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HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH MOIST FABRICS by Anna M. Schneider a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School

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HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH MOIST FABRICS by Anna M. Schneider a Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School HEAT TRANSFER THROUGH MOIST FABRICS by Anna M. Schneider A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Physics, the University of New South Wales. January, 1987 BXiVZ^IIY OF N.S.W. 2 0 JUN 1988 LIBRARY I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and that# to the best to my knowlege and belief, it contains no material which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma of a university or other institute of higher learning, except where due acknowlegement is made in the text. Anna M. Schneider ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank my supervisors, Prof. H. J. Goldsmid and Dr. B. N. Hoschke for their guidance and comments and in particular Dr. Hoschke for help and advice during the course of this project. In addition, I would like to acknowledge the assistance of Dr. B. V. Holcombe in the design and construction of experimental apparatus, Mr. I. M. Stuart in the development of the theory and Dr. R. N. Baulch in the construction of electronic components. I would also like to thank the Wool Research Trust Fund for a Junior Research Fellowship and the C.S.I.R.O. Division of Textile Physics for providing the facilities which enabled me to do my research. ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of fabric moisture content, and the form in which it is present, on the effective thermal conductivity of textile materials. Thermal conductivity is important in characterizing the thermal comfort properties of textiles. Due to the lack of suitable measurement methods, very little is known about the thermal conductivity of moist fabrics. A transient heat flow apparatus has been specially developed which allows very rapid determinations of conductivity (less than 100 s per sample). This is needed with wet fabrics as moisture is redistributed during the test. The samples tested were made of four fibre types, of different water sorption properties, (wool, cotton, porous acrylic and polypropylene). Four regions could be distinguished in the conductivity vs regain curves. The first is characteristic of absorbent fibres and ranges from zero regain to 15 % for wool and 10 % for cotton. The conductivity is low, and almost independent of regain. The second region starts at zero regain for the non-absorbent fibres, polypropylene and porous acrylic) and extends to saturation regain. In this region the conductivity rises sharply to a value about double that of dry fabric. The third region extends to about 200 % regain. Here the conductivity increases slowly. The fourth region is above 200 % where there is a further steep increase. From 0 % to 100 % regain, the range of practical significance to clothing comfort, wool had the lowest thermal conductivity of the four fibre types. The conductivity of moist fabrics was found to depend on whether the water was absorbed into the fibre polymer, retained in micropores within the fibre structure , or held as free water between fibres and yarns . It was found that the effective thermal conductivity has three components which correspond to the three modes of heat transfer in operation during the tests. These are conduction, radiation, and the evaporation, diffusion and condensation of water. It was also found that the evaporation and condensation process is responsible for the characteristic shape of the conductivity curves. In this thesis the conductivity of moist fabrics has been investigated experimentally and a theory has been developed to help explain the results. A simple model has been developed which explains the influence of fabric geometrical structure and fibre sorption properties on the three modes of heat transfer. This work has given an understanding of the role of moisture in the conductivity of fabrics. GLOSSARY OF TEXTILE TERMS <67> Brushed fabric A fabric which has one or both surfaces raised by brushing . Cover Factor A number that indicates the extent to which the area of a knitted fabric is covered by the yarn: it is also an indication of the relative looseness or tightness of the knitting . cover factor = ^coun^(tex)____ _ loop length (cm) Cuprammonium Rayon The fibre regenerated from a solution of cellulose in cuprammonium hydroxide . Double knit fabric A fabric with two interconnected layers, which can be made of different fibre types. Filament Yarn A yarn composed of one or more filaments (a fibre of indefinite length) that run the whole length of the yarn . Flannel An all-wool fabric of plain weave with a soft handle. Interlock A double weft knit fabric. Man-made Fibres Ail fibres manufactured by man as distinct from those which occur naturally. Packing factor A ratio of the volume of fibre present in a fabric to the total volume of the fabric. Plated fabric A fabric with two yarns of different kind, (usually knitted in such a way that only one of these yarns is visible on one face of the fabric and the other on the other face). Regain The weight of moisture present in a textile material expressed as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the material. Saturation regain Regain of a fabric, which contains the maximum amount of absorbed water. Spun yarns A yarn that consists of fibres of regular or irregular length, usually bound together by twist. Taffeta A plain-weave, closely woven, smooth and crisp fabric produced from filament yarns . Tex The direct decimal system based on metric units for describing the linear density (mass per unit length) °f fibres; the name tex is usually used for the combination 'grams per kilometre'. Twist The number of turns per unit length of yarn. Warp Threads lengthways in a fabric as woven. Weft Threads widthways in a fabric as woven. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Introduction 1 2. Outline of experimental arrangement 26 3. Theoretical analysis of the transient method 29 4. Preliminary experiments 40 5. Development of new apparatus 47 6. Performance of the dynamic conductivity tester 60 7. Description of samples and their preparation for testing 69 8. Results and discussion 80 9. Analysis of results 91 10. Conclusions 114 Literature cited 122 Published papers -1- 1. INTRODUCTION One of the most important functions of clothing is to provide thermal comfort to the wearer. Thermal comfort can be defined as "the condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment" <1>. Clothing plays a very important role in the relationship that exists between the wearer, clothing and environment because it is the factor which can be adapted to meet varying requirements. Clothing should give comfort over a broad range of changing climatic conditions and under different kinds of physical activity. It must ensure adequate insulation in order to keep the body temperature constant within narrow limits, that is, to protect the wearer from getting cold. On the other hand, under physical strain or in a hot environment it must be possible for the body heat to be dissipated by the evaporation of perspiration, otherwise overheating occurs. Good moisture transport and absorption properties will ensure that, even when the wearer is perspiring, the feeling of dampness is avoided. After sweating has stopped, the garment should feel comfortably dry and act again as protection against cold. To assess the comfort level provided by clothing a very complex analysis is required, which takes into account various factors such as the dry insulation value of textile materials, resistance to moisture transfer, specific heat and effective thermal conductivity of -2- moist or wet fabric. Knowledge of these parameters enables a description of the phenomena of heat and moisture transfer from the skin to the environment-. In this thesis one of these factors, the effective thermal conductivity of moist and wet fabrics, is studied. The thermal conductivity of a fabric is an important factor characterising its insulating properties. It is defined as the ratio of the rate of heat flow per unit area normal to the face of the fabric to the temperature gradient between the two faces of the fabric. It is expressed in W/(K.m). In a dry textile material, which is a complex structure of fibres and air entrapped within it, heat transfer takes place by conduction through air and fibres, by radiation and by forced convection through the pores of the fabric. So when we speak of effective thermal conductivity of fabrics we really mean a heat transfer coefficient where heat is transferred by all these modes. In the case of moist or wet fabrics there is additionally transfer of heat due to evaporation and condensation of moisture. It has been found <2-7> for common apparel textiles that the thermal resistance (inverse of thermal conductance) of a dry fabric is proportional to the fabric thickness regardless of the fibre from which it is made, with the exception of cotton which is a highly conductive fibre. A fabric immobilizes a layer of air -3- and it is this air which offers most resistance to heat flow. Fabrics made of wool are commonly considered as "warm", but tests on dry or conditioned wool fabrics do not show any superiority in the insulating value of wool as a function of fabric thickness compared with other fibre types. The main advantage of wool is that, due to its fibre mechanical properties, it makes up to light fabrics of bulky structure. The common opinion that wool is warmer and more comfortable to wear than other fibre types cannot be therefore proved by a simple conductivity test on dry or conditioned fabrics. The wearer's perception of warmth may also be influenced by the fabric/skin contact. Wool fabrics generally make little direct contact with the skin, because of the hairy nature of the fabric surface.
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