkien creates a fantastically detailed and lovingly developed world so that a reader is drawn in without much room for reflection. Even after pausing between reads, the reader is left to mull over the descriptions and plot in order to comprehend and manage the multiple narratives. Or perhaps, Middle Earth corresponds with the reader’s world values and beliefs so that gender roles do not appear problematic.”

Hilary Wheaton (2006) writes that it can be deducted that the limited use of a male/female methodology of comparison through which to understand Middle-earth draws our attention clearly to the overwhelming presence of men and masculinity.

Connell’s relational formation of masculinity is restricted and prompts us to consider other methods through which masculinities can be constructed and identified.

Wheaton explains that one method of understanding masculinity is through a constructionist approach. Tolkien’s world is not, as Connell states, “a modern

European/American cultural notion of masculinity”, but instead a slow transformation recorded in the events of The Lord of the Rings, in which masculinities and a new hegemonic masculinity is formed. The phrase hegemonic masculinity requires a definition, it is simply “a culturally exalted form of masculinity” (Connell 2002) as it relies on social stability to affirm its position, but even this is ultimately unstable in response to a cultures’ historical change (Connell 2002). This historical transformation De Pauw 39

can be seen as a constructionist theory of masculinity as proposed by Connell and Buchinder (Miller).

What essentially can be witnessed in The Lord of the Rings is the ending of an old age that was more notably marked by productive feminine cultures and dysfunctional masculine cultures, Wheaton writes. It can also be transforming to produce a new hegemonic masculinity: an age of Men. As Miller writes, “Thus ‘Men’ can be read both as a race and as a particular version of masculinity…. The “Dominion of Men,” then, refers not just to the hegemony of a particular race but of a particular form of masculinity.” What is witnessed is the removal of an outdated hegemonic masculinity and the installation of another. In focusing primarily on the male characters in Tolkien’s Middle-earth, we are understanding masculinity via a method of historical change and transformation, rather than through comparison with the feminine.

Nicholas Ruddick (2004) offers a further reason why the lack of females in

Tolkien’s work draws our attention more appropriately to the operation of masculinity in

Middle-Earth. As Wheaton has suggested, the transition occurring is one that focuses on the removal of dysfunctional masculine cultures, as well as the formation of a single hegemonic masculinity. Ruddick states:

Certain works of fantastic literature by men have (for much longer than is

supposed) been warning of the unequivocal and real dangers posed when

men’s actions are driven by fantasies derived from a certain negative ideal

of masculinity – one which often shades into what we would recognize today

as fundamentalist masculinity – in life and literature. These works have

often used a strategy that may be termed the fantastic constraint of the De Pauw 40

feminine other, which may involve an “unrealistic” diminution, even to the

vanishing point, of the roles of female characters, in order better to stage a

critique of supposedly self-sufficient masculinity.

The “negative” or “fundamentalist” masculinity Ruddick is referring to here is what he defines earlier as a self-sufficient, self-contained and impenetrable ideal masculine self (Ruddick 2002: 4). The dysfunctional masculinities of Tolkien’s Middle-earth are akin to this model, according to Wheaton. From the presence of lesser male characters such as the Ents to the more central character of Boromir, masculinity is often presented as defective. In the case of the Ents, Wheaton continues, this dysfunctionality is represented through the absence of their female Entwives and the consequent diminishing of their race. In the race of Men, the fundamentalist masculinity of Ruddick is clearly evident in the character of Boromir.

4.4 Masculinity as a Hierarchy: Aragorn, Boromir and Faramir

Hilary Wheaton (2006) distinguishes the three male characters of Aragorn, Faramir and

Boromir, as each embody a different ‘type’ of masculinity in her paper on The Lord of the

Rings and and the fanfiction genre of ‘slash’. Each character is surprisingly different, despite all of them sharing the common bond of Gondor. In a sense, these three males share an undeniable fraternal link: Boromir and Faramir share kinship, and Aragorn and

Boromir are brothers in arms of Gondor, she confirms. Masculinity is always constructed through a social hierarchy, controlled and sustained by the hegemonic masculinity of that moment. Connell elucidates an understanding of hegemonic masculinity in relation to those it subordinates, by noting it should be viewed “[n]ot as “the male role,” but as a De Pauw 41

particular variety of masculinity to which others – among them young and effeminate as well as homosexual men – are subordinated. It is particular groups of men, not men in general, who are oppressed within patriarchal sexual relations, and whose situations are related in different ways to the overall logic of the subordination of women to men.”

With the absence of women as a subordinate group in The Lord of the Rings our attention must be drawn to the male characters and the structure of a power hierarchy of masculinities, according to Wheaton. This hierarchy is evident in the three male characters of Faramir, Boromir and Aragorn, but it is in a state of flux.

Faramir is a man who not only lives in his brother’s shadow but is subordinated by dysfunctional patriarchy (Wheaton 2006). Although Faramir loves his brother, he is however, in constant competition with him. Boromir is the greater fighter, a better leader

(in the eyes of his father), the elder and consequently entitled to the patriarchal mode of succession. Faramir on the other hand, is seen to lack all these qualities. His near death on the battlefield is linked with the desire to achieve greater esteem in the eyes of his father which would consequently improve his status in the patriarchal model, says

Wheaton.

Faramir’s transformation - from the subordination he suffers in the dysfunctional patriarchy maintained by the hegemonic masculinity embodied by his father and brother, to the patriarchal fellowship of Aragorn - is far more subtle in Tolkien’s text, according to

Wheaton. Tolkien’s portrayal of Faramir is of a noble man, determined to save his city and his men, but challenged by the wishes of his father. His encounter with Frodo and

Sam reveal him to be a man tempted by power, but only that which may offer an end to the war that plagues his city. However, this temptation is but a fleeting gesture, as almost De Pauw 42

instantly he remarks, “Not if I found it on the highway would I take it.” However, Tolkien presents us with a fair and righteous man, disempowered by dysfunctional patriarchy but successful and empowered by Aragorn’s fraternal patriarchy. Wheaton continues that Faramir represents a transitional masculinity, caught between two forms of patriarchy; one empowering to men, the other separating and subordinating.

Faramir’s brother, Boromir, exemplifies the dysfunctional hegemonic masculinity being removed, empowered yet ultimately isolated by the patriarchy he supports. He is part of a masculinity built upon a foundation of patriarchal values, but ones which are fundamentally in error due to illegitimacy.

Bradley establishes the notion that Boromir and Aragorn have a relationship similar to that of brothers, with a jealousy, especially exhibited by Boromir, over who will succeed and meet the standards of ‘the father’. Bradley identifies ‘the father’ as Gandalf; but for the purposes of understanding their masculinity and representative patriarchy, the real father of each needs to be considered. Boromir is a character deeply caught up in the failed hegemonic masculinity of ‘men’ established by Aragorn’s forefathers, and further continued by the line of Stewards, ending with the death of Denethor. Denethor establishes a ‘false patriarchy’ in Gondor; he is not a King and does not sit on the throne. Boromir, despite his entitlement as the eldest son, is not in the position to inherit

Gondor. There is a sense that this weak link in the legitimacy of Gondor’s rule operates as a corrupting factor, weakening the once great city and its people. This is alluded to repeatedly most notably in Chapter 2 of Book II of The Fellowship of the Ring, “The

Council of Elrond”. De Pauw 43

Wheaton claims that legitimacy and success are closely bound in The Lord of the

Rings as illustrated by the actions of Aragorn. Miller writes: “men like Aragorn and Theoden demonstrate their power by inspiring others in defence of the territorial and moral integrity of their realms.” Aragorn and Theoden are exhibited as worthy and legitimate leaders of their people, continues Wheaton: they succeed in battle because, more than anything, it is their right. Boromir however, although a worthy warrior, fails due to his lack of territorial and moral claim to the realm of Gondor. Although he loves Gondor and shares its kinship, he is not its leader but subject to the rule of Aragorn. Likewise,

Denethor has no legitimate claim to the city upon Aragorn’s return and Denethor’s patriarchy in Gondor lacks a legitimate blood line. Verlyn Flieger writes that the Ring may consequently be seen as a legitimizing possession, such as the traditional ‘sword’, for

Denethor and Boromir.

Flieger suggests that the Ring, if it was to be inherited by anyone other than

Sauron, should be Aragorn’s. Isildur took the Ring and bade it be an heirloom of his

Kingdom under the claim that it was a ‘weregild’ for his father’s and brother’s death.

This I will have as weregild for my father, and my brother,” he said; and

therefore whether we would or no, he took it to treasure it. But soon he was

betrayed by it to his death; and so it is named in the North Isildur’s Bane.

Yet death maybe was better than what else might have befallen him. (Lord

Elrond in The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter 2: “The Council of

Elrond” p. 236)

However, this claim is not justified, as a ‘weregild’ is payment to prevent the death of the slayer and a following blood feud, claims Flieger. Isildur’s claim, according to this De Pauw 44

definition of the Ring, Wheaton writes, is ungrounded as he struck his blow to Sauron in revenge for his father. The Ring then has symbolic value, at least in terms of patriarchy.

Wheaton points out that it simultaneously offers legitimacy, as an inheritance item for the line of Gondor’s rulers, but also illegitimacy due to it being claimed in error. The success of Aragorn and his installation of a new patriarchal order must be symbolized by a legitimate heirloom passed from father to son, namely the sword of Narsil.

Wheaton writes that Boromir is heavily influenced by the views of his father while there is little mention of the father of Aragorn. Instead the focus is on his forefathers, especially Isildur. This absence of a father figure combined with the focus on lineage, adds to the mythic quality of Aragorn and may explain his ability to overcome the weakness evident in Boromir, writes Wheaton. She suggests that he is separated from the patriarchal bond of father and son, and the corruption of the Ring as a symbol of this dysfunctional patriarchy. Aragorn’s journey as a hero aims to ‘set right’ the mistakes his forefather made, and through which Aragorn can discover that his character is not one that is moulded by the ill-fated inheritance of the Ring. Aragorn is not instructed by his father, like Boromir and Faramir, to claim the Ring. Instead his forefather, and not his father, breaking him from patriarchal obligation, acts as a reminder to reject it and the deceptive power it offers.

Aragorn does not desire the Ring, Wheaton continues, but instead his only claim to his inheritance and the throne is via the sword of Narsil. Unlike the Ring, Narsil is not connected with the survival of Sauron, but with his destruction, and is untarnished by the flaws of his forefathers, and is acceptable proof of Aragorn’s lineage. Wheaton explains that Aragorn, unlike Boromir, is refusing the patriarchal governance of his forefathers, and De Pauw 45

instead establishing masculinity in Gondor that is founded via ‘The Fellowship’ and their destruction of the Ring. Wheaton concludes that the weakness of character, which has plagued the race of men, such as Isildur, Denethor and Boromir, is broken when Aragorn accepts Frodo’s role as Ring-bearer and encourages its destruction at the Council of

Elrond. She continues that this functions to break the ill-fated ties with his forefather’s dysfunctional patriarchy which have weakened the race of Men.

De Pauw 46

5. Friendship in The Lord of the Rings

Friendship, as understood here, is a distinctively personal relationship that is

grounded in a concern on the part of each friend for the welfare of the other,

for the other’s sake, and that involves some degree of intimacy. As such,

friendship is undoubtedly central to our lives, in part because the special

concern we have for our friends must have a place within a broader set of

concerns, including moral concerns, and in part because our friends can help

shape who we are as persons. Given this centrality, important questions arise

concerning the justification of friendship and, in this context, whether it is

permissible to “trade up” when someone new comes along, as well as

concerning the possibility of reconciling the demands of friendship with the

demands of morality in cases in which the two seem to conflict.1

This entry from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy gives a definition of ‘friendship’.

It confirms that friendships include a distinct personal relationship and that there is a grounded concern for each other’s welfare. It also confirms that it requires some form of intimacy. Friendship takes up a central position in our lives and our friends help shape us in creating our identity.

Friendship is an important theme in The Lord of the Rings. In order to explore the theme properly, it is necessary to examine the characteristics of the different type of friendships present in Tolkien’s books. As I have discussed in the section about Tolkien’s

Word War I experience, friendship was highly valued by Tolkien himself, both in his

1 “Friendship”, Standford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2018. De Pauw 47

younger years when he was a student at Oxford University, as later in life. His well-known friendship with C. S. Lewis is also an interesting aspect that points towards Tolkien’s personal experiences with friendship.

Friendship binds much of this trilogy, states Madill. Old friendships and new friendships are described and developed, and while many of the friendships seem typically masculine, beneath the veneer of loyalty or competition, questions about affection and the value of masculine and feminine characteristics are raised. According to Sherrod (1987), who has studied friendships between men:

Our culture has traditionally viewed male friendship as embodying the ideals

of comradeship and brotherhood. Men have buddies, pals, lifelong ties—

bonds of unspoken, unshakeable commitment—the kinds of friends for

whom one would ‘lay down one’s life’. Yet surveys find most men today

name their wife as their closest friend. (p. 215)

Reading The Lord of the Rings without examination can make the multiple friendships seem congruent with this traditional view, according to Madill. However, she does suggest that the portrayal of the friendship between Sam and Frodo represents alternative views of male friendships. Some modern-day readers who are influenced by the narrow definition of hegemonic masculinity have reflected on Sam and Frodo’s friendship as homosexual2 but as Martino (1995a) argues, homophobia is a strategy to police and regulate masculinity for males. Sam is the loyal servant of Frodo who proves that he would lay down his life for him in that he accompanies Frodo on his perilous journey to

2 retrieved on July 12, 2018 De Pauw 48

destroy the Ring. Two male Hobbits traversing treacherous landscapes and evading dangerous enemies suggests a hegemonic masculine adventure, but on closer examination, Sam displays deep affection for Frodo through his words, actions, and expressed emotions.

Sam’s words reveal his deep concern and love for his friend, continues Madill. His words echo the love of a parent for a child which suggests a love beyond that of a traditional male friendship. At the end of The Fellowship of the Ring Frodo attempts to leave the Fellowship unnoticed, but Sam guesses his plan and follows him to his boat.

He argues with Frodo that he should not have left without him, “Safely!” said Sam. “All alone and without me to help you? I couldn’t have a borne it, it’d have been the death of me” (The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter 10: “The Breaking of the Fellowship”).

Sam’s words reveal his deep concern and love for his friend. His words echo the love of a parent for a child which suggests a love beyond that of a traditional male friendship.

Sam also often refers to Frodo as dear: “Mr. Frodo dear” (The Return of the King, Book

VI, Chapter 3: “Mount Doom”).

When Frodo volunteers to bear the Ring himself, Sam also steps forward: “Sam came in. He ran to Frodo and took his left hand, awkwardly and shyly. He stroked it gently and then he blushed and turned hastily away” (The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II,

Chapter 2: “The Council of Elrond”). Again, after Sam finds Frodo in the Orc tower he comforts Frodo: “Frodo . . . lay back in Sam’s gentle arms, closing his eyes, like a child at rest when night-fears are driven away by some loved voice or hand. Sam felt that he could sit like that in endless happiness: but it was not allowed . . . He kissed Frodo’s forehead” (The Return of the King, Book VI, Chapter 1: “The Tower of Cirith Ungol”). Near De Pauw 49

the end of their journey to Mount Doom, Sam tries to speak of positive memories with

Frodo, but Frodo is consumed with negative feelings. “Sam went to him and kissed his hand” (The Return of the King, Book VI, Chapter 3: “Mount Doom”). He also takes Frodo’s hand after the Ring has been destroyed: “laying Frodo’s wounded hand gently to his breast” (The Return of the King, Book VI, Chapter 4: “The Field of Cormallen”). The affectionate actions of Sam and the symbolism of connecting hands as a bond, relationship, and nurturing gesture suggest that male friendship can be more complex than simply protecting a friend from harm; caring and showing affection is another means of nourishing a friendship. Back in the Shire, Sam’s dilemma of wanting to live with Frodo, but also to marry Rose, echoes Sherrod’s (1987) research of the importance and value of male friendships that existed and exists in different cultures at various times.

The friendship of Frodo and Sam is complex in that it raises questions about the role of male friendships, according to Madill. Similarly, the friendships of Gimli and

Legolas, Merry and Pippin, and Aragorn and Boromir, raise questions about the value of different versions of masculinity. These friendships provide entry into further discussions about masculinities and question the practice of valuing only hegemonic masculinity. Sherrod (1987) suggests that perhaps in the near future, “many men, I believe, will look to other men. Here, in a shared sense of ‘maleness,’ men may find the kind of emotional support and intimacy from a male friend that men have traditionally enjoyed in other times and other cultures” (235).

As Madill has illustrated, the friendships in The Lord of the Rings are quite diverse and complicated, but they are also grounded in honesty, loyalty, and mutual respect. By De Pauw 50

examining how these friendships relate to male-bonding, and homoeroticism, master- servant relationships and the shared quest.

Magnús Örn Thordarson states that J.R.R. Tolkien disliked the fact that critics seemed to have an immense interest in the details of authors’ lives, when criticising their work. In fact, he believed that “they only distract attention from an author’s work . . . and end, as one now often sees, in becoming the main interest” (Tolkien, Letters 288).

Thordarson also points out the importance of Tolkien’s World War I experience:

Nevertheless, there is no way of denying the fact that Tolkien’s own

experience, especially his war experience, unsurprisingly had an enormous

impact on his masterpiece, The Lord of the Rings. In spite of his dislike of

peering too closely into an author’s life in order to give meaning to his work,

Tolkien has, of course, never denied that certain elements in the books are

based on his own experience. (Thordarson 2012)

In relations to the theme of friendship in The Lord of the Rings, he has for example said that the character of Sam Gamgee, who is a part of arguably the strongest friendship in the books, is indeed based on the privates and batmen he got to know in the First World

War (Carpenter 89), as many critics and readers had already guessed. However, there are certainly more similarities between Tolkien’s life and scenarios from his books which are interesting to examine in regard to the theme of friendship. One worth mentioning is how the inner structure of the fellowship seems to be akin to the inner structure of the

Inklings, a literary group in which Tolkien participated at Oxford. Another is the loss of friends, which Tolkien regrettably became very familiar with in World War I, Thordarson De Pauw 51

adds. Although the main characters of the books survive their endeavour, this type of loss becomes apparent when Frodo departs from the Grey Havens and leaves Sam behind

(Smol 961-962). Thus, in spite of Tolkien’s disapproval of looking too closely at an author’s life in order to understand his work and giving it meaning, there are most definitely some factors from his own experience of friendship that are mirrored in his masterpiece, The Lord of the Rings.

First of all, Thordarson writes, the fact that the character of Sam is based on the privates and batmen who Tolkien fought with in World War I, must be of great importance when talking about the theme of friendship in the books, as Sam and Frodo’s relationship is arguably the strongest and most important friendship in The Lord of the Rings. The attributes which Tolkien gives to Sam are extremely admirable: he is certainly a great servant, but more importantly he is a true friend, as is displayed in his loyalty and the love he bears for Frodo throughout the novel. These attributes can easily be explained by looking at how Tolkien talked about the soldiers he fought with in the First World War.

“My ‘Sam Gamgee’ is indeed a reflexion of the English soldier, of the privates and batmen

I knew in the 1914 war, and recognised as so far superior to myself” (Carpenter 89).

Therefore, it is apparent to Thordarson that Tolkien respects and admires his subordinates, not unlike Frodo who seems to respect and admire Sam, and although

Tolkien was an officer and thus supposed to be superior to the privates and the batmen, he did not feel superior to them at all.

Nevertheless, Tolkien did not share a close friendship with the batmen or the privates in the war, at least nowhere near as close as Frodo and Sam’s friendship is in the books. Therefore it is probably impossible to argue that the Hobbits’ close relationship De Pauw 52

is based on Tolkien’s own experience in the war, although Sam’s character definitely is,

Thordarson claims. However, he continues, it can be argued that Frodo and Sam’s type of friendship is perhaps an example of something Tolkien believed he missed out on during the war, as Tolkien was not permitted to socialise or make friends with men from lower ranks in the army (Garth 149), and as a result he never experienced a close war- time friendship, based on loyalty and mutual respect, with his subordinates. On the contrary, Frodo never has these kinds of restrictions in the books, as he has no superiors ordering him with whom to socialise and is therefore able to make a great friend, who is in fact his subordinate as his gardener, of a lower social class. Therefore it is quite clear that Tolkien built the character of Sam on the privates and batmen he admired so much in World War I, and it is also entirely possible that at least some part of perhaps the most important friendship in The Lord of the Rings is structured after a relationship that Tolkien could imagine but never experience, due to the restrictions of military protocol.

Secondly, the friendships in the books and the friendships shared by members of the Inklings seem, in some way, to be based on similar principles, Thordarson points out.

Carpenter describes how C.S. Lewis, who was without a doubt the centre of the Inklings, disliked groups which are held together by lust for power rather than friendship. He goes on to say that the Inklings was in no way such a group “for friendship was the foundation upon which the group rested” (The Inklings 163). Similarly, desire for power has no place in the fellowship, as lust for power would quite obviously be the very thing that would tear the fellowship apart and make their objective impossible to accomplish. That is exactly what happens when Boromir has a brief moment of weakness and tries to take the ring from Frodo (The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter 10: “The Breaking of the De Pauw 53

Fellowship”), and the fellowship is eventually dissolved (Thordarson 2012). However it seems quite clear, that the Inklings and the fellowship share the trait, that desire for power is not the foundation on which the groups are built. Furthermore, it is interesting that the members of the Inklings never seemed to discuss their personal matters with each other and Carpenter even states that Lewis “felt that it was not the done thing for male friends to discuss their domestic or personal problems” (The Inklings 164). This surely seems to be the case in many of the friendships in The Lord of the Rings, especially in Legolas and

Gimli’s relationship, Thordarson writes, as they rarely discuss personal matters, but focus instead on their common quest. Thus the friendships in The Lord of the Rings have much in common with Tolkien’s friendships with his fellow members of the Inklings.

Thirdly, Tolkien’s experience of the loss of friends has many similarities with Sam’s experience when Frodo departs from the Grey Havens (Smol 960-961). Tolkien lost two of his best friends, G.B. Smith and Rob Gilson, in the war, and therefore only Tolkien himself and Christopher Wiseman were left of the old TCBS (Tolkien, Foreword xvii).

Although Frodo does not die in The Lord of the Rings, it can certainly be stated that Sam loses a friend, though not in the exact same way as Tolkien. When Rob Gilson died,

Tolkien reported on having spent two nights in a row, alone in the woods thinking about his lost friend and Anna Smol finds similarities in Sam’s reaction when Frodo leaves, as he also needs time to think about his lost friend (961).

But to Sam the evening deepened to darkness as he stood at the Haven;

and as he looked at the grey sea he saw only a shadow on the waters that

was soon lost in the West. There still he stood far into the night, hearing only

the sigh and murmur of the waves on the shores of middle earth, and the De Pauw 54

sound of them sank deep into his heart. (The Return of the King, Book II,

Chapter 9: “The Grey Havens”)

Thus Sam stares at the sea to grieve and think about his lost friend, similar to how Tolkien spent his nights in the woods, thinking about Gilson. Moreover, Thordarson points out that both Sam and Tolkien are left a task by their lost friends. On the one hand, Frodo gives Sam his book to finish, while on the other hand Tolkien is left the task of fulfilling the TCBSian dream “of kindling ‘a new light’ at the world at large” (Garth 254), by his lost friends. Therefore it seems clear that the loss of Frodo to Sam in the books, shares some similarities with how Tolkien lost his friends in the First World War.

Therefore it seems quite clear, that although Tolkien was against scrutinizing an author’s past in order to give meaning to his work, many similarities can be found in

Tolkien’s experience and certain scenarios in The Lord of the Rings, Thordarson concludes. He has openly admitted building the character of Sam on his fellow privates and batmen in World War I, and the same character seems to deal with similar scenarios as Tolkien was forced to deal with in the war. Furthermore, Tolkien’s friendships at Oxford seem to share some traits with certain friendships in his books. Thus, Tolkien’s experience and past can definitely be scrutinized in order to reach a better understanding of his epic masterpiece,The Lord of the Rings.

5.1 Homoeroticism

There is almost no physical tenderness between men and women in The Lord of the

Rings, Thordarson confirms, and the love relationships that are introduced, such as the De Pauw 55

one between Aragorn and Arwen on the one hand, and Faramir and Éowyn on the other hand, do not seem to be based on intimacy. This lack of physical intimacy between the sexes is perhaps one of the reasons why critics have investigated whether there is any trace of homosexuality in the books. Some critics, such as David M. Craig and Brenda

Partridge, believe they have found evidence of homoeroticism in Tolkien’s books, primarily in Frodo and Sam’s relationship, which is undeniably a very intimate friendship, as they repeatedly embrace, stroke and kiss each other. In contrast, Partridge, along with other critics, such as Saxey and Bradley, also states that a close and intimate male relationship need not necessarily be a homosexual one. However, Thordarson adds, if these homoerotic interpretations are to be refuted, some explanations are in order, as there are certainly some examples of male behaviour in the books that at first sight, might definitely be interpreted as homoerotic. C.S. Lewis states that “kisses, tears and embraces are not in themselves evidence of homosexuality” (75), to which most people, except for perhaps the enormously homophobic, would probably agree, Thordason points out. However, Sam and Frodo’s relationship seems to be different from many other relationships in the books in this way: strokes and kisses are for example not common in

Gimli and Legolas’ friendship, which does not seem to be as physically intimate as Frodo and Sam’s relationship. Moreover, Lewis also states that “lovers are normally face to face, absorbed in each other; Friends, side by side, absorbed in some common interest” (73), and while that description of friendship seems to fit perfectly to Legolas and Gimli’s relationship and most of the other examples of friendship in the books, it does not quite seem to mirror the complex and intimate relationship that Frodo and Sam share, he adds.

Although they are certainly absorbed in the common interest of journeying to Mordor, they De Pauw 56

also seem to be quite absorbed in each other, which according to Lewis is the behavioural pattern of lovers. Therefore it seems important to explore their relationship further, in order to see if their relationship can be classified as anything else than homoerotic.

As mentioned before, there are certainly many passages, involving Frodo and Sam that are apt to be interpreted as homoerotic. The description of Frodo’s sleeping arrangements at the Stairs of Cirith Ungol is a great example: “In his lap lay Frodo’s head, drowned deep in sleep; upon his white forehead lay one of Sam’s brown hands, and the other lay softly upon his master’s breast” (The Two Towers, Book IV, Chapter 8: “The

Stairs of Cirith Ungol”). There are surely many other instances in the books where the

Hobbits share such intimacy, Thordarson writes, but some critics have offered the overall surroundings and the ongoing war in the story as an explanation of behaviour that others might interpret as homoerotic. Esther Saxey points out, that traditions in Tolkien’s fictional world, such as Merry kissing Théoden’s hand when he pledges his allegiance, may account for and give “context for Sam’s continual holding, kissing and stroking of Frodo’s hand” (132), as Frodo is, after all, Sam’s master. Furthermore, “affectionate and emotional displays are permitted, not alone to women and children, but to men” (Bradley

109) in Tolkien’s world, which can be seen in multiple examples when the main characters wail, weep or embrace each other. Thus, Thordarson concludes that Sam’s behaviour towards Frodo can at least partially be explained as customary and fitting for a servant paying homage to his master.

On a similar note, Brenda Partridge offers the ongoing war as a possible explanation for the shared intimacy between Frodo and Sam. She states: De Pauw 57

War provides a context in which men can be acceptably intimate because

they are at the same time being seen to live up to the socially desirable

stereotype image of the aggressive male. Similarly, aggression on a smaller

scale in games, particularly rugby, is another means of promoting socially

acceptable physical contact between males. (184)

Frodo and Sam are certainly fighting a war, although they are not in the middle of the actual fighting, as the other main characters. However, their fight is arguably the most dangerous one, as they seek to enter the stronghold of the dark lord himself, and as they get closer to their goal, and consequently closer to peril, they get even more intimate.

Partridge’s explanation that the war allows for more intimate relationships between men, would suggest that Sam and Frodo’s intimacy would reduce when the war is over. That is exactly what happens, for when the war is over, there is at least no trace of physical intimacy between them that can be compared to their close relationship during the peak of the war. Thordarson draws the conclusion here that the fact that war changes relationships and allows for more intimacy, is a possible partial explanation for the intimate male bonding in The Lord of the Rings.

Finally, it is worth mentioning, that Peter Jackson’s film adaptations may have contributed to a more homoerotic view of Tolkien’s books, which may come as a surprise, as the films certainly downplay Sam and Frodo’s intimate physical relationship. Nevertheless, the films make the viewers question the male-to-male relationships more than the readers of the books, as the films draw romantic relationships to the forefront of the action. However, the male-to-male relationship are still of the most importance in the film adaptations, and therefore “the viewer may notice how flimsy the heterosexual relationships are in contrast De Pauw 58

with the male-male bonds, how much more the men admire and owe one another” (Saxey

135). Thus, Thordarson thinks that by reducing the physical intimacy between males, and introducing heterosexual relationships, the film adaptations may have made The Lord of the Rings more apt to homoerotic interpretation.

Mainly, there are many definite examples of behaviour that in some context can be classified as homoerotic in Tolkien’s books, but there are also numerous explanations that can perhaps account for the close and intimate relationships in other terms. It is as least highly unlikely that Tolkien, the devout catholic, would consciously represent homosexuality in his works (Smol 967). Whether he did so unconsciously remains unsaid, because it is irrelevant to the central meaning of the books, as “sex is not central to the narrative; a sexual reading is made optional” (Saxey 133). It is at least certain, that Frodo and Sam’s relationship includes factors that Tolkien valued highly in a friendship, mainly honesty, respect and loyalty. It is likely that Frodo and Sam love each other simply as friends, although there is a possibility that they are in love, concludes Thordarson.

5.2 Master-Servant Relationships

Relationships between a master and a subordinate or a servant are quite common in

J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. First of all, there are numerous examples of men

(or other living beings of Middle-Earth) fighting for their king or lord, and Thordarson point out that Merry is one of those that experiences that first hand in his service to Théoden.

Secondly, there is the extraordinary master-servant relationship between Frodo and Sam, where Sam certainly acts the role of the unselfish servant and Frodo the role of the kind De Pauw 59

master. However, many of these relationships seem to be based on more than social hierarchies, as they seem to be inspired by love and loyalty, and perhaps even friendship.

It is, for example, difficult to deny the fact that Frodo and Sam’s relationship seems to have become something more than a classic relationship between a master and a servant. Moreover, Théoden and Merry’s relationship, although it is a short one, might also be interpreted as more complicated than ordinary relationships between a king and his subordinate. In order for a master and his subordinate to become friends, it is vital that the master treats his subordinate in an extremely kind and fair way, which seems to be the case with both Frodo and Théoden. Therefore, Scott Kleinman states that Tolkien

“constructs a scenario in which the reader is forced to confront the breakdown of social hierarchies by imagining a form of subordination without exploitation” (145), which is exactly what makes a friendships between a master and his subordinate possible. On the other hand, the subordinate will also need to treat his master well and serve him loyally in order for their relationship to become a friendship. Tolkien defines a subordinate in The

Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm’ s Son as “a man for whom the object of his will was decided by another, who had no responsibility downwards, only loyalty upwards.

Personal pride was therefore in him at its lowest, and love and loyalty highest” (14).

Thordarson thinks this definition seems to fit quite well to Merry, and almost perfectly to

Sam, who seems to be the ideal subordinate. Therefore, Tolkien makes friendships between masters and their subordinate quite possible, by bridging the gap between different social classes with mutual love, loyalty and respect.

Both Merry and Pippin enter the services of mighty men, the King of Rohan and the Steward of Gondor, but for entirely different reasons. Whereas Merry is “filled De Pauw 60

suddenly with love for this old man [referring to Théoden]” (The Return of the King, Book

IV, Chapter 2: “The Passing of the Grey Company”), “Pippin’s own motives for offering his service are feelings of pride and indebtedness, rather than affection for the recipient of his service” (Kleinman 142). Therefore, Thordarson thinks that Pippin does not quite seem to fit into Tolkien’s definition of a subordinate in The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth

Beorhthelm’s Son, and unsurprisingly Pippin and Denethor’s relationship does not resemble a friendship in any way. Merry, on the other hand, enters his service because of the affection he feels for Théoden, and is therefore somewhat closer to Tolkien’s definition of a subordinate, and moreover, Théoden inspires love in his subordinates, unlike Denethor, by showing his affection to them (Thordarson 2012).

Théoden and Merry’s relationship seems to include something more than a regular relationship between a king and his serviceman, and resembles a friendship in many ways. Théoden expresses his wish to converse with Merry on matters, that do neither concern Rohan nor Merry’s service to him, when the war is over, when he invites Merry and Pippin to meet him in Meduseld and says: “There you shall sit beside me and tell me all that your hearts desire” (The Two Towers, Book III, Chapter 8: “The Road to Isengard”).

It is surely an honour to be invited to sit beside the king and converse with him, and it is definitely a friendly gesture from Théoden. Nevertheless, Thordarson remarks that it has to be kept in mind that Merry and Pippin have done a great service to the realm, and perhaps this is only Théoden’s way of rewarding them. However, Théoden’s kind gestures towards Merry continue, resulting in Merry offering him his service, which Théoden gladly accepts. “As a father you shall be to me” (The Return of the King, Book IV, Chapter 2: De Pauw 61

“The Passing of the Grey Company”), says Merry and the love between the two is established.

Furthermore, the love that Merry bears for Théoden is clearly displayed as

“together Éowyn and Merry face and slay the Nazgúl, both striking an enemy far beyond their strength for the love of a father, Théoden” (Bradley 114). At this point it may be uncertain whether Merry bears this love for Théoden as a friend or as the king and a father-figure. Théoden was certainly a father-figure to Merry, as he states himself, and

Merry surely loves him as his king, but Merry’s reaction when Théoden dies displays that he was also his friend. “He said he was sorry he had never had a chance of talking herb- lore with me. Almost the last thing he ever said. I shan’t ever be able to smoke again without thinking of him” (The Return of the King, Book IV, Chapter 8: “The Houses of

Healing”). Thordarson thinks that if Merry had just loved Théoden as a king, it is likely that he would mainly think of the loss that Rohan has suffered, but he loves him as a friend and therefore grieves for the times they never got to share at Meduseld. Similarly,

Théoden’s last words display that their relationship was based on more than social hierarchies and subordination:

Grieve not! It is forgiven. Great heart will not be denied. Live now in

blessedness; and when you sit in peace with your pipe, think of me. For

never now shall I sit with you in Meduseld, as I promised, or listen to your

herb-lore. (The The Return of the King, Book IV, Chapter 8: “The Houses of

Healing”). De Pauw 62

He immediately forgives Merry for breaking his commands, and like Merry, he grieves for their friendship that never got to blossom to its fullest. Thus, Thorvaldson concludes, it is quite clear that although Merry and Théoden’s relationship is a master- servant relationship, it is based on love, loyalty and mutual affection, which makes it possible for them to become friends, despite their extremely different roles in life.

Frodo and Sam’s relationship is the most prominent master-servant relationship in

Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings, and perhaps a paradigm of how a master and a servant should treat each other (Thorvalson 2012). In The Lord of the Rings: The Mythology of

Power, John Chancer discusses how Bilbo and Frodo liked to converse and surround themselves with other Hobbits, regardless of their social class. They were considered queer because of their interaction with ‘lesser’ Hobbits, but Chancer states, that “the birthday party, in the Shire, represents a symbolic paradigm for the ideal relationship between master and servant, wealthy aristocrat and members of the populace” (29). Thus

Frodo’s disregard for social class builds a foundation on which he can enter a friendship with his gardener, Samwise Gamgee.

Therefore, the friendship between the pair becomes possible, just as Théoden and

Merry’s friendship became a possibility because of the kindness Théoden showed Merry.

Nevertheless, there are important differences between those two master-servant relationships, as Scott Kleinman discusses in his essay “Service”.

The bond that ties Sam to Frodo is ‘queer’ in that, unlike the Germanic

model in which service is inspired by love, Sam comes to love Frodo through

his service to him. At the same time, Sam’s subordination to Frodo is not De Pauw 63

based on any formal oath of fealty or homage; ultimately, he is Frodo’s ‘man’

because he admires him and he admires him because he is his ‘man’. (148)

Thus, Thordarson point out that whereas Merry offers his service because of the sudden love he feels for the king, Sam probably does not love Frodo when he enters his service, but grows to love him through his service. However, Sam always seems to look at himself as inferior to Frodo, and although he loves Frodo, he seems to feel that his responsibility towards Frodo is first and foremost as a servant. This is clearly displayed in how Sam frequently addresses his master as “Mr. Frodo” and Marion Zimmer Bradley points out the fact that the first time he drops his formalities is when he believes Frodo is dead, “although after rescuing him he returns to the old deferential speech” (120). When

Sam believes Frodo to be dead, Sam is no longer in his service, and therefore allows himself to address him as his friend, instead of his master (Thordarson 2012).

Although, Sam thinks of himself first and foremost as Frodo’s loyal servant, it is evident that his actions display something more than regular devotion towards his master.

Frodo, certainly has a terrible burden to bear and “has known torment and agony and terror, but Sam has endured them voluntarily, with no great cause to strengthen his will; rather it was only for the sake of one he loves beyond everything else” (Bradley 124). This is clearly not the type of love that a regular gardener bears for his master, this is something much more, as Sam surely loves Frodo as a master, but foremost as his friend,

Thordarson writes. Thus Frodo’s disregard for social class, and his kindness and love towards Sam, have strengthened Sam in his service to his master, and more importantly allowed them to love each other and share a strong friendship. Frodo and Sam’s relationship is therefore not only a master-servant relationship, but rather a rare and true De Pauw 64

friendship between a master and his servant, based on loyalty, trust and mutual affection, not unlike the relationships Tolkien experienced in the First World War, between the officers and their batmen (Carpenter 89).

“All in all, there certainly seems to be something more than meets the eye in some of the master-servant relationships in J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. The reader is made to imagine “a form of subordination without exploitation” (Kleinman 145), and thus friendships between masters and their subordinates become a possibility. The elements needed for such a friendship are, mainly according to Thordarson, mutual love, loyalty and respect. Therefore friendships between a master and his subordinates are not possible, Thordarson concludes when their relationship is ruled by social hierarchies, as in Denethor’s case. On the contrary, Théoden and Frodo are the ideal masters, who both respect and love their subordinates, who in turn love them back. Thus the foundation for a friendship between a master and his servant is built, which results in two great friendships, between Merry and Théoden on the one hand, and Sam and Frodo on the other hand (Thordarson).

5.3 The Common Quest

Thordarson writes that a number of friendships in Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings are formed partly, or even entirely, because of the common quest the characters share. In no other friendship is this more evident than in Legolas and Gimli’s case, as they not only grow from being strangers into friends, but rather from being foes into great friends, which makes the development of their friendship more obvious. Unlike Frodo and Sam’s De Pauw 65

friendship in the books, Legolas and Gimli’s friendship seems to fit almost perfectly to

C.S. Lewis’ definition in The Four Loves, as they are certainly more absorbed in their common interest than in each other (Lewis 73). Through their shared endeavour a close friendship is formed, as “the common quest or vision which unites Friends does not absorb them in such a way that they remain ignorant or oblivious of one another. On the contrary it is the very medium in which their mutual love and knowledge exist” (Lewis 84).

Thus their common quest allows their friendship to grow, as they get to know each other better through their shared endeavours. In order to see how exactly Gimli and Legolas make the remarkable shift from foes to friends, it is important to explore how their relationship develops through J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings, Thordarson adds.

It is evident, first in The Hobbit and then in The Lord of the Rings that Elves and

Dwarves have not been on friendly terms for many years, which makes Legolas and

Gimli’s friendship a very remarkable one. This becomes apparent at the Council of Elrond when Glóin remembers his imprisonment by the Elves of Mirkwood and Gandalf says to him: “If all the grievances that stand between Elves and Dwarves are to be brought up here, we may as well abandon this Council” (The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter

2: “The Council of Elrond”). Therefore it is quite clear that past encounters between Elves and Dwarves are not at all likely to bring Legolas and Gimli together in friendship.

Thordarson thinks it is interesting to note, that there are perhaps certain similarities here with Tolkien and Lewis’ friendship, as Tolkien had disliked Protestants since his child- hood and “Lewis retained more than a trace of the Belfast Protestant attitude to Catholics”

(Carpenter, The Inklings 51), and thus Tolkien and Lewis also had to overcome their prejudices in order to become friends. De Pauw 66

In the beginning of the fellowship’s quest, Gimli and Legolas are quite wary of each other, and it is clear that there is little love between them. Gimli does for example demand that Legolas will also be blindfolded in Lothlórien, which makes Legolas angry, as he has long yearned to see the wonders of the forest with his own eyes (The Fellowship of the

Ring, Book II, Chapter 5: “Lothlórien”). However, Gimli’s attitude towards Elves seems to change after his stay with them in Lothlórien. “You are kindly hosts!” (The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter 8: “Farewell to Lórien”), he declares at his departure, which exhibits the diminishing of his distrust towards the Elves. Furthermore, Thordarson continues the parting gift Gimli received from Galadriel, of three golden hairs from her head, reveals his admiration for Galadriel and the Elves. In fact, Ármann Jakobsson states that Galadriel’s gift to Gimli is symbolic for a new hope of friendship between Elves and Dwarves (115), which seems to be the case, as Gimli and Legolas’ relationship begins to develop into a close friendship after their departure from Lórien. As their friendship grows, it becomes apparent that their affection for each other is largely based on their admiration for each other as warriors, as is often displayed when they compete in Orc-slaying (Thordarson 2012). When C.S. Lewis defines friendship, he states that it is impossible to “find the warrior, the poet, the philosopher or the Christian by staring in his eyes as if he were your mistress: better fight beside him, read with him, argue with him, pray with him” (84-85), and as warriors Gimli and Legolas get to know each other better by fighting beside each other. That is not to say that their relationship is solely based on fighting together, for then they would hardly be more than allies rather than friends, although “a Friend will, to be sure, prove himself to be also an ally when alliance becomes necessary” (Lewis 82). On the contrary, other factors of their relationship are De Pauw 67

allowed to grow through their common quest, and eventually it becomes evident that they love each other’s company and like to converse with one another on matters beyond wars and fighting (Thordarson 2012). Ármann Jakobsson even states that their friendship is in many parts akin to typical friendships between men in the northern hemisphere, largely based on clever conversations, perhaps even akin, in some ways, to Tolkien’s relationship with his friends at Oxford (227).

The fact that Gimli and Legolas are friends, but not mere allies, is crystallized after the war, when they journey together to Fangorn Forest and the Glittering Caves of Helm’s

Deep to enjoy the wonders these places have to offer. Through their common quest they have grown to love each other against all odds, and after the fellowship breaks down they choose to stay in each other’s company. Their friendship is indeed a strange one, as is displayed repeatedly in the books by the amazement others have for it. A great example of how surprised others are by their friendship occurs when Legolas asks Treebeard leave to journey into Fangorn with Gimli:

’Hoom, hm! Ah now,’ said Treebeard, looking dark-eyed at him. ‘A dwarf

and an axe-bearer! Hoom! I have good will to Elves; but you ask much. This

is a strange friendship!’

‘Strange it may seem,’ said Legolas; ‘but while Gimli lives I shall not come

to Fangorn alone. (The Two Towers, Book III, Chapter 10: “The Voice of

Saruman”)

Thus the terrors of war can sometimes produce positive results, as Gimli and

Legolas have overcome the strained relations between their races, and truly become De Pauw 68

friends (Thordarson 2012). This fits well with what C.S. Lewis has said about friendship, that in such a relationship “no one cares twopence about anyone else’s family, profession, class, income, race or previous history” (83). Gimli and Legolas have therefore overcome the racism and other difficulties that have been evident in the relations between their races.

Thordarson concludes that Legolas and Gimli’s friendship is remarkable, mainly because of how strange and unlikely it seems. They have completely shunned old conventions, as becomes clear in how others react to their friendship, and made an extraordinary shift from foes to great friends. Moreover, they reach their friendship through their common quest, and as they begin to admire one another while fighting side by side, a close friendship, based on honesty, mutual respect and loyalty, is formed and they move from being foes to allies, and then from being allies to friends. Therefore, unlike

Frodo and Sam’s friendship, Legolas and Gimli’s friendship seems to mirror C.S. Lewis’ ideas about friendship very well, as it is their focus on their common quest that brings them together and allows them to cultivate their friendship (Thordarson 2012).

De Pauw 69

6. The Influence of World War I on Masculinity and Friendship in The Lord of the

Rings

In this section I would like to discuss the three themes of this dissertation: World War I, masculinity, and friendship. More so, I would like to discuss them together and in relation to one another. The Lord of the Rings is a an epic high-fantasy story set in Middle-earth where an old evil is rising again after it was long believed that he was defeated.

In Hobbiton, the Shire, a young Hobbit by the name of Frodo Baggins inherits a golden ring from his uncle Bilbo, who had found it on an adventure long ago. The curious ring turns out to be the One Ring to Rule Them All, forged in Mount Doom by the Dark Lord

Sauron, the story’s main antagonist. The wizard Gandalf is the one to recognise and identify the Ring. He sends Frodo on his way to Rivendell to seek Lord Elrond’s council on what to do with the Ring. Along the way, Frodo is joined by three other Hobbits:

Samwise Gamgee, Merry Brandybuck, and Pippin Took. The mysterious ranger Strider joins them shortly and helps them reach The Last Homely Home. There, Lord Elrond shares the news that there is only one way to destroy the Ring: “It must be taken deep into Mordor and cast back into the fiery chasm from whence it came” (The Fellowship of the Ring, Book II, Chapter 2: “The Council of Elrond”). A Fellowship is created to help the

Ring-bearer Frodo, who has taken this task upon himself, to complete this mission. The four Hobbits are joined by Strider, who turns out to be Aragorn son of Arathorn and

Isildur’s Heir, what makes him a pretender to the throne of Gondor. The dwarf Gimli, son of Gloin, the elf Legolas Greenleaf, and Boromir of Gondor, join them on their quest the destroy the One Ring. And so the adventure continues. De Pauw 70

The parallels between Tolkien’s experiences of World War I and Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings were discussed at length in the first part. Nancy Marie Ott (2018) cautions to compare an author’s life or views to his or her work and I absolutely agree with her. But certain elements in Tolkien’s known war experiences ring true when comparing them to his portrayal of war and its casualties. Ott explains that the sense of loss is very present in the novels, especially in the ghastly landscapes of e.g. Mordor. Characters often speak of the Shadow which gives the sense of gathering darkness. But in the fates of the Hobbits as well. Though Tolkien himself stated that the war had a limited influence on his writing, he later admitted to his son Christopher Tolkien in a letter that he “took to escapism”. He transformed his experiences into another form and symbol with Morgoth and Orcs etc.

World War I essentially represented everything that Tolkien hated with the destruction of nature, the deadly application of technology, the abuse and corruption and authority, and the triumph of industrialisation. Yet it did give him an appreciation for the virtues of ordinary people, for friendships and for what beauty he could find in ugliness. Tolkien also realised that not every soldier would return or would return as they were before the war.

This is reflected in the difference between how Sam copes and how Frodo copes with the aftermath of the War of the Ring. Sam marries his girlfriend and starts a family. He even becomes mayor. He is able to start anew, contrary to Frodo whose soul got poisoned by the Ring. He decides to leave for Valinor and leave Middle-earth behind him.

Tolkien lost two of his TCBS friends during the war, only half of the group survived.

Ott claims that the deaths of his friends affected Tolkien greatly and that paradoxically inspired him to continue with his own work so that the legacy of their friendship would not De Pauw 71

be lost. Tolkien’s time at the front ended in early 1917 when he had contracted trench fever and was sent to hospitals until the end of the war.

I would like to argue that the theme of friendship is very important in The Lord of the Rings, and that based on the fact that the deaths and loss of his friends affected him gravely. Samwise Gamgee is believed to have been modelled after the many soldiers and batmen Tolkien himself encountered during his time in the war camps in World War

I. Critics argue that perhaps Sam was modelled after the friend Tolkien never had but longed for. The character of Samwise Gamgee immediately comes to mind when thinking about friendship, especially his friendship with Frodo Baggins. Their relationship is often described as a master-servant relationship and I absolutely agree with that, but I do believe there is more to their relationship. Not necessarily homoerotic, although I do recognise that there definitely is room for such an interpretation, especially because of the stroking and kissing present between the two. But as has been discussed in the section dedicated to that subject: Sam is a nurturing person and recognises Frodo’s suffering. He tries to comfort him in completing his task as Ring-bearer; even in going as far as to offer to carry the Ring for Frodo for a while. Frodo, mad by the Ring, refuses that of course. But Sam knows what the Ring is doing to him, and still offers to share the burden. Sam always calls Frodo “Mr. Frodo”, which underlines the master-servant relationship, even after sharing so much time together on the road. Their friendship was formed during the quest; they were not friends back home in the Shire because Sam was

Frodo’s gardener, but the quest to destroy the Ring brought them together. Arguably, their friendship might fade again once they are back home. Especially the physical aspect of their relationship might stop; the touching, stroking, and kissing. De Pauw 72

The friendship between Frodo and Sam defies stereotype male relationships. Many traits in their relationship are typically feminine. Those are juxtaposed to the few female characters in the books like Galadriel and Éowyn, who possess both feminine and masculine traits. Both are described as physically beautiful and feminine, but Galadriel represents a higher power than most males. Éowyn represents the oppression of women that hegemonic masculinity endorses in restricting women to limited roles and expectations (Madill). Éowyn’s strength and respect from the people are revealed when she is named as the one to rule the people in the king’s absence at war. Of course, the irony of this honour is that all other men have left to war, beside the elderly and very young ones. Éowyn takes matters in her own hands and hides her female features to also fight on the Pelennor Fields with her fellow kinsmen. She attempts to embody masculine qualities because they are more valued in her society.

Wheaton writes that in The Lord of the Rings, one can witness the ending of an old age that was more notably marked by productive feminine cultures and dysfunctional cultures. That sense of an old age ending was also very present in Tolkien’s generation of soldiers and officers who fought in the Great War. Wheaton adds that Middle-earth can be transforming to produce a new hegemonic masculinity: an age of Men. After the War of the Ring, the Elves leave Middle-earth, as will the Dwarves. It is also often said by various characters that the Age of Men is upon us. So, in Middle-earth this could be interpreted quite literal as in the human race but also as a particular version of masculinity.

What is essentially witnessed is the removal of an outdated hegemonic masculinity and the installation of a new one. De Pauw 73

Another master-servant relationship or friendship present in the books, is the relationship between Merry and Théoden. Merry enters Théoden’s service after Merry’s request. Their relationship might also be interpreted as more complicated than an ordinary relationship between a king and his subordinate. In order for a master and his subordinate to become friends, it is vital that the master treats his subordinate in an extremely kind and fair way, which seems to be the case with both Frodo and Théoden.

This is made possible because Tolkien “constructs a scenario in which the reader is forced to confront the breakdown of social hierarchies by imagining a form of subordination without exploitation” (Kleinman 145). On the other hand, the subordinate must also treat his master well and serve him loyally. Tolkien defines the subordinate as

“a man for whom the object of his will was decided by another, who had no responsibility downwards, only loyalty upwards. Personal pride was therefore for him in the lowest, and love and loyalty in the highest” (Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm’s Son 14).

Thordarson thinks this definition seems to fit quite well to Merry, and almost perfectly to

Sam, who indeed seems to be the ideal subordinate. Tolkien makes relationships between masters and subordinates possible by closing the gap between different social classes with mutual love, loyalty and respect, Thordarson concludes.

Pippin also enters the service of a mighty men; Denethor, the Steward of Gondor.

Kleinman (142) elaborates that “whereas Merry is filled with suddenly with love for this old man [referring to Théoden], Pippin’s own motives for offering his service are feelings of pride and indebtedness, rather than affection for the recipient of his service. Therefore,

Thordarson points out that Pippin does not seem to fit into Tolkien’s definition of a De Pauw 74

subordinate. Another interesting fact that he points out and a big difference between the two: Théoden inspires love in his subordinates, unlike Denethor.

The relationship between Merry and Théoden can also be interpreted as a father-son relationship. Théoden was a father-figure not only to Merry, but also to his niece and nephew, Éowyn and Éomer. But upon Théoden’s death, Merry mourns him as a friend.

Théoden’s last words seem to reflect their friendship in that he forgives Merry for breaking his commands and like Merry, he grieves for the friendship that never got to blossom to its fullest. Their relationship is like Sam and Frodo’s; a master-servant relationship based on love, loyalty, and mutual affection.

Another friendship pair that comes to mind is the surprising friendship between Gimli and Legolas. The likelihood that a Dwarf and an Elf would become friends is very unlikely in Middle-earth. Even from their creation, both races could not get along. Thordarson argues that their friendship came into being because of the common quest that they share. This, in its turn, fits in C. S. Lewis’ definition in The Four Loves as they are more absorbed into their common interest than each other (73). They get to know each other better through their shared endeavours. In the beginning of the novel, it is established that both races do not like each other. Thordarson makes the interesting comparison between Tolkien and Lewis themselves, as Tolkien, a Catholic, had disliked Protestants since his childhood. So like Gimli and Legolas, they also had to overcome their prejudices to become friends.

The initial dislike for each other and their races is questioned early on. Especially on

Gimli’s side, when he received as a parting gift from Galadriel three strands of her golden hair, which proves his admiration for the Elves. The relationship between Gilmi and De Pauw 75

Legolas also seems to grow as they leave Lórien. Thordarson points out that as their friendship grows, it becomes apparent that their affection for each other is largely based on their admiration for each other as warriors. This is often displayed when they compete in Orc-slaying. Through the fighting that they engage in together, other elements in their relationship also grow and they start liking each other’s company so much so that they start talking of matters beyond war and fighting. When the war is over, their friendship continues, and they travel together to Fangorn Forest and the Glittering Caves of Helm’s

Deep to enjoy the wonders these places have to offer. In their case, the terrors of war can sometimes produce positive results, Thordarson concludes, as Gimli and Legolas have overcome the strained relations between their races, and truly have become friends. Their friendship very much reflects C. S. Lewis’s ideas on friendship: “no one cares twopence about anyone else’s family, profession, class, income, race or previous history” (83).

Careful parallels can be drawn here between Tolkien and Lewis’ friendship.

The friendship between the men in The Lord of the Rings can perhaps also have found their inspiration in the Great War. The idea of camaraderie between men who do not know each other at first, but through a common quest or war become to admire each other and form friendships. Much like the friendship between Legolas and Gimli discussed earlier.

This also ties in the masculine aspect as their friendship is founded first in mutual respect and later into a deeper friendship.

The master-servant friendships in the books might find their origin in Tolkien’s war experience as well: World War I is situated in the early twentieth century and therefore separation between the classes was still in place. High-ranked officers would not mingle with lower-ranked soldiers or batmen. Tolkien himself was said to be repulsed by this, De Pauw 76

according to Ott’s paper. Tolkien might have attempted to change that in The Lord of the

Rings.

As I already have established, friendship is an important theme within Tolkien’s trilogy.

It defines the dynamics between the characters and helps with the character development of the some of the characters. The masculinity, or lack thereof, of those friendships, helps to fine-tune those dynamics. The failing hegemonic masculinity of Middle-earth reflects the ‘end of an age’ feeling that many felt after World War I as it tore Europe apart: the sense of loss and sorrow at the passing of an age. A new hegemonic masculinity will rise, the so-called “Age of Men” or “Dominion of Men” in Middle-earth.

One could think that Tolkien was thinking of his dead TCBS-friends when he wrote

The Lord of the Rings, or of the men who were forever lost one the battlefields. Perhaps he was thinking of the men maimed in body and mind who could not savour the end of the war and the Allied victory over Germany. As Ott concluded the chapter on the Great

War: “This is the true aftermath of war: not just celebration and relief, but terrible loss and sorrow”.

De Pauw 77

7. Conclusion

In this dissertation I have discussed the themes of friendship and masculinity in J. R. R.

Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings, and the influence of World War I. I have established that

World War I had an enormous impact on Tolkien’s life and it was interesting to discuss the friendships and relationship dynamics of characters in this trilogy.

Firstly, I have discussed Tolkien and the Great War, in which I provided an overview of Tolkien’s history during the war. He was sent relatively late to the war in 1916 because he first managed to finish his English degree at Oxford University. At Oxford, he met three like-minded friends whom he would form a group with. All four of them were sent to the front and only two of them returned, including Tolkien himself. This would of course leave an enormous impact on Tolkien and can be seen reflected in his later work.

The sense of loss, grief, and hopelessness is also present among the characters in The

Lord of the Rings. I also discussed The Lord of the Rings in relation to World War I.

Certain clear parallels were drawn between known war experiences and evidence from the text, like e.g. the landscapes from nightmares and the desolation of Mordor. This is well reflected in the chapter where Sam and Frodo are making their way through the Dead

Marshes with the help of Gollum. A lot of descriptions of the scenery are reminiscent of the situation at the front in World War I. It can be assumed that the Germans to some degree were inspiration for the Orcs and Haradrim. Tolkien did not necessarily hate the

Germans, but the Nazi propaganda and destruction was something that indeed would have angered him, especially the glorifying of Nordic culture and heritage. Like I have already mentioned earlier, the general sense of hopelessness is also a theme that is present in The Lord of the Rings. British soldiers during the Great War also experienced De Pauw 78

this when they saw comrades get killed or severely hurt. The destruction of nature would reflect or even magnify such sentiments. The Hobbits can also be seen as returning veterans, all them coping in different ways with the aftermath of war, and grief and loss.

At last the Passing of an Age-sentiment is also very present in the trilogy. The Age of Men is upon us.

Secondly, I have discussed masculinities in The Lord of the Rings. I began by trying to define what masculinity is through constructing and deconstructing the concept.

The feminist post-structuralist goal is to disrupt the inequality of gender roles and expectations through the critical reflections of texts. By deconstructing how language constructs gender, readers may be able to question and challenge the inequalities that exist. It is suggested that, although the books themselves do not invite criticism of hegemonic masculine values, it can indeed provoke multiple discussions about its various messages about masculinity. Masculinity cannot exist without femininity, so I thought it was interesting to also have a look at femininity in relation to masculinity. It is a well- known fact that there are more male characters in The Lord of the Rings than female characters. The female characters also get a rather small role compared to their male counterparts. However, I briefly discussed the characters of Galadriel and Éowyn. It was shown that both of these female characters possess traits that can be ascribed to femininity on the one hand, and masculinity on the other. The femininity is also present in the portrayals of the friendship between Frodo and Sam. Masculinity was also discussed as a hierarchy with the prominent male characters of Aragorn, Boromir, and Faramir.

Each of them embodies a different kind of masculinity. De Pauw 79

Thirdly, I have discussed friendship in The Lord of the Rings. Friendship can be considered almost as a motif in the books. It is a very important element to the trilogy, since new friendships are made and will develop further as the story progresses. Most friendships seem to follow the traditional views on friendship, but Frodo and Sam’s friendship seems to challenge those views, even to such a degree that the question of possible homoeroticism arises. The physicality between Frodo and Sam does seem to support such views, however. In the trilogy are also several master-servant relationships,

Frodo and Sam being one of them. Merry and Théoden, and Pippin and Denethor being two other pairs. All of them were proven different from one another, especially the Pippin and Denethor dynamics. Another aspect that brought members of the Fellowship together is the common quest. This is of course apparent in the relationship between Gimli and

Legolas, who couldn’t stand each other at first but gradually became great friends, even after the War of the Ring.

Finally, I have tried to connect all the above together. The themes of friendship and masculinity, which actually go hand in hand in this analysis, are influenced by World

War I’s shadow. Although Tolkien initially would not admit that, and it is of course always dangerous to assume that events in fiction are directly based upon the author’s life, there are more than a few parallels that can be drawn. In my opinion especially in the character of Samwise Gamgee of whom Tolkien had once written: “My ‘Sam Gamgee’ is indeed a reflexion of the English soldier, of the privates and batmen I knew in the 1914 war, and recognised as so far superior to myself.” The similarities between the landscapes of nightmares from the front and the trenches during World War I can be seen as reflected in the landscapes of Mordor. The master-servant friendships in the trilogy could be seen De Pauw 80

as a reaction of Tolkien against the elitism still at place in the British army in the early twentieth century, where high-ranked officers would not mingle with lower-ranked soldiers or batmen. Tolkien himself must have had no issue with the mingling between the classes, as he included such friendships in his work. The final friendship I would like to mention is the friendship of enemies to great friends, like Gimli and Legolas. Thordarson has argued that there are similarities between their friendship and Tolkien’s own friendship with C. S.

Lewis. Tolkien was a devout Catholic and as a result could not stand Protestants. So much so that his wife Edith had to convert to Catholicism before they could get married.

But eventually Tolkien and Lewis overcame their differences and became good friends.

I would like to conclude this dissertation by suggesting that Tolkien indeed thought about his dead TCBS-friends when he wrote The Lord of the Rings, or of the men who were forever lost on the battlefields at least. Perhaps he was thinking of the men maimed in body and mind who could not savour the end of the war and the Allied victory over

Germany. I would like to conclude this dissertation as Ott concluded the chapter on the

Great War: “This is the true aftermath of war: not just celebration and relief, but terrible loss and sorrow”.

De Pauw 81

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