Valsgärde 14

ELSE NORDAHL VALSGÄRDE 14

ACTA SEPULCRETI VALSGAERDIAE REGIAE UNIVERSITATIS UPSALIENSIS I EDIDERUNT JOHN LJUNGKVIST ET NEIL PRICE

VALSGÄR DE 14

ELSE NORDAHL This volume is published by generous grants from the Swedish Research Council, Berit Wallenberg Foundation, and the Royal Patriotic Society.

© Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University 2018 Cover illustration by Olof Thunman Language editing: Elisabet Green, Ben Raffield Edited by: Kent Andersson, John Ljungkvist, Neil Price Series editors: John Ljungkvist, Neil Price Layout: Martin Högvall, Graphic Services, Uppsala University Main text typeset with Adobe Caslon Pro

Distribution: Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Box 626, 751 26 Uppsala, Sweden ISBN 978-91-506-2707-7 Printed in Sweden by DanagårdLiTHO AB, Ödeshög 2018 Contents

Preface – The Valsgärde cemetery: excavations and publications ...... 7 Foreword ...... 15 Description of the burial ...... 17 The contents of the grave ...... 23 Animals in the burial ...... 59 The dating of the grave ...... 61 The textiles ...... 63 The boat ...... 69 Catalogue of artefacts ...... 89 Field notes on the finds ...... 97 Bibliography ...... 133

Preface – The Valsgärde cemetery: excavations and publications Neil Price and John Ljungkvist

The Valsgärde hilltop cemetery is situated three kilometres north of Gamla Uppsala in central Uppland province, Sweden. During the late nineteenth and early twen- tieth centuries, a handful of artefacts had been collected there which appeared to be of late Iron Age date, but the site’s true character was first recognised in 1926. In that year Petrus Hübinette, a clerk, and E.E. Eriksson, a district judge, showed Valsgärde to two archaeologists working nearby on the excavation of Gamla Uppsala church. These were Sune Lindqvist, newly appointed to the Chair of Archaeology at Uppsala University, and his amanuensis Karl-Alfred Gustawsson, who together examined the numerous elongated depressions that were clearly visible in the mo- raine hillside. They concluded that in all likelihood they were the remains of boat graves, a suggestion that gained support the following year when gravel extraction exposed a horse cranium complete with bridle. In 1928 the systematic excavation of Valsgärde began under Lindqvist’s direction, staffed by his archaeology students and assistants. The first boat grave to be investigated proved to be of Viking-Age date, and in the course of two years some four examples from the same period were excavated. Sune Lindqvist and his team quickly understood the close parallels with the famous boat grave cemetery at Vendel, and in consequence hoped to discover spectacular and unplundered Vendel-period boat burials at Valsgärde too. Their expectations were fulfilled when features of this type began to emerge from the hillside, including four especially outstanding examples. These graves are still the most dramatic burials known from the site, and it was around them that the rest of the Valsgärde project took shape. While this Vendel-period focus was understandable, in retrospect it can be seen to have distracted scholarly attention from the wider archaeology of the cemetery as it continued into the rest of the later Iron Age. Following the first excavation seasons, in 1936 a dispute arose concerning which museum – in Stockholm or Uppsala – would be assigned the finds from the site. As a result the excavations came to a halt, and were further delayed by the Second World War. Fieldwork resumed in 1946 and was completed in 1952, these later seasons being directed by Bertil Almgren and Bengt Schönbäck (1957).

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The complete inventory of burials from the hillside then stood at 15 boat graves, 15 other interments of differing types (principally chambers and coffin burials), and 62 cremation graves. Other features of more uncertain character had also been recorded, such as a boat-shaped setting made of raised timber posts, together with traces of settlement. The documentation of the Valsgärde burials is of varying quality, but in general it is very good indeed, not only by the standards of the time but even by comparison with some of today’s recording. This is in large degree thanks to the efforts of individuals such as Else Nordahl, who maintained order in the field and in the records’ subsequent archiving. As a result, though methods have undoubtedly developed and improved, today’s archaeologists can still study the Vals- gärde material with minimal problems. Although they are not the subject of the present reports, in the mid-1990s new excavations were begun at Valsgärde by Svante Norr and Anneli Sundkvist (1995), which this time focussed on the settlement remains adjacent to the cemetery hill.

Publishing Valsgärde The publication history of the Valsgärde excavations is a complex one. The first synthetic account of the discoveries appeared soon after excavations -be gan (Lindqvist 1929). Shortly thereafter, three of the Viking-Age boat graves from the earliest investigations were quickly published in article form (Dyfverman 1929; Fridell 1930; Odencrants 1933). Work on the Vendel-period boat burials began more or less immediately with a preliminary account of grave 7 (Arwidsson 1935), and several specialist papers appeared on these and other subjects (Lindqvist 1932, 1934; Arwidsson 1932, 1934). A second, more comprehensive synthesis was published by Lindqvist in 1940, and while this need not concern us further here, the problematic context of its appearance should not be ignored*. The planned publication programme of full reports quickly fell behind schedule. The Vendel-period burials in particular were very complicated indeed, containing hundreds of artefacts and detailed stratigraphic information, while the specialists involved often had many other demands on their time. Research nonetheless persisted through the years of the museum dispute and throughout the War, and a special publication series – Acta Musei Antiquitatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis – was inaugurated by Uppsala

* Lindqvist’s 1940 paper was published in Germanen Erbe, the official archaeological magazine of the Nazi Party. His relationship with the Third Reich was complex and ostensibly sympathetic, resulting in lifelong damage to his reputation. However, in the early 2000s when the Swedish state security files for the war years were declassified, it was revealed that the reality was quite different: Lindqvist had been an intelligence agent operating against the Nazis at great personal risk, and had also been responsible for saving several Jewish families. As these operations remained secret, he maintained cover until his death in 1976. PREFACE 9

University’s Museum of Nordic Antiquities (now the Museum Gustavianum). Eventually three of the four Vendel-period boat graves appeared there in book form, in the sub-series Die Gräberfunde von Valsgärde. Lindqvist’s former student and col- league, Greta Arwidsson, published boat grave 6 in 1942, boat grave 8 in 1954, and boat grave 7 in 1977. Outside this series, the Migration-period chamber grave 20 was partially published by Anna-Märta Tjernberg in 1948. Alongside the burial reports, a second sub-series of artefact analyses was also launched as Valsgärdestudien, within the main Acta series. Two doctoral theses appeared here, on the enamel and glass (Arwidsson 1942b) and swords (Olsén 1945, a work that was planned for multiple volumes but of which only the first was completed). All these reports were published in German, according to the academic conventions of the time. As the publication of the major Vendel-period boat graves was delayed, by exten- sion the same fate unfortunately befell all the other burials – in boats or otherwise – excavated between 1946 and 1952. The greater part of this material is not especially complex but nonetheless it is of considerable value. Fragments have appeared in academic papers, but the bulk of the burials have not been published at all despite their research potential. Many decades later in 2013, another series was inaugurated by the Museum Gus- tavianum Archaeological Research Group, titled Acta Musei Gustavianum Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis (despite the name, it was never formally constituted as an Acta series with the university, and is thus a freestanding endeavour). The series also carried the subtitle of Valsgärde Studies but with volume numbers re-starting at one. Only a single book appeared in this series, translating and reprinting the early papers on the Viking-Age boat graves 1, 2 and 4 together with a number of new analyses (Munktell 2013). In addition to the actual excavation reports referenced above, the years since the Valsgärde excavations naturally saw a constant stream of other publications that took up aspects of the material, either in its own right or in a broader late Iron Age context. These are too numerous to list here, but mention should be made of the major collections Vendeltid (Ambrosiani & Sandwall 1980) and Vendel Period Studies (Lamm & Nordström 1983), and more recently a comprehensive monograph sum- marizing the Vendel-period boat graves (Andersson 2017). A number of doctoral theses and reports also appeared in the 1990s as a result of Svealand i vendel- och vikingatid, a large-scale collaborative research project between the universities of Uppsala and Stockholm, which included the new excavations within the settlement area at Valsgärde. Finally, in 2008 another major volume appeared, edited by Svante Norr, combining a retrospective of research at the site with then-current work. Readers interested in a deeper disciplinary and social history of Valsgärde studies are encouraged to consult this publication, together with that of Eriksson et al (2013). 10 VALSGÄR DE 14

Valsgärde redux The Valsgärde excavations are among the proudest achievements of the Department of Archaeology (now combined with Ancient History) at Uppsala University, but also one of its greatest burdens in that much of the material remains unpublished. Successive holders of the Chair in Archaeology have struggled to obtain the funding that would see the project to completion, but it has long been hard to finance backlog reporting from moneys intended for ‘new’ research (even if that is exactly what Valsgärde actually represents). In late December 2015, however, we were fortunate to be granted 50 million Swedish kronor (approx. $6m US dollars) from the Swedish Research Council for a ten-year project investigating The Viking Phenomenon. Focusing on the eighth and ninth centuries, and partly intended to erase the already porous border between the Vendel and Viking periods, a major component of this unprecedented govern- ment investment in archaeology was the investigation of the boat grave custom as a lens through which to view the emerging cultures of the time. The issue had been thrown into new and sharper contrast by the dramatic excavation in 2008–12 of two early Viking-Age boat graves at Salme on the island of Saaremaa in Estonia, which are not only contemporary with Valsgärde but also appear to represent the remains of an expedition that originated in central Sweden. With an opportunity to thus compare the ‘first Vikings’ (in a metaphorical rather than literal sense) ‘at home and away’, the project included funding for the Salme post-excavation and also the final completion of the Valsgärde publication programme. We are deeply grateful to the Swedish Research Council for their generosity and vision in at last enabling such a vital part of the (inter)national heritage to be made available to all. The Viking Phenomenon project is directed by Professor Neil Price, with Dr John Ljungkvist responsible for the new Valsgärde initiative. We are co-editors of the publication programme, and in the coming years a changing team of scholars will be gathered to complete the excavation reports; this will combine the editing and updating of existing manuscripts with new, primary research. In logistical and legal terms, it proved impossible to combine or simply continue the two existing publication series, the original Acta and the revamped version of 2013. Instead, we have opted for a practical compromise, starting a new Univer- sity series: Acta Sepulcreti Valsgaerdiae Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis. This will be thematically sub-divided into burial reports and other studies, as per the original intentions of the excavators, but without distinct numbering beyond the ongoing volumes of the main series. The language will be switched from German to English. PREFACE 11

References Ambrosiani, B. & Sandwall, A. (eds) 1980. Vendeltid. Statens Historiska Museer, Stockholm. Andersson, K. 2017. Krigarna från Valsgärde. Atlantis, Stockholm. Arwidsson, G. 1932. Some glass vessels from the boat-grave cemetery at Valsgärde. Acta Archaeologica III/3: 251–266. Arwidsson, G. 1934. A new Scandinavian form of helmet from the Vendel-time. Acta Archaeologica V/3: 243–257. Arwidsson, G. 1935. Den sjunde båtgraven i Valsgärde. Fornvännen 30: 49–52. Arwidsson, G. 1942a. Valsgärde 6. Die Gräberfunde von Valsgärde 1. Acta Musei Antiquitatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala. Arwidsson, G. 1942b. Vendelstile: Email und Glas im 7.-8. Jahrhundert. Valsgärde studien 1. Acta Musei Antiquitatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala. Arwidsson, G. 1954. Valsgärde 8. Die Gräberfunde von Valsgärde 2. Acta Musei Antiquitatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala. Arwidsson, G. 1977. Valsgärde 7. Die Gräberfunde von Valsgärde 3. Acta Musei Antiquitatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala. Dyfverman, M. 1929. Båtgraven nr 2 vid Valsgärde, Gamla Uppsala. Rig 12: 170– 179. Eriksson, H., Kyhlberg, O. & Ojala, K. 2013. Archaeologicla excavations 1928– 1952. In Munktell, I-M. (ed.) Valsgärde 1,2 & 4. Valsgärde Studies 1. Acta Musei Gustavianum Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala: 9–28. Fridell, A. 1930. Den förste båtgraven vid Valsgärde i Gamla Uppsala socken. Fornvännen 25: 217–237. Lamm, J-P. & Nordström, H-Å. (eds) 1983. Vendel Period studies: transactions of the boat-grave symposium in Stockholm, February 2–3, 1981. Statens Historiska Museer, Stockholm. Lindqvist, S. 1929. Valsgärde gravbacke. Ett nyupptäckt båtgravsfält i Gamla Uppsala socken. Rig 12: 163–169. Lindqvist, S. 1932. Vendel-time finds from Valsgärde in the neighbourhood of Old Uppsala. Acta Archaeologica III/1: 21–46. Lindqvist, S. 1934. En förnäm kvinnas grav på Valsgärde gravbacke. Finska forn- minnesföreningens tidskrift 40: 138–142. Lindqvist, S. 1940. Das schwedische Bootgräberfeld von Valsgärde. Germanen- Erbe 5/3–4: 34–43. Munktell, I-M. (ed.) 2013. Valsgärde 1,2 & 4. Valsgärde Studies 1. Acta Musei Gus- tavianum Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala. 12 VALSGÄR DE 14

Norr, S. (ed.) 2008. Valsgärde studies: the place and its people, past and present. OPIA 42, Uppsala. Norr, S. & Sundkvist, A. 1995. Valsgärde revisited. Fieldwork resumed after forty years. TOR 27/2: 395–418. Odencrants, R. 1933. Båtgrav nr 4 vid Valsgärde. Upplands fornminnesförenings tidskrift 43: 225–240. Olsén, P. 1945. Die Saxe von Valsgärde 1. Valsgärdestudien 2. Acta Musei Antiqui- tatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis, Uppsala. Schönbäck, B. 1957. ”A grafwae bakkae”. TOR 3: 133–147. Tjernberg, A-M. 1948. Valsgärde 20. TOR 1: 49–64. PREFACE 13

Valsgärde publications from Uppsala University, 2018– Acta Sepulcreti Valsgaerdiae Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis (ASV) ASV I Valsgärde 14; Nordahl 2018

Valsgärde publications from Uppsala University, 1942–2013 Acta Musei Antiquitatum Septentrionalium Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis (AMAS) AMAS I Valsgärde 6; Arwidsson 1942a. Die Gräberfunde von Valsgärde I AMAS II Vendelstile; Arwidsson 1942b. Valsgärdestudien I AMAS III Die Saxe von Valsgärde; Olsén 1945. Valsgärdestudien II AMAS IV Valsgärde 8; Arwidsson 1954. Die Gräberfunde von Valsgärde II AMAS V Valsgärde 7; Arwidsson 1977. Die Gräberfunde von Valsgärde III

Acta Musei Gustavianum Regiae Universitatis Upsaliensis (AMG) AMG I Valsgärde 1, 2 & 4; Munktell 2013. Valsgärde Studies I

Occasional Papers in Archaeology (OPIA) OPIA 42 Valsgärde studies; Norr 2008

Foreword Kent Andersson, John Ljungkvist, Neil Price

Valsgärde 14 is the first new publication of a boat grave from the site since 1977. The burials from the Viking Age at Valsgärde have usually been seen as less spectacular, and less interesting, than their Vendel-period counterparts, but then should rather be understood as representative of their time, when it was the custom to deposit far fewer animals in the graves. Valsgärde 14 is of particular interest in that it dates to the earliest phase of the Viking period, when weapon burials were comparatively scarce in the Mälar Valley in contrast to the situation a century later. The grave was undamaged and its high-quality contents have not been previously published at all. For The Viking Phenomenon project it is very appropriate that this burial should be published first as its date coincides not only with the first Viking raids to the west, but also with increasing Scandinavian interaction with the east. The early ninth century was also a time of more local transformation, when the royal manor at Gamla Uppsala was either moved or abandoned, and kings appear no longer to have been buried in this great central place. After the creation of boat grave 14, interesting developments also occurred at Valsgärde. No other boat grave seems to date to the ninth century, but an astonishing nine of them from the beginning of the tenth century and on into the eleventh. However, the ninth century did produce the dramatic cremation grave 66, with its unusually large quantities of burnt bone. This is a departure from the boat grave tradition in a more than mere- ly ritual sense, and on the basis of the numbers of animals present it almost has a Vendel-period character. It is tempting to see social changes sweeping Valsgärde in the early 800s, when the hall at Gamla Uppsala burned down. We can at least be sure that this time sees a temporary interruption of the boat grave burial custom at the cemetery, which would not return for nearly a hundred years.

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Else Nordahl died aged 86 in March 2011, after a period of illness. Almost to the end she continued to work with her manuscript on Valsgärde boat grave 14, which she had excavated in 1949. At the time of her death, Else left an essentially print-ready text translated into English. In general, we have deliberately not sought to update her references, despite the relevance of later works, as this would otherwise essentially be a new work. To finish the manuscript, only minor additions, adjustments and copy-editing were undertaken, together with picture research and the preparation of a section on the boat itself. Kent Andersson took on the task of bringing the manuscript to full completion, and also liaised with Professor Jan Bill of the Viking Ship Museum in Oslo, whom Else herself had already asked to write the boat description. For various reasons the process took time, but the book has now taken the form that Else had envisaged. Difficulties in obtaining images have unfortunately limited the illustrative material, but this has not impacted the contents. Many have contributed to the volume’s completion, and we would like to thank all those who have played a part in bringing Else’s last work to press – none named and none forgotten. Description of the burial

Valsgärde 14 was investigated in 1949. It was located on the western ridge of the grave field, between boat graves 9 (11th century) and 13 (c. 800) (fig. 1). It was oriented in a SW–NE direction and was marked by a depression, c. 7.50 m long, 3 m wide and 0.3 m deep (fig. 2). Following the gradual compression of the burial’s content and filling, it seems that additional material had been laid on top in order to level the depression (fig. 3). It is possible that this was done in connection with the additional filling-in of burial 13 with sand, some of which also added to the filling of burial 14.

Fig. 1. Survey of the gravefield at Valsgärde. Boatgrave 14 was located on the western part of the gravefield, between burials 9 and 13 (after Arwidsson 1977).

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Fig. 2. The grave from SSW before the excavation. Photo by B. Schönbäck.

Beneath the turf, the filling consisted of fine-grained sand in the NE and SW; elsewhere the filling contained a layer up to 0.3 m thick of sand mixed with humus and clay (the additional spread), beneath which was a layer of coarser sand with a few pockets of clay. This layer, which contained a large number of stones, measured 0.1–0.4 m in depth. Below the turf, in the additional spread, some ten well-preserved horse teeth were found (no. 1). The furrow dug for the boat was 2–2.5 m wide and 1.5–1.7 m deep. The remains of the boat consisted of c. 1000 clench nails and pointed nails (pl. 2), many of which had remains of wood corroded onto the metal. On nos 39, 79, 159, 271, 277, 313, 335, 495, 991, 1132, 1136, 1163 and 1233, the wood is oak; on no. 719, it is maple. Decidu- ous wood was found on the plates to the frame clench nails nos 308 and 335. The boat also had two mounts (nos 693 and 706); the former had remains of deciduous wood, and a sturdy ring with a staple (no. 705) (fig. 4), which were found on top of and outside the portside gunwale respectively, c. 2.5 m from the stem. A ring with a staple (no. 1216) (fig. 4) and a U-shaped mount (no. 1178) were found at the stem. It seems likely that the rod with a loop (no. 37) found in the stern, which was slightly damaged by gravel digging, also belonged to the boat. The distance between the outermost nails in the stem and stern was c. 11 m and the greatest width between the clench nails amidships was c. 2 m. Description of the burial 19

Fig. 3. Profile through the burial trench. The layers indicate that following the compression of the original filling, the trench was refilled with new material to even out the subsequent depression. Photo by B. Schönbäck.

The stern of the boat contained no objects (pl. 1, 3). About 3 m from the outermost nails and clench nails in the stern, the remains of a shield were found: a shield boss (no. 150), three folded-over rim mounts (nos 121, 143, 361), two small loop attachments (nos 57, 135), two flat mounts (nos 140, 304), as well as small tacks, that were found when the shield-boss was conserved. On the portside of the boat, diagonally from the shield, 25 clench nails and 6 nails were found (nos 3, 4, 10, 12, 13 (wood), 14, 17–20, 22–25, 27, 43, 206, 208, 241, 242, 309–311, 316, 332, 333, 338, 346–349, 356, 357) together with a ring with a staple (no. 11), which marked a rectangular object – a gaming board. Close by, a key (no. 2) was found. 20 VALSGÄR DE 14

Next to the gaming board, a dog’s leash was found (no. 336) made from iron links with a ring with a strap-end mount on one end and a swivel hook on the other. Next to this was a buckle with strap-end mounts (no. 354). Insignificant remains of a yellow substance were the only remains of the dog. About 0.5 m forward was another leash (no. 447) with a ring and swivel hook in either end. A buckle (no. 455) was found next to the swivel hook. Forward of the shield, a sword (no. 500) was found. The grip showed remains of wood; in addition, traces of bone and wood were found on the sword. Close by, a knife (no. 374) was found. Partly on top of the sword handle, the remains of a bucket (nos 388–408, 501, 502) were found, consisting of iron hoops with a triangular transsection between which were flat uprights as well as a handle with a circular transsection. About 1 m forward of the sword, a sturdy spear/lance head was found (no. 523). Next to the spearhead, the remains of a chest were found, consisting of 23 nails (nos 518, 520, 521, 550, 553–556, 562, 565, 567, 570, 577, 578, 583–585, 588, 593, 600, 612, 614, 2 without numbers), mounts (nos 592, 595–599, 606?, 607?), a lock with a clasp (nos 601, 602) and a staple (no. 613). Within the frame for the chest, a piece of flint (no. 613), a spike (no. 603), three spike-like objects (nos 603, 604, 611) and a small round pebble (no number) were found. Somewhat to the fore of the boat’s centre, a badly preserved skeleton of a horse was found. The skeleton was partially disintegrated, although a few slightly better-preserved parts of the forelegs (nos 730–732), skull and teeth (nos 755, 801, 882, 928–932, 934) were recovered. Next to the horse, spikes (nos 589, 667(?), 669, 679, 683, 738, 748, 756) were found. Two buckles (nos 760, 860) were found in front of the horse’s head, an additional buckle (no. 837), was found on top of the head. A short, coarse chain lay on the back mandible of the horse (no. 839). At the probable location of the horse’s back, a bit and a number of mounts made from silver, bronze and gilt-bronze forming a bridle (nos 745, 746, 751, 753, 754, 758, 759, 761, 767–785, 787, 789, 793, 806, 807, 1255–1278, 1281, 1282) and a smaller iron buckle (no. 750) were found. In addition, there were two iron loop attachments (nos 765, 766) that had been nailed to wood. Additional horse equipment was found both here and further to the stem. At the rear end of the horse, three tow-hooks (nos 680–682) were found, all of which had sockets. Two other tow-hooks lay at the front end of the horse. One was (no. 742) similar to no. 682, while the other (no. 791) consisted of a wide, flat rod with a hook finial. Next to the first one, an iron rod (no. 795) was found. Approximately half a metre to the fore, two parts of a rattle (a type of tow-hook) (nos 1021, 1022) were found; the former with a hook and the latter with an oval link on one end. Close by lay some remains of teeth (nos 1030, 1031, 1037). Description of the burial 21

By tow-hook 742 at the horse’s forelegs, four iron objects (nos 751, 754, 753/759, 806) were found. These were triangular plates with one corner rolled up and with a bent rod or ring fastened in the short end. Away from the horse skull lay two triangular loops (nos 857, 895), each with a staple and next to each was a buckle (nos 856 and 881, respectively) with a folded strap-end mounting. Some smaller tacks (nos 814, 846–848, 854, 868, 872, 874, 884, 885, 916, 926) were also found here. Two mounts (nos 834, 835) were also found in the vicinity, each consisting of a long clench nail that had a cramp-like sheet metal at each end, pointing inwards, facing each other. Close by were various other mounts (nos 852, 890–892, 903, 904, 918, 919), two long nails (nos 883, 905) and a mount (no. 944), consisting of a long clench nail, one end of which has a U-shaped bent sheet metal with a long nail stuck through each end. Outside the stem’s starboard side, a large mount (no. 1044) was found, consisting of a long narrow rounded sheet metal with S-shaped contours with four clench nails leading down to a flat narrow sheet and four clench nails that join with the two middle vertical clench nails.

The contents of the grave

The deceased Traces of bone on the sword are the only preserved remains of the deceased. It is uncertain whether a knife (fig. 5), which lay next to the sword, can be tied to the personal equipment. It is completely lacking in metal mounts that would have adorned a knife sheath; remains of wooden fragments, oak, were found on the tang. It is possible that the knife formed part of the dress accessories. Based on these few traces of the deceased, it can be inferred that the body was placed in the boat surrounded by a gaming board, propped up at the port side of the boat, a shield resting at the starboard side, and a chest beneath the person’s feet. These served to create a private space for the body (cf. Herschend 1997, p. 54f., where a completely different plan for the boat in Valsgärde 8 is presented). Within this sphere, the sword, the knife and a spear/lance were placed along the right-hand side of the deceased, all with the points directed towards the feet; it is possible that the sword lay on top of the deceased. An iron bound bucket had also been placed within this area. Additionally, two presumably leashed dogs had been placed at the portside, to the SW of the gaming board. It is impossible to establish whether the few textile fragments are remains of cloth- ing. The preserved remains were found encrusted on a clench frame nail (no. 109) on the port side, to the E of the gaming board, and to a small loop attachment (no. 135), believed to belong to the shield. The clench nail contains three layers of cloth, the lowest (closest to the clench nail) being of a fine quality material. The two others of Fig. 5. Knife (374). Object length: 15.3 cm. very fine quality, made from plant matter. The fragment on the loop attachment is Drawing by R. Pulcins. also of very fine quality plant fibres (see below). Naturally, we cannot establish whether the textile fragments originate from a single piece of cloth. They were located c. 0.75 m apart and on different levels. The clench nail was found high on the boat’s side, while the mount lay at the bottom of the boat. Considering the uppermost fragments on the clench nail, it is possible that they are the remains of a cover over the dead person. If they were associated with the fragment on the loop attachment, it is likely that this fell into the boat with the disintegration of the shield.

23 24 VALSGÄR DE 14

The grave goods The weapons found in the grave consist of a sword, a spear/lance and a shield. The sword is 94.5 cm long with short, relatively high crossbars and a small triangular pommel (figs. 6, 7). Remains of both coniferous and deciduous wood were found preserved on the handle. The deciduous wood is likely from the cover of the grip, while the coniferous wood probably originates from the bucket, which lay partly on top of the sword handle. On the sword, additional remains of bone and wood were found. The sword belongs to Petersen’s type B. Jan Petersen knew of 20 Norwegian swords, most of which had been found in western Norway (Petersen 1919, p. 61ff.). Furthermore,Holger Arbman has established the western distribution of the type and states that it is spread all over northwestern Europe (Arbman 1937, p. 217f., note 2). In Sweden, swords of type B are rare – they are not found in Birka, nor in the material from the province of Västmanland documented by Henry Simonsson (1969, table 5–6). A small number are documented from the provinces of Uppland and Gästrikland, as are a few from Gotland (WKG I, Abb. 169a; WKG II, Taf. 217, 231; Nerman 1958, p. 130, wrongly suggests that the number is high, which has been quoted by other scholars). Beyond the area almost devoid of B-type swords in eastern Nor- way and Sweden, the type resurfaces in Fin- land (sometimes designated as type C), where Ella Kivikoski (1973, Abb. 828) has documented Fig. 6. Sword (500). more than 20 examples. Object length: 94.5 cm. The B-swords have been dated by Jan Peters- Drawing by R. Pulcins. en to the end of the 8th century, possibly with a continuation into the beginning of the Viking Age (Petersen 1919, p. 62f.; see also Jørgensen 1999, p. 73ff., Abb. 111, 115). The same dating is established by Helmer Fig. 7. Photo of the Salmo (1938, p. 110f.) for the Finnish swords. sword (500). Object length: 94.5 cm. Photographer: Unknown. The contents of the grave 25

Fig. 8. Spear/lance (523). Fig. 9. Photo of Object length: 31 cm. the spear/lance (523). Drawing by R. Pulcins. Photographer: Unknown.

The sturdy blade of the spear/lance head is ridged and has evenly curved edges (figs. 8, 9). The socket is short; on one side, there is a small hole from a nail, with a possible counterpart at the diametrically opposite side. Wooden remains from inside of the socket have been established as oak. The lance head had rested on the lid to a chest. The spear/lance head could best be compared to Rygh 522 (Rygh 1885), but has no close correspondence in Petersen. Its nearest equivalent is Petersen’s type A or B, 26 VALSGÄR DE 14 but without furrows or wings on the socket. Both are dated to the beginning of the Viking Age or earlier (Petersen 1919, p. 22f.; Gjessing 1934, p. 55ff.). In Sweden, type A/B is rare. In the Birka material, as discussed by Lena Thå- lin-Bergman, the A-type possibly exists in one specimen found in grave Bj. 942. The difficulty in deciding the type is evident in the fact that she has classified four additional spearheads as alternating type A, C or C/D (Thålin-Bergman 1986b, p. 15f., tab. 3:1; 2005, p. 53f., tab. 12). Type B does not exist in Birka (Thålin-Berg- man 1986b, p. 16, note 2). For the remaining parts of Uppland and Västmanland, in addition to our specimen from Valsgärde, Henry Simonsson has only documented 2 uncertain stray finds from Lundby Parish and Skultuna Parish, Västmanland (Si- monsson 1969, tab. 6 and 5). According to Bergljot Solberg’s classification of spearheads, our specimen would belong to her type VI.2A (Solberg 1984, fig. 10). She points out (p. 56) that the variant is not present in Petersen’s material, but that it most closely corresponds to Petersen’s type C (p. 157). In Norway, the variant only exists in seven specimens. Three of these have been found together with swords of Petersen’s type H, M and O, dateable to the time between 800 and the first half of the 10th century (Petersen 1919, pp. 99f., 120 and 131; Solberg 1984, p. 62). In any case, both Swedish spearhead combinations in grave Bj. 942 in Birka and in Valsgärde burial 14 indicate a dating to the beginning of the 9th century. In the former, a sword and a pair of stirrups were found. The sword is classified by Thålin-Bergman as a special variant or as Petersen’s type D (1986a, tab. 1:1; 2005, tab. 3), which is dated by Petersen (1919, p. 71f.) to the Early Viking Age. The stirrups can be dated to Late Vendel Period/ Early Viking Age (Forsåker 1986, pp. 123, 126). A small number of type A spear heads exist, also dated to the transition between the Merovingian and Viking periods (Salmo 1938, p. 248ff.).

Theshield had been placed on the boat’s starboard side, as indicated by the fact that the shield boss stood on its edge with the vaulting towards the centre of the boat. The shield boss is highly vaulted with a marked high neck and a narrow rim with five nails/clench nails (figs. 10, 11). It belongs to Rygh’s type 564 (Rygh 1885) which has been dated by Jan Petersen (1919, p. 47) to the earliest part of the Viking Age. This type of shield boss is also present in Valsgärde 2 together with a shield handle, a spearhead, a mount for a horse collar and rattles of types that are usually dated to the Early Viking Age. The burial is tentatively dated by Magnus Dyfverman to c. 900 (1929, p. 170ff.). Such shield bosses have also been found in several of the Birka graves, both in those that can be dated to the Early Viking Age and in those that are dated to the Late Viking Age (Arwidsson 1984, tab. 36:1, 32:2). In one of the graves, a further boss of Rygh’s type 562 was found. Vendel IX, which is dated to the 10th century, also contains two shield bosses, one of type 564, the other of type The contents of the grave 27

Fig. 10. Shield boss (150). Object length/with: 16.8 × 14.4 cm. Drawing by R. Pulcins.

Fig. 11. Photo of the shield boss (150). Photographer: Unknown.

563 (Stolpe & Arne 1912, pl. XXIV). However, it is uncertain whether the boss in Vendel II is of type 564 (pl. XI), since the text states (p. 19) that only a few fragments of its central area has been preserved. The shield has had three folded mounts placed around the rim. On both flat sides and in its transsection, mount no. 361 shows a c. 1.3 cm wide enhancement on both sides of the rim. Judging by the mount’s measurements, the shield board was 0.6 cm thick and the strengthened rim was 0.7 cm thick. Instead, both other mounts (nos 121 and 143) have an expansion on only one side (fig. 12). Greta Arwidsson (1986b, p. 40) suggests different ways in which such an enhancement has been made, either as a left rim in the wood or as an enhancement laid on top. It is of course possible that a chisel has gouged out the ends of each board or part of the shield, but if an edging has been fastened on top of the shield board, there ought to be more mounts to secure it. Considering the small number of rim mounts that exist in most 28 VALSGÄR DE 14 cases, and with reference to the different design of the mounts in the present case, it seems more likely that they have been used for repairs. It is difficult to establish the diameter of the shield. The distance between two of the edge mounts was c. 1 m, but since the shield leaned against the boat’s side, the wood’s decomposition has deformed it and the boss and mounts have changed their positions. Two mounts (fig. 12) found in the area around the shield boss were possibly mounted on the shield. One is triangular with rhomboid shapes in openwork. It has been fastened to a wooden surface using tacks with rounded heads. Judging by the Fig. 12. Radiograph pictures of flat mounts from the shield (140, 304). Object length: X-ray photo, the second seems to consist of 3.5 cm (140), 11 cm (304). a trapezoid frame, also in openwork, but only vaguely visible. Although there is a large time difference, they are reminiscent of mounts on Vendel Period shields such as in Valsgärde 7 (Arwidsson 1977, Abb. 45). Two small loop attachments (nos 57, 135), lying c. 0.4 m apart, were probably attachments for a strap on the back of the shield. Valsgärde 8 contains a mount on one of the shields that Greta Arwidsson presumes to belong to a strap for the shield when it was not in use (Arwidsson 1954, p. 60f), and in Birka graves Bj. 644, 727, 736 and 886, rings with staples lay at the sides of the shield bosses. Holger Arbman interpreted these as being used for fastening a shield-strap (“zum Festmachen des Schildriemens”, “Riemenhalter”, “Trageringe”; Arbman 1943, pp. 224, 252, 259, 344; Arwidsson 1986b, p. 41f.). In the present case, it seems possible that the loop attachments secured a strap for the arm, in order to relieve the pressure from the shield when holding the handle. However, no traces remained of the shield handle. No pointed nails or clench nails in the vincinity of the boss can be associated with a handle. The case is similar in most of the Birka graves. Only a small number of shield handles can be identified here through metal mounts (Arwidsson 1986 b, p. 40f., see also p. 43). Since our shield boss has five clench nails/pointed nails in its rim, which cannot have formed a line across the board, it is not possible to establish whether these functioned as attachments for a handle. The contents of the grave 29

The shield in Valsgärde 14 was probably produced from spruce; the wood from one of the fittings and on one of the rim mounts (nos 57 and 143 respectively) has been established as spruce, and as coniferous wood on two rim mounts and the rhomboid openwork mount (nos 121, 361 and 304). The wooden fibres are in a lengthwise direction on the fitting, and diagonal on the openwork mount. On the rim mount 121, the fibre direction is across the mount; on the mounts 143 and 361, the direction is from the folded side towards the shield. No remains of leather from a shield cover can be discerned; it is possible that a few small tacks that appeared during conservation of the shield boss helped secure such a cover.

On the port side of the boat, across from the shield and between two of the vessel’s ribs, the remains of an object marked by clench nails and some pointed nails formed a c. 55 × 45 cm square. At one of the sides, a small ring with a staple was found. The level figures indicate that the object leaned on the side of the boat. At first sight, it seems as if the object is a chest. However, the sides of a chest are nailed to the bottom, but in the present case, clench nails have been used, which makes a chest construction impossible, demanding another explanation. It is likely that the square marks a gaming board (fig. 13), with the clench nails serving to fasten a frame to the board’s upper side.

Fig. 13. Gaming board. Object length/with: c. 55 × 45 cm. Drawing by A. Grenberger. 30 VALSGÄR DE 14

A couple of Hjalmar Stolpe’s “chests” from some of the graves in Birka have been analysed by Dagmar Selling (1940, p. 134ff.). They also contain clench nails in a square, which she interprets as gaming boards with a clench nailed frame. The interpretation is supported by the iron fittings that were positioned in the corners, a design that we do not have in the present case (Selling 1940, figs. 2, 4). Grave Bj. 886 also contained remains of an iron rib, which Dagmar Selling suggests had been placed across the underside of the board. In our case, this could correspond to the nails across the rectangle, which may then have secured a wooden rib beneath the scarf between two halves of the board. The small ring, which also has a counterpart in grave 886, was perhaps used to hang the board on the wall (Selling 1940, p. 138). The Birka burials with gaming boards also contain gaming pieces. The presence of gaming pieces would support the suggestion of a gaming board, but there are no traces of such objects here. This might sound peculiar but one must bear in mind that the preservation conditions for bone are very poor in this grave. This situation is also the case in the Ladby ship, where the presence of corner fittings similarly suggests the presence of a gaming board (Thorvildsen 1957, p. 86, fig. 75; Sørensen 2001, p. 102). A number of the clench nails and pointed nails contain remains of wood. On three of these (nos 309, 310, 356), the direction of the fibres vary between plate and head, i.e. they had fastened two layers of wood with different fibre directions, while the fibres on nails 17, 27 and 242, found across the centre of the square, are in one direction on the whole nails. This is a natural consequence if the row of nails marks a scarf between two boards, enhanced by a band laid along the scarf. The wood has been analysed in three cases: as birch on no. 25, rowan on no. 309 and deciduous wood on no. 206. The material on the ring has been established as oak, which could possibly originate from the boat.

Next to the spearhead lay parts of a chest; this had been placed across the boat with the lock facing the deceased. The parts consist of nails, a staple, mounts for the lid and a lock with a large lock-sheet and clasp (fig. 14). The nails formed a rectangle c. 25 × 80 cm (some of them had fallen from the back of the chest). The nails are presumed to have joined the sides of the chest with the bottom. Each corner is clearly marked by a pair of nails or three nails together. The sides lack metal mounts and may have been plugged or dovetailed together. Both lock mounts are ribbon-shaped with transversal wooden fibres on the underside. They seem to have extended across the entire lid from the back of the chest to the edge of its front. One mount consists of an iron band, measuring 27 cm long and 1.8 cm wide, one end of which finished in a loop that forms a joint of a hinge. On the back of the chest, a short folded mount with a loop ending is soldered to the loop of the lid mount. Together they form a hinge. One of the nails in the band, which at 2.8 cm in length seems to have The contents of the grave 31

Fig. 14. Chest mounts (518, 520, 521, 550, 553–556, 562, 565, 567, 570, 577, 578, 583–586, 588, 593, 600, 612, 614, 2 without nos, 592, 595–599, 606?, 607?, 601, 602, 605). Object length/with: c. 25 × 80 cm. Drawing by A. Grenberger.

Fig. 14b. Iron band (596, 599). Object length: 27 cm. Drawing by A. Grenberger.

Fig. 14a. Mount (595). Object length: 10.3 cm. Drawing by A. Grenberger.

Fig. 14c. Iron rod (605). Object length: 6.2 cm. Drawing by A. Grenberger. 32 VALSGÄR DE 14

been preserved in its entirety, provides the smallest thickness of the lid. The mount on the other side of the lid was smashed and lay in pieces in a small pile. It could be established that it had been mended at one stage. Parts of the band have the same width as the one mentioned above, but the piece closest to the hinge is 2.6 cm wide, and the mount at the back of the chest is a short piece of metal sheet with a loop. The shape of the loops hooking into each other also differs between the two mounts (fig. 15). One of the narrow mounts is bent at right angles and could have been folded over the front edge of the lid. The total length of the parts of the mount Fig. 15. Chest mounts is c. 43 cm, i.e. longer than the rough measurements of the chest. The difference is (601, 602). Drawing by A. Grenberger. too great for an explanation that the lid has overshot the front of the chest and it is also contradicted by the clasp’s right-angled profile. Considering the mend, perhaps parts of the iron band served to reinforce the underside of the lid. The clasp (figs. 16, 19) is made from an iron rod, bent at right angles. One end has been nailed to the lid. The other end is pointed; owing to the rust it is impossible to see whether it featured any particular design. At the back of the point, there is a rectangular loop attachment for the lock pin. The lock consists of a large lock sheet with a keyhole and a slit for the clasp. A lock-bolt and a lock-spring with three prongs are at the back; thus the key would

Fig. 16a. Clasp from the chest (602). Object length/with: 9.1 × 7.7 cm. Drawing by A. Grenberger.

Fig. 16b. Iron band (592). Object length/with: 30.3 × 2.0 cm. Drawing by A. Grenberger. The contents of the grave 33

Fig. 17a, b. Lock (601). Object length/with: 19.7 × 7.9 cm. Drawing by A. Grenberger. have had three tines. Only one hole for a tine can not be discerned. (Regarding locks, see Almgren 1955, p. 33f. with figs; Berg, Christensen jr & Liestøl 1966, p. 48ff. with figs; see also Arbman 1940, Taf. 260, 264, 265.) A piece of the lock-pin has been preserved on one side, but on the other side, at the clasp slit, no traces remain; thus it must have been broken off before the chest was placed in the grave (fig. 17). The chest was already old and in bad shape when deposited. This is clearly indicated both by the repair on one of the lid mounts and by the fact that the lock was broken and non-functional. Studies of preserved wood from three pieces of mount sheet and four nails establish that the chest is made from oak. The key (figs. 18, 19) found in the grave is made from iron and has a flat loop- shaped handle with a node at the transition to the three-tined bit. It does not seem

Fig. 19. Photo of key (613) and lock (601). Photographer: Unknown. Fig. 18. Key (613). Object length: 10 cm. Drawing by A. Grenberger. 34 VALSGÄR DE 14

to fit the lock in the chest; it was not found in the vicinity of the chest, but lay in the area where one would assume that the buried person was placed. It is possible that they carried the key on their person and that it was thus part of their personal equipment. The chest probably contained a very small flint shard and three iron objects, a type of spikes, which at first sight look like crampons. However, they have a different construction when compared to the usual type. They consist of a c. 3 cm long plate with a peak and a tack at each end,. In an article about the gaming boards in Birka, where such objects have been found in graves Bj. 588 and 624, in the latter together with mounts for a gaming board, Dagmar Selling suggests that these spikes may have been the feet for gaming boards (Selling 1940, p. 141f., fig. 5). However, in our case, they have no contact with the gaming board, and with their small size they can hardly have been feet for the chest. The question is whether they may have been crampons after all. It is possible that they had been hammered into and clench nailed on the inside of a wooden shoe, but in that case without the heightened clamps used in later periods (Jäfvert 1938, pl. 9). The plates and tacks contain remains of wooden fibres stretching across the plates. The wood has been determined as oak. The chest also contained a crampon of a common shape, made from a band with the ends folded over. One suggestion for how such spikes may have been secured to a rib or cord and tied to the foot with cords has been posed by Ingemar Atterman (1935, p. 152ff.). A small round pebble was found during conservation of the lump with the lock, immediately behind the lock-sheet. It is naturally impossible to say whether it belonged to the grave goods or just happened to end up there.

Thebucket (fig. 20) comprised an iron handle with attachments, enclosing iron hoops with a triangular transsection, vertical uprights made from flat iron ribbons and wood, both as fibres corroded to the iron parts and as stray fragments. The vessel had collapsed so that the parts lay in two layers on top of each other. Some of the hoops are deformed, making it highly likely that the vessel has been hit by a falling boulder. Parts of the vessel lay on the sword (fig. 21). Since it is unlikely that the vessel has been placed on top of the sword, its position could be explained as that it originally stood on a thwart, the position of which is indicated by the frame clench nails by

Fig. 20. Bucket (388–408, 501, 502). Drawing by A. Grenberger. The contents of the grave 35

Fig. 21. The position of the bucket, partly on top of the sword hilt. Photo by B. Schönbäck. the boat’s gunwale. The bucket may have contained a drink that had been placed at a convenient distance from the deceased. The bucket’s handle has a round transsection and its ends are folded back and rolled up. The handle attachments are loop-shaped with a round transsection, tapering off into flat attachments that have been hammered thin to be beaten into the upper edge of the vessel, indicating that the staves were fairly thick. The uprights had been attached to the wood with small tacks with flat heads and bent across the horizontal bands, thus keeping them in place. One of the tacks that has been completely preserved is 1.1 cm long and is thus an indicator of the smallest thickness of the vessel. As a rule, wood that has corroded onto the metal parts should have its fibres in a direction across the enclosing bands and along the uprights. Uprights 402 and 405 with transverse wood diverge from this, as does no. 403, which has wood both along and across on different fragments. A ribbon – most of these have no wood attached – has fibres that were directed along the ribbon next to the handle. Both this ribbon and the uprights with the “wrong” fibre direction could indicate that beneath the iron ribbon, the vessel had a wooden ribbon around the opening, perhaps a wicker to hold the staves in place. At the outermost band towards the vessel’s base, a bent metal ribbon (no. 408) was found. One longer side is bent at right angles toward the convex side, which had remains of wood across the sheet. It was probably fastened to the inside of the 36 VALSGÄR DE 14 staves and was bent over an edge in order to strengthen on the inside of the “base ring” which was created by the part of the staves that extended beyond the base of the vessel. Among the flat metal ribbons we also found one that was bent in a circular segment shape, without any wooden remains. Unfortunately, it has lost its identity and thus we cannot say where it was found. Its diameter is smaller than the triangular bands, but it is difficult to estimate its measurements. Perhaps it has strengthened the inside of the vessel (see e.g. Birka 560, Arbman 1940–1943, Taf. 209, p. 180; see also Arwidsson & Holmquist 1984, p. 237ff.). The bucket has had four horizontal c. 0.9 cm wide bands, and perhaps three, possibly four uprights, each c. 1 cm wide. The height of the vessel is difficult to- de termine, but judging by how it was positioned in the grave, it would have been c. 18 cm high. Neither is it easy to establish whether its shape had been completely cylin- drical or whether it was tapered inwards towards the opening, since the horizontal bands are in pieces and in several cases also more or less deformed. Considering these uncertain factors, the diameter has been estimated as between 22 and 24 cm. The cord measurement of the handle is possibly less, which would mean that the width of the vessel decreased towards its rim. The wood on the metal parts has only been determined as coniferous, but between bands 396 and 397 fragments of wood were recovered that have been determined as yew. Yew vessels have been found in the Oseberg ship burial (Grieg 1928, pp. 153, 155). At Birka, it has been possible to determine the wood on three buckets – one was made from birch and two from oak (Arwidsson & Holmquist 1984, p. 238). There are no objects made from yew in the diversified collection of wooden objects in grave 75 at Tuna in Badelunda, in the province of Västmanland, nor in the boat grave at Årby, Rasbokil parish, Uppland (Nylén & Schönbäck 1994, p. 124; Arbman 1940, p. 63ff.). It should be pointed out that the yew tree is common in Uppland, especially in the Roslagen area.

Along the port side gunwale, two dog leashes (figs. 22, 23) were found. Both measured slightly over 1 m long and lay c. 60 cm apart. The dogs were preserved only as slight colourations in the soil. The leashes’ position in relation to the clench frame nails indicate that the dogs had each been placed on a thwart. Both leashes consist of twelve oval iron links, connected in the centre. At one end of the chains, there is a ring with a folded mount, and at the other, a swivel hook. The folded-over mount has been the attachment of a leather thong that formed the continuation of the leash and led to the hand. The collars are both marked by a buckle each with a double strap mount. The swivel hooks have been hooked onto the collars, but there are no mounts onto which they could have been fastened, which is The contents of the grave 37

Fig. 22. Dog leash in situ (336). Photo by B. Schönbäck.

also the case for other leashes. The collars were 2.4 and 2.3 cm wide and the leather parts of the leashes have been 1.5 – 1.8 and 1.7 cm wide respectively. Dog leashes have had different forms during different peri- Fig. 23. Photo of the two dog leashes (336, 447). ods. The preserved metal parts Photographer: Unknown. have either consisted of stave- shaped links, soldered together through eyelets, or of figure eight-shaped links, either folded over or straight (Stolpe & Arne 1912, pl. XXI, XXXII; Arwidsson 1942, Taf. 29; 1954, Taf 23; 1977, Taf. 25). Leashes with stave-shaped links do not seem to have existed in the Viking Age. It may be difficult to separate link-form dog leashes from halter chains as it is -of ten only the object’s position in the grave that enables it to be identified. This is clear in, for example, the Vendel VII grave with leashes next to a couple of dogs (Stolpe & Arne 1912, pl. XXI: 10–12, XLIX), while the chains in Vendel VI, VIII and IX lay next to the horses’ heads and thus are categorized as halter chains (pl. XVIII:3, 38 VALSGÄR DE 14

XXII:7–8, XXV:7-XXVI:1, XLVII, L). The same is valid for a halter chain in Valsgärde 15 and a dog leash in Valsgärde 28 (fig. 24). Vendel VII has been dated to the second half of the 8th century, or to c. 800 (Stolpe & Arne 1934, p. 71; however, see diverging datings for Vendel Period boat graves in Uppland in Arrhenius 1983, fig. 6). Despite the presence of dogs in some of the graves in Tuna/Alsike, in many of the cremation graves in Birka as well as in Tuna/Badelunda (Arne 1934; Arwidsson 1989, p. 145; Iregren 1994, p. 205) no remains of dog leashes have been found. It may be presumed that leashed dogs were especially valuable, which may be indicated by the position of the dogs in Valsgärde 14 within the deceased’s private area, or that leashed dogs had a special function (see e.g. Sundkvist 2001, p. 179ff., fig. 7:6). In Norway, a number of dog leashes have previously been thought to be cauldron hooks. However, Jan Petersen has distinguished between chains and chains with strap-ends, which for obvious reasons cannot have been cauldron hooks (Petersen 1951, p. 411ff.). Sigurd Grieg sees many more or less fragmentary iron chains from Oseberg as dog leashes (Grieg 1928, p. 248f., fig. 158). However, based on their position in the grave next to horse bones, at least two of these should be termed remains of halter chains. Among objects from the grave in Gjermundbu was found a composite iron chain that Grieg (1947, p. 8f., pl. XII-XIII) considers to be a cauldron hook. The object (fig. 25) consists of three chains fastened to a three-sided divider link, to which one of the chains are secured with a swivel hook. The other two chains are fastened to the divider without this spacer but have swivel hooks at their respective endings that pass into to an open link. The swivels have no function in a cauldron hook. However, it seems likely that the object is a leash for two dogs. It can be compared to a similar design for a dog leash found in the Ladby ship (Thorvildsen 1957, p. 50ff., figs. 32–35, table 1; Sørensen 2001, pp. 94f., 180ff.). This consisted of leather cords, which, according to a reconstruction, were gathered in different places and finish in a gilt-bronze mount. Below, the leash divides into four cords that each finishes in a ring that was connected through a swivel hook to an oval link. This way, the leash could lead four dogs, but it is possible that there was room for an additional dog (Thorvildsen 1957, p. 50, note 1). Two rhomboid gilt-bronze mounts were probably part of one of the collars (p. 50, table 1). The leash’s rich design is one of a kind in the Nordic material and supports the view that leashed dogs were considered special.

Fig. 24. Dog leash from Valsgärde grave 28. Drawing by R. Pulcins. The contents of the grave 39

Fig. 25. Chains from Gjermundbu I, interpreted as a cauldron chain, but most likely is a dog leash (after Grieg 1947, pl. XII–XIII). 40 VALSGÄR DE 14

The horse The entire forward part of the boat – from the screened-off area for the deceased to the stem – contained the remains of a horse and rich equipment for one or more riding- or draught horses. The larger part of the horse skeleton was very badly preserved; the rear part was mostly visible only as a colouration of the soil and the remaining body had disintegrated. The only parts that were somewhat better preserved were some bones from the extremities, some fragments of ribs and the jaws with teeth. Based on the position of the jaws, it seems that the horse lay with its back towards the port side. However, this makes it difficult to discern how the extremities were positioned. In their fragmentary condition with what seems to be joints and a hoof bone and the position of the crampons, it would instead seem that the horse has had its back towards the starboard side. Another possibility is that it was laid down on its belly, and that the head has later fallen to the side. Seven (eight?) crampons lay by the horse, three (four?) of these by the hind legs and an additional one somewhat to the rear of these, while three lay by the forelegs. On five of these, the shanks are bent inwards, i.e. they have been nailed into the hoofs, while they are broken off on the remainder and thus cannot be determined.

The horse equipment In front of the horse two buckles were found, one simple and fairly rough, the other small and thin (fig. 26). Together with a small buckle by the neck, these could have been part of a halter that was used to lead the horse into the grave. A bridle was also found in the grave, laid on top of the horse’s body (fig. 27). This consists of a bit with strap-end mounts fastened to it, 18 rectangular plates and small silver caps fastened to leather cords, c. 2 cm wide, two strap-end mounts folded around cords, a square mount consisting of two bronze sheets clench nailed onto each side of a cord, loose silver caps in two different sizes, two buckles, two hooks with mounts or pendants with hooks and four additional mounts/pendants with one end rolled up into a spiral. In addition part of a horsehair braid, i.e. the remains of the mane, lay together with the bridle. The bridle was thus laid across the neck or mane. The bridle bit is double-jointed with a round transsection and has a small ring at each end, also with a round transsection. Each ring has two cubical bronze mounts Fig. 26. Two buckles found by the horse head (the yellow bronze colour is preserved) that encircle the ring. The bit is fastened into (760, 860). Object length/ one half of the ring; the other has two folded iron strap-end mounts with a bronze width: Unspecified (760), sheet metal on one side, also with a yellow bronze colour. The outer, wider ends have 4.7 × 3.6 cm (860). an ornamentation of a rectangular beaded frame of a white metal or with a surface thereof (silver?). Within the frame, there are three copper-coloured tacks, each en- The contents of the grave 41

Fig. 27. Headpiece with bridle (745, 746, 751, 753, 754, 758, 759, 761, 767–785, 787, 789, 793, 806, 807, 1255–1278, 1281, 1282, 750, 765, 766). Drawing by H. Faith-Ell. 42 VALSGÄR DE 14

Fig. 28. Bit with rings (1271). Drawing by H. Faith-Ell.

circled by a beaded ring of the same material as the outer frame (figs. 28, 29). The rectangular plates are fastened to the cords of the headpiece. They consist of a bevelled frame with curved sides between six clench nails that secured the mounts to the sidebars (fig. 30). A few of the loose silver caps were probably the heads of the clench nails, surrounded by a beaded frame, while the others decorated the cords between the mounts, as can be seen in some instances where they have been preserved intact. The frames of the mounts are made from bronze with a white metal overlay or, according to the conservation notes by Allan Fridell, from a white metal. Placed inside the frames, are very thin em- bossed foils of gilt-bronze with a beaded edge (according to the notes by Allan Fridell, the gold may be a thin gold sheet). The sheets are ornamented with two drawn-out animal figures with beaded bodies and extremities, wall-eyed heads and three-toed paws in gripping-beast style (fig. 31). Thus, this was a colourful rich bridle that would have shone with colours of gold, silver, bronze and copper. At the back of the sidebars, additional leather has been Fig. 29. Photo of the bit with rings (1271). sewn onto the cords. Regarding this leather, I here quote Photographer: Unknown. The contents of the grave 43

Fig. 30. Mount for headpiece. Object length: 4.7 cm. Drawing by H. Faith-Ell.

Fig. 31. Ornamentation on reverse side mount for headpiece. Photographer: A. Fridell.

from the careful conservation notes by Allan Fridell (the figures cited in this description do not correspond to the figures in this publication):

Vgd. 14:1262 and 1265 Leather remains beneath the mounts …At the back of the cord, an additional cord has been sewn on – a sort of “lining” – see fig. b. In the magnifying glass, the sewn-on lining seems to be folded according to transsection c – which, however, must be seen as uncertain! However, it is clearly visible beneath the magnifier that a fragment of the thread with which the lining has been sewn: [=x and blue at fig. a]. The ending of the fragment can also be seen at the back – “the lining” [at x, blue dot fig. b]. Further observations were made after the cord’s folding had been straightened out. After a very careful cleaning, the “lining” proved to consist of rectangular pieces of leather somewhat longer than the mount, and these have been sewn onto the back of the cord to cover the clench nails [the plates, if such existed], and have thus formed a soft, non-abrasive surface. One such almost completely preserved “piece of lining” remains – only one shorter side is missing! Stitching holes are still preserved on this “lining”: on the longer sides in pairs, on the short side, however, only a few. (See fig. e, where yellow marks the cord, red “lining”, green clench nail from the metal mount and blue at x the piece of thread mentioned above x at fig. a and b.). Barely visible stitching holes have been marked ? on fig. e. The parts where there are possible traces of the remains of the “lining” have been marked in a slight reddish sketching on the yellow cord. No absolutely determinable remains of thread has been established in the stitching holes on the “lining” side. Neither can it be ascertained whether … the nail between the two metal mounts (see fig. a) has had a 44 VALSGÄR DE 14

similar coating as the metal mounts. It could possibly have been lacking such a “coat of lining” since the “coats of lining” of both the mounts have been thick enough that the clench nail fastening the nail would never had come into contact with the skin. The suggestion that the lining has been folded has been strengthened during the preparation and thus at fig. e the outer edges of the leather would be upwards at x (this would be the reason for why the thread x is still fastened to the lower layer). Note! Only clearly and in a few cases very likely stitching holes (marked?) have been marked at fig. e. Additional holes could of course exist, but owing to the shrinking of the leather, they have been erased. However, on the front side of the cord (sketch a, where stitching holes and possible remains of thread have been marked in a yellowish brown hue) remains of thread fragments have been observed. They are not firmly pressed into the leather and are best seen under a magnifying glass. See also the compilation at sketch g. …

Valsgärde 14: 1258. Leather remains beneath the mount …At the back, fairly brittle remains of a possible “lining” can be observed (on sketch B marked with a reddish hue). On the as yet un-conserved piece of leather, the “lining” appears in a reddish-brown colour, which clearly differentiates it from the brownish-black of the cord. No delimitation of the “lining” can be established on the shorter sides – the “lining” seems to go across the entire leather fragment. The clear limit on one of the shorter sides that could be observed on 14:1265 cannot be noted here (the “lining” fragment is too badly preserved). On both the front and the back (sketches A and B), both thread fragments and stitching holes can be observed (on the sketches marked in a bluish black colour). A thread fragment (at a, sketch B) (seen through a magnifying glass in a good light) not has a saturated red colour. … In the same box, there are additional leather fragments. Two larger and more interesting of these are illustrated on sketches I-II. Both these fragments are made from fairly thin leather, and would have formed the so-called “lining”. Here, several stitching holes are clearly visible on both. On sketch 1, a fold at the upper edge can be noted (the folded part is marked in a darker brownish red hue). On sketch II the yellowish hue denotes leather remains pressed onto the “leather lining” (=red), but which probably not belonged to the fragment. Similarly, it cannot be determined whether the remains at the back (=dark brown hue) are connected to the fragment. Some stitching holes can also be observed on two barely 1 cm large fragments. On one of these, the edge (close to the stitching holes) folded over. …

Vgd. 14:1260 Leather remains beneath the mount Beneath the mount, a c. 4 cm long fragment of the leather cord remained. … No remains of any “lining” can be found on this fragment. Neither can … any thread fragment not stitching hole be observed….

Thus, an extra layer of leather has been sewn on to the sidebars of the headpiece to protect the horse from abrasions from the clench nails on the mounts. In one case, The contents of the grave 45

Allan Fridell could establish that this leather had been cut between mounts 1262 and 1265. Judging by this single example, the lining would have been limited to every single mount, and did not consist of one continuous piece. Double cords have also been seen on bridles in Valsgärde 6 and 8 (Arwidsson 1942, p. 57; 1954, p. 71), and the headpiece in Birka grave Bj. 832 also has double cords (Arwidsson 1986a, p. 138). It is clear on the bridle from the ship burial in Borre that thin leather had been sewn onto the back of the cords of the headpiece; in this case, a single cord ran beneath several mounts (Brøgger 1916, p. 11, fig. 13). We could also compare strap mounts from grave 1 at Prästgården, Gamla Uppsala, where each mount has been fastened onto a piece of leather, and where all individual units were likely were fastened to a common surface, perhaps in that particular case one made of textile (Nordahl 2001, p. 21f.). The headpiece also includes two folded strap-end mounts made of silver sheets with remains of leather cords. However, no buckles, through which these strap- ends would have run, were found. Nevertheless, a small iron buckle with a strap mount lay at the edge of the collection of mounts that should denote the rear side of the bridle; it was most likely part of the throat lash. At this side of the bridle an additional mount of unknown function was found. It consists of two square bronze sheets clench nailed on to each side of a leather cord in one layer. Two small additional objects, pendants or hooks belonged to the bridle. They are made from iron and consist of long narrow plates with a hook in one end (nos 758, 807; fig. 27). One is very badly preserved, but on the other can a sheet made from another type of metal, possible some sort of white metal be observed. It was clench nailed onto the plate. One of the two objects was found at the rear part of the bridle while the other appeared among the bridle parts clustered by the bit. Next to the bridle mounts, four iron objects were found. These were flat triangular metal sheets with one corner elongated and rolled up ends (nos 751, 753/759, 754, 806; fig. 32). All four have been broken off at the wider end, to which the remains of a ring are Fig. 32. Iron objects (751, 753/759, 754, 806) at the horse’s fore- fastened. One flat side of legs. Object’s length: 4–6 cm. Drawing by H. Faith-Ell. 46 VALSGÄR DE 14

Fig. 33. Mount for a headpiece from Valsgärde 3. Drawing by H. Faith-Ell.

each seems to have been given a type of surface treatment. The different pieces cannot be fitted together and their function is unknown. Perhaps they formed pendants on the bridle or were part of some harness, the presence of which is indicated by tow-hooks and yoke mounts. With variations in both shape and ornamentation, the bridle mounts have counterparts in several places in Sweden. They have been found in boat grave 3 in Valsgärde (fig. 33), in cremation grave Bj. 10 in Birka (Hallström & Stolpe 1913, p. 13, figs. 18–19; Arbman 1940, Taf. 28:5), a fragment in a cremation grave at Hovgården on Adelsö (Rydh 1936, p. 79, fig. 195), in a cremation grave in Ulvsunda, Bromma, Stockholm (fig. 34; Tillväxten 1941, p. 54, fig. 4; Androshchuk 2005, fig. 2), a mount in a cremation grave at Linga, Överjärna parish, the province of Södermanland (Schnittger 1912, p. 23f., figs. 12–17); further, on Gotland in a cremation grave at Barshalder, Grötlingbo parish (Trotzig 1968, p. 47ff., bild 2–4; WKG I, Abb. 39; The contents of the grave 47

Fig. 34. Mount for a headpiece from Ulvsunda, Bromma, Stockholm. The Swedish History Museum Inventory no. 22695. Photo ATA, Stockholm.

WKG IV:1, p. 267f.), in an inhumation grave at Broa, Halla parish (WKG I, Abb. 130; WKG IV:1, p. 329f.), a single mount in Fole parish (WKG II, Taf. 267:5; WKG IV:1, p. 193) as well as a collection of stray find mounts without site or registration code (WKG II, Taf. 266; WKG IV:2, p. 917). Some mounts with the same shape as the Swedish ones were also found in the Oseberg burial (Schetelig 1920, figs. 210– 211). In contrast to the mounts from Valsgärde 14, all the above-mentioned mounts have cast ornamentation. The mounts from Broa and Barshalder are made in an openwork design, while the others have a compact casting. Gilt-bronze metal sheets have been placed at the back of the openwork ones; the Barshalder mounts also have small metal strips for securing the mounts to cords (WKG IV:1, p. 267f.). The mounts from Birka have iron plates at the back (Arbman 1943, p. 2). In addition to these bridle mounts, a fibula has been found in Finland with the same outer form as the mounts from Valsgärde, Bromma and Oseberg, with gripping-beasts cast in openwork (Kivikoski 1973, p. 94, Taf. 77–687). This is probably 48 VALSGÄR DE 14 a mount that has been reworked into a brooch. Ella Kivikoski points out that the object is the only one of its kind in Finland.

The datings of the graves mentioned above are generally vague. However, some of them can be dated through find combinations. Boat grave 3 in Valsgärde, for example, contains glass gaming pieces and two yoke mounts from the 10th century. Among the finds in grave 9 at Hovgården lay two Nordic coins adapted to pendants that belong to Brita Malmer’s combination group 3, for which she suggests a dating of c. 825 (Malmer 1966, fynd 100, pp. 209, 280, 306). Grave Bj. 10 from Birka, which among other items contains some shards of a glass vessel, is dated by Holger Arb- man (1937, p. 36) to the 9th century and most likely to its early half. In addition to the bridle mounts, the burial in Ulvsunda contained 55 beads, most made of gold foil. Such beads occur both in the 9th and 10th centuries, possibly with some bias for the earlier dating. The grave at Överjärna also contained a type E spearhead and a rich sword of type D from the early Viking Age. Concerning the bridle mounts found on Gotland, the graves from Barshalder in Grötlingbo and Broa in Halla only contain undatable objects. When discussing the burial from Barshalder, Gustaf Trotzig speculated whether the mounts belong to different periods, but later decided that they are contemporaneous (Trotzig 1968, p. 54ff.). Thus, we can conclude that the burials in several cases only can be dated if the mounts are decorated in gripping-beast style or Borre style, while the remaining content is too diffuse to contribute to the dating of Valsgärde 14.

Next to the bridle lay two iron loop attachments with outward-curving triangular fastening plates, one of which has been completely preserved (fig. 35). They have been nailed onto a wooden surface with three pointed nails in each plate. The wood has been determined as maple and the fibres are directed along the attachments.

Fig. 35. Two iron loop attachments with outward-curvings (765, 766). Object with: 8.7 cm (765), 6.6 cm (766). Photographer: O. Lindman. The contents of the grave 49

Owing to their position among parts to driving equipment, it was immediately suggested that they form part of a yoke mount. They were found around the position of the horse’s withers, a plausible support for the theory that the yoke was worn by the horse at the funeral. However, nothing has been preserved that could tell us how the yoke was fastened to the horse. Similar simple loop attachments, made from both bronze and iron, have been found on several sites. The ones from Valsgärde could foremost be compared with some bronze mounts found in a cremation layer in a burial on a large cemetery at Berga/Folkesta in Tumbo parish, Södermanland, and which Holger Arbman iden- tifies as yoke mounts (Arbman 1929, p. 346, fig. 153). The burial is dated by Arbman to the early or middle part of the 9th century, who also notes (p. 346, note 4) that a bronze loop attachment from Birka grave Bj. 639 could be a yoke mount. Arbman (1940, Taf. 260: 5) illustrates this together with mounts for a box, but the text (1943, p. 217) indicates that this interpretation is very unlikely. This is supported by the fact that the wood of a box hardly corresponds with these 3 cm long nails, and also by the sloping fastening plates. Thus, Ar- bman’s first suggestion seems most likely. The grave in Birka can be dated to the 10th century. Jan Petersen publishes (1951, p. 456, fig. 243) a double loop attachment that he considers to be a box handle, but also in that case the definition can be doubted owing to the long nails. In addition, the strongly sloping fastening plates indicate that the attachment has been placed on a sloping surface, which would support the identification of a yoke mount. The loop attachment was found in a grave dated to the early half of the 9th century (Petersen 1951, p. 456). A special type of double loop attachment found in the province of Dalarna has been identified as yoke mounts (Serning 1966, p. 57, pl. 30:12, 40:22, 53:17, 102:11). These differ from the other mounts in their lack of fastening plates. In- stead, the shanks are sharpened so that they could be directly nailed into wood. Three of the four mounts are not part of large mixed collections of objects (Serning 1966, pp. 156, 160, 172) and the find circumstances for the fourth mount are un- clear (p. 226). In the province of Västmanland, U-shaped mounts are Fig. 36. U-shaped mounts from Kråkberg, simple iron loop attachments with sharpened shanks, often Mora parish, Dalarna (The Swedish History Museum Inventory no. 9789) and Insjöhamn appearing in pairs. Referring to a certain similarity with the (Ålbyn), Ål parish, Dalarna (The Swed- attachments from Dalarna (fig. 36), Henry Simonsson has ish History Museum Inventory no. 23066). pointed to the possibility that they had the same function, Photographer: Unknown. 50 VALSGÄR DE 14

Fig. 37. Two triangular loops (857, 895). Object length: 11.4 cm (857), Fig. 38. Photo of the two triangular loops 10.8 cm (895). Drawing by R. Pulcins. (857, 895). Photographer: Unknown.

i.e. yoke mounts (Simonsson 1969, p. 40, figs. 38, 40, 41). Those found in datable contexts can be dated to the 10th century. Märta Strömberg mentions these simple types of yoke mounts in two articles, (1965, p. 124; 1986, p. 146). In her later work, where she discusses the yoke mounts from Birka, she divides them into groups, A-C. Group C represents the simple loop attachments from Uppland, Västmanland and Dalarna. In addition, the above mentioned Norwegian mount can, if determined as a yoke mount, also be associated with this group.

Slightly forward from the horse’s head, two elongated triangular loops with a staple in the pointed end were found (figs. 37, 38). One of the staples indicates that the shanks were bent at right angles in opposite directions. Wooden remains on one of them show that they had been nailed to wood, 2 cm thick according to the dimensions of the preserved staple. Together with each loop lay a rectangular buckle with a folded strap-end mount. At the ends of the loops, the openings are 1.6 and 1.8.cm, while the inner openings in the buckles are 2.2 and 2.1 cm respectively. Similar loops have been found in boat graves in Vendel and Gamla Uppsala, as well as in Norway. Vendel IV contains four loops. Two of these lay at the shorter sides of an iron-mounted box and are undoubtedly carrying handles, while two lay next to the box (Stolpe & Arne 1912, pl. XV:9, XVI:6, XLVII). The latter two, hammered into iron sheets, are suggested (p. 25) to have been handles for an iron-mounted box. In addition, Vendel III contains two loops (pl. XIV:8, p. 22) of a different shape, that have also been nailed to an iron sheet; these were found together with various The contents of the grave 51 iron fragments as well as a buckle and a ring, both with strap-end mountings. The two loops in the badly damaged grave 2 in Gamla Uppsala were also nailed through flat iron sheets. In correspondence with the notion regarding the loops in Vendel, I have earlier presumed that they have formed handles for a box (Nordahl 2001, p. 37f., fig. 29), similar to Jan Petersen’s notion of the Norwegian loops (Petersen 1951, p. 454f., fig. 241). The fact that the loops are too narrow for grips would speak against this theory. In Valsgärde 14 the staples have not been nailed through iron sheets, but they are instead each associated with a buckle. In the vicinity were also found some 20 small tacks and pointed nails. Owing to the abovementioned circumstances, I have considered whether the loops were fastened to a saddle. The small tacks and nails could in that case have been part of a leather covering for the saddle. Triangular loops have also been found in graves in Germany together with other mounts, all of which were fastened to wood. In some cases, they had also been beaten through iron sheets secured to wood. The mounts appear in pairs in the graves here as well (Drescher 1961, p. 62ff., Abb. 1–3; Stein 1967, e.g. Taf. 13, 55, Abb. 59). In a thorough analysis, Hans Drescher has established that the wood, which in some cases was somewhat vaulted, was covered with leather, and that there are remains of leather cords in the loops. He concluded that all the varying mounts dis- ussed had previously been thought to be parts of either boxes or buckets. However, they could have been parts of saddles, and the triangular loops may have been used to fasten the saddle-girth (Drescher 1961, p. 69f.), which in that case would have been connected to the buckles in the graves. Drescher’s investigations beg the question as to whether the triangular loops in Vendel and Gamla Uppsala had also been attached to saddles. Considering the flat iron sheets through which they had been nailed, they must have been secured to a completely flat surface of the saddle. In Valsgärde, the loops are undoubtedly related to a buckle each. However, the width of the openings of the loops on the German ones (up to 3.5 cm) and the ones from Gamla Uppsala (c. 2.5 cm), the ones from Vendel (slightly over 2 cm) and the ones from Valsgärde 14 (only c. 1.6–1.8 cm) are far too small for a saddle girth, which must be much sturdier. The fact that the loops always appear in pairs could be interpreted as that two slimmer saddle girths have been used (in these matters I have consulted Erik Nylén). When I suggested that the triangular loops had been attached to a saddle, I im- agined a pack saddle where the loops had been nailed to either side of the saddle. A leather cord would have passed through the loop and been secured with the buckle around a pack on either side of the horse. A third suggestion could be that leather cords passed through the loops, which were then hooked onto the buckles in order to function as stirrups. However, in both latter cases, all traces of a saddle girth are lost. 52 VALSGÄR DE 14

Fig. 39. Tow-hooks with sockets (from left to right 686, 681, 682, 742). Object length: 13.8 cm (686), 12.1 cm (681), 9.7 cm (682), 8.8 cm (742). Drawing by R. Pulcins.

Based on the condition of the finds, it has long been clear that tow-hooks and so- called “rattles” (a type of tow-hooks) were part of the equipment used for attaching the horses to vehicles, but their use has still not been completely clarified, especially regarding the rattles. A contributing reason for this is that it is not clear whether whole pieces of equipment and vehicles have been placed in the graves, or if only fragments and sections of them were interred. However, no complete sleigh or cart would have fit into the small boats in the Valsgärde burials. At the rear end of the horse, three tow-hooks with sockets were found (figs. 39, 41; nos 680–682). Two of them, which lay with the sockets opening to face the boat’s stern, are sturdy with large hooks in a triangular design ending in a flange. Both sockets contain remains of deciduous wood and have an inner diameter of 1.3 cm. The third tow-hook lay with the socket opening towards the stem. Here, the hook is forged round and its point is bent at right angles. This tow-hook is shorter and has a much more slender shape than the others; nevertheless, the socket, which also contains remains of deciduous wood, has as large a diameter as the other two. A corresponding tow-hook lay c. 60 cm from the stem with its socket opening pointing sternwards (no. 742). Here, the inner diameter of the socket is only 0.9 cm. These hooks could each have been placed on a wooden pole that tapered off at one end. Both the other hooks have been fastened to poles that lay towards the stern. However, when they were deposited in the grave, they would not have exceeded c. 70 cm, in order not to intrude on the buried person’s private area. A fifth tow-hook (no. 791) (figs. 40, 41) lay by the horse’s front, side by side with the smallest of the hooks with a socket. This is of a completely different shape The contents of the grave 53

Fig. 40. Tow-hook (791). Object length: Fig. 41. Photo of the tow-hooks (742, 680–682, 791). Photographer: Unknown. 13.5 cm. Drawing by R. Pulcins. and consists of a flat wide rod with two winged outshoots with a nail hammered through. The hook is forged round and bent downwards along one of the narrow sides. The rod of the tow-hook has been nailed into end grain, determined as deciduous wood. This type of tow-hook was used both during the Vendel period and the Viking Age, but on all the Vendel period specimens, the hook seems to be rolled up into a spiral. Jan Helmer Gustafsson (1974, fig. 40) has provided a suggestion for how these have been fastened to the crossbar of a cart chassis. This is also indicated by illustrations of when tow-hooks have been used in experiments with rattles in Lejre, Denmark, where Gustafsson participated (Lund 1975, figs. 38, 42, 43). According to such use, the hooks would show remains of transverse fibres, but as far as I know, all hooks that show wooden remains had been fastened to end grain. “It seems odd that it would be possible to drag a heavy cart in this manner” (Nordahl 2001, p. 26). Regarding Valsgärde 6 and 8, Greta Arwidsson (1942, p. 67, Abb. 54; 1954, p. 76) has suggested that the tow-hooks were fastened to light tows. Nevertheless, the use of tow-hooks with sockets seems less problematic, judging by their use on later vehicles. This is indicated both by a sketch published by Bertil Almgren (1946, fig. 6), where tow-hooks on shanks hooked onto loops at a cart’s 54 VALSGÄR DE 14

chassis, and by tow-hooks on shanks that were hooked over poles (Hagar 1973, Abb. 8–12). A short coarse chain (fig. 42) lay on the rear part of the horse’s jaw. It consists of three oval loops, linked together and to a U-shaped mount with a nail with a large flat head through the shanks. The distance between these are 1.5 cm. Remains of wood with transverse fibre direction were found on the inside. The chain has probably belonged to the horse shafting and was perhaps fastened to a cart that had been secured to a shank with a tow-hook.

The so-called rattles (a type of tow-hooks) had a similar function as the tow-hooks. Here rattle denotes two similar objects consisting of long sockets with a hook and a large oval ring at one end, respectively. The real meaning of rattle (an object that sounds) does not really correspond in the present case, since the rattling rings that usually hang from the loop are not present. However, to avoid involving more defi- nitions, I have kept the common term. The present specimen (figs. 43, 44) has a disc-shaped collar with a thin flange below at the top of the socket, which ends in a loop. In one case, the loop carries an oval link and in the other, an open ring with a fastened hook with a bevelled knot next to the loop. The first shows traces of two flanges at the opening of the socket. Fig. 42. Coarse chain (839). The socket with a hook shows remains of deciduous wood, the other indeterminable Object length: 19.7 cm. wood together with “tar or pitch”. Drawing by R. Pulcins. Rattles are most common in Norway, where several hundred specimens have been found (Petersen 1951, p. 42ff.). However, they have such varying constructions that they seem to have worked in different ways. Sometimes, there is only one loop from which smaller rings hang, but often they consist of large sockets with a loop or oval link with a so-called rattle or a hook. In Sweden, rattles of the present type are rare. Most specimens come from the boat graves in Uppland: Vendel VI, Valsgärde 2 and 14, Tuna/Alsike IV and Präst- gården/Gamla Uppsala 1 (Stolpe & Arne 1912, pl. XVIII; Dyfverman 1929, figs. 42, 44; Arne 1934, Taf. VIII; Nordahl 2001, fig. 22). In addition to the rattles from the boat graves, three parts of similar rattles were found in the completely destroyed gravefield in Kråkberg, in Mora parish in Dalarna, where all the objects were found mixed together (Serning 1966, pp. 155ff., pl. 31–32). The rattle sockets from Valsgärde 2 and 14, Tuna/Alsike IV and Prästgården/ Gamla Uppsala 1 contains wood. However, the rattles from the Oseberg ship are fastened to ropes (Grieg 1928, p. 233, 234, 236). An extensive investigation of rattles has been made by Cajsa Lund, who focused on the part that was equipped with sounding additions, the so-called rattle (Lund 1975, p. 45ff.). She arranged for analyses of the contents in some Norwegian sockets of different shapes. The analyses established that all of the sockets had been fastened to ropes made from lime fibres The contents of the grave 55

Fig. 43. Rattle (1021, 1022). Object length: 30 cm (1021), Fig. 44. Photo of the rattle (1021, 38 cm (1022). Drawing by R. Pulcins. 1022). Photographer: Unknown.

(Lund 1975, p. 72). Since the Swedish objects of this type lack the rattle elements, they did not function as a sort of sounding object (cf. Lund 1975, p. 103ff.) but rather had a practical purpose as attachments for wooden staffs - probably poles/shanks. Bertil Almgren has tried to reconstruct the use of rattles, basing his experiments on the specimens from Oseberg. He suggested that they were attachments for ropes between the horse and a link around a wheel hub to facilitate the steering of carts of the type found in Oseberg (Almgren 1967, p. 240f.). In connection with the studies of the rattles in Lejre, Cajsa Lund and Jan Helmer Gustafsson have also made practical attempts at reconstruction (Lund 1975, p. 90ff., figs. 38–54). The ropes hung with rattles were here used both for draught and as steering lines, which worked well or well enough. They also show (figs. 47–48) how they prepared and fastened the ropes in the rattle sockets. The ropes were wrapped 56 VALSGÄR DE 14

Fig. 45. Mounts (834, 835, 852, 890–892, 903, 904, 918, 919, 944). Drawing by R. Pulcins.

in tarred twine, around which was wrapped a piece of leather. They were subse- quently pushed into the sockets and secured with nails. The use of tar also on the wooden staffs is indicated by the remains of tar or pitch on one of the rattle parts in Valsgärde 14. Burials that contain rattles of the present type can mainly be dated to the 9th century (Stolpe & Arne p. 59; Dyfverman 1929, p. 179; Arne 1934, p. 71; Petersen 1951, p. 46; Nordahl 2001, p. 27).

A number of mounts with unknown functions were found close to the triangular loops that might have been attached to a saddle. After refitting, some narrow metal sheets form a 15 cm long and 10 cm wide frame with a transverse band in the centre. Six 4.5–5.5 cm long clench nails are hammered through the frame. The clench nails are angled towards three transverse bottom metal bands, one for each pair of clench nails (fig. 45). Two long nails with a bent point belong to this mount. The bands show remains of wood with the fibres directed along the length of the mount. In four cases, the wood is determined as birch and in one case, rowan. Remains of wood on the long nails have been determined as deciduous wood. Two other mounts each consist of a 6 and 7 cm long clench nail respectively. The clench nails have an anchor-like rounded sheet with pointed endings at either end (fig. 45). The inner diameter across the clench nails is c. 8 cm. Wood remains with fibres in a direction across the metal sheets consist of alder on one mount, birch on the other (it is unknown which sam- ple belonged to which metal sheet). An additional mount also consists of a sturdy The contents of the grave 57 clench nail, c. 10 cm long, one end of which passes through a semi-circular metal sheet with corresponding nails on each shorter side. The diameter of the sheet is 4 cm (fig. 45). Wood fibres of birch are directed across the sheet. It was suggested at an early stage that the mounts belonged to a pole, and Bengt Schönbäck sketched an approximate position (fig. 46). The construction presuppos- es a long pole made from birch with loose pieces at the base attached to the vehicle - one made from alder and one from birch. It is thus possible that the mounts with the anchor-like metal sheets held the loose pieces to the pole by the sturdy clench nail going through all three pieces, with the pointed ends of the sheets hooking onto the pole. The rectangular open-work mount would have come next, with the nails going obliquely into the woodwork, possibly with an extra enhancement from the long pointed nails. Finally, the sturdy clench nail with the semi-circular sheet was hammered through the woodwork; this could possibly be a repair. Forward of this collection of mounts, the stem was empty apart from the two rattle pieces and some animal teeth. Outside the starboard side, c. 1 m from the outermost nails of the stem lay a mount (fig. 47), consisting of a vaulted metal sheet with S-shaped long sides, fastened to a narrow bottom band through four 4.5 cm long clench nails along its centre. Nails had been hammered in obliquely towards the two central clench nails from the outer corners in the S-shape. Wood along the mount has been determined as birch. One suggestion was that the mount could belong to those mentioned above. This suggestion is supported by the fact that almost all of the mounts had been fastened

Fig. 46. Pole reconstruction. Drawing by R. Pulcins.

Fig. 47. Mount (1044). Object length: 17.8 cm. Drawing by R. Pulcins. 58 VALSGÄR DE 14 to objects made from birch. In that case, the mount could have represented the terminal the pole proposed here, one end of which rested on the gunwale. A cord could have been fastened to the mount, thus securing the pole to the horse’s harness. Nevertheless, the question of whether the pole existed or not must be deferred to a time when new and hopefully more tangible finds have been made. The conclusion is that our knowledge regarding the use of tow-hooks and rattles has not really been furthered. The rich equipment in the present burial, unusual for Swedish conditions, could indicate that the parts have been used for different pur- poses on different vehicles. The respective positions of rattles and tow-hooks differ in different graves and can thus give no indication of their use. In the present case, for instance, the rattle parts lay together in the boat’s stem, in Tuna/Alsike on either side of the fore part of a horse, whereas in the boat at Prästgården/Gamla Uppsala the rattles lay in a row next to each other at one side of the horse (Arne 1934, p. 29, Taf. XXV; Nordahl 2001, p. 16). Animals in the burial

The only preserved bones of animals deposited in the burial are the remains of a horse and some teeth that lay next to the rattles in the stem. In addition a yellow substance was interpreted as the disintegrated remains of one or two dogs. Accord- ing to Thorstein Sjövold, the horse was a very old stallion. Two of the stray teeth come from pig (more than one year old) and one from an undetermined mammal. These determinations were made by Anne Ingvarsson Sundström.

The dating of the grave

The objects found in the grave that can be used for dating are the weapons ie. the sword, spearhead, and shield boss, as well as the bridles and to some extent the rattles. Both the sword and the spearhead belong to types that are rare in Sweden. In Norway and Finland they have been dated to the late Vendel Period (in Norway the 8th century, in Finland the Merovingian period), possibly with a continuation into the early Viking Age (Petersen 1919, p. 61ff., and 22f. respectively; Salmo 1938, p. 108ff. and 248f. respectively). Since the spearhead has no direct correspondent in Petersen’s material, it has been given varying attributions to his types, from A to C/D (see above). Bergljot Solberg states that the type most closely corresponds to the C-type, which through combinations with H-, M-, and O-swords provide an extended dating from 800 to the first half of the 10th century (Petersen 1919, pp. 99f., 120 and 131f., respectively; Solberg 1984, p. 62). Viking-Age shield bosses only exist in a few types and could thus be presumed to have survived over longer periods. This is confirmed by the fact that this type, Rygh 564, is present both in the early and late Viking Age (see above). The dating of the bridle mounts of the present type is relatively vague, based on find combinations. Nevertheless, some of these can be dated to the early th9 century, e.g. from grave 9 at Hovgården on Adelsö, Birka grave 10, a burial at Linga in Överjärna parish and the ship’s burial at Oseberg (Malmer 1966, pp. 209, 280; Arbman 1937, p. 36; Schnittger 1912, figs. 12–17; Schetelig 1920, figs. 210–211). The ornamentation on the mounts provides the remaining grounds for dating. In conclusion, it can be presumed that Valsgärde 14 should be dated to the early 9th century.

The textiles By Anita Malmius

Analysis report of textile fragments on a clench nail and an iron mount from Valsgärde 14, Gamla Uppsala parish, Uppland.

Introduction Two metal objects with attached textile fragments were submitted for textile analy sis and identification. One object was a clench nail (no. 109) and the other an iron mount (no. 135). The clench nail had three textile fragments attached (fig. 48) and the mount, one attached fragment (fig. 53). The objects were conserved and varnished.

Method The textile fragments were analysed in a stereomicroscope at a magnification of 10X or higher and a scanning electron microscope (SEM) LEO 1455VP. The parameters binding system, spinning direction, thread count, thread count sum, rib factor (Malmius 1996, p. 80ff.; 1998, p. 66f.) and order of the layers were determined through ocular analyses in a stereomicroscope. By using different mag- nifications in SEM, the fibre structure, characteristic for each type of material, was analysed. Repeated analyses in stereomicroscope and SEM were made on each textile fragment to determine the parameters. To achieve the best possible result, the analysis should have been performed on material that had not been conserved or varnished.

Results Clench nail no. 109 had three layers of textile fragments all woven in tabby (Table 1). The uppermost fabric layer (fragment 1) on the clench nail consisted of a fabric of woven z-spun yarn, probably sheep’s wool, in both thread systems. This fragment was fine (T=26.5) and medium ribbous (R=0.52). Despite the conservation, charac- teristical epidermis scales were visible in SEM (figs 47, 48). The coarseness of the fibres varied between 21.95 and 34.36 µm in fragment 1.

63 64 VALSGÄR DE 14

The middle fabric layer was made of z-spun yarn in both thread systems (fragment 2). This fragment was very fine (T=31.25) and medium ribbous (R=0.45). Closest to the clench nail was attached a folded fabric (fragment 3). The spinning direction could not be determined. Fragment 3’s values are somewhat uncertain. The thread count varied between 20 and 25 threads per cm in one thread system and between 16.75 and 18.75 per cm in the other thread system, which gives a mean thread count (M) of 21.75 cm × 18 threads per cm. This indicates that the fabric was very fine (T=39.75) and weakly ribbous (R=0.21) (Table 2 and 3). The two lower layers, fragments 2 and 3, showed a possible plant origin with smooth fibres and the transversal nodes characteristic for plant textiles, probably flax (fig. 51). Some of these fibres were deteriorated and only impressions and walls remained of the plant fibres (fig. 52). The coarseness of the fibres varied between 4.88 and 18.99 µm in fragments 2 and 3.

Table 1. Fragm Binding Sp Mtrl Thr/cm M Thr/cm T R 1 Tabby z/z Anim 15.50–16.75 × 10.00–11.00 16.00 × 10.50 26.50 0.52 2 Tabby z/z Veg 16.75–20.00 × 12.00–13.25 18.50 × 12.75 31.25 0.45 3 Tabby ?/? Veg 20.00–25.00 × 16.75–18.75 21.75 × 18.00 39.75 0.21

Table 2. T-class ranges for Vendel and Viking Age fabrics. Ranges for fineness Thread count sum, – coarseness of the fabric T thr/cm Exceptionally fine >50 Extremely fine 40–49.75 Very fine 30–39.75 Fine 20–29.75 Less fine 14–19.75 Coarse <13.75 The thread-count sum, T, is calculated as the sum of the mean values [thread count in warp/cm] + [thread count in weft/cm]; the value obtained indicates the coarseness of the fabric: the higher the sum the finer the fabric. The values in the tables reflect fabrics of wool and linen; other values apply for silk. The textiles 65

Table 3. Rib factor. Ranges for the balance Rib factor, R – unbalance of the fabric Balanced 0.0–0.09 Weakly ribbous 0.1–0.39 Medium ribbous 0.4–0.69 Strongly ribbous 0.7–0.99 Ribbed > 1.0 The weave rib factor, R, is calculated as ([thread count in warp]/[thread count in weft] -1; R>0). The warp is here defined as having the highest thread count. The value obtained expresses the relationship between the thread count in warp and that in weft: the lower the value, the more balanced the fabric. In ribbed fabric the thread count of the warp is double or more than double that of the weft. Ribbous fabric can be divided into weakly ribbous R=0.1–0.39; medium ribbous R=0.4–0.69; strongly ribbous R=0.7–0.99. The values in the tables reflect fabrics of wool and linen; other values apply for silk.

Attached to the iron mount no. 135 was a textile fragment (fragment 4) (cf. fig. 53) woven in tabby made of very weakly z-spun threads in both thread systems. The fabric was exceptionally fine (T=42.5) and weakly ribbous (R=0.3) (Table 4). Deter- mination in SEM showed a possible plant origin despite the conservation of the material. The fibres were straight and had transversal nodes characteristic for plant fibres (fig. 55, 56). Some of the fibres were completely deteriorated, leaving only holes and fibre walls (fig. 54). The coarseness of the fibres, probably flax, varied between 3.13 and 21.78 µm.

Table 4. Fragm Binding Sp Mtrl Thr/cm M Thr/cm T R 4 Tabby z/z Veg 22.00–25.00 × 17.75–20.00 24.00 × 18.50 42.50 0.30

Conclusion Clench nail no. 109 had three layers of fabrics. The top layer, fragment 1, was a unique tabby woven fabric made of z-spun wool. This fabric was fine and medium ribbous.

The two lower tabby woven layers at the clench nail and the single layer at the mount (no. 135) were all made of plant fibres, probably flax and of z-spun yarn in both thread systems. Fragment 3 at the clench nail and fragment 4 at the mount had nearly the same thread count, i.e. these fragments were very fine (T=39.75 resp. 42.5) and weakly ribbous (R=0.21 resp. 0.30). Fragment 2 was somewhat coarser, but was also very fine (T=31.25) although somewhat more unbalanced (R=0.45). 66 VALSGÄR DE 14

Thus, it is possible that fragment 3 and 4 might have belonged to the same original fabric and that fragment 2 belonged to another fabric. However, they may also have been three separate fabrics, the context must show whether this was actually the case.

The fabrics were of qualities common in graves belonging to the upper social ranks during the Viking Age.

Fig. 48. Object no. 109, rivet, with three textile fragments. Fig. 49. Object no. 109, rivet. Fragment 1/Layer 1, the Photographers: G. Eriksson & A. Malmius. tabby woven top layer was made of animal fibres, shown by the characteristically epidermis scales (500X, WD 8, EHT 15.00 kV). SEM photo: M. Wojnar-Johansson.

Fig. 50. Object no. 109, rivet. Fragment 1/Layer 1, as Fig. 51. Object no. 109, rivet, fragment 2 and 3, the two above, shown with higher magnification. (3000X, WD 8, tabby woven layers closest to the rivet were made of vege- EHT 15.00 kV). SEM photo: M. Wojnar-Johansson. table fibres (2000X, WD 11, EHT 15.00 kV). SEM photo: M. Wojnar-Johansson. The textiles 67

Fig. 52. Object no. 109, rivet, fragment 2 and 3, deteriorated Fig. 53. Object no. 135, iron mount with one textile frag- fibres. SEM photo: M. Wojnar-Johansson. ment. Photographers: G. Eriksson & A. Malmius.

Fig. 54. Object no. 135, iron mount. The tabby woven fabric Fig. 55. Object no. 135, iron mount. The vegetable fabric was made of vegetable fibres (200X, WD 9, EHT 18.44 as above, shown with higher magnification. (250X, WD 9, kV). SEM photo: M. Wojnar-Johansson. EHT 18.44 kV). SEM photo: M. Wojnar-Johansson.

Fig. 56. Close-up of figures 9 and 10. (500X, WD 10, EHT 18.44 kV). SEM photo: M. Wojnar-Johansson.

The boat By Jan Bill

The boat Introduction In 1985, together with architect Søren Vadstrup, the present author undertook an analysis and reconstruction of the boat from Valsgärde grave 14, well assisted by its excavators, Bengt Schönbeck and Else Nordahl. The context for this reconstruction was a project initiated by the late archaeologist and director Tomas Johansson from the Institute of Prehistoric Technology (Institutet för Förhistorisk Teknologi, later Institutet för Forntida Teknik, at Bäckedals Folkhögskola) and Bräcke municipality in Jämtland. The project aimed at building a reconstruction of a Viking-Age boat by means of tools and methods as close to those of the Viking Age as possible. The project was carried out in 1985–1986, with the present author as master boat builder, and was published in Bill and Johansson (1987) and Bill (1987; 1991). The present chapter on the boat from Valsgärde 14 is in part based on work from 1985–87 and in part on a new analysis carried out in 2012 on the basis of the documentation collected in 1985. The reason for the renewed analysis is to be found in the 25 years of maritime archaeological studies that now lie between the author and the 1987 publication, but also in the technological development that has taken place in the meantime. In 1985, the three-dimensional analyses and reconstructions were made with paper and pen, wood and cardboard – today they are assisted by the calculation and visualisation capacities of the modern PC and computer modelling software. It should be emphasized, however, that the 2012 analyses were restricted in scope. Rather than being a full, new analysis, it was intended to evaluate and critically comment the results and choices made in the 1985 reconstruction. In particular, it should be mentioned that the 2012 analysis does not amend the major drawback of the 1985 reconstruction, namely the lack of a thorough documentation and evaluation of all relevant information and objects from the excavation. There is no doubt that such an undertaking would reveal more details and lead to a stronger interpretation of the boat remains than what is presented here.

69 70 VALSGÄR DE 14

State of preservation and documentation The remains of the boat from Valsgärde 14 primarily consist of more than 1000 complete and fragmented iron nails and other fittings that were used in its construction and maintenance, and which were still present at the time of excavation. These were distributed in a three-dimensional, apparently quite undisturbed, boat-shaped structure extending ca. 10.3 m in a NE-SW direction, approximately 2.1 m in width and 1.5 m in height (pl. 1). Modern gravel digging had destroyed the easternmost part of the structure prior to excavation, and fittings from the boat were here found at significantly lower levels and further to the NE than the preserved structure itself. The organic parts of the boat had largely disappeared before excavation, but corrosion products from metal fittings – mainly ones belonging to the boat – had preserved small volumes of wood and inlaid caulking. Such remains were usually found attached to the inward side of the nails’ heads and roves, and are informative concerning the relative and – when recorded during excavation – absolute orientation of the planks and timbers of the boat, as well as of the wood specie(s) applied. Wood identifications has been carried out on 12 nails from the boat (see above). During excavation, the positions of all finds were systematically recorded in three dimensions in measurements to the nearest half centimetre. In general, the positions of nails were recorded at both ends of each nail; for larger objects, several points were used to define the position. The type and orientation of the nails, and generally also the direction of preserved wooden fibres, were noted in the find list. All recorded information was then used to construct the find plans, one of which is shown in pl. 1. This plan shows most nails and other items subscribed to the boat at the time when the plan was produced; in some cases, however, supposed boat nails were omitted from the plan. In a few cases, the omissions can be related to a lack of information about the nails’ orientation, but much more often, it appears that in places with many nails, only those considered most important were drawn. A total of 60 objects, most of them broken shanks or heads from nails, do not appear on the plan. Dimensions of objects were generally not recorded. The internal length (between head and rove, or head and point) was in 1985 recorded by the author for 236 selected nails, partly from designated cross-sections of the hull at supposed frame stations, partly from plank scarfs and from the well-preserved stem. The coordinate system of the excavation had the X-axis aligned – within a few degrees – with the centreline of the vessel in a NW-SE direction. The SW-most remains of the boat was found at X=-51.5 cm, the NE most ones at X=1101.0 cm. Positive values on the Y-axis would be on the NW side of the X-axis, negative on the SE side. The boat 71

Nail types During the excavation, distinction was made between different types of nails as follows: “Spik” meant a pointed nail, “nit med bricka” a clench nail, “stift” a tack, and “nitar med två huvud” meant nails with two heads. The terms “huvud” for head, “bricka” for rove, “spikten” for shank pointed at one end and “järnten” for a blunt-ended shank were used for partially preserved nails. Mounts of sheet iron were recorded as “järnbleck”. The differentiation between tacks and pointed nails is not clear, but supposedly, it refers to size; tacks were usually measured with one point only, while the positions of both ends of the pointed nails were recorded. During the selective recording of nails mentioned above, their general morphol- ogy was noticed. Apart from variations in length and type, they were generally quite homogeneous, with flat or slightly domed, approximately circular heads measuring 2.0–2.5 cm in diameter, and rounded to multifaceted shanks around 0.6 cm in thickness. Pointed nails were four-sided in section towards the pointed end. In order to calculate the total number of iron fittings in the preserved part of the vessel it is reasonable to differentiate between nails with pointed apex and nails with roves (clenched apex) only. The number of objects in each category is shown in table 1, which demonstrates that at least 717 clench nails and 222 nails with pointed ends were present. The separately found heads and blunt-ended shanks can either originate from clench nails or pointed nails, and it is possible both that some shanks have been broken into several pieces, and that some of the heads found separately belong to likewise separately found roves and pointed shanks. Thus, these objects can be said to represent a minimum of further 15 nails that can either be pointed nails or clench nails.

Table 1. Possible boat nails in Valsgärde 14 according to find list and plan drawing. Ty pe Pointed apex Either Clenched apex Other fittings “Pointed nail” 200 “Clench nail” 693 “Tack ” 21 “Head” 35 “Pointed shank” 1 “Blunt-ended shank” 46 “Rove” 19 “Nails with two heads” 5 “Sheet iron” (sometimes with pointed shanks) 14 Minimum number of nails (N=1034) 200+21+1=222 35-1-19=15 693+19+5=717 14 72 VALSGÄR DE 14

However, these numbers include all nails found in the burial that were not associated with other objects by the excavators. Thus, it is not given that they all belong to the boat. An evaluation of the nails, based on their description in the catalogue and on their find position, has therefore been carried out. During the analysis, the nails were divided into a number of functional groups, based on the interpretation of the boat as a traditional, Scandinavian-type vessel. These groups were: CS Clench strake nails, used to join the strakes, or the strakes to the keel. These would be found along the overlapping edges of the strakes/the garboard strake and the keel, would have an inner length equivalent with the thickness of two strake edges, and have two parallel sets of wood fibres which, when the nail was found in its original position, would be running roughly horizontally and parallel to the hull surface. The meeting surface of the two sets of wood fibres would be parallel to the wood fibres and roughly parallel to the inner surface of head and rove. CSc Clench scarf nails, used to join the individual planks in each strake longitudi- nally. These would be found between the rows of CS nails and have an inner length equivalent with one strake thickness. They would have two parallel sets of wood fibres orientated as in the CS nails, but the meeting surface between them would be oblique to the wooden fibres, representing the short feathered type of scarfs used in Scandinavian boatbuilding throughout the Late Iron Age. Extraordinarily long nails with CSc characteristics are often found in connection with scarfs in longitudinal timber joints, e.g., between keel, stem and stern. PS Pointed strake nails, used to fasten the strakes in places where clench nails could not be used. This is usually the case towards the ends of the keel, where the angle of the garboard strake (the first, lowermost row of planks) rises steeply, and for fastening the end of the strakes to the stem when this consist of massive timber. Along the keel, the PS nails will show the same config- uration of wooden fibres as the CS nails, but at stem and stern there may be three layers of strake wood visible, and the direction of wooden fibres from the stem/stern timber (towards the point of the nail) will often be at an angle to those of the planking (towards the head). CF Clench frame nails, used to secure framing timbers to the planking. The lower parts of the frames are generally secured with treenails or by strapping through cleats, but it is commonplace in Viking Age finds to see clench nails used to fasten the upper ends of a frame. Characteristically, CF nails have one set of wooden fibres from the framing timber running orthogonal to one or two sets from the planking. The rove might be extra large and curved to adapt to a rounded, inward surface of the framing timber, and when found as The boat 73

positioned in the boat, the wooden fibres from the frame would run vertical, while those from the strake(s) would be roughly horizontal. These five types of nails would include the big majority of nails used in original construction, but not all. Additional nails may have been used for more unusual features in the boat. One such example is: PF A group of pointed frame nails found in the upper stem area of the Valsgärde 14 boat, which indicates the presence of a horizontal, V-shaped or massive triangular timber strengthening the joint between the stem and the gunwale. Further groups could be nails associated with repairs, which were carried out during the lifetime of the boat before its use in the burial. In fig. 57, the interpretation of the nails into different functional groups has been visualised. Shown are CS (red), PS (blue), CSc (lilac) and CF nails (green), plus PF nails from the supposed strengthening of the stem-gunwale joint (turquoise). Undefined nails are shown in black, and secondary points – the other end of a nail recorded with two positions – are grey. Based on fig. 57, it is possible to describe the main features of the vessel.

Fig. 57. Types and positions of nails associated with the boat by the excavators. Not to scale. CS nails are red, PS nails blue, CSc nails lilac, CF nails green, PF nails turquoise, undefined nails black, and secondary recording points grey. 74 VALSGÄR DE 14

The reconstruction The keel The two rows of CS nails along the boat’s centreline demonstrate that the vessel was built with a keel or a keel plank. The fact that the nails in these two rows were found in a less regular pattern than those in the following CS rows indicates that during the decay of the wooden parts, they could move down into cavities formed beneath them during the process of the burial. This strongly indicates the presence of a keel of some height and with a T-shaped section in the central part, rather than a keel plank. Towards both ends of the keel, the CS nails are replaced by PS nails. This is a common feature in lapstrake boats with T-shaped keels and reflects that at a certain point, the garboard strake rises too steeply to allow the use of clench nails for fastening. The section of the keel is therefore transformed into a massive Y-shape, and pointed nails are used instead. The points of transition were found approximately at X=800 cm to the NE and X=200 cm to the SW. The ends of the keel are indicated by the large CSc nails no. 988 at X=148.5 cm and no. 89 at X=922, which have been used to secure vertical diagonal scarfs between stem, keel and stern. Apparently, the scarf in the SW end has been further secured by a number of large pointed nails. The length between rove and head on the CSc nail no. 988 was recorded to 6.5 cm, reflecting the dimension of the vertical portion of the keel at this point. Oak was identified on the PS nails nos 277 and 991 that had been inserted through the garboard strake into the keel, but it is not known whether the identifications relate to the strake or the keel. It would be a highly unusual choice, however, if oak had been used for the planking, but not for the keel (see e.g. Indruszewski 2004).

The stem and the stern The orientation of the boat is not demonstrated in the documentation of the find. No indications of a rudder arrangement – which would be found in the starboard aft of the vessel – seems to be at hand, and apparently no observations were made in situ of the orientation of the scarf surfaces in the CSc nails. Since plank scarfs are usually made with the foremost plank forming the outward part of the scarf – minimizing the risk that the outward feathered edge of the scarf would be damaged if the boat hit other objects during sailing – such observations could have answered this question. However, there is overwhelming evidence from the arrangement of personal equipment and the finds of skeletons in boat burials that the deceased was placed with the head towards the stern (Müller-Wille 1970). From the arrangement of the weapon equipment in Valsgärde 14 it thus appears that the stem was oriented to the SW, and that it was the stern that had been destroyed prior to excavation. The well-preserved pattern of nails in the SW end of the boat allows for an un- ambiguous determination of the type of stem solution used in the Valsgärde 14 boat The boat 75

(pl. 1 and fig. 57). A large number of nails of the PS type, many of them lying more or less horizontally with the heads facing outward, demonstrate that the strakes must have been fastened by means of pointed nails to a curved stem timber. It is likely that the planks terminated a rabbet on each side of the timber, and that the stem can be classified as arabbeted stem. This is in agreement with the general pattern among Iron Age boats in Scandinavia, where rabbeted stems seem to dominate in the east, while hollowed-out stems with individual steps for the mounting of each strake by means of clench nails dominate in western Scandinavia (Crumlin-Peder- sen 2010). Scandinavian lapstrake vessels from the Roman Iron Age until the 13th century – when the stern rudder came into widespread use – employ the same type of technical solution for both stem and stern. Since there is nothing in the short portion of the nail pattern associated with the stern that indicates otherwise, we may also assume this to be the case in the Valsgärde 14 boat. The three PS nails nos 1132, 1136 and 1233 are all from the fastening of the planking to the stem and each have remains of oak. However, also here it can be ques- tioned whether this wood originates from the planking or from the timber onto which the planking was nailed. Nevertheless, the curved timbers for stem and stern also seem to be predominantly made from oak when this species was available for boatbuilding (Crumlin-Pedersen 1989; Indruszewski 2004). Since the length from the inside of the head to the point of PS nail no. 1139, used for fastening a strake to the stem, was 7.2 cm, it appears that the stem timber was at least that massive towards its upper end. Find no. 1178, a well-preserved mount of sheet iron found at the top of the stem shows that the stem at this point was trapezoid in shape, with a slightly rounded side aft. The mount was used either to secure the upper corner of the uppermost strake – the sheer strake – at the stem, or to mount some kind of stem decoration. A similar construction was found in the boat in Valsgärde 7 (Arwidsson 1977, Taf. 40).

The planking From pl. 1 it appears that there are six rows of CS nails on each side of the centre line of the vessel. Each row represents the lower edge of a strake, meaning that the boat had six strakes in either side. The plank sheer – the upper edge of the uppermost strake – has thus been situated one plank width further up and out than the uppermost row of CS nails in each side. The average distance between the rows of CS nails in the central part of the boat, were the planking is at widest, is 21 cm. The overlap between two planks is usually about five centimetres, resulting in a calculated plank width in this part of the vessel of about 26 cm. Plank scarfs are indicated by CSc nails, and it appears that each strake consisted of two longer planks in each side, varying between ca. 230 cm and 640 cm in length, plus additional shorter planks at the ends, where the sheer in the hull made this necessary. 76 VALSGÄR DE 14

The thickness of the planking has been investigated through measuring the inner distance between head and rove on a selection of the clench nails. The internal length of 102 CS nails, evenly distributed in the boat, was recorded to vary from 1.7 cm to 4.9 cm, with an average value of 3.3 cm. CS nails with internal lengths less than 3.0 cm were exclusively found in the stem and stern area, demonstrating that the planking was thinner here, and possibly was made with rabbets along the edges of the planks in order to make them fit smoothly into the rabbeted stem and stern. CS nails with internal lengths of 40 cm or more were exclusively found in the centre of the vessel, between X=308 cm and X=797 cm. In addition, the internal length of 14 CSc nails from the planking was recorded, showing values ranging between 1.3 cm and 2.1 cm, with an average of 1.7 cm. Again, there was a tendency that the longer nails were found towards the centre of the vessel. With the CS nails representing double plank thicknesses at the overlapping edges, and CSc nails single plank thicknesses at the middle of the planks, it appears that the planking was generally of a very equal thickness across the planks, and that it varied in thickness between 1.2–1.3 cm at the stem and stern, and between 2.0–2.5 cm in the centre of the vessel. Wood remains from four CS nails have been analysed. On nos 79, 159, 271 oak was found, while on no. 719, maple was found. The latter identification is puzzling, since maple is not known from other finds as a material for planking; nevertheless, there is no reason to doubt that the nail in question originates from the original construction of the boat. Observations made during the examination of selected nails in 1985 (see above) provide further information. The overall impression was that CS and CSc nails showed fibres of oak, and that the wood had been converted into planks through radial splitting, as is common in oak-built ships and boats from the Viking Age (Crumlin-Pedersen 1989). Inlaid caulking between the planks was also observed on several nails, and it was judged that this consisted of animal, rather than plant fibres.

The frames With ‘frame’ is here meant an internal transverse structure of one or more timbers, locking and strengthening the shell formed by keel, planking, stem and stern. Its defining part is the floor timber, a curved timber that is fastened to the inside of the planking, perpendicular to the keel. It forms the lowermost part of the frame. Ad- ditionally, a frame may include a biti, a beam situated directly above the floor timber, secured to the planking by means of biti knees, knee-shaped timbers, which may either be formed from the same piece of wood as the biti, or consist of a separate timber. In each side of the boat, the frame may be prolonged upwards by means of futtocks or top timbers (in line with the floor timber) or side frames (next to or between the floor timbers). Especially in larger vessels, there might be additionalbeams with The boat 77 beam knees above the biti. In vessels adapted for oars, a biti or a beam may act as seat for the rowers, or an additional light beam, a thwart, may be inserted. The latter is not necessarily permanently fixed to the hull. The primary evidence for the position of the frames in the Valsgärde 14 boat is the CF nails. As appear from pl. 1 and fig. 57, these are found at regular intervals on either side of the upper row of CS nails in both sides of the boat. There are seven concentrations on either side, symmetrically arranged in the central part of the vessel and quite evenly distributed with an average distance of 98 cm. This is normal frame spacing in Scandinavian boats from the Viking Age, and there is no reason to doubt that they actually represent the position of seven frames. We will number them as follows: “Frame 0” for the frame situated at X=c. 520 cm, “frame 1F”, “2F” and “3F” for those situated forward of frame 0 and “frame 1A”, “2A” and “3A” for those situated towards the aft. The number of identified CF nails in each concentration varies from one to five. Furthermore, clear concentrations of nails with unknown functions can be noticed around the CF nails. These nails are often fragmented and to some extent, they may represent partially preserved CF nails. The reconstruction of the framing system in Valsgärde 14 is ambiguous on several points, since evidence concerning their attachment to the lower part of the hull is completely missing, and since the plentitude of nails found at their upper ends lacks clear parallels among better preserved, contemporary Scandinavian boats. How- ever, some patterns can be ascertained in the distribution of nails at the top ends of the frames. As appears from table 2, the CF nails are symmetrically arranged, except at the two aftmost frame stations, 2A and 3A. Additionally, the number of CF nails at each station increases from 3F to 1A, and when there are multiple CF nails, they tend to be arranged in pairs parallel to the direction of the frames (across the boat). At the frame stations 3F, 2F and 1F, the CF nails may thus have fastened either the top end of a single framing timber – a floor timber – or one biti-knee or futtock in each side. At the stations 0 and 1A, the presence of further CF nails shows that additional timbers – either beam knees or futtocks – have been fastened next to the basic framing construction represented at 3F to 1F. A similar situation may be present at frame 2A, if we assume that in the starboard side of the vessel, the two framing timbers have only been fastened with one CF nail each, or that two CF nails have been lost. However, the fifth CF nail in the port side at this frame station remains unexplained. At frame 3A, the three CF nails in the starboard side indicates the continuation of a double system for the support of the upper sides of the boat, while no such evidence is present in the port side. The nails with unidentified functions found at the top of the frames are difficult to interpret. As appears from table 2, there is no clear pattern or symmetry in their occurrence apart from the occurrence of pointed nails in both sides at frame sta- 78 VALSGÄR DE 14

Table 2. 3F 2F 1F 0 1A 2A 3A Starboard CF nails 1 2 2 3 4 2 3 Alignment – With frame With frame Two with 2 × 2 with 45° to frame Two with with boat: frame, one frame frame, one aftwards forwards Unknown 2 clench 1 clench nail 1 pointed 2 heads 1 shank 2 pointed 1 pointed nails 1 pointed nail 2 shanks. nails nail 2 pointed nail 2 heads 1 head and nails 2 shanks 2 shanks. (1 shank 1 head (1 head and from CF 1 shank 1 shank from nail?) (1 head and CF nail?) 1 shank from CF nail?) Port CF nails 1 2 2 3 4 5 2 Alignment With frame Close 2 with 2 close 2 rows of 2 With frame with boat – together frame, together, 2 and 3 nails, 1 aftwards with frame with frame Unknown 1 long point- 1 shank 1 pointed 1 clench nail 2 clench 1 clench nail 2 clench ed nail with nail 2 shanks nails 5 pointed nails bent tip 1 rove 1 head nails 2 pointed 1 head 2 shanks. 1 head nails 3 shanks. (1 head from 1 shank 2 shanks (1 head from CF nail?) CF nail?) The number of CF nails, their positions relative to each other and to the boat, and the number of nail/fragments with undetermined function at each frame station. It is noted when some of the undetermined fragments may belong to broken CF nails.

tions 1F, 2A and 3A. As appears from pl. 1, these pointed nails are generally situated in or above the uppermost row of CS nails, and appears to have been hammered into the boat from the outside. Some are placed in line with the CF nails and thus with the framing timbers, other aft of these. They may thus have been used to secure the uppermost strake to the framing timbers, and/or to secure a thwart – in both cases perhaps rather as repair measures, due to the heterogeneity of the pattern. One pointed nail at 3F (no. 825), with a bent tip and an internal length of 5.2 cm, may well have replaced a CF nail. Based on the evidence presented above, the boat from Valsgärde 14 was reconstructed in 1985 with frames with fixed beams at 3F, 0 and 2A, and with frames The boat 79

Fig. 58. Drawing of the boat from Valsgärde 14 as reconstructed by Jan Bill and Søren Vadstrup 1985. Drawing by S. Vadstrup.

consisting of floor timbers and single side frames at 2F and 1F, plus frames of floor timbers and double side frames at 1A and 3A (fig. 58). This is only one of several interpretations that are supported by the find material. Since there is no evidence to demonstrate the fastening of the floor timbers to the lower part of the hull, it was chosen to fasten these by means of treenails, as present in the boats from the Gokstad ship burial from around AD 900 (Johannesen 1940; Christensen 1959). An alternative solution, strapping the floor timbers to cleats in the planking, is documented through especially long clench nails inserted through the cleats in the boat from Valsgärde 2 and 6 (Dyfverman 1929; Arwidsson 1942), and by preserved cleats and lashing in several other boat and ship finds from the Late Iron Age and Viking Age (Brøgger & Schetelig 1953), and appears to be just as likely an alternative. It may be supposed that the seven frames in the central portion of the boat, indicated by the CF nails, were supplemented with at least one more frame towards each end. Possibly apart from the unexplained clench nail no. 960, found outside the uppermost row of CS nails at (100.5; 68.5) in the fore starboard side of the vessel, there are no indications that this was the case. However, from a formation of point- 80 VALSGÄR DE 14 ed nails, aligned with the upper edge of the uppermost strake in the extreme stem, it is clear that a V-shaped timber had been inserted here to secure the attachment of the upper strake to the stem. Wood remains have been analysed from two CF nails, nos 313 and 335, and in both cases identified as oak. Both nails are from the port side of frame 1A, but from two different timbers. The analysed wood may originate from the planking or the framing timber, but since the head appears to be missing on no. 313, it is likely that at least in this case, the identification represents the wood at the inward-facing rove, that is, the framing timber.

The hull shape As is evident from fig. 57, the nails provide some evidence about the shape of the hull. On the basis of measurement points from both ends of all nails related to the hull – that is, CS, CSc, PS, CF and PF nails – a surface has been created that represents a ‘best fit’ representation of all these points (fig. 59). Sections taken from this surface and from actual nail positions at each framing station provide a representation of the deformed shape of the hull as it was excavated (fig. 60). It appears that the shape is quite symmetrical, with deformations of the bottom mainly visible at 1A-3A. The surface model shows a strong outward angle of the upper sides. This is partly a work of art, created by the surface calculation itself, but as seen from the sections made through actual nail positions, also a real feature. However, it might be supposed that this is a result of deformation processes during the boat’s decomposition, rather than an original feature of the hull shape. During the process of the burial, the boat was first inserted into a pre-dug trench, which was dug deep enough to allow the entire boat, including the top of the stems, to be buried below the surface. Most certainly, this trench has not fitted exactly to

Fig. 59. A ‘best fit’ surface model of the hull, generated on the basis of all measured positions on nails that can be associated with the hull. The model is a way of representing the combined evidence of the measured positions, making asymmetries and tendencies in the data visible, but it is not a reconstruction per se. The boat 81 the hull shape, and cavities between the boat and the trench were only partially filled with poorly consolidated materials during the refilling of the trench. As the boat’s planks later decayed, the hull would be deformed downwards and outwards until the weight of the filling inside the boat was balanced through compression of the materials supporting it from the outside. An initial covering over the boat – if such a one existed – would probably have increased this effect, especially if it was resting on the boat’s sides. It may thus be suggested that the original boat had somewhat more rising sides and was slightly narrower than the shape indicated by the positions of the boat nails. Owing to the destruction of the aft of the boat through modern activities, its shape can only be guessed at. However, a comparison of the hull fore and aft of the central frame 0 provides some indications. In spite of the clear deformations of the hull, visible as a partial lack of symmetry between port and starboard side, it is evident that the width of the hull – as represented by the outermost nails preserved in situ at the frame stations – diminishes more quickly to the aft than to the fore (fig. 61). At the same time, it can be noted that the scarf between keel and sternpost is situated at a larger distance from frame 0 than that between keel and stem post. In addition, the change from use of clench nails to pointed nails for securing the garboard strake to the keel is closer to frame 0 in the aft than in the fore. Taken together, this strongly indicates that the aft of the boat was built somewhat more slender than the fore. Based on the discussion above, the overall dimensions of the boat was in 1985 reconstructed to a length of 11.8 m, a beam of 2.1 m and a height amidships of 0.74 m (fig. 58).

Fig. 60. Sections through the boat at the frame stations. The red contours represent sections through the ‘best fit’ surface, black contours sections made by connecting a transverse row of nails close to the frame station.

Fig. 61. Schematic comparison of diagnostic features concerning the hull shape fore and aft. 82 VALSGÄR DE 14

Propulsion and steering Very little direct evidence is available for a discussion of means of propulsion and steering in the boat. The rounded cross-section, as it has been reconstructed, indicate that the boat’s wet surface – the outer surface of the underwater hull – was consciously kept as small as possible. This is beneficial for vessels being propelled by manpower alone, since friction increases with the area of the wet surface. How- ever, the resulting hull shape provides little sideward stability and is therefore less suited for sailing vessels. Consequently, the hull shape indicates that the boat was optimized for the use of manpower for propulsion, and thus probably by oars. Next to sails, rowing is the all-dominant propelling means in Viking-Age ship and boat finds, even though there is evidence that it could be supplemented with paddling if necessary (Arbman 1940). Punting was probably used on the nearby shallow River Fyris as well, but feasibility for use on River Fyris was probably not any important design factor. Being the largest of the Valsgärde boats, and significantly larger than any other boats found in graves along the Fyris river system, it appears unlikely that it could have been used much further upstream than Valsgärde. On the contrary, it may be suggested that its main intended area of use was Lake Mälaren and beyond (Bill 1991). The recent excavation of two Vendel-Period boats of apparent Scandi- navian origin at Salme, Saremaa in Estonia, indicates that even boats the size of that from Valsgärde 14 could have been used for extensive voyages in the Baltic. The smaller of the two boats, no. 1, is believed to have had a length of only 11.5 m (Konsa et al. 2009; Peets et al. 2010). If indeed the boat was rowed, this would have required constructional features in the hull, either in the shape of oarlocks (keipr) mounted on top of the sheer strake, or oar holes in the sheer strake. There is no direct evidence for either solution in the material. It is possible that some of the nails found at the top end of the frames may have been used for fastening oarlocks, but since – as has already been demonstrated – no systematic pattern can be ascertained among these nails, this can only remain speculative. Nevertheless, examples of oarlocks fastened without iron nails exist, and it may be conjectured that since oarlocks were subject to significant wear and frequent breaking, fastening with treenails may have been preferred, in order to facilitate easy repair. The alternative, oar holes in the sheer strake, can be excluded owing to the hull shape. The oar holes would be too close to the waterline, enabling waves to wash in, and the oars would be difficult to keep clear of the waves when rowing. Placing the oars in oarlocks on top of the sheer strake provides an adequate distance between oars and the waterline. Owing to lack of oarlock remains, it is not possible to say anything definitive about the number of oars in the vessel. Six of the frames, from 2A to 3F, are wide enough to provide seats for two rowers, and 12 oars may be regarded the maximum number for this boat. It is not unlikely, however, that no rowers would be placed at The boat 83

3F, in order to obtain a better balance in the boat. That would reduce the number of oars to 10, still completely sufficient to row the vessel. Even if the boat was primarily designed for rowing, a few nails in the centre of the vessel may indicate the presence of a mast step, and thus also of mast and sail. That mast steps could be fastened by means of nails is demonstrated by such devices found in the Gokstad ship burial, where they must have belonged to the three rowing boats that formed part of the burial furniture (Nicolaysen 1882). The nails in this case were found in line with the keel, at the place where this would be crossed by frame 0. They include one large clench nail, no. 490, with an internal length of at least 6.6 cm, one shank of similar length, no. 495, which had identified oak remains attached, plus one smaller shank, no. 493 and a pointed nail, no. 492. One CS nail is missing in the area where these nails were found, which may explain the presence of nail no. 492. No. 490 is too large to be a CS nail, but could have been used for the fastening of a mast step in one way or another – for example through one of the flanges of the keel and the garboard strake. The shank no. 495 could have been used in a similar way, or it could be the remains of a pointed nail hammered through a mast step into the keel. An alternative interpretation, that the nails represented a scarf in the floor timber, instead of the presence of a mast step, lacks any support in the archaeological record - apparently floor timbers were always made symmetrical and in one piece up to the 12th century in Scandinavia (Bill 1997). A further, minor support for the hypothetical use of sail on the Valsgärde 14 vessel can be found in the increased support of the sheer strake attested through the double sets of CF nails at frames 1A and 3A – these could represent a reinforcement intended to counteract forces introduced by the rigging. No evidence was found for the steering of the boat and, owing to the disturbanc- es in the aft of the vessel, it should indeed not be expected. That the boat may have had a rudder appears likely, since also the much smaller boats from Gokstad were equipped with side rudders. However, the necessary constructions – a rudder boss mounted on the outside of the vessel, a seat and a rudder strap to attach the rudder to the sheer strake, a rudder frame to which the rudder withy could be fastened, and finally the rudder itself, with its handle – could all easily be made and fastened without the use of iron, and would thus remain traceless in the Valsgärde 14 grave. The only possible indication of a rudder frame is a CF nail, no. 62, which was found in the disturbed area aft, to the left side of the boat. It might, however, just as well originate from a frame at 4A as from a rudder frame.

A stem decoration? In the area around the well-preserved stem post, an unusually high number of pointed nails and nail fragments of unknown function are found. They are located in two concentrations. One consists of around 20 nails or fragments of such, which may 84 VALSGÄR DE 14 have been hammered into the top of the stem post, mainly from behind. The other is found somewhat lower and slightly more aft, between the two or three uppermost strakes, and includes a similar number of pointed nails and fragments, which seems to have been mounted to a piece of wood, about 10 × 25 cm, and only a few cm thick, which have been resting horizontally in the prow of the vessel. There seems to be no special features to the nails, but from their position, they could have belonged to some kind of decoration of the stem, which had been taken down and laid in the prow during the burial. The use of iron fittings – but not of simple nails – for stem decoration is known from Ladby (Sørensen 2001) and probably Ile de Groix, both ship graves from the 10th century. Even closer at hand is the interpretation as stem decorations of metal fittings found at the stem and stern of the boat in the Valsgärde 7 grave (Arwidsson 1977). Furthermore, in the Oseberg find, small nails – albeit decorated – are used to embellish several of the animal heads present on the sledges and the so-called ‘animal head posts’ from Oseberg (Schetelig 1920).

Repairs In a number of places, there are indications of repairs of the vessel. These are short rows of extra clench nails, found in between the rows of regular CS nails. Such rows occur at the following places: 1. Between 4F and 3F, along the upper edge of the 1st starboard side strake: 11 small rivets and nail fragments, roughly arranged in one row, on the outside of the hull. Possibly an externally mounted repair lath. 2. Between 4F and 3F, on the 2nd port side strake: 17 small rivets, arranged in pairs along a line, on the inside of the hull. Apparently a slightly broader lath. 3. Between 2F and 3F, diagonally across the 1st and 2nd starboard side strakes: An irregular row of 7 small rivets and broken shanks, on the inside of the hull. Probably not one repair, perhaps several smaller. 4. Between 1F and 2F, on the 4th port side strake: One row of 6 fairly thin rivets, on the in- or outside of the hull. Apparently a lath fastened over a crack. 5. Between 1A and 2A, on the 1st starboard side strake: One row of 4–5 rivets, on the inside of the hull. Apparently a lath fastened over a crack. 6. Between 2A and 3A, on the 5th starboard side strake: One row of 5–6 small rivets, on the inside of the hull. Apparently a thin lath fastened over a crack. These nails could also be interpreted as scrapped pieces of another boat, used to fix the position of the vessel in the burial, as observed in the Gokstad burial (Nico- laysen 1882). However, the differences in size and design of the nails, and the fact that most of them are found slightly on the inside of the hull, makes this a less likely explanation. The boat 85

Conclusions from the archaeological evidence From the analysis presented above, it appears that some features of the boat can be solidly established. The boat was of a typical east Scandinavian, late Iron Age design, close to 12 m long and 2 m wide, built in a lapstrake technique with iron clench nails as the dominant type of fasteners. It was certainly pointed at both ends, and probably with a stern very similar to the curved, massive and rabbeted stem post. The dominant building material was oak, which was probably used for both stem and stern, planks and framing timbers. Oars were certainly used for propulsion, and probably the vessel was built for five or six pairs, which would have been used in oarlocks mounted on the sheer strake. It cannot be excluded that the boat was equipped with mast and sail, as suggested by the available evidence.

A full-scale reconstruction of the boat from Valsgärde 14 Since the building of the full-scale reconstruction of the Valsgärde 14 boat in 1985– 86 has been accounted for elsewhere (Bill 1987; Bill 1991; Bill & Johansson 1987), it will only be briefly summarised here. As mentioned, the aim of the experimental project was to build a boat of Viking-Age design with methods and tools as close as possible to those of the Viking Age. The project was financed through Bräcke municipality, and therefore had to take place there, in the county of Jämtland in northern Sweden. In addition, it had to make use of wood from the municipality’s forests, which mainly harbours pine, spruce and birch. Jämtland, which is an inland county with lakes, forest and an alpine border towards Norway in the west, is in itself rich in Viking-Age finds – especially around the large lakes, Storsjön and Revsundsjön – but devoid of boat graves or other boat finds suitable a model for such a project. Therefore it was decided to look towards the Mälar valley region and especially at Valsgärde, where excavations had been exemplary in terms of documentation, for a find which could convincingly be reconstructed on paper and built, even if this would mean that the original would be a vessel built in oak, while the reconstruction had to be built in a softwood, preferably pine. Copies of tools from the Viking Age – axes, augers, planes – were produced for the building process by hand by Tomas Johansson in a traditional smithy at the open- air museum Jamtli in Östersund. The models were selected by the present author from Viking-Age burial finds in the collections of the County Museum of Jämtland and the Science Museum in Trondheim, the regional museum of the Trøndelag region in Norway, and would represent a technology adapted to the use of coniferous woods. The construction of the boat itself took place at LakeRevsundsjön, just outside the village Gällö fifty kilometres east of Östersund. The building team con- 86 VALSGÄR DE 14 sisted of volunteers from Bäckedal’s Folkhögskola with experience in experimental archaeology, seasoned wood workers employed by Bräcke municipality, and the present author as the only one with boat building experience. The construction of the boat was carried out during the summer months of 1985 and 1986. The boat was given the name ARNLJOT and launched into Lake Revsundssjön in August 1986. In this version, the Valsgärde 14 boat was equipped with 12 oars and a mast step for a slender mast and a 5 × 5 m large square sail designed by Erik Andersen from the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde and made of synthetic fibres. No systematic evaluation of the navigational qualities of ARNLJOT has been carried out, but during the late summer of 1986 and the following years, some experience was gained on trips on Lake Revsundsjön, and on two longer trips along the coast of North Zealand in Denmark, where the boat also sailed together with other Viking ship reconstructions. It appeared that by rowing under favourable conditions, it was possible to reach a speed of 5.5 knots for shorter distances, but that 3.5–4 knots would be a more realistic speed for longer distances. Approximately the same speeds could be obtained with 10 or 12 rowers, but when not using ballast, instability and sensitivity towards wind increased with reduced number of rowers. Without ballast, it was difficult to keep a course already around a wind of 7–8 m/s. Even with ballast, rowing was challenging in 8–10 m/s wind. Undoubtedly, however, the performance of the boat was strongly influenced by the fact that it was never sailed with a truly skilled crew. When under sail, some ballast – less than 200 kg – was added around the centre frame to increase stability and manoeuvrability. It was possible to turn the boat through the wind and under ideal conditions, one could also tack with it – advance by means of the sail against the wind – although this was not efficient, compared to rowing. With favourable winds – from the sides and from abaft – the sail was more helpful. On one occasion, a 32 nautical mile long distance between Hundested and Elsinore, along the north-coast of Zealand, was covered with an average speed of 7 knots. In addition, under sail, the vessel’s seaworthiness was experienced as limited – in retrospect, limits for safe navigation with the vessel would be set at wind speeds of 8 m/s and wave heights of 75 cm. Owing to the nature of these experiences, their value for the interpretation of the boat from Valsgärde 14 is limited. However, since it can probably be assumed that ARNLJOT on most parameters – design, materials, construction, most equipment and crew – performed poorer than its model, the results achieved with ARNLJOT may serve as minimum figures for the potential of the original vessel. Only in the question of the use of sails might the reconstruction have superseded the original, since there are only indications and no firm evidence that the original vessel was equipped with mast and sail. The boat 87

Looking at the boat from Valsgärde 14 as a rowing vessel, the experience with ARNLJOT demonstrates that this was certainly a vessel that could be used in coastal and inland waters, where it could have transported a small group of people – 12–14 – with their gear, at a speed of 3–4 knots on most days in the summer half of the year. As to the question of crossing open waters, for example the c. 20 nautical miles between Uppland and the Åland islands, or the c. 30 nautical miles across the Bay of Finland it can be said that the distances were certainly not too large to be covered in a single day of rowing. However, such a trip would have to wait for a day of above average good weather to ensure a safe crossing. It therefore appears unlikely that this was actually what the boat from Valsgärde 14 was built for – un- less, of course, the original was significantly more seaworthy than indicated by the reconstruction from 1985.

Catalogue of artefacts

Sword (500). Iron. Flat handle with pointed pommel. On the handle, coniferous and deciduous wood, otherwise wood and bone. L. 94.5 cm, lower guard l. 8 cm, h. 3 cm, upper guard l. 7.2 cm, h. incl. pommel 5.4 cm.

Spear/lance head (523). Iron. Blade with curved edges, faintly ridged, short socket, wood in socket oak. L. 31 cm, greatest width of blade 4.6 cm, inner diameter of socket 2.3 cm.

Shield: Shield boss (150). Iron. High-domed, tapering neck, narrow rim with 5 clench nails/nails (broken off), 2 stray clench nails, 5 stray nails, 1 stray tack (186). H. 9 cm, diameter across the rim 16.8 × 14.4 cm, diameter of boss 13 × 10.5 cm, diameter of neck 12.5 × 12 cm, width of rim 1.5 cm. L. of the stray clench nails, one 2.7 cm between head and plate, the other 2 fragm. 2.4 cm and 2.1 cm, l. of the stray tack 1.3 cm. Rim mount (121). Iron. Folded, a clench nail in each corner at the open side, coniferous wood inside, fibre direction across the mount from the open to the folded side. 2.8 × 2.8.cm. Rim mount (143). Iron. Folded, a clench nail in each corner at the open side, spruce within, fibre direction across the mount from the open to the folded side. 2.8 × 2.8.cm. Rim mount (361). Iron. Folded, a clench nail in each corner at the open side, coniferous wood inside, fibre direction across the mount from the open to the folded side. 2.8 × 2.8 cm. Loop attachment (57). Iron. Ends bent outwards, have been fastened to a surface of spruce. L. 5 cm, l. of ends 1.1 cm, w. 1.1 cm, w of fitting 0.5 cm, l. between ends’ inner edges 1.3 cm. Loop attachment (135). Iron. Ends bent outwards straightened out, have been fastened to wood, fragments of corroded textiles. Fragmentary. Fitting (140). Iron. Slightly domed, according to X-ray photo seemingly consisting of a thin trapezoid frame, the surface possibly made in openwork. L. acc. to the photo 3.5 × 1.8 cm.

89 90 VALSGÄR DE 14

Fitting (304). Iron. Triangular, short side cut obliquely, openwork with rhomboid shapes, fastened to coniferous wood with small tacks with rounded heads. Largest l. 11 cm.

Knife (374 + 669?). Probably oak on the tang. L. 15.3 cm.

Gaming board: Clench nail (3), 2 fragments. L. 2.9 and 2.3 cm. Clench nail or nail (4), 2 fragments, L. 1.8 and 2 cm. Clench nail (10). L. 2.9 cm between head and plate. Ring with staple (11). The staple is a flat ribbon, one shank short or broken off. Remains of oak. Inner diameter of ring 1.5 cm, l. of staple 4 cm, w. 0.9 cm. Sheet with remains of nail (12). Long, thin, flat. Remains of oak. 4.3 × 1.5 cm. Wood (13). Clench nail (14). L. 2.8 cm between head and plate. Rod (17). Flat. L. 4.9 cm. Clench nail (18). L. 3.2 cm between head and plate. Nail rod (19). L. 3.8 cm. Clench nail (20). L. 3.1 cm between head and plate. Nail (22). L. 2.8 cm. Clench nail (23). L. 2.9 cm between head and plate. Clench nail (24). Head broken off. L. 3.8 cm. Clench nail (25). Remains of birch. L. 3 cm between head and plate. Nail rod (27). L. 4.2 cm. Clench nail (43). Plate loose. L. 3.8 cm. Nail rod (206). Remains of deciduous wood. L. 1.7 cm. Nails or broken-off clench nail (208). L. 2.5 and 2.8 cm. Clench nail (211). Broken off. L. 2.2 cm. Nail rod (241). L. 3.3 cm. Nail (242). L. 4.4 cm. Clench nail (309). Remains of rowan. L. 3.4 cm between head and plate. Clench nail (310). Remains of wood. L. 3.2 cm between head and plate. Nail rod (311). L. 2.7 cm + fragment. Clench nail. L. 3 cm between head and plate. Nail rod (332). L. 3.6 cm. Clench nail, 2 fragm (333). L. 2.7 cm and 1.8 cm. Clench nail, 2 fragm (338). L. 2.3 and 2.2 cm. Clench nail, 2 fragm. L. 2.6 and 1.5 cm. Clench nail, 2 fragm (347). L. 2.1 and 0.9 cm. Clench nail (348). L. 3.1 cm between head and plate. Catalogue of artefacts 91

Clench nail, 2 fragm (349). L. 2 and 1.8 cm. Clench nail (356). Remains of wood. L. 3.3 cm between head and plate. Clench nail, 3 fragm (357). L. 2, 1.6 cm + plate.

Chest Nail (518). With deciduous wood. L. 3.9 cm. Nail (520). L. 4 cm. Nail (521). L. 4.1 cm. Nail (550). L. 3.8 cm. Nail (553). Bent. L. from head to bend 2.25 cm. Rod (554). Flat, both ends broken off. L. 3.3 cm. Nail (555). Flat, one end pointed, the other bent. L. 3.1 cm. Nail (556). Broken off. L. 1.8 cm. Nail (562). With oak. L. 2.2 cm. Nail (565). L. 3.3 cm. Nail (567). L. 3.4 cm. Nail (570). L. 5.2 cm. Nail (577). L. 3.8 cm. Nail (578). With oak. L. 4.3 cm. Nail, 2 fragm. L. 3.4 and 2 cm. Nail (584). L. 3.1 cm. Nail (585). L. 4.1 cm. Nail (588). L. 4.4 cm. Lid mount (592). Band-shaped, in one end a loop in a short mount with a loop = hinge. In the long mount, remains of three clench nails/nails, wood across on the lower side. L. of long mount 27 cm, w. 1.8 cm; l. of short mount 2 cm, w. 1.8 cm. L. of one of the clench nails/nails beneath the long mount 1.8 cm. Nail rod (593), 2 fragm. L. 1.9 and 1.5 cm. Lid mount (596–599), several fragments. Band-shaped, on one end of a fragment a loop is fastened to a short mount with a second loop = hinge, oak across. Total l. of the long mount c. 43 cm, w. 2.6–1.8 cm, l. of short mount 1.5 cm, largest w. 2.8 cm. Nail. L. 3.7 cm. Lock with lock-sheet (601). W. 19.8 cm, largest h. 7.5 cm. Clasp (602). Folded iron rod, at the end towards the mount two small slits, four-sided pin mount, this end pointed (animal head?). L. of mount-part 7.1 cm to the inner angle. Clasp-part 1. 8 cm to the same. Staple (605). Flat rod, short shanks at the ends, on these were oak and coniferous wood. L. 6.2 cm, one shank 2 cm. Tack (612). 2 small fragm. Oak. 92 VALSGÄR DE 14

Tack (614). Oak. L. 2 cm. Nails, 2 (no number). One corroded onto mount 595, one onto spike 603. L. 3.6 and 4.7 cm resp.

In the chest: Crampon? (603). Oak within, direction of fibres across. L. 2.7 cm. Crampon? (604). Oak within, direction of fibres across. L. 3 cm. Crampon? (611). Wood within, direction of fibres across. L. 3.2 cm. Flint (613). 1.5 × 3 – 1.1 × 0.4 cm. Pebble (no number). Round, lay in the lump with the lock. 4.1 × 3.7 × 2.9 cm.

Bucket: Bucket (388–408, 501, 502). Consists of hooped iron bands with triangular transection and flat uprights in between together with a handle with a round transection and rolled-up ends. Remains of yew and undeterminable coniferous wood.

Dog leashes: Leash (336). 12 figure 8-shaped links, in one end a swivel-hook, in the other a ring with a folded strap mount. Total l. 104 cm, l. of swivel-hook 11 cm. Diam- eter of ring 3.1 cm, l. of mount 4.2 cm w. 1.5 -1.8 cm, l of links 8–9 cm. Buckle (354). Remains of strap-end mount, belongs to collar at leash 336. H. of buckle 2.4 cm, l. 1.8 cm. Leash (447). 12 figure 8-shaped links, in one end a swivel-hook, in the other a ring with a folded strap mount. Total l. 107 cm, l. of swivel-hook 13 cm, diameter of ring 3.2 cm, l. of mount 3.8 cm, w. 1.7 cm; l. of links 7–9 cm. Buckle (455). Folded strap mount, belongs to collar at leash 447. H. of buckle 2.3 cm, l. 3 cm.

Horse equipment: Crampons (598, 667?, 669, 679, 683, 738, 748, 756).

Halter: Buckle (760). Lay in front of the horse’s head. Buckle (837). Fragmentary, rectangular frame, spike. H. 2.5–2.8 cm, w. 1.8 cm. Lay above the horse’s head. Buckle (860). Rectangular, flat frame, spike bent around one of the longer sides of the frame. H. 4.7, w. 3.6 cm. Lay in front of the horse’s head. Catalogue of artefacts 93

Bridle: Bit (775, 1268, 1271, 1272, 1278). Two-link, round transection, ring at each end, round transsection. On each ring, two cubic bronze mounts that encircled the ring and two folded-over strap-end iron mounts with bronze sheets on one side, decorated by a rectangular beaded frame of white metal (or foil thereof) and three copper-coloured pin heads, surrounded by a beaded ring. Strap mounts, 18, rectangular (767–769, 771, 773, 777, 778, 780, 781, 784, 785, 787, 793, 1255, 1258, 1260, 1262, 1265). Rectangular with curved sides, bevelled frames of white metal or a foil thereof with a surface plate of gilt-bronze (possibly gold foil), picture foil decorated in a gripping-beast style. The mounts are fastened onto leather cords that have additional leather sewn onto their backs. L. of mounts 4.8 cm, w. 1.8 cm. Scales (794, 1256, 1257, 1259, 1261, 1263, 1264, 1266, 1267, 1270, 1274, 1275, 1277, 1282). Silver or bronze, surrounded by a beaded ring. Have either formed pin heads or been positioned in between the rectangular mounts. Diam. 0.6 and 1.4 cm. Strap-end mounts (772, 779). Folded-over silver sheet, fastened to leather. L. 1.4 cm, w. 2 cm. Mount (776). Bronze, two sheets clench nailed on either side of a cord. 1.8 × 1.6 cm. Pendants/hooks (758, 807). Buckle (750). Iron. Folded-over strap mount, semi-circle buckle frame, spikes. L. with mount 2.8 cm; h. of frame within 1.7 cm. Pendants? (751, 753/759, 754, 806). Iron. Flat, triangular sheets, one corner drawn out and rolled up, all broken off at the wide end, where remains of a ring are fastened. One side possibly has a surface finish. L. 4–6 cm, w. 1.4– 2.4 cm. Harness bow mount (765, 766). Iron. High loop attachments with ends bent outwards. On one mount, one end (broken off) with two nails, the other triangular with three nails. On the other, the ends are broken off, one nail in each. Maple wooden fibres along the ends. H. 3.8 cm, w. 4 cm, l. of nails beneath the end on the first mount 2.5–2.9 cm, l of triangular sheet 3.2 cm, w. at base 2.3 cm.

Saddle(?): Loop (857). Iron. Triangular with part of staple. L. of loop 10.1 cm, w. 3.3 cm, inner w. 1.5 cm; l. of rod 2.9 cm. Buckle (856). Iron. Folded strap mount. W. of buckle frame 3 cm, inner measurement 2.1 cm, w. of mount 2.6 cm, l. 2.2 cm. Belongs with loop 857. 94 VALSGÄR DE 14

Loop (895). Iron. Triangular with staple, one shank bent, the other broken off. L. of loop 10.2 cm, w. 3.3 cm, inner w. 1.7 cm; l. of staple to the bend 1.6 cm. Buckle (881). Iron. Folded strap mount. W. of buckle frame 2.9 cm, inner measurement 2.2 cm; w. of mount 2.7 cm, l. 2.7 cm. Belongs with loop 895. Tacks (814, 846–848, 868, 872, 874, 884, 885, 916, 920, 926). Found together with the triangular loops.

Tow-hooks: Tow-hook (680). With socket, hook triangularly hammered, finishes in a crosswise flange. In the socket deciduous wood. L. 13.8 cm, inner diameter of socket 1.3 cm. Tow-hook (681). As the previous one. In the socket deciduous wood. L. 11.7 cm, inner diameter of socket 1.3 cm. Tow-hook (682). With socket, point of hook bent outwards at right angles. In the socket deciduous wood. L. 9.7 cm, inner diameter of socket 1.3 cm. Tow-hook (742). As the previous one. L. 8.5 cm, inner diameter of socket 0.9 cm. Tow-hook (791). With a flat rod, in one a hook, in the other two wing-shaped outshoots, one nail driven through + one loose nail. Along the rod, deciduous wood. L. 13.4 cm. Rattle (1021). With hook. A disc-shaped collar, thin flange below, bevelled knob at the loop of the hook, the hook is fastened to an open ring, secured to the socket. Total l. 30 cm; diameter of ring 4.2 cm, inner diameter 2.5–2.8 cm; thickness of rod 0.9–1 cm; inner diameter of socket 1.9 cm. Rattle (1022). With loop. A disc-shaped collar, thin flanges below, traces of two flanges below on the socket. Inside the socket, undetermined remains of wood and tar or pitch. Total l. 38 cm; l. of loop 17 cm, w. 4.4 cm; thickness of rod 0.8–1 cm. Inner diameter of socket 2.1 cm. Chain (839). Three oval links fastened to a U-shaped mount with flat hammered endings. Through these, a nail with a large flat head, wood across the endings. Total l. of links 19 cm; l. of mount 5.8 cm.

“Pole”: Mount (852, 890–892, 903, 904, 918, 919). Iron. Rectangular frame, transverse band at the centre, through the frame six clench nails angled towards three transverse bottom sheets, one for each pair of clench nails. Birch and rowan with fibres directed along the mount. L. 15 cm, w. 10 cm; band of frame c. 1.2 cm; w. of bottom sheet bands 2.2 cm; distance between upper frame and bottom sheets 5.5 cm. Catalogue of artefacts 95

Nails (883, 905). Points bent. Deciduous wood. L. from the bottom of the heads to the bend c. 12 and 10.5 cm respectively. Mounts (834, 835). Iron. Each mount consists of a sturdy clench nail, in each end an anchor-like sheet, bent together with pointed endings. On the sheets wood with fibres directed across the sheets, on one mount elder, on the other birch. Inner diameter across the clench nails c. 8 cm; l. of clench nails between the sheets c. 6–6.5 cm. Mount (944). Iron. A sturdy clench nail, in one end a sheet bent in a semi-circle with corresponding nails at each side. Birch across the sheet. L. of clench nail between head and plate 10 cm; diameter of the bent sheet 4 cm. Mount (1044). Iron. Narrow, vaulted sheet with S-shaped contours with four clench nails that reach down to a flat narrow sheet. Four clench nails join the two middle vertical ones. Birch along the bottom of the mount. L. of vaulted sheet 17 cm, largest w. 5 cm; w. of bottom sheet 2 cm: l. of the vertical clench nails between head and plate 4.5 cm.

Finds not categorized into subsections Key (2). Loop-shaped, flat handle, flange at the transition to the four-sided bit with step and three pins. L. 10 cm.

Wood (660). 2 layers in different directions, one porous layer in between. Long, narrow, irregular. 6.5 × 2–2.8 cm. At horse’s rear end.

Clench nail with loose band-shaped sheet (671). Wood across. L. of clench nail 4.6 cm (inner measurement), l. of sheet 3.5 × 1.8 cm. At horse’s rear end.

Clench nail with attached band-shaped sheet (672). Wood across. L. of clench nail 5.2 cm (inner measurement), l. of sheet 5.1 × 1.6 cm. 1 loose nail rod. L. 3.6 cm. At horse’s rear end.

Iron rod (495). Round rod, bent and one end flattened, wood across, one corroded outshoot at one end (loop?). L. 12.8 cm, diam. 1.1 cm. For the boat?

Rod (795). 2 pieces. Iron. Round rod. L. 6.2 and 4.3 cm respectively, diam. 1 cm.

Nail (687). L. 4 cm. By the bridle.

Sheet (1281). Iron. Rectangular with nail driven through. 3.7 × 1.9 cm. By the bridle. 96 VALSGÄR DE 14

Loop with staple (857). Iron. Triangular, piece of staple preserved. L. of loop 10.1 cm, w. 3.3 cm, inner measurement 1.5 cm; l. of staple 2.9 cm.

Loop with staple (895). Iron. Triangular. One shank of staple bent, the other broken off. L. of loop 10.2 cm, w. 3.3 cm, inner measurement 1.7 cm; l. of staple 3.7 cm, l. of shank 1.6 cm.

Nail (745). 2 fragm. L. 3 and 1.6 cm respectively.

Nail (746). L. 3.8 cm.

Mount (686). Iron. Band-shaped with clench nail/nail driven through. 1 loose nail- rod. 4.3 × 2.2 cm; l. of clench nail/nail 3.4 cm. By the bridle.

Sheet (42). Iron. Irregular, remains of three nails and wood on the underside. 4.8 × 2.8 cm.

Clench nail/nail (569). L. 6.9 cm. Lay beneath the spearhead.

Clench nail (596). Lay along the spear.

Nail (921). Flat head, rod slightly bent, beneath the head remains of sheet metal with wood, 2 loose fragments of concave-convex sheet. L. of nail 3.2 cm; fragments 2 × 1.9 and 2 × 1.7 cm respectively. Belongs to the boat?

Mount (922). Iron. Long, narrow sheet, wood across, the sheet is bent upwards on one side, in which a nail is fastened (cf. 607), remains of nail at the other side. L. of sheet to the bend 3.8 cm, the bent part 2.8 cm, w. 2.1 cm; l. of nail 3 cm. Belongs to the boat?

Mount (531). Iron. Long, narrow with a nail/clench nail with a large, flat head driven through, rod broken off. 4.2 × 2.2 cm. Lay on the starboard gunwale together with 572 and 573. Field notes on the finds

No Ty pe Height Note 1 Teeth of horse 555 Chewing surfaces facing E. 7 additional teeth distributed in the grave 575–583 Traces of bone c. 2 cm wide in the filling 2 Key, iron 613 Horizontal, directed N–S, shank N, simple loop-shaped handle, three-sided bit 3 Clench nail 633 Horizontal, wooden fibres horizontally, direction of clench nail unknown 4 Clench nail 638 Horizontal, wooden fibres horizontally, head in WSW 5 Clench nail- or 639 Rod broken off, head in S nail head 6 Clench nail rove 661 7 Nail 673 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 8 Clench nail 675 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres obliquely down in W 9 Nail 705 Position unknown 10 Clench nail 643 Horizontal, head in W, wooden fibres obliquely down in W 11 Ring with staple 639 12 Wood 641 Around no. 11 13 Wood and dark 641 Around no. 11 soil 14 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres at head vertically 15 Clench nail 665–670 Head straight down, wooden fibres on rove lengthways of the boat 16 Clench nail 669 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 17 Iron rod 643–644 Somewhat down in SW, wooden fibres horizontally across the rod 18 Clench nail 626 Head in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 19 Clench nail 649–650 Head somewhat down in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 20 Clench nail 619 Horizontal, head in W 21 Clench nail 653–657 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres obliquely down in ENE 22 Clench nail 656 Horizontal, head in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 23 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 24 Clench nail 659–661 Head obliquely up in E, wooden fibres horizontally 25 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 26 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 27 Iron rod 653 Direction N–S, wooden fibres vertically 28 Clench nail 654 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally

97 98 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 29 Nail 673 Head in N 30 Clench nail 674 Fallen down, direction unknown 31 Nail 709 Horizontal, head in SSE 32 Clench nail 709 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally in the boat’s direction 33 Clench nail 708 Head obliquely down in E, wooden fibres horizontally in N–S 34 Nail rod 700 Horizontal, pointed in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally. To the next 35 Nail 700 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally. Cont. of previous item 36 Clench nail 711 Horizontal, head in NE 37 Iron rod 704–709 With loop in SW, this was bent slightly up 38 Nail 719 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 39 Wood with 719 Prob. cont. of the previous item. Same direction, wooden fibres clench nail driven horizontally and vertically through 40 Nail head with a 710 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally piece of rod 41 Clench nail rove 713 Horizontal, rove in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally with a piece of rod 42 Iron sheet 716 Horizontal with three tines up, wooden fibres horizontally in NW–SE 43 Clench nail 620–622 Head almost straight down in W, wooden fibres horizontally in E–W 44 Clench nail 662–665 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 45 Clench nail 664–665 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 46 Clench nail 659.5 Head slightly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 47 Clench nail 662 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 48 Clench nail 668 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 49 Clench nail 669–667 Head obliquely down in N, wooden fibres horizontally 50 Clench nail 669 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 51 Clench nail 667–671 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 52 Clench nail 670 Head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 53 Clench nail 667–670 Head obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 54 Clench nail 667–670 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 55 Clench nail 669 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 56 Clench nail 662 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 57 Loop attachment 669 Rod raised in centre, flattened ends, direction N–S, horizontal, wooden fibres horizontally along the mount 58 Clench nail 668–667 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 59 Clench nail 669 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 60 Clench nail 668 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally Field notes on the finds 99

No Ty pe Height Note 61 Clench nail 665 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 62 Nail 656–652 Head slightly up in SW 63 Clench nail 662 Horizontal, head in SSW, wooden fibres vertically 64 Clench nail head 666 Head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally with rod 65 Clench nail rove 663 Rove in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally with rod 66 Nail 662 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 67 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 68 Clench nail 649 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 69 Clench nail 643 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 70 Clench nail 643 Broken 71 Clench nail 642 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 72 Nail 668 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 73 Nail 665 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 74 Clench nail 653 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 75 Clench nail 655 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 76 Nail 663 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 77 Nail 663 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 78 Clench nail 657–661 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 79 Clench nail 651 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 80 Nail 664 Head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 81 Clench nail 662 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 82 Clench nail 642 Fallen down, direction unknown 83 Nail 666 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 84 Nail 668 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 85 Nail 667 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 86 Clench nail 666–671 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 87 Clench nail 651 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 88 Clench nail 657–655 Head angled down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 89 Clench nail 668 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 90 Nail 667 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 91 Nail 666 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 92 Nail 623 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 93 Nail 621 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 94 Clench nail 621–623 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 95 Clench nail 615–621 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres at rove obliquely down in NNW, at head horizontally in ENE–WSW 96 Clench nail 622.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 97 Clench nail 621–624 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 98 Clench nail 623.5–625 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 99 Clench nail 627 Head slightly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 100 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 100 Clench nail 625 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 101 Nail 621 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 102 Nail 622 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 103 Clench nail 624 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 104 Clench nail 628–630 Head slightly down in S, wooden fibres vertically on rove, horizontally on head 105 Clench nail head 630.5 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally with rod 106 Clench nail 630 Head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 107 Clench nail 625 Head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 108 Nail 626 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 109 Clench nail 624 Horizontal, head in SE, textile fragments on rove 110 Nail 624–622 Head slightly up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 111 Nail 622–621 Head obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 112 Clench nail 625–622 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 113 Clench nail 629–627 Head obliquely down in E, wooden fibres horizontally 114 Clench nail 642.5 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 115 Clench nail 647 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 116 Clench nail 644 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 117 Clench nail 644 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 118 Iron rod 635 Horizontal N–S, wooden fibres horizontally 119 Iron rod 635 Horizontal N–S, wooden fibres horizontally 120 Clench nail 641.5 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 121 Rim mount 649 Horizontal, folded over, fold in S, wooden fibres within W–E 122 Clench nail 623 Horizontal, head in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 123 Clench nail 655 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 124 Clench nail 654 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 125 Clench nail 654 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 126 Clench nail 654 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 127 Clench nail 650 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 128 Clench nail 657–660 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 129 Clench nail 662–660 Head slightly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 130 Clench nail 663–659 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 131 Clench nail 665–662 Head strongly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 132 Clench nail 669–664 Head slightly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 133 Clench nail 665–669 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 134 Clench nail 662–665 Head obliquely down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 135 Loop attachment 672 With flattened endings, direction NE–SW, rod bent outwards in NW, lying on its edge 136 Clench nail 672 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 137 Clench nail 669 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 138 Clench nail 666–669 Head obliquely down in N, wooden fibres horizontally 139 Clench nail 666 Head in N, wooden fibres vertically 140 Flat mount 663–666 Standing on its edge, direction WNW–ESE Field notes on the finds 101

No Ty pe Height Note 141 Clench nail 665 Horizontal, head in NE, wooden fibres vertically 142 Clench nail 664–662 Head slightly up in N, wooden fibres obliquely down in W 143 Rim mount 657 Folded over, fold obliquely up in NNE, wooden fibres NNE– SSW 144 Clench nail 669–671 Head slightly down in NNE, wooden fibres horizontally 145 Clench nail 670–672 Head obliquely down in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 146 Clench nail 656 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 147 Clench nail 644 Head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 148 Clench nail 629–633 Head obliquely up in N, wooden fibres horizontally 149 Clench nail 630–637 Head obliquely up in N, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 150 Shield boss 659–669 Standing on its edge, boss in SSO 151 Iron rod 629–633 Obliquely down in NO, wooden fibres obliquely down in SO 152 Iron rod 629 Horizontal E–W, wooden fibres horizontally 153 Clench nail 634 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 154 Clench nail 633 Horizontal, head in E, wooden fibres obliquely down in N 155 Clench nail 625.5 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 156 Clench nail 623–625 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 157 Clench nail 625 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 158 Clench nail 625 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 159 Clench nail 626 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 160 Clench nail 625.5–627 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 161 Nail 619–620 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 162 Clench nail 622–623 Long, horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 163 Clench nail 638 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 164 Clench nail 637.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres almost vertically N–S 165 Clench nail 637–638 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 166 Clench nail 635.5–637.5 Head slightly down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 167 Clench nail 637–638.5 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 168 Clench nail 641 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 169 Clench nail 644–645 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 170 Clench nail 640–643.5 Head obliquely down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 171 Clench nail 642–644 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 172 Nail- or Clench 637 Broken off head, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally nail head 173 Clench nail 641 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 174 Clench nail 639 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 175 Clench nail 672–675 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 176 Clench nail 670–673 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally 177 Clench nail 665–669 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally 178 Clench nail 669–672 Head obliquely down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 179 Clench nail 672.5 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 180 Clench nail 665–663 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres obliquely down in W 102 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 181 Clench nail 669 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 182 Clench nail 665.5 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 183 Clench nail 660 Horizontal, head in NNE, wooden fibres vertically 184 Iron rod 662 Position uncertain 185 Clench nail 653.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 186 Tack 675 187 Clench nail 671–668 Head straight down 188 Clench nail 654 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 189 Clench nail 642 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 190 Clench nail 629 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 191 Clench nail 631–633 Small, head obliquely up in N, wooden fibres horizontally 192 Clench nail 629–632 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 193 Clench nail 626.5–624.5 Head slightly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 194 Clench nail 628.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 195 Nail 627.5–631 Head straight up, wooden fibres horizontally NW–SE. Cf. 210. Probably broken-off clench nail 196 Clench nail 629 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 197 Clench nail 629 Horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 198 Clench nail 627 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 199 Clench nail 631 Small, horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 200 Clench nail 632 Small, horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 201 Clench nail 642 Horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 202 Clench nail 648 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 203 Clench nail 637.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 204 Clench nail 624.5 Head slightly down in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 205 Clench nail 628 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 206 Nail 628 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 207 Clench nail 630 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 208 Clench nail 629 Horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 209 Clench nail 628 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 210 Nail 627.5–631 Vertical, head up, wooden fibres horizontally E–W. Together with 195. Probably both parts of a broken-off clench nail 211 Clench nail 631 Horizontal, head in W, wooden fibres horizontally 212 Clench nail 629 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 213 Clench nail 648 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 214 Clench nail 646 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 215 Clench nail 646 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 216 Clench nail 645–655 Horizontal, head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 217 Clench nail 654–657 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 218 Clench nail 660–655 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 219 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 220 Clench nail 661 Head almost straight down, wooden fibres horizontally Field notes on the finds 103

No Ty pe Height Note 221 Nail 663–667 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 222 Clench nail 667 Horizontal, rove in SE, wooden fibres horizontally without head 223 Clench nail 670–673 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 224 Clench nail 669–673 Head almost straight down, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 225 Clench nail 661 Head slightly up in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 226 Nail 665 Horizontal, head in SSW, wooden fibres vertically 227 Clench nail 663 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 228 Clench nail 661 Head obliquely down in ENE, wooden fibres vertically 229 Clench nail 653 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres vertically 230 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 231 Clench nail 652 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 232 Clench nail 653 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 233 Clench nail 632 Horizontal, rove in SE, wooden fibres vertically without head 234 Clench nail 630 Head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 235 Clench nail 625 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 236 Clench nail 631 Small, head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 237 Clench nail 628 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 238 Clench nail 630 Small, head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 239 Clench nail 636 Small, head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 240 Clench nail 641–646 Head obliquely up in NNE, wooden fibres horizontally 241 Iron rod 633–635 Obliquely down in ENE, wooden fibres horizontally 242 Nail 636 Horizontal, direction ENE–WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 243 Clench nail 644 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 244 Clench nail 645 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 245 Clench nail 654–655 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 246 Clench nail 647–645 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 247 Clench nail 647 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 248 Clench nail rod 629 Position uncertain 249 Nail head with a 634 Head in N, wooden fibres horizontally piece of rod 250 Clench nail 652 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 251 Clench nail 649 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 252 Clench nail 644.5 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 253 Clench nail 644 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 254 Nail 664.5–668 Head slightly up in WNW, wooden fibres vertically 255 Nail 665–668 Head obliquely up in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 256 Nail 665 Head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 257 Nail 668–671 Head slightly down in N, wooden fibres horizontally, rod bent towards W 258 Clench nail 667.5 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 104 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 259 Nail 668 Head in E, wooden fibres horizontally 260 Nail 669–672 Head obliquely down in NNE, wooden fibres horizontally 261 Nail 666–668 Head slightly up in E, wooden fibres horizontally 262 Clench nail 670–675 Head straight down 263 Nail 666–670 Head straight up 264 Clench nail 665–669 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 265 Nail 667 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 266 Nail 663–670 Long, head obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 267 Clench nail 653 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 268 Clench nail 652 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 269 Clench nail 652 Head slightly down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 270 Clench nail 655 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres obliquely down in W 271 Clench nail 649 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 272 Clench nail 652 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 273 Clench nail 648 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 274 Clench nail 659.5–657 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 275 Clench nail 658–662 Head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally 276 Clench nail 662–659.5 Horizontal, head in NNE, wooden fibres horizontally 277 Nail 668–662.5 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres obliquely up in ENE 278 Nail 670–666 Head obliquely down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 279 Nail 669–664.5 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 280 Clench nail 664.5 Head obliquely down in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 281 Clench nail 657.5 Horizontal, head in NNE, wooden fibres horizontally 282 Clench nail 651 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres obliquely up in NE 283 Clench nail 652.5 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 284 Clench nail 657–661 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 285 Nail 664–666 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 286 Clench nail 669 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 287 Clench nail 674 Fallen down 288 Clench nail rove 622 Direction unknown 289 Clench nail 658–662 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 290 Clench nail 658–663 Head obliquely down in E, wooden fibres horizontally in E 291 Clench nail 656–659 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 292 Clench nail 657–660 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 293 Clench nail 659 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 294 Nail 667–664 Head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 295 Nail 665 Slightly up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 296 Nail or Clench 666 Slightly up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally nail 297 Nail 666 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 298 Nail 667 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 299 Nail 667–664 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally Field notes on the finds 105

No Ty pe Height Note 300 Nail 667 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 301 Nail 667.5–665 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 302 Clench nail 664 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 303 Clench nail 656–655 Head obliquely up in N, wooden fibres horizontally 304 Flat mount 663–665 Direction WSW–ENE obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 305 Clench nail 623–625.5 Head obliquely down in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 306 Clench nail 628 Broken off in the centre, rove and head straight down, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 307 Clench nail 626–628.5 Rove slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres vertically without head 308 Clench nail 626–630 Head obliquely down in ESE, wooden fibres vertically at rove, horizontally at head 309 Clench nail 624 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres vertically at rove, horizontally at head 310 Clench nail 624 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres vertically at head, horizontally at rove 311 Clench nail 625 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres vertically 312 Clench nail head 629 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally with rod 313 Clench nail 634–631 Rove slightly up in N, wooden fibres vertically without head 314 Clench nail 635 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 315 Clench nail 632 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 316 Clench nail 628 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 317 Clench nail 632 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 318 Clench nail 644 Head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 319 Clench nail 628 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 320 Clench nail 623 Direction uncertain without rove 321 Rod 620–618 SW–NE, obliquely down in NE, wooden fibres vertically 322 Clench nail 642–640 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 323 Clench nail 640–639 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 324 Clench nail 628–625 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 325 Clench nail 620 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 326 Clench nail 619–623 Long, head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres vertical at rove, horizontally at head 327 Clench nail 627–629 Long, head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres vertical at rove, horizontally at head 328 Clench nail 626–625 Head slightly up in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 329 Clench nail 627 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 330 Clench nail 632–635 Head obliquely down in N, wooden fibres horizontally 331 Clench nail 628–627 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres vertically 332 Iron rod 644 Direction uncertain 333 Clench nail 628–627 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres vertically 106 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 334 Clench nail 630 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 335 Clench nail 631 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres vertically at rove, horizontally at head 336 Dog leash 627–644 337 Clench nail 640–642 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 338 Clench nail, 637 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres vertically small 339 Clench nail 640–642.5 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 340 Iron rod 635.5–638 SSW–NNE, obliquely down in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 341 Iron rod 637–639 S–N, obliquely down in S, wooden fibres obliquely down in W 342 Iron rod 643 SW–NE, horizontal, wooden fibres horizontally 343 Clench nail 635–638 Head strongly obliquely down in SW, wooden fibres 344 Clench nail 651 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 345 Clench nail 648–649.5 Head slightly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 346 Clench nail 643 Small, horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres vertically 347 Clench nail 646.5–648 Small, head obliquely down in ESE, wooden fibres vertically 348 Clench nail 655 Small, horizontal, head in W, wooden fibres vertically 349 Clench nail 657–656 Small, head obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres vertically 350 Clench nail 631.5–633 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres vertically 351 Clench nail 650 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 352 Clench nail 653–655 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 353 Clench nail 655 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 354 Buckle 632.5–637 Obliquely down in NNW 355 Clench nail 653 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 356 Clench nail 655–657.5 Small, head obliquely down in W, wooden fibres horizontally at rove, vertically at head 357 Clench nail 657 Small, horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 358 Clench nail 661–657.5 Head obliquely down in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 359 Clench nail 663–661 Head obliquely down in W, wooden fibres horizontally 360 Clench nail 663–660 Head obliquely down in S 361 Rim mount 665–667 Folded over, fold in SSW, obliquely, wooden fibres in SSW– NNE 362 Clench nail 666–669 Head obliquely down in N, wooden fibres horizontally 363 Clench nail 661–664 Head obliquely down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 364 Clench nail 656–654.5 Head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 365 Clench nail 663–668 Head obliquely down in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally lengthways of the boat 366 Clench nail 669 Horizontal, head in W, wooden fibres horizontally 367 Clench nail 667 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 368 Clench nail 667 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 369 Clench nail 666–667 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 370 Clench nail 662 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 371 Clench nail 664 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally Field notes on the finds 107

No Ty pe Height Note 372 Nail head with 664 Head in SE piece of rod 373 Clench nail 660–663 Head obliquely down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 374 Knife 659 Horizontal, point of blade in WSW 375 Clench nail 650 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 376 Clench nail 641–638 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 377 Clench nail 660–656 Head strongly down in SE 378 Clench nail 661 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 379 Clench nail 661–664 Head obliquely down in NNE, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 380 Clench nail 666 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 381 Clench nail 661–664 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 382 Clench nail 641 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 383 Clench nail 659 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 384 Clench nail 663–667 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 385 Clench nail 663–667 Head obliquely down in NW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 386 Clench nail 667 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 387 Clench nail 666 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 388– Bucket Upper layer 398 388– One fold of the 666 389 loop and piece of iron hoop 390 Iron hoop 664–667 391– Iron hoop 668–662 392 393 Upright 664–667 394 Upright 668–672 395 Upright 666–671 396 Upright 664–669 397 Upright 664–670 398 Iron hoop 669 399– Bucket 669 Lower layer 408 400 Iron hoop 671 401 Iron hoop 672–670 402 Upright 669 403 End of upright 668 404 Iron hoop 667–669 Standing 405 Crossbar with 671 tacks 406 End of iron hoop 671 407 Iron hoop 670 408 Upright 670–669 108 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 409 Clench nail 671 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 410 For the tang 669 One piece fastened onto no. 374 411 Clench nail rove 624 Horizontal, rove in NE with rod 412 Clench nail 623 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 413 Clench nail 617.5–619.5 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 414 Clench nail 620–622 Head obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 415 Clench nail rove 618 Horizontal, rove in NW, wooden fibres vertically with rod 416 Clench nail 613–615 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 417 Clench nail, 618 Head in ESE, rove in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally broken off 418 Clench nail 622–625 Rove obliquely down in NW, wooden fibres vertically, head slightly below, broken off 419 Clench nail, 621.5 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally broken off 420 Clench nail rove 615 Horizontal, rove in SE, wooden fibres horizontally with rod 421 Clench nail rove 615 Rove obliquely down in E, wooden fibres horizontally with rod 422 Clench nail 615–619 Long, head obliquely up in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 423 Clench nail 616.5–618 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 424 Clench nail head 617.5–619 Head slightly up in NNW with rod 425 Clench nail rove 619 Rove obliquely up in ESE, wooden fibres vertically with rod 426 Clench nail 621–622 Head in S, rove in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 427 Clench nail 623–621 Head obliquely down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 428 Clench nail head 617.5 Horizontal, head in W with rod 429 Clench nail rove 618 Horizontal, head in W, wooden fibres horizontally with rod 430 Clench nail 634 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 431 Clench nail 638–635 Head obliquely down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 432 Clench nail 641 Horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres vertically 433 Clench nail 646–644 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 434 Clench nail 635–639 Head strongly up in N, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 435 Clench nail head 622 Horizontal, head in E, wooden fibres horizontally with piece of rod 436 Clench nail 632–636 Head strongly up in NNW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 437 Clench nail 646–643 Head obliquely down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 438 Clench nail 620–625 Long, head obliquely up in WNW, wooden fibres vertically at rove, horizontally at head Field notes on the finds 109

No Ty pe Height Note 439 Clench nail 628–631 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 440 Clench nail 640 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 441 Clench nail 626–628 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 442 Clench nail 626–625 Head slightly down in SSW, wooden fibres obliquely down in ESE 443 Clench nail 630–633 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 444 Clench nail with 635 Horizontal, E–W, wooden fibres horizontally two roves 445 Clench nail 632 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 446 Rod to Clench 622 Horizontal, SE–NW nail 447 Dog leash 623–633 448 Clench nail 647–645 Head obliquely down in WNW 449 Clench nail 655–657 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 450 Clench nail 654–657 Head obliquely up in N, wooden fibres horizontally 451 Clench nail 654 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 452 Clench nail 652 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 453 Clench nail 641–643 Head slightly up in N, wooden fibres horizontally 454 Iron rod 629 Horizontal, N–S 455 Buckle for dog 690 Standing on its edge leash 447 456 Clench nail 635 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 457 Iron rod 630 Horizontal, NNE–SSW, slightly bent, bend towards ESE (beneath dog leash 447) 458 Iron rod 633 Horizontal, ENE–WSW (beneath dog leash 447) 459 Clench nail 648–651 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 460 Clench nail 659 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 461 Clench nail 657–659 Head slightly up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 462 Clench nail 647–650 Head obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 463 Clench nail 637–638 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 464 Clench nail 650–647 Head strongly obliquely down in E, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 465 Clench nail 659–656 Head strongly obliquely down in E, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 466 Clench nail 648–647 Head obliquely down in ENE, wooden fibres vertically 467 Clench nail 634–636 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 468 Clench nail 645–647 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 469 Clench nail 658 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 470 Clench nail 668–666 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 471 Clench nail 669–666 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 472 Clench nail 673–670 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 473 Clench nail 665 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 474 Clench nail head 667 Head in NW with piece of rod 110 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 475 Clench nail 663–665 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 476 Clench nail 665–667 Head slightly down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 477 Clench nail 663–666 Head strongly obliquely down in ESE, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 478 Clench nail 669–665 Head strongly obliquely down in N 479 Clench nail 667 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 480 Clench nail 669–665 Head strongly obliquely down in WNW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 481 Clench nail 652–651 Head obliquely down in N 482 Clench nail 647 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 483 Clench nail 659–657 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 484 Clench nail 668–666 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 485 Clench nail 665 Broken off, wooden fibres horizontally 486 Clench nail 667 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 487 Clench nail 666.5–663 Head obliquely down in WSW, wooden fibres vertically 488 Clench nail 669 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 489 Clench nail 664.5–668 Head obliquely down in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 490 Clench nail 667–669–667 Broken off, rod bend down, head obliquely up in E, rove obliquely up in WSW 491 Iron rod 667–669 Obliquely up in W 492 Nail 667–670 Head obliquely up in SE 493 Iron rod 664 Horizontal, NW–SW, wooden fibres horizontally 494 Clench nail 665.5–668 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 495 Iron rod 669–667 Long, obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 496 Clench nail 664–666.5 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 497 Clench nail 667 Horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 498 Clench nail 669 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 499 Clench nail 669.5–668 Head broken off, rove obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 500 Sword 659.5–665.5 501 Iron hoop for the 664–667 See nos 399–408 cask 502 Tack Horizontal, head in SSE 503 Clench nail 665–669 Head straight down 504 Clench nail Stray clench nail, iron, close to sword no. 500 505 Nail 613–616 Horizontal, head in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 506 Clench nail 618 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 507 Clench nail 623–626 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 508 Clench nail 626 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 509 Clench nail 637–640 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 510 Clench nail 622 Long, rove in SE, wooden fibres vertically without head 511 Clench nail 613–610 Long, head obliquely down in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 512 Clench nail 613–616 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres vertically Field notes on the finds 111

No Ty pe Height Note 513 Clench nail 628 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 514 Clench nail 627 Fallen down, possibly from uppermost row 515 Clench nail 641 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 516 Clench nail 653 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 517 Clench nail 653–651 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 518 Nail 651–652 Head slightly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 519 Clench nail 655–653 Head slightly down in SW, wooden fibres horizontally 520 Nail 652–650 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 521 Nail 650–652 Head slightly up in W, wooden fibres horizontally 522 Clench nail 646–648 Head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 523 Spear/lance head 649–653 524 Clench nail 635 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 525 Clench nail 633 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 526 Clench nail 620–623 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 527 Clench nail head 621–623 Head straight up with piece of rod 528 Clench nail rove 619.5 Rove in ENE, wooden fibres horizontally with piece of rod 529 Nail 617–618.5 Head slightly up in ENE, wooden fibres horizontally, point bent up 530 Iron rod 616 Slightly up in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 531 Clench nail rove 612 Standing on edge, direction E–W, wooden fibres horizontally 532 Clench nail head 616 Horizontal, head in NE with piece of rod 533 Clench nail 618 Long, rove in SW, wooden fibres vertically without head 534 Clench nail 622–628 Long, head obliqueloy up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally at head, vertically at rove 535 Clench nail head 618 Horizontal, head in SW, wooden fibres vertically with piece of rod 536 Clench nail rove 621 Rove obliquely down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally with a piece of rod 537 Clench nail 633 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 538 Clench nail 637 Small, head slightly down in S, wooden fibres horizontally 539 Clench nail 646 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 540 Clench nail 645–648 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 541 Iron rod 613–615 Obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 542 Tack 643 Horizontal, head in N 543 Clench nail head 608–609 Head obliquely down in S, wooden fibres horizontally with piece of rod 544 Clench nail head 620 Head obliquely up in NNW with piece of rod 545 Clench nail 636–639 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 546 Iron rod 627–630 Bent obliquely up in N, wooden fibres horizontally 112 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 547 Clench nail 628–631 Head obliquely up in NW 548 Clench nail 626–630 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 549 Clench nail 640–644 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 550 Nail 653–655 Head obliquely up in NNW 551 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 552 Clench nail 655 Horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 553 Nail 652 Head slightly up in S, point bent towards W 554 Iron rod 650 Vertical 555 Nail 651 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres vertically 556 Nail 654 Horizontal, head in WNW 557 Clench nail 660–663 Head obliquely down in EW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 558 Clench nail 664 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 559 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 560 Clench nail 663–667 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 561 Clench nail 654–657 Head obliquely up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 562 Nail 657 Head slightly up in SW, wooden fibres horizontally 563 Clench nail 662–666 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 564 Clench nail 662–664 Head obliquely down in SSW, wooden fibres vertically 565 Nail 665–664 Head slightly up in NNE, wooden fibres horizontally 566 Clench nail 663–664 Head slightly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 567 Nail 660–662 Head obliquely up in NNW 568 Clench nail 661–662.5 Head slightly up in ENE, wooden fibres vertically 569 Clench nail 654 Horizontal, head in SW 570 Nail 650–652 Head obliquely up in NW 571 Clench nail 631 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 572 Iron rod 629 Horizontal, bent towards SW in the SE-end, wooden fibres vertically 573 Iron rod 630 Horizontal, ESE–WNW 574 Clench nail 642 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres vertically 575 Clench nail 645–644 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 576 Clench nail 657–655 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 577 Nail 663.5–661 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 578 Nail 670 Horizontal, head in S 579 Clench nail 664 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 580 Clench nail 661 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 581 Clench nail 643–646 Head obliquely up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 582 Clench nail 654 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 583 Nail 662–660 Head obliquely up in E, wooden fibres vertically 584 Nail 660–661 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally on rod, vertical beneath the head 585 Nail 661 Horizontal, head in SW, wooden fibres horizontally 586 Clench nail 662.5–660 Head obliquely down in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 587 Clench nail 657–662.5 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 588 Nail 664–666 Head obliquely up in SW, wooden fibres horizontally Field notes on the finds 113

No Ty pe Height Note 589 Crampon 655–653 Standing on edge, obliquely up in NW, bend of shafts in SW 590 Clench nail 645–647 Head obliquely down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 591 Clench nail 637–636 Head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 592 Mount for chest 657–666 Hinges in SW end, direction of mount SW–NE 593 Nail 664 Horizontal, head in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 594 Clench nail 665 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 595 Mount for chest 659–665 SW–NE, obliquely up in SW with hinges towards a small, upright iron sheet, on the upper side wooden fibres across the mount 596 Iron sheet 661–664 Obliquely up in SW, wooden fibres underneath in SE–NW 597 Iron sheet 665–667 Obliquely up in SW 598 Iron sheet 665–663 Obliquely up in WNW, wooden fibres across the sheet underneath 599 Iron sheet 661–663.5 Obliquely up in NE, rod beneath in the NW end, wooden fibres underneath in NNE–SSW 600 Nail 667 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 601 Lock with lock- 659–665 Half-moon shaped, straight side obliquely up in SW sheet for chest 602 Clasp 663–667 Obliquely down in SW 603 “Crampon” 665 604 “Crampon” 667 Shaft down 605 Iron rod 667.5–666 Horizontal, both ends bent, mount in ESE (cramp) 606 Iron sheet with 661.5–664 Upper nail rod in E–W, sheet in E, obliquely down on edge in nails E 607 Iron sheet with 662–666 Upper nail rod horizontal in WSW–ENE, wooden fibres nails horizontally, sheet in WSW, obliquely down on edge in WSW 608 Clench nail 667–664.5 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 609 Clench nail 654–656 Head obliquely down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 610 Clench nail 666 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 611 “Crampon” 668 612 Tack 692 613 Piece of flint 667.5 614 Tack 667.5 Head obliquely down in NNE, wooden fibres horizontally 615 Clench nail 665–668 Head obliquely down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 616 Clench nail 620–623 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 617 Clench nail 632 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 618 Clench nail 632–633 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 619 Clench nail 633.5–635 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 620 Clench nail 619–620 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 621 Nail 609.5–612.5 Long, head obliquely up in SSE, point of rod bent in W, wooden fibres horizontally 622 Clench nail rove 616 Rove straight down with piece of rod 623 Clench nail 632 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 624 Clench nail 630.5–632.5 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 114 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 625 Clench nail 620–621 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 626 Clench nail 643 Head slightly down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 627 Clench nail 644.5 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 628 Clench nail 652 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 629 Clench nail 639–641.5 Head straight down 630 Clench nail 642–644 Head obliquely up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 631 Clench nail 653 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 632 Nail 656 Head in N, point bent in V 633 Clench nail 637 Horizontal, head in NNW 634 Clench nail 637.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 635 Clench nail 626–624 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 636 Clench nail 614–610 Head slightly up in NNW 637 Clench nail 609 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 638 Clench nail 627 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 639 Clench nail 629–627 Head obliquely up in NNW 640 Clench nail 613 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 641 Iron rod 612–610 Obliquely up in NNW, bent down at this end, wooden fibres horizontally 642 Clench nail 613–610 Long, head obliquely up in NV, wooden fibres horizontally 643 Clench nail 623–619 Long, head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres vertically at rove, horizontally at head 644 Iron rod 626.5 Horizontal, N–S, wooden fibres vertically 645 Iron rod 628 Horizontal, N–S 646 Clench nail 629–627 Head obliquely up in NW 647 Clench nail 617 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 648 Clench nail 630–631 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 649 Clench nail 634–635.5 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 650 Clench nail 635–637 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 651 Clench nail 612–615 Long, head in SE, wooden fibres vertically 652 Clench nail 647–645 Head obliquely down in SE 653 Clench nail 650–653 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 654 Clench nail 655–653 Head obliquely down in SW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 655 Clench nail 660–665 Head obliquely down in NNE, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 656 Clench nail 618–623 Long, head obliquely up in S 657 Iron rod 627–629 Slightly up in WSW 658 Clench nail 627–629 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 659 Clench nail 640 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 660 Iron sheet 658–660 Slightly up in WSW, wooden fibres WSW–ENE 661 Nail 659.5 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 662 Clench nail head 664 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally with piece of rod 663 Clench nail 660–659 Head obliquely down in SSE 664 Clench nail 663 Head obliquely down in NNW Field notes on the finds 115

No Ty pe Height Note 665 Clench nail 663–667 Head obliquely down in W, wooden fibres vertically 666 Clench nail 666–664 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 667 Nail (part of 658 Horizontal, head in N, point of rod bent obliquely down in E spike?) 668 Clench nail 648–645.5 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres vertically 669 Crampon 658–659 Shafts obliquely up in N 670 Clench nail 663–666.5 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 671 Iron sheet with 670–667 Sheet obliquely up in S clench nail 672 Iron sheet with 671–662 Sheet obliquely up in SW, clench nail in NW clench nail 673 Clench nail 651.5–655 Head straight down 674 Clench nail 663–667.5 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 675 Clench nail 660 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 676 Clench nail 651–647.5 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 677 Clench nail 649 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 678 Clench nail 653.5 Head straight down 679 Crampon 654–658 Horizontal 680 Tow-hook 666–663 Ferrule in NE, hook bent in NW 681 Tow-hook 664–665.5 Ferrule in NE, hook bent in SE 682 Tow-hook 667–665.5 Ferrule in SW, hook bent in SE 683 Crampon 664 Standing with shafts pointing up, direction NW–SE 684 Clench nail 666–668 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 685 Clench nail 640–642 Head obliquely up in NW 686 Iron sheet with 669–671 Sheet in ENE, wooden fibres horizontally tacks 687 Nail 671 Horizontal, head in SSE 688 Iron sheet 617 Disturbed when large boulder was removed 689 Clench nail 621–629 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres vertically 690 Clench nail 633.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 691 Clench nail 630–628.5 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 692 Clench nail 618.5–616 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 693 Gunwale mount 609 Sheet standing on edge, wooden fibres in mount and on nails vertically 694 Clench nail 614.5–617 Broken off, rove straight up, head in NW 695 Clench nail 614 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 696 Clench nail 630 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 697 Nail 614–611.5 Head obliquely up in SE 698 Nail 605.5–615 Head straight up 699 Nail 606–611.5 Head strongly obliquely up in SSW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 700 Clench nail 613–614.5 Head obliquely down in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 701 Clench nail 642 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 702 Clench nail 643.5–642 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 703 Clench nail 644 116 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 704 Clench nail 609.5 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 705 Iron ring with 601–598 Staple obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally. Ring staple on edge in SW–NE 706 Mount for strake 606–611.5 Mounts on edge with horizontal clench nails in between. scarf Mount obliquely up in NE, wooden fibres obliquely down in NE 707 Clench nail 636 Horizontal, head in ENE, wooden fibres horizontally 708 Clench nail 650 Horizontal, head in SE 709 Clench nail 649–651.5 Head slightly up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 710 Clench nail 650–653 Head slightly up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 711 Clench nail 617 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 712 Clench nail 630–634 Head strongly obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 713 Clench nail 643 Horizontal, head in NW 714 Nail 611–612 Head obliquely down in N 715 Clench nail 627 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres vertically 716 Clench nail 634–635.5 Head slightly up in W, wooden fibres horizontally 717 Clench nail 643–645 Head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 718 Clench nail 645–647 Head straight down 719 Clench nail 651 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 720 Clench nail 637.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 721 Clench nail 651–649 Head slightly up in NW 722 Clench nail 648 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 723 Clench nail 605 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 724 Iron rod 611.5 Horizontal, E–W 725 Clench nail 611 Small, horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 726 Clench nail 613–614 Small, head obliquely down in N, wooden fibres horizontally 727 Clench nail 612.5–613.5 Small, head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 728 Clench nail 629–632 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 729 Clench nail 642 Horizontal, head in SSE 730 Bone from horse 731 Bone from horse 732 Bone from horse 733 Clench nail 647.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 734 Clench nail 655 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 735 Clench nail 654 Head slightly down in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 736 Clench nail 662 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 737 Clench nail 659.5–662 Head obliquely up in N, wooden fibres horizontally 738 Crampon 661–661.5 Rove obliquely up in SW 739 Clench nail 661.5–662.5 Horizontal, head in WNW 740 Clench nail 661 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 741 Nail 618 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 742 Tow-hook 661 Horizontal, ferrule in NNE 743 Rib 657–664 744 Clench nail 651 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally Field notes on the finds 117

No Ty pe Height Note 745 Clench nail 659.5 Small, horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 746 Clench nail 660 Small, horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 747 Clench nail 664–659.5 Head obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 748 Crampon 665.5–669 One shorter side obliquely up in NW, rove in NE 749 Nail 668 Head in WNW, point of rod bent obliquely down in NNE 750 Buckle for bridle 664.5 Horizontal 751 Iron sheet 664 Vertical, WSW–ENE 752 Clench nail 665 Horizontal, head in W, wooden fibres horizontally 753 Iron sheet 666.5 Fastened to no. 759 754 Iron sheet 665 Standing on edge, vaulted side up 755 Teeth of horse 666–663.5 756 Crampon 670 Sheet on edge in SE 757 Clench nail 669 Rove slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 758 Iron sheet with 664.5 Horizontal, hook up on the short side of the sheet facing WSW hook 759 Iron sheet 666 Horizontal, NNW–SSE 760 Buckle 664.5 Horizontal, wooden fibres horizontally 761 Iron rod 669–671 762 Wood 658 Horizontal, fibres in NW–SE 763 Wood 660 Obliquely up in N, fibres in NW–SE 764 Wood 665 Fibres in NW–SE 765 Loop attachment 659–658 Bow obliquely up in E, two nails in each end rove for horse collar 766 Loop attachment 660–664 Obliquely up in ESE, bow in NNE for horse collar 767 Rectangular 662–663 One short side obliquely up in NNW gilded bronze mount 768 Rectangular 667–669 One long side obliquely up in N gilded bronze mount 769 Rectangular 667–666 One short side obliquely up in NE gilded bronze mount 770 Bronze scale 665 Bowl obliquely up in N 771 Rectangular 664–666 One short side obliquely up in N gilded bronze mount 772 Square silver 662 Horizontal, folded over, opening in NNW, leather in between mount 773 Rectangular 661–658 One short side obliquely up in N bronze mount 774 Bronze scale 664.5 Bowl obliquely down in E 775 Ring with mount 663–659 Horizontal in ENE–WSW, ring on edge in NNW–SSE for bridle 118 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 776 Square bronze 665–664 Obliquely up in NNW mount 777 Rectangular 663–664 Horizontal, ESE, WNW, upside down, cord up bronze mount 778 Rectangular 663–666 E–W, one short side up in E, upside down, cord up bronze mount 779 Square silver 659 Horizontal, folded over, fold in N mount 780 Rectangular 663–665 One short side obliquely down in WNW bronze mount 781 Rectangular 666.5–665 One short side obliquely up in WNW bronze mount 782 Bronze scale 662 Small, horizontal, bowl up 783 Bronze scale 661.5 Small, horizontal, bowl up 784 Rectangular 665–666 Horizontal, SW–NE. No decorative plate bronze mount 785 Rectangular 662–665 One short side obliquely down in SW bronze mount 786 Wood Between nos 776 and 784 787 Rectangular Hair and wood on top. On the same leather cord as no. 780 bronze mount 788 Nail 665 Head slightly up in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 789 Bronze fragment 668 from the bridle 790 Clench nail 663 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 791 Tow-hook 664–659 Obliquely down in NNW 792 Clench nail Appeared in lump at no. 791 793 Rectangular 667–666.5 bronze mount 794 Bronze scale Horizontal, bowl up 795 Iron rod 668.5 Horizontal, SW–NE 796 Iron piece 665.5 797 Clench nail 669.5–668 Head obliquely down in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 798 Clench nail 670 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 799 Nail In the lump beneath no. 791 800 Clench nail 665–669 Head obliquely down in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 801 Teeth of horse 662 Badly preserved 802 Clench nail 667 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 803 Clench nail 662 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 804 Clench nail 665 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 805 Clench nail 665 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 806 Iron sheet 665 Horizontal 807 Iron Beneath no. 806 808 Clench nail 604–605.5 Rove straight up 809 Clench nail 604–605.5 Rove straight up Field notes on the finds 119

No Ty pe Height Note 810 Clench nail 614 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 811 Clench nail 618.5 Head straight up 812 Clench nail 614–622 Head obliquely up in SE 813 Clench nail 622 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 814 Tack 634 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 815 Clench nail 636.5–639 Head slightly up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 816 Clench nail 625–624 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 817 Nail head with 622.5 Horizontal, head in NE rod 818 Clench nail 625 Horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 819 Clench nail 640 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 820 Clench nail 639 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 821 Clench nail 634–636 Head in NNW, broken off 822 Clench nail 638–636 Head obliquely down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 823 Clench nail 640 Horizontal, head in NW 824 Clench nail 621.5–624.5 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres vertically 825 Nail 626–627 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres vertically 826 Iron rod 638–636 Obliquely down in WSW, wooden fibres vertically 827 Clench nail 642.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 828 Clench nail 632–633 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 829 Clench nail 627 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 830 Clench nail 646.5–643 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 831 Iron rod 643 Horizontal, ENE–WSW 832 Clench nail 647 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres obliquely up in WSW 833 Clench nail 648 Horizontal, head in ENE, wooden fibres horizontally 834 Iron mount 630–635 Obliquely up in S, wooden fibres vertically 835 Iron mount 635.5–637 Slightly up in NNE, wooden fibres vertically 836 Clench nail 654 Horizontal, head in SSE 837 Buckle 653 838 Clench nail 653.5 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 839 Iron chain with 648.5–653 Fold of mount obliquely down in WSW mount 840 Clench nail 645 Horizontal, head in E, wooden fibres horizontally 841 Iron fragment 647.5 842 Nail 629–627 Head obliquely down in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 843 Clench nail rove 630 Horizontal, rove in SSE, wooden fibres vertically. Possibly with rod belongs to previous no. 844 Clench nail 650 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 845 Clench nail 634–636.5 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 846 Tack 648 Head obliquely up in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 847 Tack 649 Head obliquely up in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 848 Nail 656 849 Clench nail 655–653 Head obliquely down in E, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 120 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 850 Clench nail 654.5–656 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 851 Clench nail 655–656 Head obliquely down in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 852 Mount 631–640 Obliquely up in W, direction of long side NNE–SSW 853 Clench nail 645 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 854 Tack 645 855 Clench nail 645–650 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 856 Buckle 650–651 Frame of buckle obliquely up in SSE 857 Loop with staple 650.5–652 Horizontal, SSE–NNW, staple straight up in NNW 858 Clench nail 653 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 859 Nail 631–632 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 860 Buckle 659–664 Oval, one short side obliquely up in NW 861 Clench nail 662.5 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 862 Clench nail 657–659 Head obliquely down in N, wooden fibres horizontally 863 Nail 651–657 Head obliquely down in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 864 2 nail heads and 653 small fragments of iron 865 Clench nail 650–652 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 866 Clench nail 651–653 Head obliquely up in NE, wooden fibres horizontally 867 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 868 Tack 651 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 869 Clench nail 653.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 870 Clench nail 656–654 Head obliquely up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 871 Clench nail 656 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 872 Tack 654 873 Clench nail 658 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 874 Tack 658 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres vertically 875 Nail 658.5 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 876 Nail 656.5–657.5 Head obliquely down in N, wooden fibres horizontally 877 Nail 656.5–657 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 878 Clench nail 655–653.5 Horizontal, head in NNE, wooden fibres vertically 879 Clench nail 646.5–645 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 880 Clench nail 655 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres vertically 881 Buckle 654.5–656 Frame of buckle obliquely up in W 882 Tooth of horse 661 Chewing surface in NNW 883 Nail 637–632 Long, head obliquely up in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 884 Tack 651.5–653 Head obliquely up in SSE 885 Tack 653–655.5 Head obliquely up in SSE 886 Clench nail 656–658.5 Head obliquely up in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 887 Clench nail 658–660.5 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 888 Clench nail rove? 657.5 889 Clench nail 656–659 Head obliquely down in SSE 890 Mount 637 Horizontal, rod up in N short side, wooden fibres across the sheet 891 Mount 638–640 Slightly up in W, wooden fibres along the sheet Field notes on the finds 121

No Ty pe Height Note 892 Mount 633.5–640 Clench nails in the short sides, rove slightly up in W 893 Clench nail 656 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 894 Clench nail 657 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 895 Long triangular 655.5–662 Horizontal, NNW–SSE, wooden fibres across the staple, loop loop with staple obliquely down in WNW 896 Clench nail 662–665 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 897 Nail 661.5 Horizontal, head in NNW 898 Nail 663–665 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 899 Nail 664.5–666 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 900 Nail 666 Horizontal, head in NNW 901 Nail 661–665.5 Head strongly obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres across the boat 902 Clench nail 635 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 903 Mount 635 Horizontal, WSW–ENE, wooden fibres on the upper side along the sheet 904 Mount 638–636 Two Clench nails, sheet on edge in WNW, clench nails horizontal 905 Nail 636–640 Long, head obliquely up in SE 906 Clench nail 642–644 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 907 Nail 664 Head slightly down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 908 Nail 665 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 909 Nail 664 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 910 Clench nail 663 Horizontal, head in W, wooden fibres horizontally 911 Nail 668–666 Head obliquely up in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 912 Nail 664.5–663.5 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 913 Nail 667 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 914 Nail 666 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 915 Iron rod 665 SSE–NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 916 Tack 667 SSE–NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 917 Nail 661–663 Head strongly obliquely up in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally 918 Mount 639–641.5 Rectangular, one short side obliquely down in NNW, wooden fibres across 919 Mount 642–639 Trapezoidal, longest side obliquely down in N 920 Nail 662 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 921 Nail 667–669 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 922 Nail with iron 665.5–668 Head obliquely up in NE, wooden fibres vertically sheet 923 Nail 665–667 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 924 Clench nail 669–670 Horizontal, head in NE, wooden fibres horizontally 925 Clench nail 666–670 Head obliquely down in S 926 Tack 660–661.5 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 927 Nail 666.5–669 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 928 Teeth from horse Lower jaw’s molars 929 Teeth from horse Upper jaw’s upper right half of molars 930 Teeth from horse Upper jaw’s lower left half of molars 122 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 931 Teeth from horse Lower jaw’s front teeth 932 Teeth from horse Upper jaw’s front teeth 933 Clench nail 657–660 Head strongly obliquely down in S, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 934 Bone from horse 935 Iron rod 565–567 Obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally. In filling 936 Iron rod 565–567 Obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally. In filling 937 Iron rod 564–566.5 Obliquely up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally. In filling 938 Clench nail 670 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 939 Clench nail 675.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 940 Clench nail 616.5 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 941 Clench nail 617.5–619.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 942 Clench nail 634.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 943 Clench nail 625–624 Head obliquely down in SSE 944 Mount 638.5–639.5 Folded over in S, wooden fibres horizontally straight through the mount 945 Clench nail 655–652.5 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres vertically 946 Clench nail 651.5–650 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 947 Clench nail 651–653.5 Head strongly obliquely down in SSW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 948 Clench nail 651.5–650 Head slightly up in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 949 Clench nail 649.5–650.5 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 950 Clench nail 651–654 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 951 Clench nail 648.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 952 Clench nail 647.5–643.5 Head slightly down in S, wooden fibres horizontally 953 Clench nail 648 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 954 Clench nail 642.5–641.5 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 955 Clench nail 644–647 Head straight down, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 956 Clench nail 643 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 957 Clench nail 619.5 Horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 958 Clench nail 614.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 959 Clench nail 610–611 Horizontal, head in NNW 960 Clench nail 603 Horizontal, head in ESE, wooden fibres horizontally 961 Nail 617 Horizontal, head in ESE 962 Clench nail 620–624 Head straight up 963 Nail head with 635 Head in SSE piece of rod 964 Clench nail 652–649 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 965 Clench nail 647–648 Head obliquely up in SW, wooden fibres horizontally 966 Clench nail 651.5 Horizontal, head in SW, wooden fibres horizontally 967 Clench nail 654–656 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 968 Clench nail 658 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 969 Nail head with 665 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally piece of rod 970 Clench nail 663.5 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally Field notes on the finds 123

No Ty pe Height Note 971 Clench nail 677–679 Head obliquely up in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 972 Clench nail 676–679 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 973 Clench nail 609 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 974 Clench nail 677 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 975 Clench nail rove 635 Probably belongs to no. 963 with piece of rod 976 Clench nail 639.5 Head obliquely down in S 977 Clench nail 642.5–644 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 978 Clench nail 646 Small, horizontal, head in SSE 979 Clench nail 625–627 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 980 Clench nail 630–628 Horizontal, head in W, wooden fibres horizontally 981 Clench nail 638 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 982 Clench nail 643 Horizontal, head in N, wooden fibres horizontally 983 Clench nail 647–644.5 Head obliquely up in NNW 984 Nail head with 640 Head straight down piece of rod 985 Clench nail 640.5 Horizontal, head in SE 986 Nail 657–659 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 987 Nail 665–659 Head strongly obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 988 Clench nail 667.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 989 Nail 658.5–666.5 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 990 Nail 659.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 991 Nail 662.5–665 Head strongly obliquely down in S, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 992 Nail 667–670 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 993 Nail 666 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 994 Nail 666 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 995 Clench nail 656.5–655.5 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 996 Clench nail 659–656.5 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 997 Clench nail 647 Head slightly up in N 998 Clench nail 643 Horizontal, head in NE, wooden fibres horizontally 999 Clench nail 639–641 Head strongly obliquely down in SSW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1000 Clench nail 633.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1001 Nail 658–661 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1002 Nail 664–667 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1003 Nail 664 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1004 Clench nail 667.5 Head slightly down in ENE 1005 Clench nail 658 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1006 Clench nail 649.5–651.5 Head obliquely up in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 1007 Clench nail 650 Horizontal, head in WNW 1008 Iron rod 635–637 Angled obliquely up, wooden fibres vertically 1009 Clench nail 650.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres vertically 124 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 1010 Nail 662–658.5 Head strongly obliquely up in WNW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1011 Nail 657–661.5 Head strongly obliquely down in S, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1012 Nail 667.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres vertically 1013 Nail 657–662 Head strongly obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1014 Clench nail 651.5–655.5 Head obliquely up in NNW 1015 Clench nail 640.5 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1016 Nail 637 Head slightly up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1017 Clench nail 655.5–653.5 Head obliquely up in SSE 1018 Nail 667–660 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1019 Nail 657–659 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1020 Clench nail 655 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1021 Rattle with hook 641–649.5 Hook’s curve slightly up in NNW, ring between hook and ferrule standing on edge in NW–SE, ferrule opening slightly down in SSW 1022 Rattle with ring 635–647? Ring down in NNW–SSE, one long side obliquely down in ENE, ferrule opening obliquely up in SSW 1023 Clench nail 638.5 Horizontal, head in SW, wooden fibres vertically 1024 Nail 635.5–631.5 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1025 Nail 659.5 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1026 Nail 658–662 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1027 Clench nail 650 –647.5 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1028 Clench nail 671–673.5 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres vertically 1029 Clench nail 631–633.5 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1030 Tooth 645 1031 Tooth 657.5 1032 Nail 657.5–662.5 Head strongly obliquely up in N, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1033 Clench nail 663.5 Head slightly down in NE, wooden fibres horizontally 1034 Nail 656.5–662.5 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1035 Nail 654 Head strongly obliquely up in NE, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1036 Clench nail 657 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1037 Tooth 638 1038 Clench nail 604 Head in ENE 1039 Clench nail rove 605 Rove in E with piece of rod 1040 Clench nail 620–622.5 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1041 Clench nail 641–644.5 Head obliquely up in N, wooden fibres obliquely up in S 1042 Clench nail head 614 1043 Clench nail head 614 1044 Mount 591–604.5 One short side obliquely up in W, 6 clench nails in two groups, wooden fibres along the sheet and across the clench nails Field notes on the finds 125

No Ty pe Height Note 1045 Clench nail 599 Head slightly up in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 1046 Clench nail 627–629 Head obliquely up in NW, wooden fibres vertically 1047 Nail head 581 Broken off, caused by large boulder 1048 Clench nail 587.5–590 Head obliquely up in SSE 1049 Clench nail 597 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1050 Clench nail 602.5–604 Head slightly up in SW, wooden fibres horizontally 1051 Tack 567 Fallen down 1052 Nail head with 567 Horizontal, head in NE rod 1053 Tack 567 Head obliquely up in SW, wooden fibres horizontally 1054 Nail 569 Horizontal, head in NE 1055 Clench nail 603.5 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1056 Clench nail 617.5 Horizontal, head in S 1057 Clench nail 619 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1058 Clench nail 671 Head obliquely down in SSW 1059 Clench nail 618–619 Head obliquely down in SE 1060 Clench nail rove 670 Horizontal, rove in N, wooden fibres horizontally with rod 1061 Clench nail 677–674 Head obliquely up in SSE 1062 Nail head 567.5 1063 Clench nail 579–575 Obliquely up in W 1064 Clench nail 590 Horizontal, head in SW 1065 Clench nail 604 Horizontal, head in W 1066 Clench nail 605–606.5 Head strongly obliquely down in N, wooden fibres in E–W 1067 Tack Stray 1068 Nail Stray 1069 Clench nail 614.5 Head slightly up in S 1070 Clench nail 620 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1071 Clench nail 625 Horizontal, head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1072 Clench nail 628–631 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1073 Clench nail 630–639.5 Head slightly down in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1074 Clench nail 638–640 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres vertically 1075 Nails 656–662 Joined by corrosion, strongly obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres in boat’s direction 1076 Nail 657–662 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1077 Nail without 655–658 Point straight down head 1078 Clench nail 648.5 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1079 Clench nail 634–636.5 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres vertically 1080 Clench nail 676 Horizontal, head in E, wooden fibres horizontally 1081 Clench nail 592 Horizontal, head in NNE 1082 Clench nail 577 Horizontal, head in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1083 Nail head with 573.5 Head in N, wooden fibres vertically rod 126 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 1084 Nail head with 573.5 Head in NNE, wooden fibres vertically rod 1085 Tack Stray 1086 Clench nail 578.5–575 Bent, bent in NW, head obliquely up in SW, wooden fibres horizontally 1087 Clench nail 580.5 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1088 Clench nail rove 592 Rove straight up with piece of rod 1089 Clench nail 597 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1090 Clench nail 602–606 Head obliquely up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1091 Clench nail 616 Head slightly down in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1092 Clench nail 675 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres obliquely down in WSW 1093 Clench nail 675 Horizontal, head in SW, wooden fibres vertically 1094 Clench nail 635.5 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1095 Nail 633.5–638.5 Long, head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1096 Clench nail 631.5–631 Head obliquely up in N, wooden fibres vertically 1097 Clench nail head 614.5 Head in S with piece of rod 1098 Clench nail with 599–600.5 Slightly up in SSW, wooden fibres horizontally two heads 1099 Tack 609 1100 Clench nail 590 Head slightly up in NW 1101 Clench nail 585 Head slightly up in NW 1102 Iron rod 575 Small 1103 Iron sheet with 575 Rod up rod 1104 Tack 575 Head in NE 1105 Tack 575 Head in NE 1106 Tack 567 Head in NNE, wooden fibres vertically 1107 Iron sheet Fallen down with boulder 1108 Iron sheet Fallen down with boulder 1109 Clench nail 596 Head strongly obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1110 Clench nail 610 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1111 Nail head with 590 Head in SSW piece of rod 1112 Clench nail 627 Horizontal, head in SSE 1113 Clench nail 630–632 Head slightly up in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 1114 Iron sheet with 574 Rod straight up rod 1115 Nail 573 Head in NE 1116 Clench nail 591 Horizontal, head in SE, wooden fibres horizontally 1117 Clench nail with 600 Horizontal, NNW–SSE, wooden fibres horizontally head Field notes on the finds 127

No Ty pe Height Note 1118 Clench nail 613 Horizontal, head in SSW 1119 Tack 623 Horizontal, head in S 1120 Clench nail 628–631 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1121 Clench nail 632–634 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1122 Clench nail 641.5–645 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1123 Nail 648 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres vertically 1124 Nail 652 Horizontally, head in SSE 1125 Rod 652–654 SSE–NNW, slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1126 Rod 656–657 SSE–NNW, slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1127 Nail head 652 1128 Nail 653–654.5 Head obliquely down in E, wooden fibres horizontally 1129 Nail 652–654 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1130 Nail 650–653 Head obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres obliquely down in ENE 1131 Nail 648.5–647 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1132 Nail 647–645 Head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1133 Clench nail 643–645 Head strongly obliquely up in N, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1134 Iron rod 646.5 Horizontal, NNW–SSE 1135 Nail 645 Horizontal, head in NNW 1136 Nail 643–640.5 Bent, head obliquely up in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1137 Nail 641.5 Head slightly down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1138 Nail 631.5–635 Head strongly obliquely up in NNW, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 1139 Nail 631–635.5 Head obliquely down in SSW, wooden fibres obliquely down in NNE 1140 Nail 630–632.5 Head obliquely down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1141 Clench nail with 678 Horizontal, NNW–SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 2 heads 1142 Clench nail with 617–614 Head straight up, wooden fibres lengthways of the boat 2 heads 1143 Clench nail with 605 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres vertically 2 heads 1144 Nail 647–649 Head slightly up in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1145 Nail 647 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres horizontally 1146 Iron rod 646 Horizontal, NNW–SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1147 Nail 646 Horizontal, head in S, point of rod bent 1148 Iron rod 635 NNW–SSE 1149 Tack 679.5 Head in SSE 1150 Nail 675.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1151 Clench nail 673.5–677.5 Head slightly down in N 1152 Clench nail with 615.5–619.6 Straight upside down, wooden fibres across the boat 2 heads 1153 Nail 613 Horizontal, head in SSE, wooden fibres vertically 1154 Nail 607 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 128 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 1155 Clench nail 600.5 Horizontal, wooden fibres horizontally 1156 Iron rod 625–621 Obliquely up in WNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1157 Nail 627.5–631.5 Head obliquely up in SW, wooden fibres vertically 1158 Nail 654–657 Head obliquely up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1159 Nail 606 Horizontal, head in SSE 1160 Iron rod 576 SW–NE, bent in NE 1161 Tack 576 Head in SSE 1162 Tack 576 Head in NE 1163 Tack and clench 10 pieces in the same location as nos 1160–1162, fallen down nails with boulder 1164 Clench nail Fallen down 1165 Clench nail Fallen down 1166 Nail Fallen down 1167 Nail without Beneath no. 1159 head 1168 Nail 576 1169 Tack 570 Head in NE 1170 Tack Fallen down 1171 Nail 531.5–533 Head straight up 1172 Nail 539.5 Horizontal, head in NNW 1173 Tack without 539 NNW–SSE head 1174 Iron rod 541 NNW–SSE 1175 Nail 540 Horizontal, head in SSE 1176 Nail 539 Horizontal, head in ENE 1177 Nail 540.5 Horizontal, head in ENE 1178 Bow mount 535–541 Opening of mount in WSW 1179 Nail 559.5 Head in N 1180 Nail 564 Head obliquely up in N 1181 Nail 565–568 Head slightly up in E 1182 Nail 573.5 1183 Tack 572.5 Horizontal, head in ESE 1184 Nail 538 Head in ENE 1185 Nail 532.5 Horizontal, head in N 1186 Nail 542–541.5 Horizontal, head in ENE 1187 Nail 542.5 Horizontal, head in NNW 1188 Nail 541 Horizontal, head in S 1189 Nail 542 Horizontal, head in NNW 1190 Nail 543.5 Horizontal, head in NE 1191 Clench nail 578–576.5 Head slightly up in S 1192 Tack 574 Head obliquely up in SW, wooden fibres horizontally 1193 Iron rod 574.5 WSW–ENE 1194 Tack 573 Head obliquely up in WSW, wooden fibres horizontally 1195 Tack 574 Head straight down 1196 Tack 574.5 Head straight up Field notes on the finds 129

No Ty pe Height Note 1197 Tack 574 Head straight up 1198 Tack 575 Head straight down 1199 Nail 575–576.5 Head slightly up in W, wooden fibres along the nail, end grain 1200 Clench nail 584–582 Head slightly up in SSE 1201 Clench nail 588.5–590 Horizontal, head in SSE 1203 Nail 543 Horizontal, head in SSE 1204 Nail 544 Horizontal, head in NNW 1205 Nail 544.5 Horizontal, head in NNW 1206 Clench nail 590–589 Head in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1207 Clench nail with 590–589 Slightly down in SSE 2 heads 1208 Nail 535–536 Horizontal, head in NNW 1209 Nail 541.5–543 Horizontal, head in E 1210 Nail 545.5–549 Head obliquely up in SSE 1211 Nail 548 Horizontal, head in NNW 1212 Nail 548–546 Head slightly up in NNW 1213 Nail 591 Horizontal, head slightly up in NNW 1214 Clench nail 594–594.5 Horizontal, head in SE 1215 Nail 598 Head in NNW 1216 Iron ring 598–599.5 Standing on edge in E–W 1217 Nail 539 Horizontal, head in SSE 1218 Nail 545 Horizontal, head in S 1219 Nail 549–551 Head obliquely up in E 1220 Nail 595.5 Horizontal, head in SSE 1221 Nail 599 Horizontal, head in SSE 1222 Nail 551 Horizontal, head in WSW 1223 Nail 551–554 Head obliquely up in SE 1224 Nail 553.5 Horizontal, head in NNW, wooden fibres obliquely up in ENE 1225 Nail 548.5–546.5 Head obliquely up in SE 1226 Clench nail 555 Horizontal, head in NNW 1227 Nail 553.5 Horizontal, head in NE 1228 Nail 599 Horizontal, head in SW 1229 Nail 552–555.5 Head obliquely up in S 1230 Clench nail 554–555.5 Head obliquely up in SSE 1231 Nail 553–554.5 Head obliquely up in ESE 1232 Clench nail 563 Horizontal, head in NW, wooden fibres vertically 1233 Nail with sheet 603 Horizontal, head in SW, wooden fibres vertically, sheet straight up 1234 Nail 572.5–576 Head straight up 1235 Nail without 556.5 NE–SW head 1236 Nail 557.5 Horizontal, head in NNW 1237 Clench nail 564–563 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1238 Clench nail 570 Head slightly up in S, wooden fibres horizontally 1239 Nail 560.5 Horizontal, head in NNW 130 VALSGÄR DE 14

No Ty pe Height Note 1240 Nail 563.5 Horizontal, head in SSE 1241 Nail 564.5 Horizontal, head in NNW 1242 Nail 568.5 Horizontal, head in NNW 1243 Clench nail 575–574 Horizontal, head in NNW 1244 Clench nail 574–572.5 Head obliquely up in SSE 1245 Clench nail 569–567.5 Head slightly down in NW 1246 Nail 564.5–563 Head slightly down in W, wooden fibres vertically 1247 Nail 579–577 Head slightly up in SSE 1248 Nail 578–579.5 Head slightly down in NNW, wooden fibres horizontally 1249 Nail 583 Head slightly down in SE 1250 Pot shards Filling outside the boat 1251 Nail 569 Horizontal, head in WSW 1252 Nail 584 Horizontal, head in SE 1253 Nail 591 Horizontal, head in SW 1254 Iron sheet with 599–602 upright rod 1255 Rectangular Horizontal, appeared at conservation together with nos 787 bridle mount and 780 1256 Small bronze 664 scale, fragment 1257 Small bronze 664 Convex side up scale 1258 Rectangular 662.5–663 Horizontal, leather beneath, wood in different directions on top bronze mount 1259 Small bronze 661 scale 1260 Rectangular 662–662.5 Horizontal, leather beneath, wood NE–SW on half top surface, bridle mount gilded sheet broken into many fragments 1261 Small bronze 663 scale 1262 Rectangular 662–662.5 Obliquely down in W, S-part broken off, missing bridle mount 1263 Small bronze 661.5 tack 1264 Silver scale 663 Convex side up 1265 Rectangular 663.5–663 Obliquely down in SW, mount on leather with upper side down bridle mount 1266 Silver scale 663.5 Convex side up 1267 Silver scale 663.5 Convex side up 1268 Iron fragment 662 Fits with no. 775 1269 Round iron 661.5 Horizontal fragment 1270 Silver scale 663.5 Convex side down 1271 Mouth bit med 658.5–662.5 strap mount Field notes on the finds 131

No Ty pe Height Note 1272 Bridle mount 661.5 Fits with previous number 1273 Cord 660.5–662 1274 Bronze scale 662 Leather remains 1275 Bronze scale 663 Convex side down, with leather for 1265 1276 Pieces of leather 662 Main direction at right angles to the base line 1277 Piece of leather 654 with bronze tack 1278 Iron fragment 667–665 Probably broken-off part of no 1271 1279 Clench nail 667–665 Head slightly down in SSE, wooden fibres horizontally 1280 Clench nail 668.5–667 Head slightly down in ENE, wooden fibres horizontally 1281 Iron sheet 669 Head slightly down in ENE, wooden fibres horizontally 1282 Bronze or silver Found within lump of horsehair, position unknown scale

Bibliography

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