209 Archaeological University Education and Professional in Stig Welinder

During the 19'" century very few persons in Sweden recieved a doctoral degree in archaeology. Most of them found prestigious top-positions. Today there are about 100 persons with Ph. D.'s working in Swedish archaeology in positions from the top to the bottom of the professional hierarchy. Each year 150-200 students finish their basic education in archaeology. Most of them will never find a permanent full-time job as an archaeologist. The future of Swedish archaeology will very much depend on the ambitions of the general public, including tens of thousands of persons with a formal university education in archaeology but no job within the profession.

Stig Welinder, Etepartment of Humanities, Mid Syyeden Uniyersity, SE- 831 25 Östersund, Sweden.

The dissertation by from related to the professional labour market at 1866 is normally regarded as the first in universities, museums and cultural-heritage archaeology in Sweden. management institutions. The stress will be defended his thesis in 1869. Thus the 1860s on the ambitions and prospects of the youth saw the start ofprofessional archaeology con- ofthe 1990s. ducted by university-educated archaeologists In contrast to the 1910s, there are today a in Sweden. The first chairs in archaeology total of five universities and four university were established in 1914 and 1919, when colleges (Sw. högskolor) to choose among and Otto Rydbeck were when striving for an archaeological education appointed professors at and career in Sweden (figs. 1-2).The increase and , respectively. Thus the in number is a result of the political ambition 1910s saw the establishment of archae- since the 1960s to increase the rate of higher ological departments at the universities, in education, and make it locally available in both cases as parts of century-old historical most ofthe country. The number ofuniversity university museums (Rydbeck 1943; Schön- colleges has increased tremendously, and a beck 1956; Gräslund & Almgren 1976; few of them have been turned into uni- Stjernquist 1984). versities during the 1990s. Most university This article will outline the archaeological colleges and some universities, however, do university education in Sweden primarily not teach archaeology. Only universities from a quantitative point of view as concerns bestow doctoral degrees. the number of students. Education will be

Current Swedish Archaeotogy, Vol. ö, 2000 210 Stig Wetinder

Fig. I. Universities with chairs in archaeology Fig. 2. Universities with archaeology departments combined with historical university museums in (points) and university colleges with archae- l 920. ological education organised in various ways (circles) in l 999. DEGREES AT THE RESEARCH LEVEL 1860-1998 During the 1970s the number of theses Very few persons recieved a doctoral degree increased from about one a year to about in Sweden prior to 1910 (fig. 3). At about three. One main reason was the introduction that time the first academic seminar, follow- in 1970 of a new degree meant to correspond ing the tradition of the mid-19'" century to a British or American Ph. D., and thus in Berlin seminar by Leopold von Ranke, was theory possible to finish in a much shorter formed at Uppsala University around Oscar time than the traditional degree. The first Almgren and . The common in- theses according to these new regulations terest of that group of scholars was the early were by Jonas Ferenius (1971), Agneta pioneer settling and the consecutive settle- Lundström (1971)and Stig Welinder (1971). ment history of Sweden. Theses were pre- The last year to defend a thesis for the sented, each discussing one province, e.g. traditional degree was 1974. Nils Lithberg (1914),Gunnar Ekholm (1915), The new regulations were part of a series and Karl Einar Sahlström (1915).The first of academic reforms that aimed at a more thesis defended by a woman, Hanna Rydh democratic university system and at paving (1919), treated box-shaped brooches. the way for new groups of potential students

Current Swedish Archaeotogv, Vot. tt, 2000 Archaeological Universi&y Education and Professionat Archaeologv 211

120 cratic possibilities, including new possi- bilities for women to carve out careers. To 100 some extent it was Social Democratic govern- mental politics. ln one sense the new system failed. Before 1974 new doctors of philosophy normally were 30-40 years old. After 1974 they were not any younger. The mean age in fact was a (2) little higher than before 1974 (Nordbladh 1991:figs.9-10).Scores of students registered

0 as Ph. D. candidates (Sw. doktorand) during 1860 1900 1950 1998 the 1970s and 1980s. In the mid-1980s there were 200 registered doktorander in archae- Fig. 3. Master s theses (until l864) and doctoral ology at the five universities (Nordbladh theses in a&.chaeology defended at Su6edish uni- 1991:fig. 3). Most of them have never fin- versities (partly fion& )Vahlbe&g l877, Kj&hfbe&g ished a thesis. They were about 30-35 years l982). (l) = linea& prognosis until 2000, (2) = old and working within the growing cultural- theses defended bv I vomen. heritage bureaucracy. To register as a dok- torand and to plan a thesis developed into a from segments of the Swedish society with life-style. Attending seminars and being no previous experience of university educa- known as a doktorand helped them keep a tion. Obviously the number of theses in- stiff upper lip in the daily bureaucratic creased, and so did the percentage of theses routine. With an increasing number of defended by women (fig. 3). children and an increasing baldness the thesis The theses by female students were turned into a dream. It became rather the end written by a new generation of women bom than the beginning of a career, if it was ever in the 1940s with ambitions to combine uni- finished. versity education with establishing a family The two obvious steps in the increase and raising children. Actually, during a few curve of the number of archaeological theses years in the early 1970s more theses were defended during the 1910s and the 1970s (fig. defended by women than by men (tab. 1). 3) are not entirely typical of the humanistic Examples are Elisabeth Iregren (1972) and disciplines as a whole in Sweden. In history Lillemor Lundström (1973). Some of these and related disciplines two steps occurred women have, in personal letters, described during the 1930s and the 1960s (Odén how they did not feel themselves to be in a 1991:diagram I). The increase in the peculiar position as women: Archaeology percentage of theses written by women was was fun and archaeological research was fun. notably less compared with archaeology One of them, however, stated that the first (Blom 1978:diagram 3). female professor, at Stock- holm University, was of great help. That does not seem to have been typical. The idea of Women Men female mentors promoting female students 1970-1974 has no obvious in Swedish archae- support 1975-1979 ology, at least not around 1970. The many new doctors of philosophy in Tab. l. Oocto&al theses in archaeology defended the 1970s was the result of a new educational bj' Ivan&en and men at S&vedish universities 1970- system and a new society with more demo- l979 (cf: f&g. 3).

Current S&vedish Archaeology, Vol. ö, 2000 212 Stig Welt nder

(I) (2) (3) (4) (5) of Antiquities in or positions at the university departments, although the only 1860-1869 Lind- 1870-1879 one to become a professor was Sune 1880-1889 qvist, who got the chair in Uppsala after Oscar 1890-1899 2 Almgren. Some of them never got positions. 1900-1909 1 1 One was Hanna Rydh. She was married to 1910-1919 2 2 4 3 an antiquarian at the Stockholm museum. 1920-1929 1 4 That museum composed the entire archae- 1930-1939 2 3 4 ological labour market in Stockholm. Thus, 1940-1949 2 1 5 it was impossible for her to get a position in 1950-1959 2 1 3 2 archaeology, because a married couple was 1960-1969 3 1 3 1 unthinkable in the same place of work. 1970-1979 6 4 10 8 A at the period 1920-1949 1980-1989 1 21 21 3 17 quick glance 1990-1998 15 23 19 21 in table 2 demonstrates the above statement. The majority of the persons with a Ph. D. = = (1) riksantikvarie, professor; (2) other uni- never got positions within archaeology. = versity positions; (3) head of museum, curator, During this time the accepted career was to antiquarian; (4) = no employment, short-term write a thesis, get a position as a senior employment; (5) = not in Swedish archaeology lecturer (Sw. docent), which was a six-year Tab. 2. Positions achieved by doctors of philo- research scholarship at a university depart- sophy in archaeology at Swedish universities ment, and then a professorship. When you 1860-1998. failed to cross either of these two thresholds, you left archaeology. This is valid for some The situation in the 1980s, outlined of the doctors of philosophy from the period. above, is the outcome of the simple fact that Others never strived for an archaeological not since the 1860s has a doctoral degree been academic career. There are other reasons for a prerequisite for a career within Swedish writing a thesis. archaeology, and it has never been a guar- During these decades it was the norm to antee (tab. 2). try for an intermediate degree (Sw. filosofie Of the six archaeologists with a Ph. D. in licentiatgrad). Its requirements were, in the 19'" century three became Head of the theory, a study period of2-3 years and a small Central Board of National Antiquities (Sw, thesis. This degree was the prerequisite for riksantikvarie) one after the other, one be- most of the prestigious positions within the came the first university professor of archae- cultural-heritage management bureaucracy ology, and two left archaeology after many and the regional and national museums. years spent within the discipline, one to There are no available data on the number of become a high school headmaster, the other students that received this degree before to become curator at the State Museum of about 1950.The degree was abandoned when Ethnography. There was no room for more the new doctoral degree was introduced. In archaeologists educated at the highest level the period 1950-1974 the degree was given in Swedish archaeology. Thus Gabriel Gus- to 38 students, out of which 14 were women. tafson never finished a degree. In 1889 he I do not know the life stories ofthese persons. went to Norway, later to become a professor In the 1950s and 1960s it was more or in Oslo (Welinder 1998:8). less self-evident that the doctor's degree was Of the relatively many doctors of phi- part of a prestigious archaeological career, losophy from the 1910s the maj ority got posi- the end of which was a university position or tions as antiquarians at the National Museum a position as head of a regional museum.

Current Swedish Archaeotogy, Vol. tt, 2000 Archaeological University Education and Professionat Archaeology 213

There are few exceptions. Of the three doctors The latter group is a phenomenon more of philosophy that left archaeology, one or less unknown before the 1990s.The group founded a more or less private archaeological consists of students interested in doing ar- laboratory doing research in close connection chaeological research and accordingly trying to the commercial world, and one inherited for a degree, but a growing number of stu- one of the biggest private fortunes in Sweden, dents that have finished the basic university which he successfully increased as an indus- education do not find a job within archae- trialist. ology or the cultural-heritage management The 1970s saw no obvious change. The bureaucracy: instead, they register as doktor- archaeologists with Ph. D.'s, however, often ander. A few have managed to finish their did not get final positions as heads of muse- thesis before becoming absorbed full-time in ums, but rather as curators, and some left paid jobs or raising families. For most ofthese archaeology to get positions at museums in doktorander, the academic type of research other fields. Some got positions abroad. scholarship for doktorander that pays for 3- Perhaps it is too early to evaluate the 4 years of doctoral studies has been useful. 1980s and, rather obviously, the 1990s. I see, The first group was typical also of the however, two typical kinds of doctors of phi- 1980s, but many of the doctors of philosophy losophy during the latter decade. There are of that decade are today also found in posi- those, who have written their thesis parallel tions as lecturers at the archaeological uni- to a paid full-time job. Perhaps they have had versity departments. One of them has man- a research scholarship for a few years, and aged to get a professorship, namely Kenneth all in all they have spent 10-15 years writing Jonsson at Stockholm University (1987), the thesis. When they finally get their degree, specialising in numismatics. The doctors of they more or less continue in the same job- philosophy from the 1990s that are found with a little higher pay per month. These are among the staff of the departments, on the the doktorander that registered during the other hand, mostly hold temporary positions. 1970s, and actually have been successful as There is a, hopefully not long-term sig- concerns their dream. Others started on their nificant, trend that the tendencies outlined doctoral education in the late 1980s without above are more valid for female doctors of having a job, except for occasional field-work philosophy than for male ones (tab. 3). The and other temporary work. After they have share of the persons with a Ph. D. that have completed their thesis their situation have found a satisfactory job within archaeology remained more or less the same. They do not has declined less for men than for women get permanent full-time positions, and cer- since the 1980s. tainly not the most prestigious ones. A large share of the doctors of philosphy

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Sum Total number 1980-1989 F 31 38 4 27 100 26 M 3 35 30 5 27 100 37 1990-1998 F 18 24 27 30 99 33 M 20 33 22 26 101 45

(1) = riksantikvarie, professor; (2) = other university positions; (3) = head of museum, curator, antiquarian; (4) = no employment, short-term employment; (5) = not in Swedish archaeology

Tab. 3. Positions achieved by fetnale and tnale doctors of philosophy in archaeology at Swedish universities l980-l998 (percentages).

Current Swedish Archaeology, Vot. 8, 2000 214 Stig Welimler from the latest two decades have found 10 years writing a thesis. However, today it positions abroad. Many of them are citizens is difficult to get a job. So instead people of other Nordic countries, who have spent write theses. their university years in Sweden and returned The set of persons with a Ph. D. in archae- home after having earned their degree. Some ology in Sweden today, most probably re- are scholarship students from African coun- flects the segment of the Swedish population tries, who have been invited by SAREC, the which has received university education and Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation degrees. Typically, they have a middle-class in Developing Countries, to study at the background with parents with academic ed- Department of Archaeology at Uppsala Uni- ucation, although they are the first in their versity. family to get a doctoral degree. They reflect Finally, it is notable that writing a thesis the general growth in university education in archaeology has become an occupation for in Sweden during the later half of the 1960s, retired people and ambitious housewives with parallel to the growth of Sweden into one of grown-up children. the most prosperous nations in the world. A century ago there was a handful of This is still more evident from the statis- archaeologists with a doctoral degree at a few tics on the basic education. prestigious positions at the central institutes in Stockholm and soon at the universities, BASIC EDUCATION AFTER 1950 too. Most of them belonged to a segment of It is more or less unknown how many students the middle class with academic traditions and of archaeology there are in Sweden today. often a private fortune to pay for their educa- There are also no reliable long-term statistics tion. Still during the 1960s there were not (Welinder 1991).A few years ago, however, more than about a dozen people with a doc- a rough estimate suggested there to be about toral degree working in Swedish archaeology 500 beginners in prehistoric archaeology, as professors, heads of museums, or as anti- about 30 in medieval archaeology, and about quarians at the national institutes in Stock- 400 in classical studies. All in all, about 250 holm. each year finished their third term, and a little The 1970s saw the beginning of the big more than 100 completed a fourth term change. Today there are about 100 persons (Welinder 1995, table 2). with a doctoral degree employed in Swedish Until the 1960s the basic archaeological archaeology. They are found everywhere in university education was fairly informal. The the system: in chairs and other university students attended a few lectures and seminars positions, in national and regional museums, during a few terms. There were oral exams, in the cultural-heritage management bureau- and the educational program was finished by cracy . .. from top positions to close to the presenting a seminar paper during the third bottom. Thus, well-educated archaeologists term at the earliest, or some time later. In can increasingly be seen in influential posi- 1973 a formal system with A-, B- and C-level tions as well as routine-work positions in terms was introduced (Lamm 1978:320). Swedish archaeology. The reason is not an Today many students also attend a D-level explicitly phrased demand for people with a term. doctoral degree on the part of the employers. Until recently the archaeological educa- Rather it is the opposite. Most employers tion was regarded as part of a general cultural- outside the universities and university col- historical and museological education of leges prefer people with 5-10 years of ex- about 6-8 terms with subjects like art history perience in a museum or another relevant and ethnology, in addition to archaeology. place of work, to people who have spent 5- Since the late 1980s an increasing number

Current Si&~edish Archueology, Vol. 8, 2000 Archaeological University Edacation and Pro/essional Archaeology 215 of students go to university with the intention which enabled the students to get loans was of becoming an "archaeologist". The basic introduced, extramural university courses education, however, is still the same. The grew in number, a more school-like teaching students study four terms of archaeology and system was introduced, many new part-time another four terms of a free choice of relevant lecturers were appointed, and the students subjects. They write a master's thesis, that is were directed to cut their numbers of terms a CD- or D-paper written during two or one at university. The terms were divided into term, respectively. After that some become courses, each with its own written exam. "archaeologists", while others with essen- The 1990s saw another quantum leap (fig. tially the same education get positions in a 4). Today hundreds of students finish a three- variety of museums or the cultural-heritage or-four-term education in archaeology. They management bureaucracy, or quite other posi- are the sequel to an enormous rise in public tions. 1 will come back to that. interest in archaeology during the 1980s. There are very few seminar papers from Archaeology became a highlight of TV, before 1950 found in the public archives newspapers, and periodicals. Archaeology (Lamm 1972:19-20;Lamm & Spetz 1994:8). became a regular part of the school- From that time on, however, reliable statistics curriculum for 10-11 year old pupils. The are available (fig. 4). number of visitors at exhibitions and the local The quantum leap in university education interest in excavations increased. The reason during the late 1960s is obvious from the for this development has not yet been thor- number of students presenting C- and D- oughly examined in Sweden, but in con- papers during the 1970s. The way into the nection with the establishment of archae- universities was smoothed for large groups ological education at a number of university of new students. A new financial system colleges (fig. 2), and the political effort to keep people out of the unemployment statistics, the result was an increase in the 2500 number of archaeology students. Simultaneously the norm has changed 2000 from a basic education of three terms to four, from the C-level to the D-level. The D-level, that is four terms and a 1500 of archaeology master's degree, is the normal education for the main part of the labour force entering 1000 Swedish archaeology today. (2) The discipline of classical studies has seen

500 about the same increase in the number of students as prehistoric archaeology (fig. 5). The increase in the 1990s is, however, less 0 pronounced. 1900 1950 1996 The students of the 1990s are sometimes Fig. 4. St«&lents presenting seminar papers in the first to go to university in their families, archaeologv, prehisto&ic and medieval, at Svved- and when they are not, they are often the ish «niversities /900-1996 (from Lamm 1972, children of those that attended university as /978, 1984, Lantm dé Spet- 1994, R«ndkvist the first ones in the 1960s or 1970s.The latter 1998). St«dents presenting mose than one paper group of students was unlucky with poor ate noted only once. The data at.e incon&plete teachers and poor teaching in too big classes be/t) t e ca. 1960. (I) = lineat. prognosis ttnti/ 2000, at too fast expanding universities. There was, (2) = tlteses d%nded by vvomen.

C«r rent Sn'erlish Arcttaeotogy, Vot. 8, 2000 2(6 Stig Hetinder

300 history may be as useful and asked for by the employers. A very rough guess is one thou- 250 sand man-years in archaeology. Perhaps half of the positions are more or less permanent positions at university depart- 150 ments, museums and other institutions. The other half short-term positions and 100 comprises the seasonal work-force in fieldwork. 50 The size of the seasonal work-force has varied between ca. 100 and 250 persons in 0 the 1960-1990 1900 1950 1996 period (Magnusson 1991,fig. 1; Welinder 1991, fig. 1). There are no reli- Fig. 5. Students presenting seminar papers in able statistics from the 1990s, but my guess classical archaeology (classical studies) at Swed- is that about 400-500 persons were engaged ish universities l900-/996 (fiom Lamm 1972, during a few years in the second half of the l978, l984,' Lamnt dt Spetz Runditvist l994; decade. The reason was an incidental boom l998). Students presenting more than one paper in contractor-work: bridges, railways, airport are noted only once. The data are incomplete strips etc. It is said that 1998 saw the biggest before ca. l970, (I) = linear prognosis until 2000, excavation ever in Sweden in (2) = theses defénded by won&en. activity a single year. The excavation volume will soon de- crease, and accordingly the temporary fairly however, also the spirit of 1968: left-wing good opportunities for archaeology students radicalism, feminism, environmental protec- to get seasonal jobs will disappear. tionism, the anti-Vietnam protests, Third Another interesting phenomenon is that World solidarity. . . The new generation of the central recording of ancient monuments students did not feel at home in the traditional has recently been terminated. Nevertheless, university system, and the traditional uni- vast areas of Sweden are poorly or not at all versity professors did not feel at home in the surveyed. This has instead been done locally, new system. During the 1970s formal democ- organised by the regional museums, the racy and efficient bureaucracy were intro- municipalities or various authorities within duced. The universities, for better or worse, forestry. Most often the labour-force con- turned into modern organisations ready to ducting these surveys has consisted of un- educate several times as many students as just employed people without previous, adequate a generation ago, students that expected to archaeological education. get an adequate education for the labour mar- It is notable that there were equally many ket and a corresponding salary. They were women and men among the archaeology to be disappointed. students already around 1950 (fig. 4). It is The size ofthe archaeological labour mar- also notable that the first quantum leap in ket in Sweden is not known. One reason is the late 1960s meant a decrease in female that much of it is poorly delimited. That is students &om 55 % to 46 %, while the second valid for the cultural-heritage management quantum leap in the early 1990s meant an bureaucracy, the museums, and much of the increase from 51 % to 60 % (fig. 4). Gender regional and local cultural administration. strategies and gender attitudes have never The available positions may be filled by been studied in depth in Swedish archae- people with archaeology as their main uni- ology. It is, however, obvious that gender is versity subject, but ethnology, cultural a factor of importance. anthropology, human geography and art During the entire period 1965-1989

Current Suedish Archaeotogy, Vol. 8, 2000 Archaeological University Education and Professional Archaeology 217

women made up about 50-60 % of the sea- Thus, inequalities between female and sonal labour-force on excavations (Welinder male students in relation to the labour market 1991,fig. I), that is about the same, or a little are hinted at. It can also be suggested that more, as the percentage of female students female and male students have different inter- presenting seminar papers. During the same ests within archaeology and write seminar period the percentage of women employed papers in different ways (tabs. 5-6). in surveying ancient monuments increased The main part of the seminar papers from 0-3 % during the 1960s to 50-55 % discuss artefacts and artefact types as their around 1990 (Magnusson 1991, fig. I). The principal subject (tab. 5), but female students latter type of work simply was not regarded do so more often than male students. Male as suitable for women, while the first type students have been more interested in settle- was. This of course meant that it was easier ment sites and settlement patterns. The over- for male students to get their first position. all long-term trend from the 1960s to the More sophisticated mechanisms, uncon- 1990s is that the writing on artefacts has been scious and non-intentional at the time, can most popular. About 40-50 % of all papers be hinted at. In the late 1970s there was an were artefact-focused in the 1960s and '70s. economic slump, with its low tide mark in In the 1980s and '90s the amount was about 1978 (Welinder 1991, fig. I). In 1978-1979 25-30 %. Thus, today the papers are more the percentage of women in seasonal ex- diversified than some decades ago. During cavation jobs was 10 % lower than before the 1980s settlement patterns were in vogue. and after (tab. 4). Female archaeologists in During the 1990s the discussion of religion, 1977-1978 decided not to continue with social structure and generally theory and seasonal excavation jobs. Alternatively, they methods has grown in popularity. were not asked to come back the next season. The available data on the subjects of the Whatever the case, the reasons are not known. seminar papers do not permit the detection The total seasonal labour-force grew at the of gender-specific trends. This is, however, time, as did the number of archaeology stu- possible as concerns writing style (tab. 6). In dents and the percentage of male students. It the 1970s female and male archaeology is a pity that the parallel process during the students wrote seminar papers in the same 1990s cannot be studied due to a lack of way. The main part of the papers contained statistics. descriptive information. In addition the data

Year (1) (2) (3) Subject Women Men 1975 40 48 31 1976 41 49 29 Arte facts 78 53 1977 60 58 62 Burial-grounds 34 21 1978 57 50 67 Theory and methods 20 14 Settlement sites 15 41 (1) = men in the total labour-force Religion and social structure 13 14 (2) = the share of re-hired personnel compared to Settlement patterns 12 29 the previous year Technology 9 10 (3) = the share of men among the re-hired per- Culture groups 7 3 son nel Rock-carvings and other pictures 6 16

Tab. 4. Sex ratios atnong the seasonal labour force Tab. 5. The subject of seminat papers by fémale (percentages) employed by the Centtal Board of and male students (number ofpapers) i n archae- National Antiquities 1975-1978 (from Pelindet ology at the C-level 1950-1996at Lund University 1991). (from seminar paper by Annette 14tallin).

Current S&vedish Archaeoiogy, Vot. 8, 2000 218 Stig Helinder

Descriptive Explanatory and Evaluative and sentences analytical sentences emotional sentences

Women Men Women Men Women Men 1970s 77 77 21 21 2 2 1990s 59 52 33 34 8 14

Tab. 6. The v riting style (percentage of sentences according to Gunnarsson l989) offemale and male arcltaeology students at the C-level at Lund Utuversity (fiom seminar paper by Annette Hallin).

were analysed and explained. In the 1990s but if they continue it is not because they see there is an obvious change. More pages are good prospects for a job. Nevertheless, dedicated to analysis and explanation, less hundreds of them do continue. to description. The papers have also become more personal and individual, which is seen EDUCATION AND PROFESSION IN as an increase in the number of sentences that THE 1990s express values, commitment and emotions. What do archaeology students do today after This is of course an implication of the fact they have finished their education with that the post-processual debate has been in- archaeology as the main subject, after about troduced into the curricula of the various four years at university or university college archaeology departments. The trend is more with a master's degree including a D-level pronounced among the papers written by paper in archaeology? male students. The 1990s has seen a boom in rescue All in all, it is characteristic that the num- excavation, and a lot of money has been ber of persons studying archaeology at uni- invested in positions for 1-2.5 years at the versities and university colleges has grown national and regional museums in order to much more than the labour market. Espe- organise and catalogue collections and ar- cially in the 1970s this caused trouble for the chives. Accordingly, archaeology students many students, the first in their families to that left university before about 1994 have attend university, who had hoped that the managed fairly well (tab. 7). Their succes- university education would give them not sors will not, and probably many of them will only academic status but also an academic soon move to the "unemployed" column of standard of living. They found themselves table 7. caught without academic jobs but with loans One student with a permanent job has to be paid. In the long run this has, however, described her career in the following way. not prevented the number of students of ar- After finishing school she worked one year chaeology from rising still more. It is obvious at the regional museum in her home town, that the hundreds of archaeology students at financed by money meant to enable youth to the Swedish universities and university be introduced into the labour market. After colleges will never get a position within that she attended university. Parallel to her archaeology, nor will most of them get a university education, she had seasonal jobs position in fields adjacent to archaeology. at the same museum. Thus, when she left Most of them also will never get seasonal university she was experienced and in addi- field-work. This is of course still more evi- tion wellknown at the regional museum. After dent for the students of classical studies. They another two years at the same museum, work- have no Swedish labour market at all. ing in the above-mentioned cataloguing proj- The students today study archaeology ect, she got a full-time permanent position because they are interested in archaeology, there. Another student living in the same

Cun. ent Stvedish At.tltoeology, tot. 8, 2000 A&chaeological University Education and Profissionat Archaeology 219

Occupation 1998 Uppsala CD 1992-1993 Östersund C, D 1994-1997 Permanent position as archaeologist Short-term or seasonal job as archaeologist Jobs related to archaeology or cultural heritage management (permanent or not) University, or other, studies Other kinds of jobs Unemployed No answer Sum 30 33

Tab. 7. The present occttpation oj'stttdents that have finisfted tlteit basic ed«cation nith archaeology a» the tnain s«bject «t Uppsala Uni vetsity and Mid Sw eden Univetsitv fttniversity college in Öste)sttnd) d«ting the l990s. town left university one year after the first ployees with a university degree with a rel- student. She has told me quite another story evant set of subjects and a seminar paper that about the insecurity and difficulties in demonstrates that the student is able to do an jumping from one short-term job to the other, independent work project. Others stress that especially if you eagerly want to work as an the employers are more or less only interested archaeologist. Only short-term jobs and in students and employees that can efficiently mostly seasonal field-work are available. In finish the job at hand, that is, they have addition, being the mother of a small child satisfactorily done the same kind of job does not make things easier. She sees few several times before and they are expected prospects of a satisfactory future in to do it once again and nothing else. I do not archaeology. know which view is the most common one today, or wether there is a change on the way. CONC LU SION Anyhow, I think that the future of Swedish It is said that the 1990s was a decade of archaeology is not dependent on the minority education: that is formal education, i.e. de- of archaeology students that will manage to grees, and informal education, i.e. knowledge enter the labour market to become archae- and skill. Education is said to be the key to ologists. Those that fail will form the future. positions and prestige. The emerging elite has Now and then I get a visit from a former not only the necessary economic resources A-level student of mine. Last time she told and social network to enter the elite but also me that she will soon have finished her uni- qualifications based on formal education. I versity education in pedagogics and psy- am not sure this view is valid for archaeology. chology, simultaneously to running a small To do a good job as an archaeologist, very therapy consultation firm and being a part- much is based on experience. On the other time shop-assistant. She is not just a sweet hand, it does not hurt if the experience is person, whom I tend to give a reprint or book, organised within a prolific conceptual frame- but she is typical of thousands, in the near work, and the straightforward way to aquire future, tens of thousands of Swedes. She has that is to get a university degree. a keen interest in archaeology, she has studied When I meet my former students, they archaeology at a university college, but she seem to have two opposite opinions. Some has an occupation that does not include stress that their employers prefer future em- archaeology, and she certainly never will get

C«& rent Syvedistt Archaeologn Vot. ä, 2000 220 Stig Helinder

one thai does. archaeologists will be restricted and pro- These persons look at archaeology on TV, moted by the demands and encouragement they purchase archaeology books, visit exhi- of a large and well-informed public, and for bitions, attend lectures and courses, and they better or worse the public in the long run will join local archaeological societies. An in- not remain onlookers. A main part of archae- creasing number of them make excursions ology in Sweden, in the next generation, will and do field-walking. They discover hundreds be conducted by interested, and often archae- of flint scatters and other kinds of ologically university-educated, individuals sites. Some of them specialise in discovering and informal groups with no professional new rock-carvings and rock-paintings. Their positions. knowledge of the local landscape helps them record previously unknown pit-falls, Saami English revised by Laura 5'rang. hearths, slag-heaps and so on in the hundreds. Some form groups and conduct excavations A CKNOH'LEDGEMENTS together with the professional staff at the The article is based on in-depth discussions regional museums. Others form informal with Gunlög Graner, Elinor Gustafsson, Bert- research teams that specialise in mapping Ola Henriksson and Rosita Bå ngå sen, former track-roads, deserted 19'"-century crofter's archaeology students at Uppsala University holdings, shielings or whatever. and Mid Sweden University. Included in the In the next generation there will still be article are also ideas from the D-level papers university archaeology, regional museums by Ros-Marie Schönning and Annette Hallin, and cultural-heritage management bureau- archaeology students at Mid Sweden cracy, but the contents of archaeology will University and Lund Uni versi ty. A full list of be governed by the presence of the tens of doctoral degrees confirmed in the period thousands of archaeologically educated per- 1850-1998 has been compiled by Anders sons outside the profession. The whereabouts Carlsson and Jarl Nordbladh, Stockholm of the relatively small number of professional University and Göteborg University.

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