Mass Struggle : 1935-40 Module XVIII

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Left Movement Formation ● Among the communist groups, the was formed in 1920 in Tashkent (Uzbekistan) by M.N. Roy, Abani Mukherji & others after the 2nd Congress of Commintern.

● M.N. Roy was also the 1st to be elected to the leadership of Commintern.

● 1925: Indian Communist Conference at Kanpur formalized foundation of the CPI.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● After some time, S.V. Ghate emerged as the general secretary of the party.

● CPI called upon all its members to enroll themselves as members of the Congress, form a strong left-wing in all its organs, cooperate with all other radical nationalists, & make an effort to transform the Congress into a more radical mass-based organization.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Conspiracies ● Already in 1922-24, Communists trying to enter India from the Soviet Union had been tried in a series of conspiracy cases at Peshawar & sentenced to long periods of imprisonment.

● In 1924, many communists— S.A. Dange, Muzaffar Ahmed, , Nalini Gupta —were jailed in the Kanpur Bolshevik conspiracy case.

● All 4 were sentenced to 4 years of imprisonment.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● 1929: Government crackdown on communists resulted in the arrest & trial of 32 leading communists, trade unionists & left-wing leaders who were tried in the conspiracy case. ● 3 British Communists — , Ben Bradley & — who had come to India to help organize the trade union movement.

● Defense of the prisoners was to be taken up by many nationalists including JL Nehru, M.A. Ansari & M.C. Chagla.

● Gandhiji visited the Meerut prisoners in jail to show his solidarity with them. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Worker’s & Peasant’s Party ● The main form of political work by the early Communists was to organize peasants’ & workers’ parties & work through them.

● 1st such organization was the Labour-Swaraj Party of INC organized by Muzaffar Ahmed, Qazi Nazrul Islam, Hemanta Kumar Sarkar, & others in Bengal in 1925.

● In late 1926, a Congress Labour Party was formed in Bombay & a Kirti-Kisan Party in Punjab.

● A Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan had been functioning in Madras since 1923. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● By 1928 all of these provincial organizations had been renamed the Workers’ & Peasants’ Party (WPP) & knit into an All India party, whose units were also set up in Rajasthan, UP & Delhi.

● All Communists were members of this party.

● All these communist groups & workers' & peasants' parties remained an integral part of the national movement.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Decline ● As if the Government blow was not enough, the Communists inflicted a more deadly blow on themselves by taking a sudden lurch towards what is described in leftist terminology as ‘leftist deviation’.

● Guided by the resolutions of the 6th Congress of the , Communists broke their connection with the Congress & declared it to be a class party of bourgeoisie.

● Moreover, the Congress & the bourgeoisie it supposedly represented were declared to have become supporters of imperialism.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Decline ● Congress plans to organize a mass movement around the slogan of Poorna Swaraj were seen as sham efforts to gain influence over the masses by bourgeois leaders who were working for a compromise with British imperialism. ● Congress left leaders, such as Nehru & Bose, were described as ‘agents of the bourgeoisie within the national movement who were out to ‘bamboozle the mass of workers’ & keep the masses under bourgeois influence.

● Communists were now out to ‘expose’ all talk of non- violent struggle & advance the slogan of armed struggle against imperialism, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was described as a proof of the Congress betrayal of nationalism.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● Finally, the Workers’ & Peasants’ Party was also dissolved on the ground that it was unadvisable to form a 2-class party for it was likely to fall prey to petty bourgeois influences.

● Communists were to concentrate, instead, on the formation of an ‘illegal, independent & centralized’ communist party.

● The result of this sudden shift in the Communists’ political position was their isolation from the national movement.

● At the very moment when it was gearing up for its greatest mass struggle & conditions were ripe for massive growth in the influence of the Left over it.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● Further, the Communists split into several splinter groups.

● The Communist movement was, however, saved from disaster because, on the one hand, many of the Communists refused to stand apart from the Civil Disobedience Movement & participated actively in it, &, on the other hand, socialist & communist ideas continued to spread in the country.

● Consequently, many young persons who participated in the CDM or in Revolutionary Terrorist organizations were attracted by socialism, Marxism & the Soviet Union, & joined the CPI after 1934.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● 1934: Government took further advantage of this situation & declared the CPI illegal.

● The situation underwent a radical change in 1935 when the Communist Party was reorganized under the leadership of P.C. Joshi.

● Faced with the threat of fascism the 7th Congress of the Communist International, meeting at Moscow in August 1935, radically changed its earlier position & advocated the formation of a united front with socialists & other anti-fascists in the capitalist Countries & with bourgeois-led nationalist movements in colonial countries.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● Indian Communists were to once again participate in the activities of the mainstream of the national movement led by the Congress.

● The theoretical & political basis for the change in communist politics in India was laid in early 1936 by a document popularly known as the Dun-Bradley Thesis.

● According to this thesis, INC could play ‘a great part & a foremost part in the work of realizing the anti-imperialist people’s front.’

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) 2019

With reference to Indian National Movement, consider the following pairs: Person Position, held 1. Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru President, All India Liberal Federation 2. K. C. Neogy Member, The Constituent Assembly 3. P. C. Joshi General Secretary, Communist Party of India

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Methods of Mobilization ● Strikes in urban areas ● Writers published journals ● Pamphlets were issued ● Bombay: S.A. Dange published a pamphlet Gandhi & Lenin & started the 1st socialist weekly, The Socialist;

● Bengal: Muzaffar Ahmed brought out Navayug & later founded the Langal in cooperation with the poet Nazrul Islam;

● Punjab: Ghulam Hussain & others published Inquilab;

● Madras: M. Singaravelu founded the Labour-Kisan Gazette. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Left Groups in Congress ● The movement originated from 1917 October Revolution.

● 1927: JL Nehru attended the international Congress against Colonial Oppression & imperialism, held at Brussels, & came into contact with communists & anti- colonial fighters from all over the world.

● 1928: Jawaharlal joined hands with S C Bose to organize the Independence for India League to fight for complete independence & ‘a socialist revision of the economic structure of society.’

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● These ideas inspired many socialist & communist groups to come into existence & resulted in the rise of a left wing within Congress, represented by J Nehru & Bose.

● These young nationalists, inspired by the Soviet Revolution & dissatisfied with Gandhian ideas & political programme, began advocating radical solutions for economic, political & social ills of the country.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● These younger nationalists—

○ were critical both of Swarajists & No-changers, advocated a more consistent anti-imperialist line in the form of a slogan for “purna swaraj “

○ though still vague, of international currents, stressed the need to combine nationalism & anti imperialism with social justice & simultaneously raised the question of internal class oppression by capitalists & landlords.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Left Groups in Congress ● Congress Socialist Party was formed at Bombay.

● Acharya Narendra Dev was the President & Loknayak Jayaprakash Narayan was the secretary

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● From the beginning, all the Congress socialists were agreed upon 4 basic propositions:

○ That the primary struggle in India was the national struggle for freedom & that nationalism was a necessary stage on the way to socialism;

○ That socialists must work inside the Congress because it was the primary body leading the national struggle & as Acharya Narendra Dev put it in 1934, It would be a suicidal policy for us to cut ourselves off from the national movement that the Congress undoubtedly represents; ○ That they must give the Congress & the national movement a socialist direction; Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ○ That to achieve this objective they must organize the workers & peasants in their class organizations, wage struggles for their economic demands & make them the social base of the national struggle.”

○ As the Meerut Thesis of the CSP put it in 1935, the task was to ‘wean the anti-imperialist elements in the Congress away from its present bourgeois leadership & to bring them under the leadership of revolutionary socialism.”

● There were also certain prestigious left-wing individuals, such as Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Professor N.G. Ranga, & Indulal Yagnik, who worked outside the framework of any organized left-wing party. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Trusteeship ● Congress had to satisfy every section of society

● Gandhi evolved philosophy of Trusteeship which came which was not idealistic & was very difficult to implement.

● Trusteeship is a socio-economic philosophy that was propounded by .

● It provides a means by which the wealthy people would be the trustees of trusts that looked after the welfare of the people in general.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● Nehru criticized Gandhiji for refusing to recognize the conflict of classes, for preaching harmony among the exploiters & the exploited, & for putting forward the theories of trusteeship by the capitalists and landlords.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) 2020 One common agreement between Gandhism and Marxism is

(a) The final goal of a stateless society

(b) Class struggle

(c) Abolition of private property

(d) Economic determinism

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) • Section of Congressmen advocated the revival of the constitutional method of struggle & participation in the elections to the Central Legislative Assembly to be held in 1934. • Led this time by Dr. M.A. Ansari, Asaf Ali, Satyamurthy, Bhulabhai Desai & B.C. Roy, the new Swarajists argued that in a period of political apathy & depression, when the Congress was no longer in a position to sustain a mass movement, it was necessary to utilize elections & work in the legislative councils to keep up the political interest & morale of the people.

• Rajaji, an erstwhile no-changer, recommended the Swarajist approach to Gandhiji with the additional provision that the Congress should itself, directly, undertake parliamentary work. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Congress Manifesto ● Total rejection of the 1935 Act

● Promised release of prisoners

● Removal of disabilities on the basis of gender & caste ● Radical transformation of the agrarian system

● Substantial reduction of rent & revenue

● Scaling down of rural debts, cheap credit

● Right to form trade unions & to strike. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Congress’ Performance ● Provincial elections were held in British India in 1936-37 as mandated by the 1935 Act. ● Elections were held in 11 provinces - Madras, Central Provinces, Bihar, Orissa, United Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Assam, NWFP, Bengal, Punjab & Sindh. ● 716/1161(contested) seats was won. Congress emerged in power in 8 of the provinces - the 3 exceptions being Bengal, Punjab (Unionist Party) & Sindh. ● It got a majority in all provinces, except in Bengal, Assam, Punjab, Sindh & NWFP, & emerged as the largest party in Bengal, Assam & NWFP. ● Gandhi did not attend a single election meeting.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) CM: known as Premier ❑ Madras : Rajaji ❑ Central Provinces: Dr. Khare

❑ Bihar: Sri Krishna Sinha ❑ Orissa: Hare Krishna Mehtab ❑ United Provinces: G B Pant ❑ Bombay Presidency: B G Kher ❑ Assam: Congress supported Bardolai ❑ NWFP: Dr. Khan Saheb ❑ Bengal: Fazlul Haq invited Congress to join coalition but it refused. Later Haq joined hands with League.

❑ Punjab : Congress had no role. ❑ Sindh: Congress supported Gulam Hussain Hidyatullah Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) League’s Performance ● League did badly in the constituencies reserved for Muslims.

● It failed to win a single seat in the North West Frontier Province.

● It could capture only 2 out of 84 reserved constituencies in the Punjab & 3 out of 33 in Sindh.

● It failed to form the government in any province.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) League’s Performance

● League was the 2nd-ranked party.

● After the election Jinnah offered to form coalitions with the Congress.

● League insisted that the Congress should not nominate any Muslims to the ministries, as it claimed to be the exclusive representative of Indian Muslims.

● This was not acceptable to the Congress, & it declined the League's offer.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Congress League Rift ● UP: INC had rejected the League proposal for a coalition government partly because the League tended to support landlordism, which the Congress wished to abolish, although the party had not yet taken any concrete steps in that direction.

● Some scholars argue that this rejection convinced the League that if India remained united, then Muslims would find it difficult to gain political power because they would remain a minority.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) 28 Months of Congress Rule Civil Liberties: The Congress ministries did much to ease curbs on civil liberties-

● Laws giving emergency powers were repealed. ● Ban on illegal organizations, such as the Hindustan Seva Dal & youth Leagues, & on certain books & journals was lifted. ● Press restrictions were lifted & newspapers were taken out of black lists.

● Confiscated arms & arms licenses were restored. ● Police powers were curbed & CID stopped shadowing politicians. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● Political prisoners, & revolutionaries were released, & deportation & internment orders were revoked.

● In Bombay lands confiscated during civil disobedience were restored.

● Pensions of officials associated with civil disobedience were restored.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Blemishes ● Gandhi urged Congressmen to prove that the Congress could rule with least assistance from the police & the Army. ● But there were certain blemishes in the performance of the Congress ministries. ○ Yusuf Maherally, a socialist, was arrested by the Madras Government for inflammatory speeches & later released. ○ S.S. Batliwala, a socialist, was arrested by the Madras Government for seditious speech & given 6 months' sentence. ○ K.M. Munshi, the Bombay Home Minister, used CID against communists & leftists.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Agrarian Reforms ● There were certain basic constraints before the Congress ministries could undertake a complete overhaul of the agrarian structure by completely abolishing zamindari. ● These constraints were

● The ministries did not have adequate powers. ● Inadequate financial resources as a lion's share was appropriated by the GoI.

● There was constraint of time since the logic of Congress politics was confrontation & not cooperation with colonialism.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Agrarian Reforms ● War clouds had started hovering around 1938. ● The reactionary 2nd chamber (Legislative Council) dominated by landlords, moneylenders & capitalists in UP, Bihar, Bombay, Madras & Assam had to be conciliated as its support was necessary for legislations.

● The agrarian structure was too complex & complicated.

● In spite of these constraints, the ministries managed to legislate a number of laws relating to land reforms, debt relief, forest grazing fee, arrears of rent, land tenures, etc. ● But most of these benefits went to statutory & occupancy tenants while sub-tenants did not gain much. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Social Welfare Reforms ● Prohibition imposed in certain areas. ● Measures for welfare of Harijans taken—temple entry, use of public facilities, scholarships, an increase in their numbers in government service & police, etc. ● Attention given to primary, technical & higher education, to public health & sanitation. ● Encouragement given to khadi through subsidies & other measures. ● Prison reforms undertaken. ● Encouragement given to indigenous enterprises. ● Efforts taken to develop planning through National Planning Committee set up under Bose in 1938.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Muslim mass contact campaign ● The Muslim mass contact campaign, conceived after the 1937 elections in which the Congress fared poorly in Muslim constituencies, constituted the last serious attempt of the Congress to mobilize the Muslims in a joint struggle against colonial rule.

● Congress did not achieve any substantial gains in the “Muslim mass contact” programme it launched. In the end, the secular & radical rhetoric of the Congress merely alarmed conservative Muslims & the Muslim landed elite, without winning over the Muslim masses.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Extra- Parliamentary Mass Activity of Congress

● Launching of mass literacy campaigns

● Setting up of Congress police stations & panchayats

● Congress Grievance Committees presenting mass petitions to government

● States peoples' movements.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Attitude towards Labor ● The basic approach was to advance workers' interests while promoting industrial peace. This was sought to be achieved by reducing strikes as far as possible & by advocating compulsory arbitration prior to striking. ● Goodwill was sought to be created between labor & capitalist with mediation of ministries, while at the same time efforts were made to improve workers‘ condition & secure wage increases for them. The ministries treated militant trade union protests as law & order problems, & acted as mediators as far as possible. ● This approach was largely successful but not so in Bombay. Also, leftist critics were not satisfied by this approach.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● Generally, the ministries took recourse to Section 144 & arrested the leaders.

● Nehru was unhappy about these repressive measures, but in public supported the ministries to protect them from petty & petulant criticism.

● Although Gandhi was against militant & violent methods, he stood for political education of the masses. He felt that the popular base of the Congress should not erode.

● He appealed to Congressmen against frequent resort to colonial laws & machinery.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Wardha Scheme ● Wardha scheme of basic education was worked out after Gandhiji published a series of articles in the Harijan.

● For the purpose of discussing different aspects of the proposed new scheme of education, an All India Education Conference was held in Wardha on 22nd & 23rd October, 1937.

● The eminent educationists, congress leaders & workers along with the Education Ministers of the 7 states had attended the conference. ● Gandhiji himself presided over it.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI: TowardsModule Mass XIX: Modern Nationalism History : Press 1935 & Education-40 ● The conference appointed a committee of distinguished educationists under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain. ● The Committee consisted of 9 members. Some of the members were: ○ Prof. K. G. Saiidain ○ Arya Nayakam, ○ Vinobha Bhave, ○ Kaka Kalelkar, ○ J. C. Kumarappa, ○ Kishori Lal, ○ Prof. K. T. Shah etc. ● The report of the committee published in March 1938, has come to be known as the Wardha Scheme of Education.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI: TowardsModule Mass XIX: Modern Nationalism History : Press 1935 & Education-40 ● It was approved by Gandhi & was placed before Congress at its Haripura Session. Congress accepted the scheme. ● Also known as Nai Talim/Basic Education/Buniyadi Talim (Shiksha)/Basic Shiksha. ● He considered education as an effective instrument of national reconstruction. ● Provisions: ○ Process of education throughout this period should center around some productive form of manual work, & that all other abilities to be developed or training should be given, as far as possible, be integrally related to the central handicraft chosen with due regard to the environment of the child.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI: TowardsModule Mass XIX: Modern Nationalism History : Press 1935 & Education-40 ○ Inclusion of a basic handicraft in the syllabus & to devise a suitable technique to implement the main idea of basic education. ○ 1st 7 years of schooling to be an integral part of a free & compulsory nationwide education system. ○ Teaching to be in vernacular (through mother tongue) from class I to VII & in English only after class VIII.

○ Ways to be devised to establish contact with the community around schools through service. ○ That the conference expects that the system of education will be gradually able to cover the remuneration of the teachers.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI: TowardsModule Mass XIX: Modern Nationalism History : Press 1935 & Education-40 ○ British officials were not the only people thinking about education in India. ○ From the early 19th century many thinkers from different parts of India began to talk of the need for a wider spread of education. ○ Impressed with the developments in Europe, some Indians felt that Western education would help modernize India. ○ They urged the British to open more schools, colleges & universities, & spend more money on education.

○ There were other Indians, however, who reacted against Western education. Mahatma Gandhi & Rabindranath Tagore were two such individuals.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI: TowardsModule Mass XIX: Modern Nationalism History : Press 1935 & Education-40 Prelims Question Q. Consider the following statements regarding the Wardha scheme of Basic Education: 1)It recommended the inclusion of basic handicraft in syllabus. 2)It recommended that the first 7 years of schooling should be an integral part of a free & compulsory nationwide education system. 3)It recommended that Mother tongue should be the medium of instruction. 4)The scheme was planned by a committee under the chairmanship of Dr. Zakir Hussain. Which of the statements given above are correct? (a) 1 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI: TowardsModule Mass XIX: Modern Nationalism History : Press 1935 & Education-40 Evaluation ● Though by 1939 internal strife’s, opportunism & hunger for power had started surfacing among Congressmen, yet they were able to utilize council work to their advantage.

● The contention that Indian self-government was necessary for radical social transformation got confirmed. ● Congressmen demonstrated that a movement could use state power to further its ends without being co-opted. ● The ministries were able to control communal riots. ● The morale of the bureaucracy came down.

● Council work helped neutralize many erstwhile hostile elements (landlords, etc.). Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● People were able to perceive the shape of things to come if independence was won.

● Administrative work by Indians further weakened the myth that Indians were not fit to rule.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Congress Position before War ● Congress' hostility to Fascism, Nazism, militarism & imperialism had been much more consistent than the British record. ● But the Indian offer to cooperate in the war effort had 2 basic conditions: ○ After the war, a constituent assembly should be convened to determine political structure of a free India. ○ Immediately some form of a genuinely responsible government should be established at the center. ● The offer was rejected by Lilingthow. ● Congress argued that these conditions were necessary to win public opinion for war.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) CWC Meet at Wardha 1939 Different opinions were voiced on the question of Indian support to British war efforts— ● Gandhi advocated an unconditional support to the Allied as he made a clear distinction between the democratic states of West Europe & the totalitarian Nazis.

● Bose & the socialists argued that war was an imperialist one since both sides were fighting for gaining or defending colonial territories. Therefore, the question of supporting either of the sides did not arise. Instead, advantage should be taken of the situation to wrest freedom by immediately starting a civil disobedience movement.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● Nehru advocated no Indian participation till India itself was free. However, at the same time, no advantage was to be taken of Britain's difficulty by starting an immediate struggle.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) CWC Resolution ● The CWC resolution condemned Fascist aggression. ● It said that India could not be party to a war being fought ostensibly for democratic freedom, while that freedom was being denied to India; ● If Britain was fighting for democracy & freedom, it should prove it by ending imperialism in its colonies & establishing full democracy in India;

● Government should declare its war aims soon &, also, as to how the principles, of democracy were to be applied to India; ● Congress leadership wanted to give every chance to the viceroy & the British Government.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Government’s Response

• Linlithgow, in his statement (October 17, 1939), tried to use the League & the princes against the Congress.

● The Government refused to define British war aims beyond stating that Britain was resisting aggression;

● said it would, as part of future arrangement, consult "representatives of several communities, parties & interests in India, & the Indian princes" as to how the 1935 Act might be modified;

● said it would immediately set up a "consultative committee" whose advice could be sought whenever required. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Government's Hidden Agenda

• Viceroy's statement was not an aberration, but a part of general British policy—"to take advantage of the war to regain the lost ground from the Congress" by provoking the Congress into a confrontation with the Government & then using the extraordinary situation to acquire draconian powers.

• Even before the declaration of war, emergency powers had been acquired for the center in respect of provincial subjects by amending the 1935 Act. • Defence of India ordinance had been enforced the day the war was declared, thus restricting civil liberties.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Government's Hidden Agenda

• May 1940: a top secret Draft Revolutionary Movement Ordinance had been prepared, aimed at launching crippling pre-emptive strikes on the Congress. The Government could then call upon the Allied troops stationed in India.

• It could also win an unusual amount of liberal & leftist sympathy all over the world by painting an aggressive Congress as being pro-Japan & pro-Germany.

• British Indian reactionary policies received full support from PM Churchill & the Secretary of State, Zetland, who branded Congress as a purely Hindu organisation.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● On October 23, 1939, the CWC meeting

○ rejected the vice regal statement as a reiteration of the old imperialist policy,

○ decided not to support the war,

○ called upon the Congress ministries to resign in the provinces.

● Lilingthow stated ”Dominion status of Westminster variety, after the war is the goal of British policy in India."

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Resignation of Congress Ministries ● Viceroy Linlithgow declared India at war with Germany on 3 September 1939. ● Congress objected to the declaration of war without prior consultation with Indians.

● League promised its support to the British, with Jinnah calling on Muslims to help the Raj by "honorable co-operation" at the "critical & difficult juncture," while asking the Viceroy for increased protection for Muslims.

● The government did not come up with any satisfactory response. ● Both Linlithgow & Jinnah were pleased with the resignations.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● Jinnah put out an appeal, calling for Indian Muslims to celebrate 22 December 1939 as a "Day of Deliverance" as congress resigned.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) 2012

The congress ministries resigned in the seven provinces in 1939, because

(a) The Congress could not form ministries in the other four provinces (b) emergence of a ‘left wing’ in the Congress made the working of the ministries impossible

(c) there were widespread communal disturbances in their provinces. (d) None of the statements (a), (b) and (c) given below is correct.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Debate on Immediate Mass Satyagraha ● After Linlithgow's statement of October 1939, the debate on the question of immediate mass struggle began once again. Gandhi & his supporters were not in favor of an immediate struggle because they felt that the:

○ Allied cause was just; ○ communal sensitivity & lack of Hindu-Muslim unity could result in communal riots;

○ Congress organisation was in shambles & the atmosphere was not conducive for a mass struggle; ○ masses were not ready for a struggle.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● They instead advocated toning up the Congress organisation, carrying on political work among the masses, & negotiating till all possibilities of a negotiated settlement were exhausted. Only then would the struggle be begun. ● The views of the dominant leadership were reflected in the Congress resolution at the Ramgarh session (1940)—"Congress would resort to civil disobedience as soon as the Congress organisation is considered fit enough or if circumstances precipitate a crisis." ● A coalition of leftist groups— Bose & his Forward Bloc, Congress Socialist Party, Communist Party, — characterized the war as an imperialist war giving an opportunity to attain freedom through an all-out struggle against British imperialism.

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) 2005 Which party was founded by Subhash Chandra Bose in the year 1939 after he broke away from the congress?

(a) Indian Freedom Party

(b) Azad Hind Fauj

(c) Revolutionary Front

(d) Forward Block

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) ● This group was convinced that the masses were ready for action, only waiting for a call from the leadership. ● They accepted hurdles, such as communalism & the shortcomings of the Congress organization, but thought that these would be automatically swept away in the course of a struggle. ● They urged the Congress leadership to launch an immediate mass struggle.

● Bose even proposed a parallel Congress to organise an immediate mass struggle if the Congress leadership was not willing to go along with them, but the CSP & CPI differed with Bose on this

● Nehru considered the Allied powers as imperialists & his philosophy & political perception leant towards the idea of an early struggle but that would have undermined the fight against Fascism. ● He finally went along with Gandhi & the Congress majority. Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040) Pakistan Resolution • Lahore

• 1940

• The Muslim League passed a resolution calling for "grouping of geographically contiguous areas where Muslims are in majority (North- West, East) into independent states in which constituent units shall be autonomous & sovereign & adequate safeguards to Muslims where they are in minority".

Module XVi: Towards Mass Nationalism 1935-40 Module XVI:Modern Towards History: Module Mass XVIII Nationalism - (Mass Nationalism: 1935 1935--4040)