Carpentry and Joinery

’ dtbe £uilb er b tuﬁmt s s wim.

CARP ENTRY AND J O I NERY .

A X - BO O K FO R R C HI C N G IN R TE T A TE TS , E EE S ,

- S R VE Y O R S A N D R F M N . U , C A TS E

FULL Y I LLUS T R A T E D

A N D W R ITTE N BY B A R F FLE T C HE R N I ST E . ,

A ssociat e of the R oyal I nstitu te of B r iti sh A r chitects Vi ce - P r e sid ent

' o the A r ch i te ctu r al A ssocia tion oi nt A u thor A Histor o f j , y f A r chite ctu r e Lectu r e r on A r chitectu r e and B u ild ing ’ ’ C onstr uction and D ir e ctor o the Stu d io i n s , f , g ine i n ar e ntr d . ate xam r C C oll . , Lon L E p y and joine ry to the C ity and Gu ild s n nstitu te of Lond o I , 63 c

A N D

H P HI LL I P S FLE T C HE R . ,

A ssociate of the R oyal I nstitu te of B r itish A r chite cts ; Fe llow of the ’ ’ S u rveyor s I nstitu tion D i r ector of the C ity C ompanies T r ad es

T r aini n S chool Gr e at T itch eld Str e e t W. g , ﬁ , ntit S u r ve in ﬁf e Lectu r er on Qu a y y g, , ’ int u thor Kin s oll . Lond . o A g C , j , ” n ties Fletche r on Qu a ti ,

~’ fs c . «S n.

LO N D O N _

F T HE R I N E S T R E E D T W. O U D N 6 C . . R R I I ER , 4 , A , C P R I NT E D BY

L O V E A N D W MA L M E D Y N, I I T ,

GR E UE E S R E E w . c AT Q N T T, E P R E FA C .

T HE A u th o rs are a e th a a o n s b o o k b o h ss u r d t c ci e , t

fo r re fe re nc e and r th e ins tru c t io n o f u n o n ﬁo st de ts , th e i mp o rt ant Su bject s o f C arpe ntry and J o i nery is m u h n e d T h at r are v s k fu and c e d e . th e e ery il l e l ab o rat e wo rk s o n th es e s u bjects n o b o dy co u ld

“ d e ny ; b u t i t is ge nerally ad m i tted th at th e y are u m b e o m e o m t m e v b o s and at th e e c rs , s e i s er e , pres n t ti m e cert ai nly in m any ways no t in acc o rd wi th m o e rn a d p r ctic e . Wh n the r af was h a n d in s o m e o f its e c t t re te e ,

b an h b the n o d u o n o f o n and s t th e r c es , y i tr cti ir eel , m o r s k fu d s o s o n o f a and the m nu cal e il l i p iti p rts , i t er

la o n o f s ra n b am n s and o u r T n cu ti t i s ec e eces ary, ra s At lantic b re th e rn h ave d evel o ped th e s e e s se nti al s to

an no m o u s e x n as h o e who h av v d he r e r te t , t s e isite t i o u ntr h c y m u s t ave no ticed . T h e A u th o r s h ave e nd e avo u red t o m eet th e re u ire m e nt s o f th e af m an and at th e s m e m e q cr t s , a ti t o pro d u ce a w o rk th at will b e u s efu l to th e P ro fe s s io nal m an i n th e d es ign i ng o f th e vari o u s s ru u s T h h av a o nd avo u t o c o n t ct re . ey e ls e e red

“ sid er th e d e s ire s o f th o se wh o are li kely to b eco m e ' cand id ates fo r the e xam inati o ns o f the C ity and ’ Gu d I ns u the C a n s C o m an a nd il s ti t t e , rpe ter p y, th e F PRE ACE .

' I s t o f iﬁ d ar A s o fo r C e r t e C e nte rs &c . n itu te p , l the e xam i nati o n in th ese subject s b y t h e ’ and S o s I n o n &c T h e A u h s ha th e u rvey r stitu ti , . t or ve h ad co ns id erabl e e x peri ence in e x am i ni ng c and i . d a e in s u and h f h o m t s t h ese bject s , t ey eel t at s e u h k o m h s a d d a s s c wo r w uld b e w elco e d b y t e e c n i te . T h e co nvenie nt sys te m o f T a hu lation and C om a r is on h as n u s wh e o e and o p b ee ed er p ssibl , ver 4 20 ill u strati o ns h ave be e n s pe ci ally p repared b y th A h o s o s a x e u t r t il lu t r t e th ei r t e t . T h e gre ater pa rt o f the co ntent s o f thi s b o ok o na was w fo r and a a e d in ri gi lly ritten , ppe r , th e ’ f h u i d e S t u d e n t s C o l u m n o T e B l r .

F L H R B A N I R F C . STE . ET E

P HI L I F H R . H. L P S LETC E

rid e S re e B g t t ,

Lu d a C irc u s E . C N o v. 1 8 . g te , , 97 C N T E T O N S .

P A G E

H I - W O U SE C APTE R . VARIOUS O DS IN AND THEIR C HARACTERISTICS

H I — B - . G C APTE R I TIM ER THE ROWTH , SEASONING , AND CONVERSION INTO SCANTLINGS

A ~ - CH PTE R I I I . TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY AND J OINERY

- C HAPTER IV . J OINTS USED IN CARPENTRY

H V C APTER .

H PT vI —R o o s s I I C A ER , , .

H —B C APTER VI I . RIDGES

H V I I l —~ S C APTER . S HORI N G AND TRUTTING

HA — C PTER I X . CENTRES

H X — FF S . A N C APTE R SCA OLDING, TAGING, AND G TRIES

H — B I . G C AP TER X PILLARS, EAMS , AND IRDERS

H I I C APTE R X .

H —F - C AP TE R X I I I . LOOR COVERINGS

H —FR C AP TER X I V . AMING IN PARTITI O NS AND FRAME ' N ' CON I E I S . — H O R I . C APTER XV . NAMENTA CARPENTRY

H — o I N E R v C APTER XVI . J OINTS USED IN J . HINGING

H I —M C APTER XV I . OULDINGS

H —D R C APTER XVI I I . OO S

HA —W C PTER X IX . INDOWS

H —F C APTER XX . RAMING

H —S K L C APTER XXI . YLIGHTS AND ANTERNS

H —S C APTER XXI I . TAIRCASES — H . S W K C APTER XX I I I . HAPED OR

H —B C APTER XXIV . EVELS H — C APTER XXV . RODS

H R —W K C APTE XXV I . OR SHOP PRACTICE C A R P E N T R Y A N D J O I N E R Y

CHA PTER I .

I N US E A N D VARIOUS WOODS THEIR CHARACTERISTICS .

T HE following are the principal soft woods in general use N or the r n pine ( P inu s sylvestr is) is commonly known as and fo r u yellow deal , it is in general use all building p rposes . T he D ] R a best varieties come from antzig , Meme , ig , and a S a S Arch ngel the inferior kinds from cotl nd , weden , and

N . orway The wood is easily worked , and is tough , elastic, and moderately light ; it is used for joists, ﬂooring, roofs ,

- and & c . sash frames , scaffolding , it shrinks from one

- a twentieth to one thirtieth in the process of se soning, and the annual rings should not be more than one - eighth of a n inch thick . Inferior kinds have thick rings ﬁlled with

a 2 . b resinous matter . The weight is bout 3 lbs per cu ic foot . Spr u ce (A bies excelsa ) is commonly called white de al it is a b used for che p uildings where not exposed to the weather, and i s much used for the tops of dressers and for shelves , and - n also for scaffold poles , and comes from the orth of

E a a . urope, th t from C hristiani being the best I t is liable to warp , twist , and shrink , and is knotty, and therefore, hard ar to work . There e several varie ties of American spruce A bies alha no w a ( ) on the m rket, though these as a rule are ab inferior to the ove . A me r ican ell ow ine P inu s str ohu s y p ( ) , sometim es known We m o u th h as y pine, because introduced by Lord Weymout ,

' is inferior in strength to B altic timber and very sub j ect to

b - dry rot . It can always be distinguished y the hair like short streaks running in the direction of the ﬁbres . It is used by joiners and cabinet makers . Its speciﬁc gravity is

a lb s a . bout 35 . per foot cube, or bout 3 lbs more than

Northern pine . I O A N D E CARPENTRY JOIN RY .

C a nad ian r ed pine (P inu s r u hr a) is so called from the b a colour of its ark . It is used for intern l ﬁttings , is tough , a and ab air elastic, cle n , ﬁne in grain, and very dur le where has free access . Kau r i ine D ammar a A u str alis p ( ) is used for joinery, and

a - is the strongest pine known . It is yellowish white wood which pl anes up with a silky lustre and ﬁne close grain . It a I t m N e w is used l rgely for yacht masts . comes only fro

Z a a b 6 b . ealand , and ver ges a out 3 lbs . per cu ic foot ar The following e the principal hard woods in use . P itch -pine (P inu s r igid a) is used for the best structural y purposes ; it is an excellent wood for joiner , but it has and f a great speciﬁc gravity , the di ﬁculty in working it ent ils

i - expense in its use . P tch pine comes principally from x Virginia . It is liab le to cup and heart shake (see ne t chapter) . O ah is the strongest and most d u rable wood for ordinary h as d m and building purposes . It istinct edullary rays,

- shrinks about one thirtieth of its width in seasoning . Owing to the presence of gallic acid in its com position it causes E n as a iron fastenings to corrode . glish o ak is taken

a e a 8 . standard of qu lity for all woods, and w ighs bout 4 lbs per cubic foot .

‘ A u s tr an a nd er m an oa le a and i G is very h rd tough , and a is l rgely used, and is specially cultivated in large forests . A me r ican oak is one of the best foreign oaks, being but slightly inferior to E nglish . R iga o ak is commonly called wainscot oak (although th e latter is a term Often used to indi cate any oak cut along the medullary rays so as to Show the

a has l - ﬁ u r e d rain is silver gr in ) ; it ﬁne, high y g silver g , , used l n n C r R a for panel i g a d for the very best joinery . own ig a is the best qu lity . /e b ak Afr ica n oa is known as the link etween teak and o .

h S a and ; It is s ipped from ierr Leone , is mostly used for ships d a rk f It is of a reddish colour, free from defects , but di ﬁcult — to work owing to its close grain . I t is one third stronger

E . . than nglish oak, and weighs about 5 7 lbs per cubic foot ’ C hestnu t was much used for roofs and other c arpenter s w l x ork in the Midd e Ages, but is now not much used e cept A N D CARPENTRY JO IN ERY . I I

and . b u t for p osts palings It resembles oak in appearance , i and a is sl ghtly darker in colour, has no medullary r ys and

- s a w . b u t no p ood I t is easier to work than oak, not so

n a wa . stro g, and li ble to give y under a cross strain The E and tree itself is one of the largest grown in urope, lives l O d . C to a great age, though when it is very brittle hest i s m nut imported also fro Africa and North Am erica . Maho an a g y is gener lly used for handrailing , ornamental and a join ery, cabinet work ; as it will not st nd the weather u x it should not be sed for e ternal work . That which is frO m C u a S a nish maho a n shipped b (called p g y) is , as a f rule, sound and free rom defects , but its pores contain th e e a white chalky substance , which dulls dge of the ' a a plan e, and makes it h rder to work th n the other species ; it has a ﬁne wavy grain and takes a very high

6 . polish . It weighs about 4 lbs . per cubic foot Hond u r as m aho a n e a g y, from C entral Am ric , is a stronger S a h and n wood than p nis , has a tra sverse strength very o ak a nearly equal to British . I t is l rgely used for panelling a d a a n a w . f scia bo rds , o ing to its immunity from w rping I t u is not us ally attacked by worms or insects , but requires a a b a great c re, as if seasoned too r pidly it is su ject to l rge '

a h as a a a a . i a sh kes . It cle r str ight gr in Infer or qu lities m a b a y e detected by the ppearance of grey specks . Mex ica n m ahoga ny has some of the characteristics of n b u t a a ab Ho duras, is usu lly obt in le in large sizes it is con s id e re d b a h u lia le to st r shakes, and t o gh it is a good wood

it a C n . for joinery, is not equ l to Honduras or uba Yar r ah a ah m a a (or j rr ) , someti es called Austr li n

a n . m hogany, is a species of gum tree from Wester Australia

It is of a dark red colour, and has a close wavy grain it is u ab and d r le and rigid . It is, however, deﬁcient in tenacity

“ in s e asoning narrow cracks of great d epths are sometimes a and a formed . I t is well ad pted for piers, piles, other he vy u work, and has of late years been much sed with some succe ss for paving roads i n the form of small longitudinal

blocks . T eah m e , someti es call d Indian oak, comes from Burmah h n a m S . and out er India I t is straight in grain , and of a w r w E O ak brown colour ; it some hat resembles nglish , but has

B 2 1 2 C E A N D ARP NTRY JOINERY .

a w no medull ry rays . It is light and easy to ork , and possesses an aromatic resinous oil, which not only makes a m and it durable, but enables it to resist the ttacks of wor s insects . I f the oil has collected into the shakes and hardened, it destroys the tools and is hard to work this oil , w ho ever, preserves iron from rust , and thus teak is much a — and a used for b cking to armour plates in r ilway contracts . e The species which is shipped from Moulm in, in Burmah , a l s b . is gener lly considered the best, and weighs about 4 7 b b per cu ic foot ; that from Mala ar, however, is preferred by some . G r e e nhe r t a is the strongest wood in use . It comes m D principally fro emerara and British Guiana . I t has a a u ﬁne, hard, and close gr in, is of a dark chestnut colo r, is

and - f full of m inute pores, the sap wood is di ﬁcult to dis tin i f ﬁ re — gu sh from the h e art . It is one o the least resisting all a of hard woods, and is liable to split at the ends in se son ing . It is much used for piles and marine structures . G in a reenheart is the heaviest wood use , and weighs ne rly l 0 b s . 7 per cubic foot . A sh combines elasticity and toughness to a rem ark b a le degree, and should be used in any work that is subject to shock or strain exerted suddenly . I t is of a brownish - white colour with yellow streaks in the direction of

- . has the grain , with very distinct pores It no sap wood a and is used more by the wheelwright than by the c rpenter . E The variety grown in ngland is considered the best, though that from America and C anada is largely imported

a & c . G w for the m nufacture of oars, ood specimens eigh

u 0 . abo t 5 lbs . per cubic foot E lm is twisted in the grai n and is of a reddish - brown b colour . I t is very dura le in either wet or dry situations , a but lasts but a sh o rt time under v rying conditions . It is not a w li ble to split , and takes nails ell . When Old London

Bridge was demolished, the elm piles, which were some

b e . hundred years old , were found to in a sound condition

- a The sap wood withstands decay s well as the heart . The E and S a best varieties are grown in ngland, France, p in . l D u tch elm is very inferior . A variety known as Wych e m w S E is gro n in cotland and the north of ngland, and is A N 1 CARPENTRY D JOINERY. 3

- much used for boat building . C anada also supplies elm of a

- - whitish brown colour, but the sap wood is liable to decay .

The best elm weighs about 4 2 lb s. per cubic foot .

Wal nu t is of a varying brownish tinge . The Italian

b - a E variety is much prized by the ca inet m ker . nglish and walnut, especially that shipped from America, is used a b for window fram es and s shes , doors, and the est class of

- joinery, also for gun stocks (as it contains no oil that will aff e ect metal) , and veneers, but it is too ﬂexible for constru

v a 1 . . ti e work . It weighs bout 4 to 4 3 lbs per cubic foot h B eech as a hard clean surface and ﬁne even grain, and

f . is not di ﬁcult to work It is used for mallets, planes, piles ,

- k b a and chair ma ing , and has such a remarka le cle vage that

- - it is used for band boxes and sword scabbards . Besides being in E in a grown ngland , it is found the temper te parts of

E A i lb s . urope, merica , and Australas a . It weighs about 4 5

per cubic foot . Amongst other woods seldom used by the carpenter and

hor nbe am no sa - joiner are , which has p wood , and is used for hir ch ced ar w turning and mallets and , hich are used a acaci a princip lly for furniture ; , from which good trenails, s o l a r post , and railings are made p p , which is used for a A me r ica n light purposes, and st nds the weather well ; la ne p , which is hard to work but is durable under water ;

l a r ch - , which is well suited for ﬂoor boards and stairs, and a a f inu c h lso posts , r ilings, and sca fold poles , where there is and ald e r i s a wear ; , lastly, , which occasion lly used for e a w turn ry and c binet ork, and is, moreover, extremely R durable under water . The buildings of the C ity of avenna b a a are uilt on piles m de of this wood , as are lso the abut ments of the R ialto Bridge at Venice . H C APTER II .

B — H . T E O E S A N D TIM ER GR WTH , S A ONING , CONVERSION I N TO L SCANT INGS .

B n a a TIM ER grows by successive conce tric l yers , c lled a nnual rings, so called from one being formed yearly ; t h e s e a n n u a l rings are de posited as S ap wood at the n c i rcum fere ce , and gradually h a r d e n i n to what is called

Hea r t- w ood . At right - angles to these coneen

tric. rings , and radiating from th e ar e centre, the rid e d u ll a ry R a s y (ﬁg . The process of form ation into

“ - - 1 . r o wth o T i m e r n n u a r i n s and m e u ar ra s . a I G f b . A l g d ll y y h e t W O 0 d varies from nine

- ﬁve a a n to thirty ye rs , ccording to th e ature of the tree . Those trees which perform this hardening in the quickest

a a a . Sa time are ne rly alw ys the most dur ble The p, in tem a S per te zones, rises in the pring from the roots of the tree a a and through the cellul r tubes to form the le ves, ﬂows b a a a n and b a ck g in , chieﬂy betwee the wood the rk , in the

u u a a . a t mn , thus forming the new nnu l ring — t re e is at b fo FELLI NG . The its best for felling just e re d a b b an a m turity , that is to say efore the topmost r ches h ve and and ceased to b e strong green to put forth shoots . The

a - and a sa - w o he rt wood is stron ger more lasting th n the p o d , a nd a a T h the former should lw ys be used in good work . e A N D I CARPENTRY JOINERY . S best time for felling oak is when it is about one hundred and b ﬁfty years old for ash , elm, and larch when they are a out eighty years O ld for ﬁr fro m seventy to one hundred years

b - old and popl ar at a out forty ﬁve years old . FE — im b r a DE CTS . T e is li ble to the following defects

- ﬂ a He ar t shake . 2 w (ﬁg ) is a extending from a cavity , pro d u c e d at by decay, the heart to the bark ; it is usually found in trees which have passed their maturity .

u - a 2 b w C p sh ke (ﬁg . ) is a cavity formed et een two or more of the annu al rings it sometimes extends a great distance up the trunk of the tree :pitch - pine is very liable to this defect .

S ta r - sh ahe m a - a is a defect so ewhat simil r to heart sh ke, but the clefts radiate from the centre without any appear ance of decay they often render the tree utterly unﬁt a for conversion . If the sh kes are large or continuous the timber should b e discarded . When the decayed part is white it will probab ly be found to be not very serious e b u t if y llow , the timber d should not be use . is re d o r ox When the wood , f y, the tree W111 generally b e fo u nd — 2. e e c ts o f im - h D f T be r . He art s ake l t all and u ~ u se e ss a C s h ak e . to be utterly , events p for constructive purposes . D r u xine ss is a form of decay Occasioned by the rain penetrating through a puncture in the bark caused b y the n o ff a a teari g of br nch , as , for instance , in a tempest . ' B indga lls are caused by the growth of timb er over a a a O ff wound c used by a br nch being lopped . D ry r ot is c aused by the dissemin ation of the germs of fu ngi occasioned in conﬁned places where th e gases cannot

a a a a . D r get w y, through w nt of ventil tion y rot occurs only h after the tree as been felled . Wet r ot occurs in the growing tree where th e timber has a b a and been llowed to ecome s turated , the communication a a of this disease is occasioned by actu l cont ct . 1 6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

— GOOD TIM BER T he qualities o f good timb er are b a that it should be straight in ﬁ re , free from l rge, loose or dead knots , and shakes of every kind .

It should be sweet to the smell, the surface should no t th e be woolly or clog the teeth of saw , but should l be ﬁrm and bright, and when p aned should have a silky

. a b a lustre A disagree ble smell etokens dec y, and a chalky appearance is generally a sure sign of decomposition . The a b a annu l rings should e regul r and the colour u niform . l a & c . Naturally coloured timber (such as m hogany , ) shou d a h W be dark , as this indicates dur bility and strengt . hen struck with the hammer good timber should be sonorous , and a gentle tap at o ne end of a balk should be distinctly i heard when the ear s placed at the other . I n comparing two pieces of timber of the same species, the heavier is im a n . gener lly the stro ger In ﬁr or pine for the best work , perfections of any kind should cause the rejection of the in wood , but some of the harder woods a slight defect is generally allowed to pass . Timber of different Species should not be used if possible in conj u nction with each b e other though Alberti , the Florentine architect, may con sid e re d pedantic in suggesting th at all timb er in o ne build

Ing should be from the same forest . Timber should be a a felled in winter s the s is then down in the roots . — p S . I n a EASONING se soning , timber should be protected d from the weather, but should be allowe a free circulation of a air . After drying slo wlyit is probably better to qu rter large trees . Logs are more q u ickly seasoned b y boring a hole

- m a down the centre , this also prevents splitting, which y also be stopped by hoopi ng the ends with iron . Speaking ’ a seasoned t mbe r a gener lly, i for carpenters work should h ve ’ - ﬁfth d r timher lost one of its weight , and y for j oiners work

- : a b a a ro xi about one third A squ red lock of oak t kes, pp mately , one month for every inch in depth to season , and a ﬁve times as long to dry . Fir should t ke a month for and every two inches for seasoning, ﬁve times this amount is generally considered suffi cient for d rying . Timber if covered takes about one - third less tim e to season than if t exposed . Wa e r se asoning is carried out by immersing the m a and ti ber for fortnight or more in fresh or salt water, 1 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY . 7

air m th en drying in the . This process, it is aintained , washes ou t the sap and renders the timber less liable to a w rp , but it renders it more brittle, and, in the case of sea

a it a . water se soning , causes to attract moisture fter it is ﬁxed

Boiling and steaming quicken the process of seasoning, bu t are generally considered to red u ce the strength and elasticity

- air of the timber . Hot seasoning is sometimes used for

small scantlings , but it is generally admitted that it reduces th e strength . By charring the ends of posts is prevented the w attacks of worms and the gro th of fungi .

P er ce ntage of Loss of Weight in S easoning.

— R e d pine I 6 2 5 — A m e ric an ye ll o w pine 35 40

Larch M ah o gany I 6 30

— ARTI FICIAL SEASONING . There are several artiﬁcial pro i cesses of seasoning, some of which have been used W th m a success . These y be divided into two classes

m a be ex e lled b h d r au l c r and I . h sa i e r T e p y p y y p ssu e, r epl aced by che m ical ﬂ u id s

2 r the timber m a be im r e nated with om . O s e u id y p g ﬂ , a and r e ents ts a which acts on the s p p v i d ec y.

’ B ou cher e s Of the former, process of sulphate of copper and ’ B l the s a are y process of c rbolic or tar acids the best known . ’ a e :B e thel s Of the l tter, the more us d are process consists of i m pregnating the ﬁbres with creosote or oil of tar ; I fya nising or immersing the timber I n a saturated solution o fcorrosive O f B u r ne tisin sublimate ( bichloride mercury) ; and g, which

consists of immersion in a solution of chloride of zinc . These methods are mostly dependent on the porosity of the timb er

for their success, and it may be noted that ﬂuid forced into timber travels one hundred times quicker with the grain than a cross it . FE E CAR NTRY AND J O IN RY .

m r C onve r sion of Ti be .

T o cu t the best be am r om a lo ﬁ f g ( g 3), divide th e diameter , A B a and liiie s at , into three equal p rts, draw right angles to

— — fT im e r . T o c u t on e r si on o f T im e r . T o c u t th e 4. on e r si o n o 3. C v b C v b s m t h e st iffe s t e am . be t be a . b

a the diameter, from the two points thus Obt ined , to the a circumference, and form the p rallelogram by j oining the four points on t h e c i rcumfer

ence . T o obta in the

s tiﬂest bea m ( ﬁg . divide the A B d i a m e t e r, , into four equal parts and pro

c e e d as before . In converting o ak from the

5 log , care should be taken to have t h e c u t s c o n verging O r tend — m to ward s 5 . o n e r n o fT im e r O ak C v sio b . . g the

h e a r t , a s t h i s 0 0 W i li i a i and th e stu lf ill ll prevent Sp tt ng and w rp ng, w only then b shrink in its width ; the est meth od is shown at a (ﬁg .

2 0, A R P E N T R v C AND JOINERY .

There various marks brand s cu t and scribed on timber by ship and pers , there a r e a l s o “ qua ” l i t y m a r k s , which vary acco t ding to the port

O fshipme nt . The marks sho wn on 8 ﬁgs . 7 , , and 9

i n d i c a t e ﬁ rs t , and second , third or middling qua

Qu ality m ark s on Timbe r . m i n me l First or be st ddli g. lit y, as generally shown on timber c o m i n g f r o m

Memel , and are p l a c e d near the en d of the balk . h w W en, ho ever, the timber is shipped D antzic from , the quality marks con O f a m ar sist a single line, lity ks on Ti m b e r . e co n o r o o m i in d g d dd g. as shown in ﬁg . 7 S l a the ﬁrst, seconds, indic ted by the and thirds being number of short lines or crosses m a r k e d a c r o s s S this line . wedish deals are b ran d ed on the ends in r e d a n d s o m e t i m e s in black

paint . Norwegian marks are gener '‘ m r n I i b e . ally in blue paint . “ m“ m a’g‘ American deals, m a by some shippers, are arked In imitation of B ltic brands A N D 2 1 CARPENTRY JOINERY . b u t the qualities are generally distinguished by the marks I I I I , II , , in red upon their sides or ends .

For measuring timber, the following is the best for mula l " 2 G - l—- i- C : L ( g g )

- a G one fourth girth of tree t middle in feet .

g at one end in feet . 1 g at other end in feet . = i n L length of log feet .

C cubic contents of log in feet .

- D Note . educt thickness of bark from each quarter girth b r a efore wo king out . This varies from h lf an inch to two inches . Timber wrought one side loses one - sixteenth of an

b - inch , and if wrought oth sides one eighth of an inch in thickness . The following deﬁnitions may prove of use to th e student a A balh I s a roughly squ red log . l ank two si x i A p is from to nches thick, eleven inches 8 2 T broad , and generally from ft . to ft . long. A d eal is nine inches broad and not m ore than four inches thick . batten d e al b u t h A is similar to a , not more t an seven inch es broad . u ar e 00 A sq is 1 ft . super .

A h u nd r ed contains 1 2 0 deals . d 0 a 0 f A loa contains 5 cubic ft . of squ red timber or 4 O

- 600 . unhewn timber, or superﬁcial feet of inch planking CHAPTER III

T HE VARI O US TOOLS USED IN CARPENTRY AND JO IN ERY .

I T is intended in this section to give a general outline o fthe a and v rious tools used by the carpenter joiner, and the pur h a a . be nc poses for which e ch is used , with illustr tions A is and the first requisite of the carpenter joiner, and one of the first tests should be to see that it is strong and fi rm ; t he top surface level and even and that it is not only con strue tive l a y sound, but th t the wood is well seasoned the ln ab 2 . . height should be out ft 9 , and the width not less 2 u a than ft . , the length being dependent pon the sp ce that is available in the shop one of its long sides 15 pro vid e d with a vertical side - board with drilled holes to a dmit “ ” o f a fpegs for holding stu f to be pl ned , which is gripped — at the other end b y a bench screw ; the latter is best if m a a a s de on the inst nt neou principle , that is , if the lever is raised the vice c an b e simply expande d or contracted b y the n and mere effort of pulling or pushing, and by droppi g — turning the leve r the bench screw is rendered rigid .

- a a w t h e e B ENCH STOPS , g inst hich wood rests when b ing la a e p ned, are best if m de in the form of two wedg s , tighten — ing against each other in a mortise cut in the b enc h top . At the present time there are many patents on the market in which iron and steel play an important part ; there is

R i i n - saw . 10. pp g

a i often danger, however, of the tool slipping into the ron

and having i ts edge damaged thereby . — sa i s SAWS . The w generally the ﬁrst tool used by the and now craftsman , , although so much sawing is done by A N D 2 CARPEN TRY JOINERY . 3

a a a m chinery , sc rcely any work can be c rried out without its

aid .

r i i - 1 0 in The pp ng saw (ﬁg . ) is used for dividing wood the r n h as h di ectio of its ﬁbres , and generally eight teet to every r th ee inches in length , the cutting edge of these teeth is at right - angles to the line wh ich ranges with the poi nts ; the length of the b l a de is about twenty - eight

c hal - r er in hes . The f ipp is o ab ut the same length , is a used for the s me purpose, b u t h as nine teeth to the

three inches . — The ha nd saw for cut ti n g against the ﬁbre is

b 2 in. a a out 4 in the bl de ,

and h as I 5 teeth to 4 in . T h e cutting edge of these teeth incline forward at - 11 Te no n saw 12. ram e or B ow Saw . . . F

a 80 . I O . ngle of deg , or deg m o re than for those saws which are used for cutting with

anel - saw h as a b la the ﬁbre . The p , which very thin de with 6 teeth to the inch , which are very ﬁnely set, is used for

- h h . te n n sa 1 1 as cu tting thin wood The o w (ﬁg . ) a very t in

a I . 1 0 bl de of about 4 in long , teeth to the inch , and is strengthened on the upper edge b y a b ack of sheet i ron ; it i s b used for cutting across the ﬁ res , such as in the shoulders

a h - w h as 1 1 - in I f . s s sa & c . o tenons, The an blade, with 3 b b and teeth to the inch , it has a rass ack to strengthen it,

is used for forming the tenons and mitres of sashes . The

d e tai l saw h as . ov a 9 in blade , with I 5 teeth to the inch , it a b a i s im has brass ck , and used for the purposes its name

m ass - saw at i . co . pl es The p has a narrow blade, i in wide

th e . end and I in at the handle, with about 5 teeth to the a and inch it is used for circul r work, is made thicker on

he hole - saw th e cutting edge . The y resembles the compass saw at , but it has a movable handle which can be fastened any point along the blade ; it is used for cutting round

u i e r a me or bow saw . q ck curv s . The f ( ) (ﬁg by 2 A N D N 4 CARPENTRY JOI ERY .

n h ﬁ ne - mea s of w ich a , thin ribbon saw is placed in severe tension , which can be increased or diminished at will by twisting the slip of wood in the twine, held in position by

- b ar a the cross , is chieﬂy used for fret work , the bl des being easily made to twist round to suit any pattern . A saw should h a v e a t h i n b h lade , s ould b e d a r k i n a colour, have clear ring wh en and struck , a ” T o l edo «like

, 13 k - n t e m p e r t h e J as a e . . pl point springi ng

. b . 1 0 I I e more than the heel On referring to ﬁgs , , it will Observed th at there are two hooked projections in the h a and a ndle, one above one below the grasp if the h nd bears on the upper one increased pressure is given to the teeth near the point ; if on the lower, the pressure i s on a those near the handle . The teeth in a saw are gener lly bent alternately towards the opposite sides of the b lad es ; a set this is c lled the of the saw, and is done i n order to a cle r the wood from the teeth . — S - PLANE Among the bench planes used by the joiner, ad e—l a ne 1 a thej p (ﬁg . 3) is used to take off the rough surf ce

- 14 T r i n ane . . y g pl

of the wood and it is usually about I 5 in . long in the stock

- and 3 in . wide . The cutting edge of the iron is convex, for the purpose of separating the surface ﬁbres , and this pro E z CAR P NTRY AND JOINERY . 5

' i th irre u lar c rru tio n n duces a surface wi slight g o ga s . The ext process is to change these undulating surfaces to one level

- tr in lane . I surface ; this is accomplished by the y gp (ﬁg 4) ,

- is 1 8 . 2 . in . and an which in to 4 long, 33 wide, has iron

a . o a with a str ight edge In w rking, this pl ne is not stopped ’ at as a the limit of the arm s length , when using the j ck n a a h pla e, but is m de to take s aving off the whole length “ ” f - l of the stu f. The mouth of the trying p ane is much

- narrower than that of the jack plane, and consequently takes o ff a much ﬁner shaving, and by its greater length tends to t a c o nse correct any deviation from a perfec ly pl ne surface,

- quent upon the depth of bite of the the j ack plane . After ” the trying- u p h as b een per formed , it will often be found a that, owing to irregul rities in the

fibres of the wood, some parts, a u ltho gh level , are left rough this is rectified by the use of the mo t n —l ane s o hi gp (fig . which is

8 . short, being about in in length and 3 in . wide, has a straight cut

ting edge, and is also used for

cleaning O ff ﬁnished work . A i ointer is 0 . 3 m long, and is used ” c a for shooting , whi h means pl n ing up the edges of boards per fe c tl y straight , to form a close

n a . ian j oi t with dj oining boards The 15 , Sm ooth ingm e , n foregoing comprise all those P l a e e — technic ally known as the b nch planes .

com ass - lane is a t - The p p Simil r to a smoo hing plane, except “ ” a d th t its sole or un er side is convex , and is thus used for

a a r - l ne a forming a conc ve surf ce . Thefo hstaﬁ p a is simil rly n a and co structed , but its sole is conc ve, it is thus used for

- . l obtaining convex surfaces The r e bate p a ne (ﬁg . 1 6) is f b t di ferent to those previously descri ed , in hat the iron reaches to the edges of the stock in its width so as to enable b e a the cutting edge to carried into the corner of the reb te, for the sinking of which it is used as its name implies it is m T h a . and a t 2 . e usu lly 9 in long, v ries in wid h fro to in C 2 6 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

sash -ﬁ lliste r is a rebate - plane for sinking the edge of the stu ff

a movi n - llister that is away from the cr ftsman , and the g ﬁ or sid e fil/ister for sinking the

edge next the workm an . The

ploughp lane (fig . of which i s an improved form shown , is used for form ing grooves at varying distances from the f edge of the stu f, the distance b being regulated y the screw . Ma tch -planes are a species of plough - plane used for cutti ng ( a) the groove and (b ) the tongu e s in what is called match a $ 9 boarding, the iron of e ch is 3 bead shown ( . The ' h ” 1w e fig 17‘ P lo ngh p l ax 1s' Matc p la ne ifibng p is used for sticking a moulding whose section is

- semicircular . The snipebillplane is used for formi ng the quirk ’ O n e ithe r sid e ofthe b ead ; and the r ou te r or old wom an s tooth 1 f r (No . 9) is used o clearing out grooves across the grain as in staircase strings . There are also many forms of ter lanes p , which it is not deemed ne c e ssar n yto me tion , as most of this work is now performed by rotating cutters worked by steam power .

CHISELS . The various forms of chisels may be divi l 1 nt0 — - u r . 20 ir m r h i 21 Fari n h is ed the follow 19. R o t e e c se . . c e f . F l g l .

- 22. or tise c h i se 23 . o u e . mg cl asses M l . G g

- ﬁ r me r chise l (ﬁg . 2 0 f ) has a steel ace, and is used for heavy work with the

2 8 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

B 2 ff evels (ﬁg . 9) di er from squares in that they are used n n a for marki g lines at a gles other than a right ngle, the metal blade being m ovable on a screw joint c are must be taken to screw it u p tightly or errors will b e the result . au n There are three kind s of g ges in ge eral use . The

- 0 - m ar hingga uge (fig . 3 ) consists of a sharply pointed spike d riven into a shank about nine inches long with a sliding block which c an be fixed at any point along its length by means of a wooden screw ; this gau ge is much used for marking parallel distances by being ru n along shot f th cu ttin —a u e edges O e stuff. The gg g is similar to that b a j ust descri ed , but has a thin steel pl te instead of a spike, su fli c ie ntly sharpened as to be capable of making a cut

- 2 e . 0 ar i n au e . u are . 9. e 3 . 28 . Sq B v l M k g g g

with or against the grain ; the mor tise - gauge is simi lar in n th e d t ad pri ciple to the others, with a di ion of a second u stab le w a a l n of a j spike, hich en bles the two p ral el li es

mortise or tenon to be traced on the stu ff at one Operation . The s id e hooh or sawing r est consists of a strip of wood

. at a d 9 in long , with a small block e ch end on opposite si es , and i h in use , one end h angs over the bench aga nst the ot er

the piece of stuff is thrust ; the sawing - re st is u seful for n cutting or pl ani g against the grain . The mitr e box is an arrangement for gri ndi ng a saw cut n at an a gle of 4 5 deg . , in its simplest form it consists of two

a h - a a h bo rds at rig t ngles to each other, att ched to a t ird or b a bottom o rd . 2 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY . 9

The mitr e - squ ar e is an immovable bevel set at an angle

- O f . str ai ht e d e 4 5 deg The g g is , as its name implies, a slip o of w od or iron with a perfectly straight edge, used for ' m arking o ﬂ straight lines on the stuff.

T W O wi nd in - stichs O f slips or g the same dimension , each a h ving two parallel straight edges , are used in order to deter mine the level plane O fthe whole surface of a piece O fstuff in this m anner after placing them at each end of the surface of wo b n a d ire c the od , the craftsman , y looki g in longitudinal o d two tion ver the upper e ges of the slips , can determine h are a a whet er they in the s me pl ne ; if they are not, the o f f in wind in ou t face the stu f is g, if they are, the work is w nd i n o i . f g, and satisfactory

T h e scr ew - d r ive r ha mmer m allet imlet br ad awl , , , g , and are w too ell known to need description . CHAPTER IV

JO INTS USED IN C A RPENTRY .

T HE methods adopted for joining pieces of wood together have always exercised the inge nuity and skill of the

. f carpenter In fact , the art of properly and e ﬁciently v connecting the arious pieces in an assemblage of timbers , O f lies at the very root the craft . The subject lends itself very readily to tabulation , for it is evident that j oining timbers is necessary under the following circumstances

a h ( ) For lengt ening beams in tension , compression , and

- cross strain .

f i w b E & c . ( ) fecting a junct on bet een joists, plates, , resting on or In beams .

(d ) Between beams resting on upright posts . (e ) Between oblique struts and beams and struts with posts .

t an - ( ) For connecting suspending pieces d tie beams .

a f M ny other j oints for di ferent purposes arise, having to n b e suit special circumsta ces, but they are mostly to found

- in combinations of the above mentioned , and will readily h suggest themselves to the student . I n connexion wit b e d joints, the question of fastenings can hardly consi ered apart ; these may be b rieﬂy summarised as belonging to

- either of the following type s Wedges, keys , pins (including an b a n a d a d . wooden pins , n ils, screws, olts), str ps, sockets We shall refer to these b rieﬂy in the joints in which they are used . Taking our ﬁrst division ( a ) the le ngthe ning of bea ms in

and - tension , compression , cross strain , we find that three l a in n ca n . shi s r methods are in use, viz , pp g, fi g, and fi g h t t ese may be described very briefly, as the in roduction of iron and st e el renders such an Operation less usual than N CARPENTRY AND JOI ERY . 3 1

. L a i n 1 form erly pp g (fig . 3 ) consists, as its nam e implies , i n a a l ying one be m over the other, and is the simplest m 13 for of junction , as illustration ; it evidently of use only — i h e for cross strain or compression , two pieces being boun d b u t together by iron straps , if a tensile strain is required , ' s w fi shin bolt passing through the t o pieces are used . g consists in butting the ends of two pieces of timb er together and placing an iron plate of a cert ain length on each side O fth e j oint and passing bolts through from o ne side of the am be to the other . A fished j oint is unsuitable for a cross i stra n , and if used in compression there should be plates on all four sides the strain is taken by the bolts, and may

ﬁ sh - be lessened in two ways, either by tailing the plates into the beams or by inserting keys, which thus hold

a in . 31 . L pp g the parts firmly together when the strain is put u pon th em . S ca rfi ng is a form of jointing in which the surfaces of a an n e ch pi e ce overlap d are sunk into one a other , so that the resulting wooden beams present a much neater finish than either of the foregoing methods . Although the n e cessity for using such a joint has been m inimise d by the r increased use of iron and steel joists , yet in oofs it is i n i frequently required , as also country places , where ron is b n T re d o ld b not so easily o tai able . g goes ela orately into h m t e subj ect, re arking, however , that the simplest forms n are the best in order to e sure accuracy of fitting. We give the following rul e s for determining the length of 32 F O E CAR ENTRY AND J IN RY .

' the d iﬁ e re nt a p rts of a scarf, according to the qu alities O f f the dif erent varieties of wood in which it is formed . P r o or tion l p of e ngth o scar to d e th o bea m accor d in f f p f , g

W ith Bo l ts and i nd e nts .

ard woo d as o ak H , , ash , e lm Pi ne and ﬁ r

T h e s u m of th e e th o f the in e nts h d p d s o u ld e q u al 3 th e de pth o f b e a

— Te nsion a r 32. arﬁ n . nd o m ssi on Sc g C p e . 3 2 scar to r esist tension 2 A f is shown in ﬁg . 3 , and can be

used without straps or bolts . A sc arf w to resist compression is sho n in ﬁg . 33 the principal point to keep in mind is that the bearing surfaces ar e pe rpe n

- d ic u lar to the strain ; the ﬁ sh - plates tend to keep the joints from buckling

or turning over . It is evident that if

this form were used for tension , its strength would depend entirely on the h bolts, w ile, if it were used for cross n a strai , the l tter would tend to bend a a the iron pl tes and te r out the bolts .

scar to r esist cr oss - str ain A f (fig . 34 ) 3 3 has th e upper fib res in compression and the lower fibres in tension ; this

33 Scar ﬁ n - m r e s smn g b a z w g eing the c se, the indents on the upper surface should b e :perpendicular to the pressure those in , CARPENTRY AND JOINERY . 33

the lower portion being oblique to resist tension only, as gre at a thickness as possi ble being ob tained at c b . Barlow mentions that a joint formed in vertical pl anes b etween the two connecting- pieces is stronger than the one shown ; it is , however, seldom used . We have no w brieﬂy discussed the joints which may be used in lengthening beams for tension , compression, and

- a cross strain ; it som etimes h ppens, however, that we may two want a j oint which can withstand , or even three, kinds

of strain . A scarf to resist te nsion a nd compr ession is shown in 2 a ﬁg . 3 in this example the resist nce to tension is given

— - 34 Sc ar ﬁ n . ross st rain and Te nsion . g C .

O f b by means of keys hard wood , or etter still , of wedges which bring the pieces close together so that as little strain

as possible may fall on the bolts . Keys are usually made

- one third the depth of the timb er . A scarf to resist tension and cr oss- str ain is shown in

fig . 34, the necessary strength for the former being obtained c arfi n by i ndenting and the insertion of wedges . S g wall 6 ff . plates is e ected , as shown in fig 3 , but the joint is made

in the direction of its length . r s — (b) joints for bea ms bear ing on o in beam . The simplest form consists in halving (fig . and is generally u sed for wall- plates this joint is effected by sawing half and the thickness out of each piece , , the two being fitted a together, the upper and lower surf ces are flush . A N E 34 CARPENTRY D JOIN RY .

B evelled ha lving (ﬁg . 36) has the surface O f the joint a b a spl yed in a evel form, and weight being applied in the — a ﬁ form , say, of rafters, the two wall pl tes are held rmly together . D ovetail halvin s a g is more elaborate till , and its n me x l . a e p ains itself This is not good joint for carpentry, as wood shrinks considerab ly more across the grain than along

35 a in . 36. e e e a in . H lv g B v ll d H lv g.

37 . in l e N otch in 38 . D ou e N otch in . S g g. bl g

and not . the length , consequently the pieces do ﬁt closely It is principally used for j oining the collar to the rafter in a l a — co l r beam roof. f S ingle notching (ﬁg . 37) is e fected simply by taking a piece out o f the lower side of a j oist which is to rest on a

- beam or wall plate .

6 R V 3 CARPENT AND JOINERY .

w T o points to be re membered in designing this important joint are ( I ) to make and the tenon as large , a therefore, as strong s and 2 possible , ( ) to make the m ortise as a sm ll as possible , in order to w e aken the a as . be m as little may 42, T u k be . The mortise and u a ax tenon should be placed on the ne tr l is , where the n a and cutting of the ﬁbres will weake the girder le st , where b oth the mortise and te non which h as to ﬁt into it b e n n r c i will free from tension a d c o m pre ss m n . I p a t c e the lower edge of the mortise is “ usu ally placed on the th neutral axis, and the depth of the tenon is 4 of the depth of the beam .

m O f - ﬁ 2 A for joint called the T u sh tenon is used ( g. 4 ) in 3 b order to give the tenon as deep bearing as possi le, with a u b a out we kening the beam o which it rests, y l rgely a i ff b a b incre s ng the mortise . This is e ected y dding elow T t n the tenon , the tusk , which should pe etrate the girder 4th of the depth of the joist ; above the tenon is formed th e ho r h n e am a . , which proj cts the s e dist nce as the tusk T O tighten up the whole j oint in a

- girder of 4 in. 4 4 t h i c k n e s s , the tenon should be made to projec t through t he gir der and pinned by means O fpie c e s

- h ase m or ti se . 44. U ri h t or t is . 43 . C p g M e of h ard wood torn from the a a b lk . In thicker girders the tenon should penetr te at a b e le st twice its depth , and pinned through the top of the

T he a a - girder . trimmer of a he rth is gener lly tusk tenoned into the trimming joists .

has e - m r ti ﬁ C o ses ( g. 4 3) are a form of j oint used in the CARPENTRY AND JOINERY . 37 case of two ﬁxed beam s between which it is desired to

a - frame connecting piece, an Oblique chase is cut by means

w - Fox of hich this cross piece is slid along to its place . wedging is u sed when a beam has to b e framed into one a a already ﬁxed gainst a wall , the be m , when driven home, is thus made secure . ( c) joints betw een upr ight posts r esti ng on beams are

f an m - - as e fected by ordinary ortise and tenon joint , sketch O f a (ﬁg . in which the width the upright be m is divided into th re e a d ivii , the centr l _ n n sio forming the teno , which is cut shorter th an the mortise so that the shoulders O f the tenon bear ﬁrmly on b r id le the sill . The joint

(fig . 45 ) is recommended by T re d gold as being easily o f an fitted, and consists adaptation of mortise and h tenon . The bridle s ould not exceed one - fi fth of the beam in order not to weaken the cheeks of the posts i wh ch fi t on each side of it . (d ) joints betwee n beams r esting on up r ight p osts are effected by a hor izontal tenon (fig . (e ) joints between obliqu e str u ts and beams a nd str u ts — ith osts . w p The former, as - — 45 . r i e J orn l . ost and e am B dl P b O f gbilig used in the junction prin c ipal rafter and tie - beam is

effected by m eans of a bridle joint (ﬁg . The joint is generally assisted by an iron strap which helps to take the thrust of th e rafter and prevent the

- a n shearing of the tie be m . The connexio s of principal

k - 8 a rafter with ing post (ﬁg . 4 ) and lso the struts with principal rafter are effected by an ordinary mortise - and h a 0 . W tenon j oint, as shown at ﬁg . 5 ere the coll r of a E 38 CARPENTRY AND JO IN RY .

— - d r i nci a R a te r s ri o i n n i a R a te r 48 Kin o st an . B dle J t Pr i c p l f . g p P p l f an - m d T ie be a .

- 0 r n a t r - am 5 . t u t a d rinci a R e . King post and Tie be . S P p l f

— l Ki n - i Ki n i e ad an d u e c e s . ost tr 5 1 u s e n in e ce s 52. s e n in u t s . S p d g P , g , S p d g P g p , S ,

R a r s e am and Tie . fte . B A N D CARPENTRY JOINERY . 39

roof joins a rafter a dovetail notch is som etimes used , some i what sim lar to ﬁg . 39 . (j) T he joint be twee n su spe nd ingpie ces (hi ng or qu e e n p osts) a nd tie - be ams is effected by means of a mortise- and - tenon t b a join (ﬁg . which can be raced up by means of wh t is w ib - and - cottar kno n as a g j oint , which will be described wa under roofs . A more economical yof making a suspending

w . 1 and 2 i n piece is sho n in ﬁgs 5 5 , which it is formed of

tw 1 . 2 o thicknesses ; the rafters (ﬁg . 5 ) and struts (ﬁg 5 ) butt against each other respectively, and the suspending pieces -are notched to take up the principal rafters and the

- a . a a tie be m (ﬁg Besides the fastenings lre dy mentioned , a a nails , spikes l rge nails used for he vy work) , trenails w (or pieces of hard wood) , scre s, bolts , and various forms d of iron straps and shoes are use , which will be referred to later on . HAP C TER V . — ROOFS . I .

O N introducing the important subject of roofs to the a the student, a few general rem rks as to principles to be a s b dhered to in their con truction may be advisa le, for, as “ “ a Ware in his Body of Architecture has s id , There is no article in the whole compass of the architect ’s employment that is more important or more worthy of a distinct con ” sideration than the R oof. Without going into any great depth , it is necessary to take a short glance at the strains exerted by roof timbers, in order to enable us to u nderstand n b the reason and ecessity for the employment of such tim ers, in connexion with which the special forms bear a direct relation to the strains exerted . It is evident that flat roofs which exert no outward thrust on the walls do not require n t trussi g in any way , in fact, heir construction becomes ” irriilar fi rrin very similar to a floor of s span , on which g i s placed to give the necessary slope to the zinc or lead

- O ff . with which it is covered , to carry the rain water

I n a sloping roof, the inclination of its sides to the n a h horizo , which is c lled the pitc , is regulated by the rooﬁng c material with whi h it is covered , and the country in which it is situated . Many investigators have gone very deeply ’ and E nc c lo e d ie e into this subject, a writer in the y p M thod ique has divided the climates of the world into belts or b a a E a a nds par llel to the quator, e ch of which requires certain pitch regulated by the different roof- coverings em ' ive s a b n th e ployed , and he g ta le showi g how roofs of the great b uildings of the world in each belt accord with this

rule . T re d o ld g , the great authority on the subj ect , gives the I CARP E NT R Y A N D J O INERY . 4

’ l O f n fol owing angles roofs for d iﬁ e re nt coveri gs , to which t he height of the roof in parts of its Span is added

Ki n o f o ri n d C ve g.

C o ppe r L e ad Z inc S a e s ar e l t . l g o r d inary A s ph alte d fe lt T hin sl ab s o f sto ne o r ﬂ ags Pantil e s T h atch o f straw P l ain til e s

- - 53 . Le an t o R oo 5 4 R o o . f . . V f

The simplest form of roof is what is known as the l e an- to r oo f (ﬁg . in which its one side leans against a vertical wall . A N D O I N E R V 4 2 CARPENTRY j .

A V- r oof is that in which two slopes incline fro m side walls to a central gutter running the length of the buil d ing (ﬁg

- s A couple or single span r oof (ﬁg . 5 5) is one of the simple t

5 5 C o u e R oo pl f .

a form s , and consists of two r fters meeting at an inclination

u - a e p on a ridge bo rd , to which they are securely nail d their feet O r lower ends being simply notched or nailed on to a

woo den pl ate resting on the top of the w all . It is evident that the weight of th e roof- rafters tends to push out the to enclosing walls , as indicated by the dotted lines ; remedy

- cou le lose r 6 a . this weakness the p c oof ( ﬁg . 5 ) is dopted I n this for m it will be ob served th at the feet of the rafters are a a ff secured from spre ding by me ns of a tie, which e ectually

- 56 o u e c o se R oo . . C pl l f

prevents any tendency these may h ave to press the wall

outward s .

T he - b a a tie e m , however, especi lly if it supports a ceiling,

is liable to sag in the centre, and in order to prevent this a

44 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

b rafters the etter) , and should be spiked or notched on to

a . a e ch rafter (ﬁg It is intended to form strut, but if

- u nl018 ft.

- o ar e am R oo . 5 8 . C ll b f

t n the walls give way it becomes a tie, and the ende cy is for w l th e rafters to take the form sho n in the d otted ines . Pro vid e d w th e the alls are strong enough , and collar applied to

e ai ofT e nsion J o i nt . 5 9. D t l

l b u t all each rafter, it makes a fair y good roof ; the weak t w as ness of the cons ruction is emphasised , hen , is often the are a and case, the collars only pl ced at intervals, support a m purlin , which, in its turn , supports the inter ediate rafters . CARPENTRY AND JOIN ERY . 4 5

i - m é T h e following t able 15 given from the R E . aide moire for tlh e Sc antlings used in coll ar - b eam roofs

H M H|N A m H “G ﬂ .

O , Q ,Q .D .D .Q c H H~H~ Ha ma md m N N N N N N

. m 0 £ O c H

O N O m H H H u 6 A 4 C RPENTRY AND JOINERY .

D uring the Middle Ages many forms of roofs were used in which the tie - beam at the feet of the rafters was not em

o . pl yed These will be shortly discussed later on . We have now arrived at a form of roof which can be used 1 8 up to ft . Beyond this point, however, it is found that ‘ a the rafters of ordin ry section have a tendency to bend , and a require to be supported in their length , and th t the tie a b f be m also must e supported . In order to e fect these “ ” b are o jects, what is known as trusses used, and spaced b O f at intervals of a out I t . apart . The simplest form is

w hin - bolt tr u ss c an kno n as the g , and be used for spans from

2 0 . 0 60 . . w ft to 3 ft . in length The illustration (ﬁg ) sho s that in this simple form we have all th e elements of a good tr u ss ; a wooden tie - beam sometimes supporting a ceiling

prevents the feet of the principal rafters from spreading , and is supported in its centre by means of an iron king- bolt which prevents any tendency to sag in the centre . The

a a 2 0 ft. a princip l r fters in a span of , or more, lso require h to b e supported in the centre O f their length . T is is effected by means of struts resting at their b ase against a a and str ining piece , connected to the principal rafter as 6 a a a a n 0 . d shown in ﬁg . The he ds of the princip l r fters the

- ar e S . king bolt let into an iron socket ( , ﬁg and the feet O f the principal rafters are held in position , not only by the and b a Oblique mortise tenon , but also y an iron str p, as 60 hin —ost tr u ss u shown in ﬁg . . The gp is constr cted on

a t he - exactly the s me principles as last named truss, with the

- x a a o st is . e ception th t , as its n me implies, the k ing p of wood This form o f tru ss is the most important assembl age O f w timbers hich the carpenter produces , and is used in any h c an a a position w ere it be dvant geously employed , such as a a and a in the upper part of a M ns rd roof, many other c ses . m a l f This being so , we y wel discuss shortly the di ferent i 2 an F . 6 parts of which the truss is composed . g is iso m a are a a etric l view . The trusses usu lly set up at dist nces I O a n as c an a and of ft . ( or as ne r that le gth be rranged) ,

each truss has , therefore , to be strong enough to bear the

weight of two h alf bays of its length . Across these prin c i al are n w p rafters laid the purli s, upon hich rest the common rafters which support the boarding (or batte ns) on which CARPE NTRY AND JO INERY . 8 E 4 CARPENTRY AND JOIN RY .

- the roof covering is laid . The king post is primarily a tie

the - b and to hold up the centre of tie eams, it is further bevelled and m ortised at top and bottom to receive respect ive ly th e heads of the principal rafters and the feet of the

8 n . struts (ﬁgs . 4 , which are tenoned i to it A groove is cut in the head to receive the ridge - piece to which the

a - common r fters are nailed . The king post is usually further connected at the head with the princip a l rafter by

- - an iron strap , and to the tie beam by a stub tenon and what

— - a a is known as a gib and cott r j oint (ﬁg . in order th t the tie- beam m ay be tightened up when the roof is fram e d up in this respect care should b e taken that the foot of the

- d - king post shoul , in ﬁxing, be kept well above the tie beam , a m a no t b in order th t it y ear upon it , instead of supporting

d n ie es . 1 2 . S u s e n i c it , when the roof settles p g p (ﬁgs 5 , 5 )

- and m are sometimes used as king posts , are more econo ical n and quite as efﬁcie t . The method of putting them to gether is sufﬁ ciently shown in the illustration . The tie beam o f a , which holds in the feet the principal r fters , is a subjected to tensile strain , which is counteracted by the e a u w ight of the ceiling , which it occasion lly s pports . The principal rafters are connected with it by an Oblique tenon fi — ( g. and also secured by straps or bolts the tie beam

- b is secured to the wall plate by eing notched or cogged ,

m m n a . str u ts or so eti es rests on sto e templ tes The , whose a ar e purpose is to support the princip l rafter and purlin , in c ompression ; it is evident they should be pl aced im a u as i medi tely nder the purlins , and it is well to keep th s a i t i s t f in mind , lthough in practice some imes di ﬁcult of application ; the feet of the struts are mortised into the

- i l s . r nci a r a te r s spreadin g part of the king po t The p p f , con — u s e ted with the tie - beam and king post and supported by

are . u the struts, in compression They support the p rlins, which are notched to ﬁt into a cog on th e back of the a as princip l rafter . This cog should be wide as pos

. w a n sible, so as not to e ken the pri cipal rafter more than necessary . The p u r lins are sometimes additionally supported by

C . cleats ( , ﬁg either spiked or housed to the back of l u a the principa rafter . They sho ld be pl ced so as to sup

0 A N D O I N E -R Y 5 CARPENTRY J .

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- ' ﬁ le r-4mm a larmis t v tid u -slcwaai 00 00 00 1\ m m 00 00 00

Q FQ Q

A lon-4101 ﬁ lm Alas N M M M M M U"

n o a n n c n fl a m a n n £ " 40) -I la a le 00 M M N ) Yi‘ fi ' fi ' fi ' V <1“ <1“

M M m N N N N N N M M M M a h m m m m 3 3 0 3 9 3 9 Q Q Q Q Q Q Q H ﬁ Hﬂ lO I - «N ai' m m m m ¢ ¢ e e e e e e

—a wa es a : H I CO d rfism l w nk" IO N m m m m V m m m 8 N D v v v é n p m fl c n p n fi n p n — — H b t r i m4 01 Ha la—a lmm co m m en d e e e e v e — d orm 40 046 14 0 “ fi le " fi le] - w e e n e v e a k m m w m fi Q O D Q 3 Q e - Q - F 4 .

H -a A 4 01r 4 ,5 im le " |01 | |01m M M M M Q’ ?

O N 's O OO O o w e - 0 00 0 N N N N N M N N N N N M

th e port common rafter in the middle of their length , and as should be formed of as long pieces of stuff possible, in

order to stiffen the whole roof, and to hold the trusses in

C HA PTER VI . — ROOFS . II .

T HE - - m a b e 0 ft king post roof truss y used u p to spans of 3 . , but as it has been found that the points supporting the tie h 1 1 6 . a a beam should not be more t an 4 ft . to ft p rt, a a a u een- os ts u ddition l vertic l ties known as q p are introd ced , 6 . w b e and the roof shown in ﬁg 3 is the result , here it will

- a u a and seen that the tie be m is s pported in two pl ces , the length of the common rafters is also supported b y means of b a a two purlins , one resting on the ack of the princip l r fter

a - a and the other on the str ining be m . I n this construction a straining - b e am supported by cleats is introduced between a — th e the he ds of the queen posts , to hold them in position , tendency being for the principal rafters to press their he ads

- u e e n o s t R O f. 63 . Q p

n t i - a a a towards e ach other . O the e beam is pl ced str ining a b sill to keep their feet in position , in ddition to the stu

- a tenon with which they are connected to the tie b e m . The

- - 0 . 6 queen post roof truss is u sed for spans from 3 ft to 4 ft . — The gib - and cottar joint is used to the feet of the queen post for the same purpose as in the ki ng - post tr u ss d e s c ri bed

b e u - in the last article . It will seen that the q een posts carry approximately two - thirds the weight of the tie - beam CARPENTRY AND JO IN E RY . 5 3

I n . l an . e 6 an 60 and c e i ing (if y) roofs ov r 4 ft d up to ft .

a t h e - b a p sp n , tie e m requires to be u held in more than two s and a as r i ncesses place , dditional posts known p are intro

u e a - e a d c d as suspending pieces (ﬁg . The str ining b ms 0 in sp an s over 5 ft . require supporting in the middle of their and as n a a length , this is effected show , by me ns of small king - p o st let down from the principal rafter continued to

d b a O f th e - the ri ge, or y me ns struts from queen posts . R w l a are a oofs, ho ever , of this arge sp n usu lly in these days u and c an con str cted in iron or steel , little good come from s d T re d o ld discus ing their construction in woo , although g n a gives ex mples . ( umerous We give below the scantlings adopted for queen - post

- 6 u e n o st R o with ri nce sse s . 4. e o Q p f , P

t w R E roo s , ith or without ceilings , by the oyal ngineers in War D a - as the ep rtment buildings, they are considerably l m ore economical than those recommended by T re d go d .

z a a is l b s . a Hori ont l wind force llowed 4 5 per foot , cting o n O fa a only one side roof at a time, or normal pressure

0 l a . b s . 0 . 0 . of 3 per foot for a 3 deg , and 4 lbs for 4 5 deg

0 . pitch . The scantlings are for pitches up to 3 deg

b e N . . Tim r , orthern pine ; C ountess slates on I in boards

o d e I . For r ofs of 4 5 g. pitch , add in to the depth of m i o and n . com n rafters , purlins, and struts, s to the depth of n l the pri cip al rafters as given in tab e on next page . E R o o F —We a no w h D TAILS OF s . h ve discussed roofs whic

e ab le s . and have t rminated in g , in which ordinary principals CAR FENTRY AND JOINERY .

HMmH H Hﬂ N ﬁ Q

D D O - .O .Q r Q -D - .Q -

N N N N N N N N — 4 3 m r te 401 4 01041 wwww a wwa wa ﬂ m r s r \ 03 00 00 00 00 00

-Q . O .Q

4 m ﬂ md md v4 m A v A MH Hﬁ H HMCD b xn cn O \O \O \H

Q Q D Q r o r . . - d mfl fl fi fl fl é—fl m H M m m m m m m d —v- q - v q - u a u a u w e v e m

‘l ﬁ ‘ ﬁ lf- lCI A lN l n t n t n rn

fl mfl md m m m m m m m m v a n » T T Q Q Q BE D ne fl e me 4 N ~p 4 a fl ' fi ' fi ‘

fl é d fl fl w A mfl m |m d - d ” ¢w n xn t n 1 0 1n — a wma h m a m 0 l\ m oo 00 e x Ch o H

ix O C D D Q . . . - F A3 2? £3

Mfi d fi mw ~mfl m4 m ' ‘ fi d d ' u a u wu 3 U i u u CARPENTRY AND JOINERY . 5 5

b e a can used, but cases often rise in which two roofs cut into n at a a one a other right ngles , or terminate in wh t is known

i 6 - r a r h . h t s h 6 i e . as a p (ﬁgs 5 , In such cases p f ( , ﬁgs 5 , 66) an d valley- r after s of deep and n arrow section are

h and - a b . roug t into use, the jack r fters are spiked to these The te n dency of the hi pped rafter to thru st the wall outwards at angl e s is counteracted by what is kno wn as a d r agon- bea m

- D ﬁ s . 6 a ( , g 7 , In this construction the hip r fter at its is a — b ase tenoned into mortise in the dragon b eam , which is notc hed on to the wall- plate and supported on its inner

b b - - edge y eing tusk tenoned into an angle brace A, which

u - is sec—red to the wall plates . In roofs where king and and wh - queen post trusses are employed, ere a hipped roof s — is con tructed, half trusses are used at right angles to the r are main t uss to which they secured . T h e &c . question of trimming voids for chimneys , , i s d a consi ered in a later rticle . V R — i n O F &c . are EA ES OOFS, There still some points x w conne ion with roofs hich we must brieﬂy consider, as a and u overh nging eaves , dormer windows, g tters between n a a adjoi ing roofs and behind p r pets . The eaves are the lower po rtion o f the rafters of a roof which overhang the wall an d help to protect it from the rain . T O the ends of

r - these afters is ﬁxed an iron gutter to collect the rain water,

a . 6 which is taken by pipes to the dr ins Fig . 9 shows a meth o d of ﬁxing a moulded cast - iron gutter to the feet of

- f . 0 a the ra ters , and ﬁg 7 method of securing a half round w gutter by rought hanging irons . D ormer windows are d a a worke vertic lly in the side or inclined pl ne of the roof,

and ar e formed by means of valley - rafters in which the jack D ar a rafters are framed . ormers e l rgely used for the ligh t o f and a ing rooms in the roof, in Medi eval structures have,

b a . of cou rse , een very elabor tely treated — — GUT T ERS board e d and lead- lined are either placed nd a behi brick or stone par pets, behind chimneys in a f O . sloping roof, or occur at the meeting two roofs The — a V and as . latter are c lled gutters, are formed , shown (ﬁg b y framing gutter - b earers between the feet of the

- u h e rafters near their meeting. V g tters should laid to a b e f 2 . 1 0 f o t . fall not less than in in , and they should not A E C RPENTRY AND JO IN RY . C A R P E N T R V AN D JOINERY . 5 7

a in . less th n . wide at the lowest point It will be seen 9 _ th at the se forms O fgutters i ncrease in width as they b e h b a a come igher, ec use they are fr med in the slope of the

ﬁ . 2 D r s 1 0 . roof. ip ( g 7 ) should b e formed every ft or less to allow the plumbers to joint the sheets O f lead . The t cess ool s rainwa er is collected at certain points into p , formed

o a a are 1 2 . a with d vet iled ngles ; these usually in squ re, and

. a n r a ab out 9 in . deep The r i wate is c rried from these

o - - ﬂats cesspo ls to the rain water pi pe . Lead are form ed l u b e b similar y to g tters , and need not further descri ed here

- - 6 ou e as t i ro n E a e s u t te r . 9. M ld d C v g

0 E a e s t t e r s u o r te b an i n r ons . 7 . v gu pp d y H g g I 7 1 - u t . V g te r .

72. D r i wit h r e ate t o re c e i e e nd o f e a . p , b v l d — Gutters behind parapets are sometimes formed as V gutters b x —u tte r or as o g s one of the former form is shown in ﬁg . 7 3 . Th ey ar e regu lated in regard to fall in the same manner as

- V . a a f are gutters , but being fr med of vertic l pieces of stu f, u the sam e width thro ghout . VA L — ME D I I E R . D OOFS uring the Middle Ages , forms of a roofs of various types were used . These were either wh t “ ” w as b f is kno n open tim er roo s, or roofs which merely

and . covered the stone vaulting, were not visible from below

E 8 E 5 CARP NTRY AND JO IN E RY .

are in The combinations of the latter so various , order to d accommo ate themselves to the height of the vaulting , that we c an hardly discuss them here ; suffi ce it to say that the principles enunciated in the foregoing examples were applied to with ease these new needs . e In the open timber roofs , the t ndency was to do away with the tie - beam at th e base of the roof in order to give an a a h ppear nce of more height to the interior . T e pitch adopted was considerab ly steeper th an the slate roofs already noticed ; for d u ring the thirteenth century it was

- 73 Box- u t te r 74. am m e r e a m R oo . g . H b f .

6 the often as much as 0 deg . In the later periods pitch gradually decreased until at the end of the ﬁfteenth century it became almost ﬂat .

n Hammer - beam o Passi g to the open type of ro f, which , s a E a th e a e peci lly in ngl nd , is the great glory of style, e section is given (ﬁg . 74) from which the principl s of the 1 - a c onstruction can be u nderstood . The hammer be m B B

i a - a occupies part of the pos tion of tie be m , part of which may

h ave been c u t away in order to test the new form . T he h atched portion shows the foot of a rafter in a wid e wall ;

a m - the light portion , the position and form of the h m er beam , a and the outer end of which is tenoned or h lved , pinned

- a a e on to the wall plates A, which were usu lly pl c d with

6o CARPENTRY AND J O I N E R Y .

wall b th eir wid e st sides on to the , and were strutted etween will so as to b e th o rou ghly connected one with the oth er . It

- m be ob served th at the inner e nd of the hammer bea is sup h o n a ported by a curved b race C , w ich is supported th e w ll a a piece D , which , in its turn , is often supported on c rved and d , corbel stone . The curved brace is mortise , tenoned

pinned i nto the wall - piece and inner end of th e hammer

C h u r ch N or o R oof i Kna ton . p , f lk ,

E h beam , which from this point supports a strut , w ich is a l carried up to the princip l rafter which it he ps to carry . The importance of this form of co nstruction is that it a b really shortens the effective sp n of roof, ecause the whole length of th e h am mer- beam may be s aid to have a n solid beari g . Another point to be observed in these roofs a a b lies in the f ct th t the thrust of the roof, if any , is rought very much lower down the wall which in consequence is less

a - li ab le to be thrust out . Fig . 75 is section ofa hamm er beam e truss, in which the dotted lines show the lin s of resistance, b a b e and BB eing the level of the tops of the w lls, it will seen th at the pressures are d i rected to the foot of the curve d

. E . S G . b a . a r ce The late Mr treet , in his p per on E nglish w a b R oodwork , re d efore the oyal Institute of British Archi F I CAR ENTRY AND J O N E R Y . 6 1

te c ts 1 86 in 5 , refers to the curved brace which distinguish es xa 6 the roof of Westminster Hall from other e mples (ﬁg . 7 )

as a s ource of strength to this type of roof. A well - known hammer- b e am roo f for a small s pan is that

. as a of Knapton (ﬁg which is given , also the sc ntlings of D the various parts . uring the fourteenth and ﬁfteenth cen t u rie s a a x especi lly, m ny e amples of this type of roof exist, ’ and several are wel l executed in Brandon s Medi ae val ” R as x oofs, to which the student is referred , also to e ist

68 . ing examples , as Westminster Hall ( ft span), Hampton

78. ansar R oo f- r u M d t ss .

C u 0 . E m a a 6 4 , . . a o rt ( ft span) ltha P l ce (3 ft 3 in sp n) , and to a xa m ny e mples in the country , Norfolk and Suffolk being a especially rich in such specimens of c rpentry . a Leaving the Middle Ages , we ﬁnd th t in the R enaissance Ma m /1 r d r oo s period i n France f . 8 w (ﬁg 7 ) ere much used, and were so called after the n ame of the architect who ih I t a vente d them . has alw ys been condemned for its supposed a h as b a w nt of beauty, but nevertheless een l rgely used . I ts origin m ay be derived from the desire to diminish the height

. l of the upper portion of steep roofs The i lustration (fig . 78) shows the method usu ally adopted in setting out this as as an roof, well ordinary type of construction , in whic h th e a - upper portion is merely king post truss . The next lu a il str tion (fig . 7 9) shows the m e thod for fo rm inga dormer window in this form of roof. D Philibert elorme, a French architect, was apparently the fi rst to realise the saving in expense by using timb ers 6 2 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

His in small sections . method was that o f a semi - circular pl a nk tr u ss a (ﬁg . which is m de out of t wo thickn e sses b o n in pieces a out 4 ft . l g, laid together so th at the joints of one set co m e in the m iddle of the length

of the other . The planks m a for a span of 2 5 ft . y in 8 and I . be in . wide 1 00 thick, and for ft . h 1 . . 3 in . and 3 in t ick These ribs are placed

2 . ft apart, and are connected longitudinally

‘ 1 . I . by ties, in to % in

b . thick y4 in wide, which pass through mortises in

9. o rm e r in Man sar tl R o o 7 D f . the planks , which they are pinned by — I b 1 i h . keys , in . y 5 , driven against the

sides of the rib s . E ven these may be dispensed with if b oarding is n ailed

across the trusses . Th is system is useful for temporary e xhib i

tion buildings, and

has, in some form b e e n or other, largely used for the great exhibitions both at

home and abroad . The truss may be stiffened b y a framed brace at the abate e i m r ts . C HAPTE R V I I .

BRIDGES .

T HE oldest R oman wooden bridge of which we have any o h Su b lic iu s su b lic a rec rd is t at of (from , a pile), built about

’

81 ae sar s r i e . . C B dg

6 00 h u B C nc . , in t e reign of A s Martius This was a bridge , o c c l s according to Polybius , that Horatius C e defended with m 8 1 so uch valour against the army of Lars Porsena . Fig . represents the supposed section of the celebrated b ridge s C a a R de igned by Julius es r to span the hine, and so quickly was it b uilt that within ten days of the commencement of its erection his army had crossed it . The line struts sup ported the bridge against the force of the stream . ’ a D 8 2 b . Tr jan s bridge over the anu e is represented in Fig ,

’ 1 00 o

’ T ra a r i e . 82. jn s B dg wh ich is copied from a has- relief on the Triumphal C olumn E erected to him in his Forum at R ome . ach arch was 64 CARPEN T RY AND JOINERY .

1 00 and a ft . in the clear, it will be noticed th t its ingeniou s and pleasing design is em inently suited to such a structu re . Thou gh at th e present t i me bridges of l arge span a re usually built of stone or steel , still in some cases , owing to ﬁ a a c a a nanci l or other re sons , the rpenter is c lled upon to erect an artiﬁcial elevated wayin timber between two points I n separated by an int e rvening depression . America, for a a a example, there are few r ilw ys th t have not, at som e point o n their wa permanent y,

t r e s t l e - b r i d g e s formed of tim b er 8 a (ﬁg . 3) sp nning ravines though from the oft - re repeated news of a t h e i r coll pse , they seem per h ap s somewh at out of place in railway c o nstru c c tion . These a lam itie s could , no

doubt, be pre vented by period a ic l inspections , and by spending a little more care and forethought on their main 83 T re st e - r i e . l b dg . te nanc e . A com m itte e a R Su e rin , ppointed by the Associ ation of ailway p te nd e nts and n St of Bridges Buildings of the U ited ates , ha ve just issued their report , which , however, throws b m a little fresh light on the su j ect, but reco mends th t more attention be given to the compression b earing re sist a a ance of timber across the gr in , owing to the li bility of heavy stresses to indent the tim b ers and thereby destroy

a . the ﬁbres, incre sing the tendency to speedy decay Th e ﬁrst point to be considered in the construction of a “ 6 CARPEN T RY AND JOINERY . 5

b d l - a ri ge is that sound and we l se soned timber only be used , and a that it is in sufﬁciently l rge scantlings , which must be h a well] j ointed together . In t e event of sp nning water care mu s t be t aken to calculate for the rapidity of the ﬂow of the e a riv r, not only in its norm l state but as likely to be

incr eased by ﬂood s . An important consideration in design ‘ ing bridges is to obtain the b est situation h aving reg ard to a and affi a loc l requirements tr c , care being t ken that there is fﬁ a a ab su cient me ns of access further, it is alw ys desir le to

cro s s the stream at right angles if i t is possible to do so . In o b cr ssing water a single span should , if possi le, be used , b ec ause in the history of wooden b ridges a far larger nu m b er are destroyed b y the water beneath and by ice w f &c . e . ﬁo s , , than by weight ex rted on its tra ﬁc surface S ingle spans c an generally be constructed up to about

0 n 0 . 35 ft . or eve 4 0 ft No bridge is more satisfactory a rib a and th n a curved bridge in one sp n , none can be o n str nger , for if well made it is more ﬁrm than a si gle piece l w 1S of arge dimensions , provided that ood well selected and the direction of the grai n i s so arranged i n the fram ing that

h a . t e parts strengthen an d support one nother . The follow in m a g table y prove useful to the student .

a T able of 2726 l e as t r ise for d zfer e nt Sp m ( T r ed gold ) .

an i n Sp F e e t .

The settlement of wooden brid ges is generally taken as 2 about 1 in 7 . 66 CARPENT RY A N D JOINERY .

Piers , for supporting bridges in cases where the river is are a b not too deep or the current too strong, m de y driving

in a single row of piles p arallel to the current of the stre am .

These piles should be about 1 2 in . square and some 3 ft .

. 1 00 a . apart Fig . is an illustr tion of a pier on this principle W hen , however, greater strength is needed , there should be b ro w a dou le of piles well braced together . b S n S In constructing a ridge over the ever , near hrewsbury,

Telford adopted a very successful method . He constructed an b a piers consisting of upright tim er frame , with horizont l

- a a . grated framing tt ched , which formed its base The framing was then sunk to its proper position on a level b e d and short piles were driven through the framed - grating to a e and keep it secure, the lower portion being ﬁlled with gr v l

b a . small stones , kept in their place y pl nking Piles should n have their lower e d brought to a point and shod with iron , and should be provided with a hoop at the upper end to prevent any tendency to split from the blows of the monk e . y In cases where more than one row of piles is used , star li n s it is usual to protect them by g , which are simplest a when composed of two rows of piles, converging to point

- the or cut water . These piles are driven so that point (on a a a a pl n) i s placed , like wedge , gainst the stre m , and the whole of the face is generally protected by iron to resist

- l the force of ice ﬂoe s or other ﬂoating materia .

E TYPES OF WOOD N BRIDGES . We may roughly divide b ridges“ into ﬁve classes ' ‘ " Flat lznzel and camb r d Z ni e e i e l . I .

e d r ar d l intei . I I . Tlz e d e r r . T r nssed ir b id es I I I g g . u n ion ér d s . s e s e IV S p i g .

u d - r br d es C nwe ib i . V . g

— T ne at Zinfe l of I . ﬂ is obviously the simplest form timber b ridge and m aybe strengthened by m aking it deeper

in the middle than at the ends . The best form of ed ntel 88 a b r Zi . m a m c m e is that shown in ﬁg , which y be c o in a posed two pieces, or have sever l bolted together . a e In the former case, the lower may be of a rectangul r shap , ' the upper one tapering from the centre to both abutments .

68 CARPEN T RY AND JOINERY .

l tage, especially where the piers can be kept of s ight

ae a - , dimensions . The Medi v l bridge builder, however often and his paid no regard to floods or currents , consequently numerous piers would collect the floating d ebr is and b eco me h unable to withstand the pressure of water in time of igh floods 86 ' The bridge over the Brenta by Palladio (fig . ) is a good example of the application of this principle , and , d where practicable to erect a bri ge of this kind , it would be

difficult to find a more simple and effective method . v I I - T /ze tr u ssed ir d e r br id es I . g g were much in fa our m a with Palladio , who was mongst the first of mode

i m o ne ne ar as sano . e o e r th e C s , 87 . B ridg v B

8 at i nt e ri e . 8 . Fl L l B dg

architects to attempt to design b ridges which did not e require numerous piers in their construction . The cel was e C ism o ne a a . b rate d b ridge ov r the , ne r B ssano (ﬁg b an ab one of the b est efforts of this architect , assisted y le T he 1 08 . carpenter n amed Martino 5 its span is ft b w a transverse girders elow , hich are str pped up to the in a 1 2 i n . 1 2 . trusses and form the roadw y , are by , and the

in . and 1 2 i n. trusses are formed out of by 9 , themselves I t the form the parapet . will be noticed that construction

- - assumes the form o f the familiar queen post roof truss, a T 6 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY . 9

f - 8 o rrm . which is eminently suited to bridge building . Fig 9 r e p resents the centre bay of the foot - bridge designed by P e ter Ni c holson to cross the C lyde at Gl asgow in the year 1 83 a w a 5 8 . It was speci lly designed with the Vie of dmitting ( a a a cert in class of vessels to pass beneath it . A clear sp n

2 f a b a all. of 4 ft . was considered su ﬁcient , m king nine ys in

- as a i I t will be seen that a queen post truss , formed ra ling , s rann d a w I S p e from pier to pier . The bre dth of the foot ay b 8 ft a a out . , and the land butments are strong masses of a a a m sonry . I t will be noticed th t each point has lintel

e the - a b tween it and tie be m of the truss, which tapers off

- 89. oot rid e ac r oss th e e at as w F b g Clyd Gl go .

o ba a t wards the centre of the y, thus ssisting the stabil i ty of th e a bridge on the c ntilever principle . The form of the o wa ﬂ at a f ot y is a par bolic curve . This b ridge met with the ap proval of R ennie and Telford on account of its i r a s mplicity, strength , and app opri teness for its intend ed u a a p rpose . The r ilw y bridge at R ichmond in the Unit e d S . and tates, which is ft long, is formed in s pans o f

1 0 ft . c n a 1 0 5 , o sists simply of two l tticed girders ft . deep , b a a a r ced together with short tr nsverse be ms , on the u pper

u lac a . 8 8 s rface of which are p ed the r ilway lines Figures 4 , 5 represent a similar l attice girder bridge invented by Ithiel

. a 1 0 ft . Town It is suit ble for spans up to 5 , and is much 0 T 7 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

e a used on American railways, on e gr at adv ntage being that only small scantlings are required in its construction . Th e a in a a 1 2 . l ttice is formed of ﬁr pl nks bout in . by 3 , con ne c te d 1 at their intersection by % in . oak pegs . The depth

a n ~ nin h an of the lattice is gener lly about o e t of its sp . The two ribs under each side of the permanent wayare stiffened b b a 1 2 a a y cross tim ers bout ft . apart, di gon l braces being S a inserted below . tone butments for these bridges ﬁnd favour with the American engineer . The economy of this system is evidenced by the fact that the railway b ridge at R S 8 e r ichmond , United tates , cost only between £ to £ 9 p 60 lineal foot for its construction , and it is ft . above the water .

- IV . T inzber su spension are not in general use

Tim e r n ri e b S u s pe nsio B dg .

and can be recommended only in very exception al cases . 0 h 9 shows a simple yet ingenious method , w ich has w been used ith some success .

' V — d - r br d r . C u r ve ib i es a e g suitable for large spans , and a a a especi lly in pl ces where , owing to the r pidity of the a an i current , or li bility of d ger to piers , through ﬂoat ng a a m sses or sudden and strong ﬂoods , one sp n is found desirable . The radius of curvature of any bridge without horizontal

e - ﬁfth n ti s should be equal to one of the height of a colum , m 1 . u a m ate rial c o in sq re , of the of which the bridge is A 1 CARPENT RY N D JOINERY . 7

d h 1 pose , w ose weight would crush square inch of such h e i . x as mat r al For e ample, it been found by experiment th at a squar e inch of o ak crushes at lbs One - ﬁfth of 1 u u b e this weight of oak in a column in . sq are wo ld

. . C ft high onsequently, the radius of curvature in an

x ft . oak bridge should not e ceed , and, in the case of

r . b e ﬁ . , ft should the limit i h a b I n a br dge wit horizont l ties of timber, the ridge b a a a eing, gener lly spe king, at le st double the weight of the a foregoing , the r dius of curvature must necessarily be

a . smaller, and is usually taken at h lf the above radii , viz ,

for oak , and ft . for ﬁr . This, however, i s with w a w out taking the eight of the ro d ay into consideration , h whic adds to the weight of the structure, but does not a contribute to its support . This f ct will vary the radius w already determined, and may be found by the follo ing formul a

W whole weight of bridge .

w weight of support (frame only) . a radius of curvature lready determined .

The ﬁnal constr u ctive radius required . w x r W To ﬁnd the sectional area at the crown curved rib bridge, let

sectional area i n i nches .

span i n feet . b a gross distri uted lo d in lbs .

number of rib s .

rise in feet .

“ = 8 ' Then , 8 o o o R x n ,

Fo r x a a rib e ample, to ﬁnd the section l rea of each a 1 00 a and 1 0 i at the crown of bridge ft . sp n , ft . r se , a a a c p ble of supporting a lo d of lbs, the curved ribs i b be ng three in num er . 1 00 x

x 1 0 x 3

8 1 2 . . , 5 sq in CARPENT R Y AND JOINERY .

Such a rib can be made up approximately of four pi eces 6 1 1 . . 1 1 . b in. of stuff, in y 3 , or two pieces , in by in ‘ w b e The sectional area of the ribs of the ab utments ill slightly in excess of that at the crown owing to the grea ter a b pressure . Timber arches , unless m de perfectly rigid y a h proper bracing, are not adapted to a variable lo d , suc as i a tr ai n i n mot on . a w A curved rib bridge was designed by P lladio , and sh o n a n a ﬁg . 9 It was probably the ﬁrst ide of constructi g m e d bridge on the principle of what may be describ ed as fr a ou ssoir s c v , similar to arch stones , and it is a principle whi h

- b has been adopted in some instances both for tim er and

h , iron construction . It is contended by some authorities t at

91 ri e of am e r on th e R e nitz . . B dg B b g g

owing to the shrinkage of the t imbers and the vibrations a a c au sed by varying lo ds, the framing is continu lly R end angered . The bridge of Bamberg on the egnitz a Wie b e kin . 1 in Germ ny which was designed by g in (ﬁg 9 ) , - 0 a , 1 8 9, is very good example of a close ribbed bridge

e rected to replace a former stone structure , which , by its a a a a e piers , had so contr cted the w terw y th t it was ov rturned

. C b y a flood onsequently , the timber structure was ft a a 2 0 8 . designed to cross the river in one sp n of , with h at 1 ft . t e rise of 7 , and width of the roadway was fixed 2 . ) 3 2 ft . On looking at the cross section (fig 9 which is to

a l arger scale, i t will be seen that in the centre of the bridge T R CARPEN Y AND JOINERY . 73

r r b th ee composite ibs are placed side y side, the centre one b w eing ﬁve beams in depth at the abutments , hich , are at a however, reduced to three the centre of the sp n ; the other two on each side of the c e r tre consist of three beams throughout the span . On each side of the bridge two composite ribs are shown which consi st of ﬁve beams at the h at t e . abutm ents, reducing to three centre The timbers , which were built into th e abutments , were steeped in hot oil and covered with sheet lead . The cross ties and plates

o ak th e and . were constructed of , and ribs joists of ﬁr Price designed a simple b u t very useful bridge which could b e carried to any desired pl ace and erected at short notice ; it can usu ally be used for spans up to about

- 92 r i e of am e r r oss e c tio n . . B dg B b g C S

0 . s r 1 2 . 4 ft I t consist of two curved ibs, one being in by

in . in. b 3 , and the other 9 in . by 3 , placed side y side, and breaking J oint ; these were connected by two ribs of a n simil r dimensions formi g the other side of the bridge, the connecting jo i sts forming the roadway . The span was divided into ﬁve parts so as to make it portable, and the

“ whole structure was fitted together by m ortising th e con m and eeting joists into the ribs keying them up . The celebrated wooden brid ge over the Portsmouth R iver in a a North Americ (fig . 94 ) is scientific development of ’ f 2 0 t . Price s idea . This bridge has a span of 5 , and a refe re nce to this illustration will sho w how ingenious is its F C A R F T A N D N E R Y EN RY JOI .

h o w d construction , and , by the system of we ging up its a u p rts , the whole str cture is rendered homogeneous . i F s . 6 8 d a th d g 95 , 9 , 97, 9 , 99 show et ils of e we ges and I eys . — R oad ways The ordinary width of the road way of d r 8 f 1 t . af a bri ge va ies from . to 4 5 ft . for vehicular tr ﬁc, and

' . ft r o . f . from 5 ft to for foot tra ﬁc A width of 1 8 ft . just

9 a i and e i d e s . 3. u r e R ib r i e b a o . 95 96. t a o f e C v d B dg , y P ll d D l W g Ke s 94. o o e n r i e o e r o r t s m o u t h 97 98 an d 99 . D e t ai o f . W d B dg v P , , l y i e r N m ri a R . e c v , A . a o f a a n so dmits two carri ges p ssi g one another, that the

a - t c rriage way should vary by a mul iple of nine . It is better a a not to lay the planking directly on to th e princip l be ms ,

b u t - a to lay cross joints, which would admit of a freer circul s tion of air . The road it elf may consist of gravel and te n a b pered clay, the l tter to ind the gravel together , of

E R C HAPT VII I .

SHORING A N D ST RU T T ING .

THIS important branch of the craft d em ands great sk ill and a o j udgment, occasion lly leaving but little time for cal u and e a lation , sometimes involving no i nconsid rable mount u b of person al risk . The s ject has been much neglected in n a its theoretical aspect by the architect, who too ofte le ves the scheme and system of shoring almost entirely to the th ’ discretion of e builder s foreman . This is the more n a a astonishi g as , in one case at le st , verdict of manslaughter a a a w s recorded against an architect , after the f ll of house w b just outside the estern oundary of the C ity of London . Though much must be left to the almost incessant and intelligent watching of the builder and his workmen o n m re especially in eedling operations, still, the architect should give person al supervision b oth to the design and erection of all temporary wooden supports . SHORING may conveniently be treated under the follow ing heads

R akin Skor es . I . g F in Hor izonl al or . l D o kor s S e . II y g, , g [Veed le lzor es and Und . S e innin III m g. I V e al F r m o lzo S e i o s S r i n . . p f g

R akin Skor es I . g are used when it is required to support a structure either because it is too far away from any other a building to use a ﬂying shore , or on ccount of the owner of the ad joining b uilding obj ecting to his b uilding being t he r n a used for pu pose of supporti g th t of his neighbour .

' a n a . I O I The simplest form of r ki g shore is th t shown in ﬁg ,

a - which m ay b e used to support one story b uilding . A is

wall - e i k n kor e i ce . h and r a i s . the g , W is the _ p , 9 in by 3 , is

f a S . su ﬁciently long to t ke the foot of the strut, A rect 6 n b i . 6 . . 6 a . angul r hole, in by 4 in or in y , is cut in the

- nee d le wall piece at A, into which a , N , which ﬁts the hole,

1 2 . n is drive n . This is about in lo g, and is placed in the wa has l ll from which a header been previous y removed . C A R FEN T RY A N D JOINERY .

Where possi b le this should be placed immediately under ‘ le z n - ab . e a C the ﬂoor level A , , is ailed to the wall piece ove the needle to assist the latter in resisting the upward thrust

ol - iece . S P s e of the shore is the p let into the ground, upon b a e a which the shore a uts , and to which it tr nsmits the lat r l e a a pr ssure of the w ll . In the c se of soft or untrustworthy

d - as w groun , the sole piece should rest on planks, sho n at

10 1 . Baki n h o r e :sim e st or m . 102. R a in h o re :m ost re u ent u se g S pl f k g S f q ly d .

. 1 0 2 e . P in ﬁg , so as to distribut the weight The shore is

- D and kept in position on th e sole piece by an iron dog , , by a a cle t, B . 1 0 r Fig . 2 represents the raking sho e most frequently used

na . 1 0 1 in London , and is a tural development of ﬁg applied

' - T R a . to three story building The longest (outside) shore , , a l o r a ke r MR is c lled the p , the centre shore, , is called the 8 T 7 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

mid d le r ake r t kor B S bot om s e . , and the lowest, , Th e wall e a piece is of course considerably longer . Thre rectangul r m ad e e l holes are e in it , and the needl s ins rted and c eats a d th e used simil r to those previously escribed . I nstead of

in n . 1 6 . . 1 0 1 a . a d struts shown in ﬁg , bo rds thick in to 9 in b road are n ailed across the shores and on to the wall - pieces

r :a a t e for e r h i h u i in s 10 R aki n h o e . 3 . g S d p d v y g b ld g

at pl aces adjacent to the needles . The shores at their base are ge nerally either tre ated in a similar m anner or else

- b ou nd round with hoop iron . 1 0 a a Fig . 3 shows a system of shoring d pted for a four

b a . I n story uilding , with an additional ttic story this case, CARPENT RY A N D JOINERY . 79 which is similar i n almost every other instance to the d a th e to r ake r r id in slzor e prece ing ex mple, p , or g , as it is a tll l S more often c lled in form , is constructed in two pieces, owing to the inability to procure timber of sufﬁcient h lengt . h u c an W ere, however, timber of the req isite length be n b obtai ed , it is almost always desira le to form the shores i n o ne b piece, as the power of tim er to resist compression " is mat erially affected b y any cross strai n .

In the case of a frail structure, it is sometimes considered that t h e manipul ation of large timber shores may impair

u it. b th e b ilding , and in such cases is est to have the rider two in pieces . When this is done, it is best for the top e b e shor to be divided from the lower shore, which should the of same scantling and resting on the sole piece, by a pair o foak folding wedges . T h e design of raking shores may vary slightly in each i ha in a indiv dual case, but in shoring, per ps more than ny r r n othe branch of carpentry, the same general p i ci ples have to b e obser ved . The best angle of inclination for raking

e 0 . as shor s is generally considered to be 4 deg , but this at involves th e use of so much room , they are rarely seen a

a 6 0 . 0 . less ngle than deg or 7 deg , though , of course, the latera l thrust varies in proportion as the angle is increased . It m a y be taken as a general rule that one raker is required v for e ery story in an ordinary building, omitting to count in t the a tic story where one exists , and the head of each raker is generally pl aced against the wal l - piece at the level of the

ﬂ r- no t a a o o joists . Shores should be pl ced at a gre ter

an 1 2 . 1 . a dist ce than from ft to 5 ft apart, and if pl ced m nearer together the scantlings ay be reduced . The following t ab le will give a general idea of the scantling generally used for e ach shore when the angle of inclination

is between 6 0 deg . to 75 deg . I n . I n. I . n. I n Ft . Ft . — Wall s 1 5 to 2 0 high MW4 or 5 b y 5 ' 2 0 to 3 0 high 9 by 45 or 6 b y 6 30 to 4 0 high 1 2 b y 6 or 8 by 8 40 to 5 0 h igh 9 b y 9 or 8 by 8 5 0 and upwards 1 2 by 9 or 1 1 by 9 8 0 N T CARPE RY AND JOINERY .

The following formulae m aybe fou nd of use in calculating h as and the compression the shore to resist, in arriving at the scantlings

a ( ) Let H the horizontal thrusts in cwts . (see ﬁg . W = th e weight of the wall in cwts . t = the thickness of the wall at the b ase in feet . = N F th e distance of the head of the shore fr o m

the ground . W x i Then H 2 ( N F) = h b V t e a . ( ) Let vertic l force in cwts (see ﬁg . 0: the angle the shore makes with the horizon . W =we i h t g of the shore in cwts . V = H 9 W Then tan . 2 (e ) Let C the compression down the 0= the angle the shore makes = V H . 9 . 0 Then C sin . + cos = (d ) Let S safe load of shore in cwts . : 1 a 5 5 for ﬁr . d = h widt in inches of shore . =l n th e e g in feet . = Then S a ><- g;

N T E — O This latter formula, of course, is for square a n a d timbers ; where one side is gre ter tha the other, t ke as the lesser and multiply

are a The above calculations for the top r ker . The com pression down the lower shores is, of course , greater 5 but this is considered to be counterbalanced owing to the fact and a that they are shorter, their power of resist nce is , f a l there ore, gre ter ; it is a so more convenient for con struction to have them of a uniform size . With regard to the angle at which the sole -piece should be w a placed ith the raker, it is found that the result nt force 1 a a of V and H (ﬁg . 1 0 ) cts in direction outside the angle N T 8 1 CARPE RY AND JOINERY . m d a e by the shore with the horizon , consequently the sole ie cc e a at a h p must not be pl ced right ngles to the s ore itself, u a b t. at right angles as ne r as m ay be to the direction the u a h res lt nt may take , whic , therefore, is always less than a h rig t angle . Fi 1 0 g. 4 is a detail showing the notching of the head of and the raker, with the needle cleat towards the upper end t h of e wall piece . In the event of a shore being required d for any length of time, this notching should always be one ; e wh re, however, the sh o re is of a very tem o r ar n p y ature, it may s d o s be ecured by iron g , whi ch are also used for sec u ring the feet of the o — sh res to the sole piece, for keeping the rider m ﬁr ly on its lower shore,. and also for keeping the vari ous rakers in posi

n . 1 0 tio . Fig 5 shows the correct form of dog A and at , the incorrect I n o ne at B . the former case the driving of the d og home brings the 0 tai sh owi n n otc h i n o f h e a t o 1 4. e and D l g g d sho res together, m ne e d le . the c as th e se 10 or re c t and I nc or re ct or m of D o . latter e are 5 . C F g driven apart . A square hole is often cut on the base of raker i nto r which a crowbar is inse ted , by means of which it is gently

- leve red into its place on the sole piece . Fir is the best s h b e tim ber to use for shore , and oak s ould employed for th e wedges . All joints should ﬁt well , and the timbers

- sho uld h ave a good ﬁ r m b earing on the sole piece . i 1 0 6 u a F g. ill str tes a very strong combined shore which might be found very useful for some purposes, such as sho ring up a retaining wall .

a a Vio lle t - l e - D u c R eferring to the tri ngul tion of shores , “ say s th at they should always form a triangle or portion 8 2 T CARPEN RY AND JOINE R Y .

the a a t i c a n of a triangle , for reason th t r angle never be a a re thrown out of sh pe when braced , shores which not a e an ta a par llel pr sent entirely homogeneous resi s nce, where s are a t if they par llel , hey will become bent, however well b a R a h r ced they may be . king s ores h ave been used for the purposes of pushing a wall b ack to its original vertical a r c k position , by pl cing powerful sc e wja s under the sole

pieces . This of course could only be effe c ted wh e re the

10 tr o n h r e 6. o m n o S g C bi e d S .

a b and found tions are sound , everything eing disconnected shored up on th e other side ; it is no t a method to be

recomm end e d . ‘ Fl n Skor es a d a nd lzor izonzal skores . i o I I y g , also c lled g , are very convenient to use when the dist ance between the x ft two adjoining houses does not e ceed 33 . , beyond which length D antzic ﬁr cann ot easily be obtain e d . The usu al method of erecting these shores i s shown in

T 8 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY . 5

o . 1 08 s sh re is required, and fig shows a sy tem of flying — o . sh res , one above the other, with a continuous wall piece h a th e T is l tter, if wall is of an uneven character, should be fi rre d h m a b n up behind , so t at it y have an even eari g r l th oughout . The fol owing scantlings are usually considered to be adequate f a 1 t . . For sp ns not exceeding 5 , raking struts, 4 in . by 4 in 6 o . h rizontal struts, in by 4 in .

1 . f . a n 6 . t . For spans from 5 ft to 33 , r ki g struts , in by 4 in n i . . 6 6 . b . to 9 in y 45 , horizontal struts, in by in to - in 9 in . by 9 . The ab ove scantlings apply to shores placed one - fourth a a of the tot l height from the top of the w ll , and each bay b 1 6 . of shoring should not e more than 2 ft . in

Flying - shores have the advantage over raking - shores of k ta ing the direct thrust, and of not interfering so much in building operations . N eed le lzor zn and Und er innin f f I I I . S g p g di fer rom the previou s methods describ ed i n that the foundations are no u a longer relied pon, and the w ll under treatment has to be held up in the air without any direct support from the R r ground . ectangular holes are cut in the b ickwork,

u a b 1 2 . thro gh which b lks of tim er, generally about in by

1 2 in . a d s , are p sse , and the e are supported at each end by

a a - vertic l posts of similar sc ntlings , resting on sole pieces , a a which are usually l id on timber pl tforms on the ground . d n e Oak we ges are then i serted und r the uprights, and on being driven home, these force the needle tightlyagainst

b . the upper side of the rickwork in the cavity . These e a 6 a ne dles should not be pl ced more than about ft . part, and when all are in position they s u pport the wall so that l m a and as the ower part y be removed, , is often the case, 0 a sh p front or other structure may be inserted underneath . 0 Fig . 1 9 represents the needling required to support a wall during the insertion of a girder for some such purpose

a b . d as indic ted a ove If the wall is perfectly soun , no raking shores would be req u ired but if this should not b e a the case, it would be advisable to have a raking shore at b s and , and one between the window , in any case, the n windows should b e shored up as show . The needles 86 T CARPEN RY AND JOINERY . should be inserted ab ove the floor level so as to h ave a w b gri p on the solid brick ork , and, in the case of there eing b e the u u a a asem nt, vertical s pport sho ld go str ight through u the gro nd floor to the solid ground beneath . u b e n C are sho ld take to support all floors, chimn ey ' l d breasts, piers and corbels in the wa ls to be needle , and these latter should be so arranged as not to interfere in wa w b re ssu m e rs any y ith the insertion of , girders, or s stanchions used in the alteration . Whole timbers hould a u a ne rly always be sq ared , for though in most c ses they ar e considerably stronger than necessary, still the slightest deflection might cause small fissures in the u pper stru e u a ture . The following form l e are generally recognised as sufficient To find a scantling of the needle that will sustain a given safe load in the centre

r - e Let L l ngth of bearing in feet . = i W we gh t to be sustained in pounds . = ' ' 1 A 0 1 for fir and 0 3 for oak . — B _ _ . _ breadth in inches = D d e pth in inches . To find depth where breadth is known or determined upon 2 / L >< x D i W A B To find bre adth where d epth is known or determined upon s W x A D 3 To find the scantling of vertical posts capable of sustaining a given compress io n i n the direction of their length

z n h Let L le gt in feet .

s e ight to b e sustained in pou nds . = ' A 00 1 0 0 1 . 3 for ﬁr , 5 for oak = h B b re ad t in inches .

z D d e pth requ ired in inches . 3 2 / I . X W x A D = 5 — Then T, T Y 8 CARPEN R AND JOINERY . 7

u x c an If a wall be so nd e cept for its foundations, it be restored to a perfectly good condition by ﬁrstly erecting a r king shores to assist in supporting the wall . The ground on each side of it is then dug out for not more than 5 ft .

110. e cial o r m of h Sp F S or i ng u se d at G r os m ont C h u rc h .

to 7 ft . at a time 3 the whole of the existing foundation is then removed and a new found ation built upon the solid

. u nd e r nn n ground This is called pi i g. ial F r IV . Sp ec o ms of Slzor ing are often required which must be left to the skill of the architect and the builder to 88 T N CARPEN RY AND JO I ERY .

as adapt or devise the case may require , and it is not intended in this brief article to do more than refer to these 1 1 0 an special designs . Fig . d those numbered A to G represent the system adopted by Mr . J . P . Seddon at the G n 1 1 1 p arish church of rosmont in Mo mouthshire . Fig .

f a i n r i m n h or in u se t o s u o rt C a o ca o u . 111 . S g d pp p Cyl d l C l represents the shoring suggested for the support of the c ap of a cylindrical column which carries vaulting ribs in all th a directions . This would permit of e column being t ken n away and another b uilt in its place . As to the tim b eri g used

- - a l in shoring, an allowance of one third to one h lf is usua ly made for waste or for reconversion to use . A C H P T E R I X .

CENT RES

C N T E RES are temporary structures, generally of wood , used b to support arches of rick or stone, till they have settled in position and b e c o m e c o n s ol i l dated . The qua i ties of a good centre consist in its fo rminga rigid support for the weight of the arch

s t o n e s, w i t h o u t varying its form to any appreciable extent throughout the whole progress

of the operation , 112 e ntre fo r m a an . C S ll Sp . from th e springin g of the arch to the laying of the keystone . C entres r equired for the erection of small and n a r r o w arches may

c o n s i , s t simply of a piece of stuff cut to the r e qu isite curve of the s o fﬁ t of the arch it is proposed b to uild , and kept in posi 113 t i o n b y

113 e ntr e fo r 20- ft an wooden S u p . C . Sp . p o r t s o r

as ﬁ . 1 2 1 a props , sh own in g . Where the sp n is over 3 ft . or G 0 9 CARPENT RY AND JOINERY .

ft . . a n as . 1 1 2 4 , centres are gener lly co structed shown in ﬁg 2 h A centre designed for a 0 ft . arch of three bricks in t ick 1 1 w b ness is shown at ﬁg . 3 . It ill be o served that it i s de

e o n - sign d the principle of the king post truss , though som e architects prefer the struts to be placed at right angles to the arch , as shown by dotted lines . This centre is supported in

6 . 6 and the middle and at each end by in by in . ﬁr posts , interposed between such posts and the horizontal tie are driven oak wedges so that when it is required to e ase the l centre , the wedges are tapped gent y out of position . In the case of tunnelling or other work involvi ng greater

b 2 . 6 . depth , the ri s should be placed from ft to ft apart, the distance diminishing in proportion as the weight of the structure increases . Before entering upon the question of the design and n w b e constructio of centres for wide spans, it ill well to ascertain ﬁrst what proportion the total weight of the structure the centre will have to sustain . It has been found by experiment that a stone placed upon an inclined plane does not begin to slide until that plane an 0 has inclination of 3 deg . from the horizontal line, and b until such a stone would slide upon its ase, it is obvious that the centre would not contribute to its support . More an le o r e ose a d e over, this g f p re ches as much as 4 5 g , with a

n 2 . . soft sto e bedded in mortar , but 3 deg or 34 deg generally A a should be calculated for . s the courses pproach more nearly to the keystone, so , of course, their weight on the centre increases until at last the centre has to support their a whole weight . It is a useful fact to remember th t when the plane of any joint becomes so mu ch inclined that a vertical n line, passing through the ce tre of gravity of the arch stone, t does not fall wi hin the lower bed of that stone, the whole weight of the stone m ay be considered as resting on the centre . No absolute rule can be given as to the proportion of the

’ a as whole weight which the centre will have to c rry , of u a ﬂ a co rse the r tio increases as the arch becomes tter, but it may generally be safely assumed th at the centre will not have to sustain more than two - thirds of the total weigh t of the arch . The following table is given by T re d go ld

T 9 2 CARPEN RY AND JOINE R Y .

' if an ro w m _ y one pile or of piles should settle , the incu bent w a wa s eight would b e supported by the rem inder . He also h a h particular not so much to ave his sc ntlings , w ich were “ ” E a b of st C ounty ﬁr , as light as possi le, but also to cut

b 2 . them with the le ast waste . This stone ridge was 5 ft in

a a 60 . 8 in Width , and the sp n of the centre rch was ft . 1 1 n n Fig . 5 is an illustration of the ce tri g for the stone G bridge built by Telford at loucester, in which th e span

n fo r o d st r e a m r i d C e t r e u se C e . 114. d l B g i e nt r e u se fo r to n e r e at o u c e ste r . 115 . C d S B dg Gl

th 1 0 ft . e . c was 5 , and rise 35 ft The method of constru tion —A a m was was as follows level pl tfor prepared , on which

the centre was stru ck out to the full size . The timber used

D antzic b 1 . was of ﬁr, in scantlings of a out 5 in square, and

the piles carrying the centre were of Memel , shod with iron . a a Across the top of the piles a be m was l id , upon which the ” s u . d ge s we re ﬁxed E ach rib O fthe c e 1 t e wa th en pl aced A N ") CARPENT R Y JOINERY . 93

a w an upon a sc ffold made u pon the top of the edge pieces, d s 1 aise 1 a a wa d into posit on by two cr nes on the banks , ided

by two barges on the ri ver . i 0 i The s caffold was cont nued 3 ft . beyond the Str king w ends of the edges, which were found convenient both for

hoisting the rib s and for striking the centre . When the ribs

were properly b raced they were covered with 4 in . sheet h ad b i piling, which een prev ously used in the formation of fu t the coffer dams . This centre was so success l tha when

116 . e nt re u se fo r r e o e r t h e in at N C d B i d v Se e e u i lly.

117 . e nt r e u se o r ate r o o i e C d W l B r dg .

in x 1 . the arch was keyed , its sinking did not e ceed , and it s k a truc within the short s p ce of three hours . C e ni r n s a II . es i one p n have to b e constructed when a n b e intermedi te supports ca not used, owing either to the uncertainty of the current or to the necessity of keeping the

a - wa w ter y clear . Their exec u tion is manifestly much more fﬁ a di cult, owing to the precautions which must b e t ken to counteract the tendency of the cro wn to rise when the lo ad T A N D 94 CARPEN RY JOINERY .

is placed on the haunches . This is forci b ly illustrated in ﬁ . 1 1 6 th e P e rr ne g , which is centre designed by o t for the a a bridge t N euilly . A slight ex mination will show that a a e b when it is lo ded at and it must rise at , and the strains produced b y the weight resting on any point must have ab n been very consider le, owing to the timbers bei g so a h nearly par llel , and the strains on the j oints must ave been excessive .

The centre has such a light appearance, and obstructs a the stre m so little, that it recommended itself to many , but it is contrary to the true principles on which centres should a a be designed , though it is well enough d pted to sustain an w equilibrated load, distributed over the hole length but it is certainly not calculated to support a varia ble load without S alteration from its original form . everal other des igns of a a similar n ture have been executed for other bridges, and have been found to be equally defective . 1 R Fig . 1 7 represents the centring designed by ennie W b e n for aterloo Bridge, and it will seen that, owi g to the n - in umerous cross ties, a load placed any position could not cause the centre to b e raised witho ut reducing the length

- b of some of these cross ties . It is contended y some that a it is complic ted, and that there is an excess of strength but there is no doubt that it is well adapted for the purpose

for which it was intended . It is a modiﬁcation of the a 1 60 centre used for Bl ckfriars Bridge in 7 by Milne, though

improved in construction and form . 1 1 8 T re d o ld Fig . is a form of centre recommended by g , b co nsisting of three main trusses a utting against each other, a a b from which it is apparent th t , as the rch is uilt up from a h each abutment, the load on e ch of the haunc es being a fﬁ f equal , provided the centr l truss is su ciently sti f to resist

the pressure in the direction of its length , there will be no

tendency to rise in the middle . It is easy to increase the

strength as required . A centre on these principles may be executed for any span to which a stone bridge may be b erected . If necessary, of course, the tim ers may be a lengthened as describ ed in the rticle on joints . All very a ob tuse angles should be voided , and to secure the utmost strength timbers should be su b ie c te d as little as possible to N T A N D CARPE RY JOINERY . 95 T 96 CARPEN R Y AND JOINERY .

- a T h e n as x a the cross str in . girder pri ciple , e pl ined in ” a a a chapter on Bridges , may be dv nt geously used in many h cases i n t e construction of centres . 1 1 w a Fig . 9 sho s very good centre , which is frequently

u sed in the construction of tunnels . It will be seen that ' a a a a - the fr ming is very simil r to th t of queen post truss, ” i a R previously described n the rticle on oofs . The upper

a - ln a portions of the rib are m de of 3 . pl nk in two thick

1 e nt r e u s u a u se for T u nne s . 1 9. C ll y d l

a nesses , bolted together, and the ribs are usu lly about 3 ft . apart . The two ribs nearest the excavation are constructed

- without tie beams to avoid interfering with the raking struts . The constr u ction of ce ntr es will prob ab ly not req u ire much expl an ation to those wh o have followed the chapter on “ ” “ ” u a a nd R o f b u t f Joints sed in C rpentry o s , the e w — ' ‘ following p articul ars m ay b e of use l h e pr essure upon CARP E N T RY A N D JOI N ERY .

an i n b a y beam pounds , divided y gives the rea of the m i n r ti ber pieces, or that of the least abutting joint Whe e b a b it is possible, principal e ms should a ut end to end when

120 D e tai o f ont inu ou s e e . l C W dg .

121 . C e ntr e u se fo r oor and i n o w r c h e s d D W d A .

they meet at an angle it is a good pl an to let them into a i c ast ron socket (see ﬁg . Timbers should intersect ac as as b a a e h other little possi le, h lving should be voided , 8 T 9 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY . and those timbers which ac t as struts and braces should be a notched upon the framing and be in pairs, one on e ch side of the frame , and well bolted togeth er (see b races in 1 1 ﬁg. 9)

Ties should be used across the fram ing, particularly a b a w where m ny tim ers m eet, and diagonal br ces bet een b a the ri s should be used to prevent l teral motion . The i a necessity for a sound and a rig d centre must ag in be urged, a a and as an instance of the p ramount import nce of this , it may be mentioned that many lives were lost when a large arch over the D erwent collapsed and fell into the river as b the keystone was eing placed in position . An allowance of one - third to o ne - half is usually allowed for waste on centring, or on conversion to use . Tb e r emoval of ce ntr es is generally accom plished by the striking of the folding wedges upon which they have b een placed , or of the indented blocks which ﬁt into corresponding b blocks above and elow, thus forming continuous wedge s .

is . 1 1 2 The former illustrated in ﬁg , and the latter in 1 1 2 0 ﬁgs . 1 7 and the wedges should be well rubbed with

- a and U soft so p blacklead before being built pon . The French method is to destroy the ends of the principal rafters by degrees , but this cannot be done so evenly , and is a source of danger to the carpenter . Perhaps the most ingenio u s method consists in having an iron cylinder ﬁlled to the extent of the upper half b y a h n cylinder of wood , the lower alf bei g sand 5 when it is are e required to strike the centres, holes , which pr viously are drilled in the base, uncorked the sand escapes and d a b e lowers the centre . It shoul alw ys remembered that b e s a centres should struck lowly and evenly, so th t the a b arch may gradually t ke its proper earing .

1 0 0 CARP E N T RY AND JOINERY . where it is not desire d to disturb the pavement in a to wn a a s t wo they are pl ced in tubs ﬁlled with earth , shown to of

a a . a a the stand rds in the illustr tion To these st nd rds , on a are a led e r s a the side nearest the w ll , l shed g L, or horizont l

a a . 6 . . a runners, par llel to the w ll , and from 3 ft in to 5 ft bove a e ch other ; they are bound to the standards by rope, and

’ 12 r i r a 2 c a e s c o . . B kl y S ff ld tightened by wooden keys or wedges introduced between a a the rope and the st nd rds . The ledgers answer the double purpose of bracing the standards together at in tervals in their height and of supporting cross pieces str etching from

. a are a u tl o s a them to the wall The l tter c lled p g , and re u a n m arked ? on the ill str tion . They co sist of squared T A N D I N I O I CARPEN RY JO ERY .

l b in. timber, usua ly irch , above six feet long and of 4 by

. a a 3 in sc ntling ; they are placed about four feet ap rt , one end resting on the ledger and the other inserted in the wall by means of a hole left for the purpose b y omitting a brick a e a a a he der . Th se putlogs support the sc ffold bo rds , usu lly

- . 1 . 9 in by 5 in thick , with edges bound in hoop iron . The aff a are u sc old bo rds b tted at their heading joints , the put

in a . logs , where these occur, being placed only about 4 . ap rt a w a On e ch staging , what are kno n as guard bo rds are placed as shown to prevent the materials or rubbish falling on to the ground below . ff i s The sca olding , as such, is now complete , but the whole ff e br aces further sti ened and held togeth r by long poles or B , lashed diagonally across every three or four standards . I t will be understood that the scaffolding is raised as the a building proceeds , and is therefore supported l rgely by the a b w ll . When the wall has reached a certain height a ove the platform upon which the workmen are engaged, which h 6 ft . as is generally about 4 ft . in . or 5 , t is is the greatest a m an height that the aver ge can work with ease, another a row of ledgers is l shed to the standards , fresh putlogs are inserted into the holes where brick headers have been f a omitted , and the sca fold bo rds are raised from the old to n a the e w level . Me nwhile the ledgers and putlogs are left in position in order to steady the scaffold and are not taken out as a rule till the end of the operations . I t should b e borne in mind that scaffolds of this d e sc rip d tion should not be unduly loade , in such a manner as to

- press too heavily on the newly executed work . 1 i Fig . 30 shows the method to tying various knots used n

ff . sca olding, which will be of interest to the student ’ — . S O . A S a I I MASONS CAFF LDS the n me implies, this form of scaffold is used by masons in the construction of st one a a h ashl r w lling, or indeed in any case w ere it is not possible n h or conve ient to insert the ends of putlogs into t e wall . 1 2 f c a Fig . 3 will su ﬁ iently expl in that this form consists of

a a a a . 6 . two fr mes p r llel to each other, one bout 4 ft in from ’ a a a s la a and the f ce of the w ll , in a brick yers sc ffold , the ab a th e a other out 9 in . to a foot from the f ce of w ll to be built . 1 0 2 N CARPEN T RY A D JOINERY .

The object of this inner frame is to support th e end s o f a the putlogs, as it is not convenient to le ve holes in the a face of a stone wall, of shlar facing , for their insertion , as is done in a brick wall . Where Openings occur in the wall, as a at windows , adv ntage is taken to secure the frame to the wall itself in order to secure and steady the scaffolding ; otherwise this form relies on its own rigidity, and is even

’ 123 asons caf o . M S f ld .

a af c lled i n some parts an independent sc fold . The general c o ns tr u c t1o n of such a scaffold should be stronger than in a ’ a a f d a a a are brickl yers sc f ol , for the re son th t heavier materi ls a a used at one time . The st nd rds are therefore placed

and r a . closer together, are more ﬁ mly br ced The most v no w ordinary forms ha e been touched upon , but in larger and a e h more complic ted structur s, stronger and eavier i er e ctions have to be d e s gne d .

1 04 CARPEN T RY A N D JOINERY .

as will be seen , except that it will be supported by the S strut H . uch struts are usually in two pieces, in order that the strut F may pass between them . The standards of the upper tiers should always be plac ed over those in the lower to prevent cross - strains in the hori

t a in 1 - 5 . S g g. z o ntal a a a n e e timbers, and di gon l br ci g is fr quently mployed S a h as b e a in the upper tiers, as shown . t ging also to l rgely employed in the construction of bridging and viaducts of l h c asc s h y al y a th e great height . In suc t e are gen r bout R T A N D CA PEN RY JOINER Y . I O S

height of the springing of the arch , and are used to support the requisite centring or as a platform for connecting the ff & c . di erent sections of girders, The example shown in

ﬁg . 1 2 6 exhi bits the sam e principle as that adopted for constructing the land tubes of the Britannia Bridge in 1 8 0 5 .

- . GA N T R I E i IV s . Gantr es are necessary where heavy d stones or other buil ing materials have to be lifted , and in

126 ta in u se for h r i tanni ri e . S g g d t e B a B dg . cases where ordinary scaffold poles would not be safe they are also used for supporting heavy machinery . Gantries are much used in London and other large towns , as may be his a d noticed by the attentive student in wanderings , n much can be learned by practical observation and sketching n such examples as come before one . In spaces in fro t of a ne w building they are often placed over the public foot H 1 06 T CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

wa y and used as a store, or yard, from which the building operations are directed , and it is often on such elevated constructions that the clerk of works and foreman ’s ofﬁces

a . in . 1 2 are placed . ( ) The gantry proper is shown ﬁg 4 , and is a structure commonly used and suitable for the uses t named above . It will be seen tha it consists of two 1 0 frames formed of squared timber, about ft . apart, and of

6 . 1 2 . scantlings from in to in square . The inner frame m should be kept about 1 ft . fro the face of the proposed slee er s wall . The frame is composed of p , L, laid on to the fﬁ ground , and protected from carriage tra c by a stout piece

nd er . of timber called aﬁ , F Upon the sleepers are placed u the uprights secured by iron dogs . On the top of the p d w rights are placed pieces of timber or hea s, hich span from “ ” l upright to upright, and are dogged in a simi ar manner n to the sleepers . I order to distribute the pressure and a decrease the bearing, the uprights are provided with

C . rough treatment of bracket capital as The weight on , the S whole structure is also distributed by struts , usually about d . i e r n n . a u e 5 in by 5 , pressing gainst each other at the pp ,

and supported on cleats spiked to the uprights . The sec tio nal in f area of these struts , order to be e fective, should

not be less than half that of the uprights . The whole frame a a work supports pl tform, either constructed like an

ordinary ﬂoor with joists and boarding , or by deals laid ﬂat

and touching each other. In these constructions the tim

bers should be weakened as little as possible, therefore the

- h use of bolt oles, notching, mortising, or otherwise cutting I into the timber should be avoided . t is also necessary that the deterioration of the value of the timb er should be a b reduced to a minimum . On ccount of oth these reasons — 1 0 the several pieces are put together with dog irons (ﬁg . 5 , chapter on which are pieces of square or round t a iron about i in . in diameter, h ving their ends pointed and w a turned do n at right ngles . They are driven well home, an b and c be removed with little injury to the wood . ( ) A gantry to support a traveller is also affected by the con i i n d t o s under which it is to be used . In this case the stagingis not for the purpose of storage and m anipulation a w of heavy material , but to provide a p ir of rails along hich

1 08 T N CA R PEN RY AND JOI ERY . the diminution of l abour which can be effected by their use and the time which can be saved . The student will not fail to observe those he may see in use , the following de scription is only intended as a general g u ide to the principles

. 1 2 8 on which they are designed Fig . shows the timber w h h to ers for one of t ese derrick cranes . There are t ree in

2 e rric rane . 1 8. D k C

a number, distributed so as to form an equil teral triangle on plan they are placed on platforms of wooden beams which a 6 serve as a base . The towers are usu lly about ft . square,

. a o ne i consisting of four uprights about 9 in squ re, in p ece, e b ar e or of d als olted together, these connected by cross

. n 6 f i . t pieces of, say, 9 in by 3 , about . or 7 ft . vertically 1 0 CARPENT RY A N D JOI N ERY . 9

a m h a h e f dist nt fro each ot er, the b ys t us form d are sti fened

a 2 . in the usual manner with cross br ces 7 in . by in bolted u w to the prights as shown . The bases of the to ers are ﬁlled up with bricks or other heavy material to a weight at least double the load to be raised . The derrick is placed at on one tower, which is connected with the other two a u b a thei r upper ends by me ns of tr ssed e ms as shown , and the two towers (other than the one on which the derrick rests) are connected by a single b alk of timber strutted if e nec ssary as shown . The derrick crane itself consists (see and illustration) of sleepers, mast, jib, stays , and it is anchored to the tower by means of chains which are passed over the sleepers on the top of the staging and connected n to the platform at the base of each to wer . On referri g to 1 2 8 the illustration (ﬁg . ) it will be seen that the mast, the m m upright me ber, may be for ed out of one piece of timber or of pieces stru tted apart and braced . It is placed on a

m a v . pivot top and bottom, so that it y mo e in all directions

The jib supports the masses to be raised . It is attached to we w the mast at its lo r end by a hinged joint, thus allo ing m w freedo of action . At its outer end is a heel, over which n a the chai to r ise the material passes . The angle of i nclination of the jib can be altered by a a h s o n and ch in in t is portion . The sleeper lie the stagings , are — connected to the lower ends of the mast by a swivel joint . The stays are joined to the mast at its upper e nd by a swivel

h n - joint, and to the sleepers at t eir lower end by a li k joint . These sleepers are anchored to the staging to keep the mast in position when the weights are put upon the derrick crane . m a and I n so e p rts of the country, especially o n the C f ontinent, buildings are erected without sca folding, the work being performed from the inside, and the men sup por ted o n platforms raised on the ﬂoors of the building itself. H — . O r E R S . S and VI PECIAL FORMS . caffoldings stagings all u have to be designed for p rposes , and the architect

o v s h Sir C . should not be ab ve ad i ing on t ese points, as has

Barry designed the scaffolds for the Houses of Parliament . 1 2 Fig . ) shows the revolving scaffold used for the repair of N [ I O CARPE N T RY A N D JOI ERY .

a R m the dome of the P ntheon at ome, and is an exa ple of c at the skill of the Italians , who are espe ially clever this d a f kin of work . The sc f olds used in the erection of domes and roofs of considerable span consist of nothing more

a a and . th n a series of standards, with di gonal braces struts The sc affoldings adopted in so m e of th e recent large

cafo in u se i n th e R e stor at i on o f t h e anth e on R om e S f ld g d P , . 130 ario u m f Kno s . s or s o t V F .

C exhibitions, such as Paris and hicago, have been very ingeniously devised in regard to saving of labour and economy ofmaterial but the subject of their construction a h E can hardly be de lt with ere . specially in regard to the w a n roofs ere the sc ffoldings worthy of study , the roofs bei g

C HAPTE R XI .

PILLARS, BEAMS, AND GI RDERS .

P I LLA R s — r . When a pilla or col u m n is compressed in the a direction of its length, the m nner in which i t behaves varies according to the ratio the le ngth bears to its m i m m u m d n . a iameter If the le gth be gre t, the pillar will bend and fail b y b reaking at the centre as under a cross - strain when

a a . however the pill r is very short, it will f il by crushing alone It is generally assumed in practice th at a pillar will fail by n a and bendi g when its length exceeds thirty di meters , it should not as a rule exceed t wenty diameters in height . The formul ae generally used for pillars and columns are as fol lows when the length exceeds thirty times the diameter D diameter in inches .

L length in feet .

f - w . W sa e load in c ts . (one tenth breaking weight) S one side in inches .

B breadth in inches . a T the le st thickness in inches . E 1 0 5 for teak . 1 0 E 4 for nglish oak . 1 2 0 for Baltic oak . 1 2 0 for red pine . ash for . 1 1 0 R a for ig ﬁr .

1 1 0 for beech . 0 a 9 for l rch . 0 8 for elm . Then ‘ For squ ar e col u mns W 1 7E x

For r ectangu l ar col u mns N CARPE TRY AND JOINERY .

Fo r SHOR T C O LUMN S the above formulae should n ot be used, but the calculation may be made by allowing for the safe resistance to compression per square inch of sectional area as follows i Memel or D antz c ﬁr 5 cwt .

E nglish oak 6 cw . — t B ea ms s A t d a and the present ywrought iron steel have , a a n a a to a l rge extent, t ke the pl ce of timber for sp ns of an a a n more th ordin ry widths , owing to their gre ter stre gth , and also because they can be used of considerably less a i n depth , thus s ving the extra expense the height of the f a b building . The ollowing formula will prob bly e found the simplest for calculating rectangular wooden beams supported at both ends, where W B in . , breaking weight at centre of beam cwts d B brea th of beam in inches .

D depth of beam in inches .

L length of bearing in feet . C 6 constant for teak, 5 for ash and oak, 4 for

B 2 C Then BW ? f In all cases where the load is uni ormly distributed , h double this weig t will be required to cause fracture . If

D . 1 1 the load be applied at any other point, as at , ﬁg 3 ,

131 . i m e wo e n e am S pl od b . the breaking weight at that point will equal the square of b half the length AB, multiplied by what the reaking weight ’ would be if centrally loaded (W ) 5 divided by the product of distances from the p oint of loading to each s u pport . I I N D 4 CARPENTRY A JOINERY .

1 1 we For example, referring to the ﬁg . 3 , obtain the following equation :

B W (at th e po mt D i A D x D B

’ b a sa e l oao m a b e Having found the re king weight, the f y d in found by ivid g by 5 , which is generally considered a f a su ﬁcient f ctor of safety . From the above formula, and by substitution , any of the unknown item s may be found , remembering that in be ams the breadth is generally taken

- h d - as two t irds of the epth , and in joists as one third . Where the span is so great that it is found difﬁ cult to obtain the timber of sufﬁciently large scantling for the purpose, there are many methods for strengthening timber that can easily be applied, and these may be treated under the following heads

1 . Flitched girders .

- 2 u . . Built p beams w 3 . Girders trussed ith wood . G 4 . irders trussed with iron .

5 . Framed truss girders . FLI T C HE D G 1 . IRDERS 1 2 (ﬁg . 3 ) are formed by sawing a beam down the centre and bolting the two pieces b ack back with an _to iron plate between them . It was customary when using large b eams to do this

without the iron plate , ﬁllets being put between the halves to allow of the air

circulati ng freely . This was a very good method itc h e ir e r 132. Fl d G d . as it gave an opportunity of examining the centre of the beam and redu ced c t he timber to a smaller s antling, by which means it dried b s e sooner and was . less liable to rot it was supposed y om to strengthen a girder, but it was really weakened by the

1 1 6 N T N CARPE RY AND JOI ERY .

‘ b e twic e o wn u a n e tim e s their individ l depth . So the girder l s cambered on its upper s u rface from the centre to the

' supports, and is held together b y hoops instead of bolts, whic h are slipped

on from the ends , and as they are drive n closer to the centre they bring the two halves grad u ally

. 134 J o e e am . . ggl d B together When the girder is ﬁxed are h if the joints found to ave given a little , the hoops m a b e y driven still farther to the centre . beams consist of indents instead of keys being

. 1 used to prevent their sliding on one another . Fig 35 represents an indented beam with the upper half in two

- pieces, so that a vertical king bolt, tapering towards its r c an d ower ext emity, be inserte , which , by being screwed ll e a . up on the underside , forc s the j oints home The depths of all the indents added together should not be less than

- two thirds the whole depth of the girder . The upper h alf of these girders is sometimes constructed in o ak or a i other hard wood 5 the lower h lf, being in tens on , should — a f n e b e of tough straight gr ined stu f. Whe th re is more than one piece in the length of the upper half they m ay

u - simply b tt joint against one another, but when this a w e m h ppens to be in the lo er half, th y ust be

a C . sc rfed , to resist tension as described in hapter IV , pp 3 2 and 33 ~ u r C ved oeams (ﬁg. 1 36) ad d considerably to the sti ffness of S girders , and meaton adopted this method for strengthening the e O f b am a steam 135 n e nt e am e . . I d d B engine . The upper part is bent into a cur ve and prevented from springing o back by straps or b lts, which should be very ﬁrmly secured N R Y 1 1 C A RPEN T RY A N D jO I E . 7

n an n th e parts . The thick ess of the to resist y slidi g of “ bent pieces should no t be more than about one - ﬁftie th of b and the earing , the whole depth of the curved pieces should no t exceed h alf the depth of the girder. It will be observed that 13 6 3

' . 1 6 136 u r e d Be am in ﬁg 3 there . O v . is a but t- joint at o and a scarf at a care should be taken that no joint in the lower part of the beam should be near the centre of the bearing . G IRDERS T RUSSED WI T H wo on were formerly used to n some extent , but they were fou d to be little , if any,

n . 1 stro ger than when not trussed at all Fig . 3 7 illustrates k a ﬁr girder trussed with oak . At ﬁrst sight this loo s very n a all i genious, but when i t is remembered th t the additional strength that could be acquired would consist solely in th e a n m i gre ter resista ce to co pression of the oak , which s i t w n the slight , ill be seen that the gain is little , and u less m m truss were very carefully ade at th e ends of the bea , it

would probably be stronger without them . G IRDERS T RU SSED WIT H IRON m ay be divided into two ’ ' ' classes ; (a) those trussed wzl/zzn t/ze zr own d eem and ' ’ n zozl /z aee tr u sses (b) those stre gthened p . In the former case ' ’ l n . 1 8 w e szon r oa . is they may be trussed ith a , ﬁg 3 This a w placed between the two halves of the b lk, hich has p r e vi o u s l y b e e n cut longitudinally n down the ce tre, and passes round a cast - iron bar placed centrally on the underside f 1 37 Gi r e r tru sse with O ak O . . d d . the beam The ends of the tension

r o d Wi w i s a - are secured th nuts , h ch pres gainst cast iro n chairs at th e m e the b am m a extre iti s of e , or they y be screwed u p 1 1 8 T CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

against a washer on the ends of the beam , previously cut o ff c at right angles to the dire tion of the tension rod .

13 8

" 1 f d e r r u s e h i ro nsi 38 . r t s wit n te on r od , 1 d .

This form of truss may be varied by the tension rods passing under two bars placed equidistant from the centre ’ of the beam . Fairbairn s experiments on these beams proves that this method i ncreases the strength of the beam

- ﬁfth about one , and he suggested _ that the rod should not be placed higher at the extremity of the beam than the n horizontal line passi g through the centre . Another means of tr u ssing girders in their own depth is

1 - shown in ﬁg . 39, which consists of an iron king bolt and struts, with a tension plate underneath , being inserted m between the two halves of the beams . This for may be

- - varied by having two queen bolts instead of the king bolt , tie the h eads of the former being connected by an iron ,

and the struts being used as in the previous case . The great objection to beams trussed in their o wn depth is that the ironwork becoming loose when the timber

13 9

ir e r tr u sse i n it s own e th . 139. G d d d p

w w s hrinks, the hole weight is then thro n upon the timber at n d which will be injured , unless the bolts are o ce tightene

N 1 2 0 CARPEN T RY A D JOINERY .

remem bered in designing a truss of this description that n its strength does ot. altogether depend upon a balance of its a u as p rts , but th e braces m st be so disposed to resist w the pressu re at the points where it ill be applied . An illustration of this will be found by carefully studyi ng th e e the truss that carri s gallery ﬂoor, which will be found in

the next chapter on ﬂoors . The use of this ki nd of girder is of course very limited n n in ordinary buildi gs , owi g to the depth required ; but the transatlantic craftsm an is far ahead of his British confr er e in his ingenious adaption of these kinds of trussed girders in complicated and important structures . P C HA TE R XI I .

FLOORS .

T HE assemblage of timbers used for supporting the ﬂoor ” n boards and ceiling of a room is called aked ﬂooring, and the construction of such tim bers may be conveniently gro u ped under

in l o in 1 S e o te d . . g j floors 2 D . ouble floors . m 3 . Fra ed floors . m C . 4 . o posite floors

- 5 . Fire resisting wood floors . 6 G . eneral remarks .

1 S n . A INGLE FLOOR consists , as its ame implies , of one 1 series of common or bridging joists . Fig . 43 shows a floor S of this description in isometrical projection . uch a con f w struction , it is a firmed , makes a much stronger floor ith the a s me quantity of timber than a double or framed floor, but the great Ob j ection is that plaster ceilings are more liab le to cracks and sudden jars from this form of floor, especially n n m whe used for lo g bearings . I n order to ake a stiff floor th e joists should be thin and deep rather than thick and shallow the least thickness which can well be employed is h 2 in . s , a it is found t at joists of a less thickness split when n a floor boards are ailed to them . In cases where joists c nnot l a fi re rest direct on the wa ls , as , for inst nce, where flues, n a places, or openi gs for st ircases occur, a piece of timber e tr immer n call d a , T, is framed between two of the earest joists which pass such an obstruction and which have a bearing on the wall these are strengthened for the purpose ' '

tmmmzn oists . and called g j , T] The intervening joists are tenoned into the trimmer . The trimming joists must necessarily be made stronger in and order to carry the extra weight thus put upon them , in ’ m 1 r T r e d old s practice are usually ade in . thicke although g

ha - in rule t t g . should be added to the trimming joist for P T A N n CAR EN RY JOINERY . each joist supported by the trimmer would seem to be sufﬁcient . In order to prevent joists having a tendency to topple over 8 an or twist sideways, in cases where they exceed ft . in sp , h of strutting should be introduced between them , t is

1 3 n o o r 4 i e . . S gl Fl also serves to sti ffen the whole ﬂoor and equilibrate the th e f r 1 2 t . pressure . When bearing exceeds , two ows of n struts b ecome necessary, another row bei g provided for

a . every 4 ft . of be ring There are two methods of strutting in general use - Pieces t b a of jois ing a out the s me depth as the joists themselves,

T R A N D 1 2 4 CARPEN Y JO INERY .

m 0 ft 6 . 1 . across the roo to be ﬂoored at distances from ft to , and the bridging joists are laid across these as shown in th e illustration . As the whole weight of the ﬂoor comes upon these bi nding joists, care should be taken that they are not placed over

Openings, but upon the piers between such openings . The d i stance between the binders is of course regulated by th e distribution of solids and voids, and must be carefully con

144 ou e oor . . D bl Fl

si e r d e d by the architect . For this reason a double ﬂoor is a h often m ore satisf ctory t an a single ﬂoor , as it brings the l pressure on to points calcu ated to receive it . The hinders a a should rest on stone templ tes pl ced in a recess in the wall ,

n - b thus allowi g of an air space all round the ends of the inder, ar and preventing decay or dry rot . The common joists e 1 d n as . an either otched shown in ﬁg 4 4, supported on ﬁllets n ailed to the side of the binder, or the binder is notched T A N D I Z CARPEN RY JOINERY . S

and the common joists laid across . As it is necessary to w i b eaken the binder as l ttle as possi le, the former is the better d o n metho . I n double floors the ceiling may be placed the unders ide of the common joists , and the binder treated so as to be visib le below ; or ceiling - joists a re pl aced from binder a to binder, and fixed in some cases by means of chase mortise , as shown in fig . 43 in a previous chapter . . One adv antage of this form of fl oor is that the passage of sound fro m one r oom to another is reduced to a minimum by the air - sp ace formed between the ceiling - joists and b ridging

H H H H H

H H H H H H H 1 2 6 T CARPEN RY AND JOINERY . j oists ; the latter are stiffened by having a bearing of not

1 0 ft . t more than , and the ceilings in consequence are no so liable to crack from vibration . A table of scantlings for bindi ng joists is given on page 1 2 5 ’ re d l u a 6 o d s . T g r le for sc ntlings of binders, ft apart, where D =d e th B = b re ad th L =le n th i n p in inches, in inches, g feet . l =3 D . x . J g for ﬁr, or 35 3 for oak L2

x 0 x . D 2 4 for ﬁr, or 44 for oak

- 14 ou e ram e oor . 5 . D bl f d Fl

— 1 u F s . . 3 . FRAMED LO O R This type of ﬂoor (ﬁg 45) is sed for spans of large dimensions , and consists of girders , binders,

and bridging joists . The girders are usually placed about 1 0 n ft . apart from ce tre to centre, or as dictated by the

exigencies of the plan .

1 2 8 T CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

The girders either have the binders, B , framed into them by ” — - o r means of a short tenon known as a stub tenon , what — is more frequently adopted nowadays an iron stirr u p is a as pl ced over the girder, shown in the ﬁgure, and in this stirrup the binder rests . This is a much better method , as

' the girder is no t we ak e ne d in any way by being cut into to m “ for the mortise, and it should always be employed in a

- a bearing of any size, in preference to the old f shioned m ortise and tenon . When , however, the mortise and tenon are used , the j oints of two opposing binders should not be place d a n opposite e ch other, as this would weake the girder too e much, but should be placed in interm diate positions . ’ T re d gold s rule for scantlings of girders is

D 3 x x . J, for ﬁr, or for oak

8 2 x 74 for ﬁr, or x for oak .

T - B 4 . C OMPOSI E FLOORS . ythe increasing use of iron and b h as steel in uildings , it become usual to employ girders of

a 1 6 ft. w these materi ls in spans over , especially in to ns where they are easily procurable ; and as the carpenter has to ﬁx his j oisting to these girders, it has been thought advisable to consider these under the heading of composite ﬂoors .

. 1 w Fig 4 7 sho s their general setting out, in which it will be seen that the common or bridging joists are ﬁxed or spiked

w a . to ood pl tes , which are bolted to the iron joists This b method of construction is eing extensively used, and may be O ld said to have superseded the timber forms, where iron is a n att i able . The strengthening and trussing of girders has been taken n and u der a special chapter, specially devoted to that subject, need not here be referred to .

- FL R — . T D A 5 FIRE RESIS ING WOO O O s . form of ﬂoor b which has een used occasionally , and which has much to 1 0 recom mend it , is that shown on page 3 (ﬁg . The patent was originally taken out by Messrs . E vans and

S . w wain It ill be seen that the joists are laid alongside,

N 1 30 CARPENT R Y A D JOINERY .

touching one another . The depths of the joists in a con 8 struction of this kind varies from 4 5 in . in a span of ft . to

1 1 f 0 - l . o . in in a span _ 3 ft The under side may be p aned and a left visible, or provided with a plaster ceiling , in which c se

- — n the key is obtained by counter lathi g, as shown . This system of construction is largely in use in the New E ngland S tates of America, and is employed there for the ﬂoors of warehouses . In one example which came under the writer ’s notice the h c w . . ﬂoors ere constructed of 9 in by 3 in joists , touc ing ea h other over these was placed a layer of asbestos paper and

- ire r e sis ti n oor . 148 . F g Fl

wo n t layers of ﬂoor boarding, with their j oints runni g in the

opposite direction . The j oists were supported on wooden k a u 2 6 . b eams resting on o prights, which were ft . in square

in the basement . As showing the belief in this system as a ﬁ re - resisting i construct on , the American insurance companies give pre

fe re ntial ra es for buildings of his class . t — t 6 R K . G . G ENERAL EMAR S irders should never, if possible, a w be l id over openings , but here it is unavoidable, the plates o h sh uld be strong enoug , or should be supported sufﬁciently

T A N D CARPEN RY JOINERY .

1 eili n —oists b e to place the weight on the p ers . C gj for dou l

“ a n f f e b . 2 t. and fr med floors are ge rally of stu f a out 3 ft by , or some such scantling as will cut out of a deal without waste . They should be supported at least every ei ght or ten h . n w feet I n single floors they are freque tly dispensed it , th e lathing and plastering being fixed to the underside of th e

- e floor joists . They should not be plac d further apart than 1 4 in . centre to centre , and in single floors , every fifth or 2 sixth bridging joist is often made in . deeper than the other

and the - f joists , ceiling joists are a ﬁxed to these .

Wall - lates m p should, of course, be ade stronger as th e f n n are span becomes longer, and the ollowi g scantli gs recommended

0 - ft - 2 . w . For a bearing, all plates 42s by 3

- 0 6 . 3 ft . by 4

o ‘ ft 4 ' n 75 b y 5 W f hen not of su ﬁcient length , they are connected by means of halving, bevelled halving, or dovetailed notching these joints are shown in the article on j oints in carpentry . The

d w - a th joists are either spike on to the all pl tes, which is e

- n . W most usual way, or they are otched and nailed all plates ' ff w may either rest on o sets from the all, as in the ground story (ﬁg . 1 43) or they may rest on corbels of brickwork m C ade to receive them, as shown at , either of which i s much better than the usual method of re sting them on the inner th e t part of the wall , thus interfering with general hickness

w . of the all In alterations or additions, or in rebuilding w - w here party alls already exist, a good plan is to insert

- - w . heavy angle irons at intervals, into hich the wall plates rest — I h a u . t s ﬂ e s TRIMMING been explained that where occur, it is necessary, in order to prevent the ends of joists entering m ; the , to trim round these obstructions Trimming has also f to be executed for openings in loors , as where staircases

- . a u 1 (fig 1 44) or tr p doors occur . The ill stration (fig . 4 3) in d a shows the method adopted or er to avoid a firepl ce , and the method of forming the trimmer arch to support the stone 1 8 hearth . According to the London Building Act, 94, the 1 2 hearthstone has to be in . longer than the width of the

h - 8 n and 1 . c im ey o pening, to be at least in in front of a u z b e the bre st, so this reg lates the si e of the Space to T A 1 CARPEN RY N D JOINERY . 33

r - . b h t im med The rick trimmer arch is t rown from the br’ick wo “ 1t rk of the breast to .th e trimmer, and sometimes is s u pported by means of a ﬁllet formed as a skew - back to the m si de of the tri mer . I n cases where there are no ceiling ” o h l i - r d j ists, w at are known as ﬁ l ngih pieces a e inserte to u S pport the l aths for th e plasteri ng of the ceiling . The method show n " of forming a trimmer arch refers to a case in wh ich the j oists run at right angles to the wall ; when they ar e parallel the trimm er arch is turned against one of the o m c ntinuous joists which becomes the tri ming joist, and

1 a e r oor 49. G ll y Fl .

wa short trim mers are carried from this to the ll . It m ay be h mentioned t at trimmer arches are being less used , their a h place being t ken by coke breeze concrete, w ich is supported on ﬁll e ts nailed to the jo 1sts surrounding the opening . I t h as already been in timated th at timbers should h ave a cle ar space all round their ends to prevent decay in no case h u h t e a . n should t ey be allowed to be b ilt into w ll In additio , all ﬂoors should be thorou ghly ventilated by means of air bricks in the outer walls s o as to ensure a thorough current b a of air . For the same reason care should e t ken to leave 1 T A N D 34 CARPEN RY JOINERY .

holes in the sleeper walls . For the sake of economy joists should be placed the narrowest way of the room and should be used so as to form a tie to the enclosing walls . This is a very important point and contributes largely to th e stability

. a of the building For this reason joists may, with advant ge , ' be made to go in different directions o ver each ﬂoor to form horizontal ties at points in the height of the building . Those h in who ave travelled on the C ontinent, especially Belgium a and Holland, will h ve noticed the charmingly designed iron ties on the face of the brickwork, these are connected with the floors by means of bolts and therefore conduce to the stability of the wall .

- f LO R s . G 7 . GALLERY F O allery loors may be either held upon cantilever trusses or supported in some such way as shown in our illustration (fig . which is one of the trusses a of the side gallery of a ch pel . The framing should be strong a and secure , as g lleries are frequently crowded with a large illu stratic n v number of people . The is merely gi en as an a example, e ch case has to be specially provided for. The ’ sizes are in some cases governed by rules , as children s galleries in Board Schools under the E ducation D ep art ment . The scantlings are marked on the example given . ’ H aving touched on the various forms of nakea fl oor ing i n no w fitl general use, we may proceed y to discuss floor s covering .

T A N D I CARPEN RY JOINERY . 37

I n order to minimise the - effects of shrinkage ﬂo o r- boards should be laid in as narrow widths as possible, from batten in c an widths to strips of 3 in . and 4 . , as the joints be kept “ ” o ff tighter . The edge of each joint is shot or smoothed

m w . with a plane, for ing what is kno n as a butt or plain joint

The boards should all be brought to the same width , have

- b e filliste r a . their edges shot, and gauged with a pl ne In laying they are generally brought tightly together by means “ ” a of flooring cr mps ; the method of being laid folding, a alre dy described, is only used in common floors . The i board , being cramped into pos tion , is secured to th e joist ” b fl at- a d by flooring rads, or sided n ils , which , being riven

n a . in parallel to the grai , have no tendency to split the bo rd S b ecret nailing is adopted in re ated floors, and in the better 1 2 ffi class generally , and is seen in fig . 5 , which su ciently explains the process . The boards b eing seldom long enough to go right across the room their ends have to be butted ’ ’ lze aazn o int against an adjoining board ; this is called a g j , and it is evident that these should occur on a joist in order f b to make a satis actory junction , and that they should reak j oint on plan in order to counteract any tendency of th e boards to slide out of position . There are different ways of bu tt forming these heading j oints . They may be simply j oints , or, as is usually the case, they may have splayed or b as 1 0 . bevelled headings, at H in fig . 5 This is the etter course, as it is more likely to keep the ends in position . and a and Other forms are grooved tongued, reb ted tongued ,

a . or forked headings , which are seldom used in pr ctice

- - 2 T T T E . . 1 0 . . PLAIN OR BU JOIN D FLOORING Fig 5 I n this the boards are simply laid side by side, their edges b having een previously shot, and are held down to each

w . joist by g o nails — . R T 3 EBAT ED AND O HER FORMS . The practice of joining a a he edges of boards by me ns of reb tes , or of ongues t , t a e E a and grooves , ppears to hav been introduced into ngl nd a a in the fifteenth century . The inevit ble shrink ge in floors will always cause a straight - jointed floor to open along the

edge . This is to be avoided in all cases, but it is especially a harmful in certain c ses . For instance, in a ground ﬂoor

“ - w resting on sleeper alls, and having no ceiling beneath , the K T 1 38 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

h s air would blow up t rough the joints and cause draught , an d in a warehouse, where no plaster ceilings are put, the dirt and dust would pass from one ﬂoor to another unless a some means , such as we sh ll show, were introduced as a preventive . It is advisable, therefore, for sanitary reasons ,

u se u . as to some form of tong ed ﬂoor Other reasons, such

- n the unsightliness of the nail holes, prove the ecessity for the rebated floor . There are several forms, some of which we illustrate . ’ ' — t t a oor zn . . 1 1 R e a e fl g This is shown in fig 5 , and consists v a in each board ha ing a reb te on each side, fitting into that a of the adjacent one, the boards being n iled as in an ordi nary floor . ’ — R ebat d r ooved ana ton u ed . . 1 2 e , g , g Fig 5 is an extension of the above joint, in which it will be observed that besides the rebate a groove and tongue is worked on the adjacent ' edges o f each board . In this case , the boards can be

- secret nailed, as shown , and they are held in position by the m tongue . This for is used in good floors, in which visible n ails would be an eyesore . ’ ’ — P lou /zea a na ton u ed . 1 . g g Fig 5 3 I n this form , a groove is run along the side of each board ‘ by means of a plough n plane , an d a wooden or iron to gue is inserted these as as b Should b e kept low down possi le, in order that by the m a wear of the floor it y not be reached . This form is a speci ally suit ble for warehouses , in which no plaster ceilings x d as are fi e , it prevents dust from descending through the open joints of the floor, and is not much more expensive th an plain shot edges . — h Gr oove d and ton u ed . 1 g Fig 5 5 shows t is method , which

. an is not often used A groove is run along one board , d a tongue on the adjoining board ﬁts into it . This form a possesses the disadv ntages of cost, and has no ad vantages

- n over the last amed joint . ’ ’ — . 1 . R eba te d ana ﬁ lletea. Fig 5 4 This form is essenti ally a one for ﬂoors on which rough work is n ticipated, as in b warehouses and b arracks . A thin re ate is taken out of the f d underside o each e ge of the board, which is occupied by

a metal or wooden tongue . It will be seen that almost the whole depth of the ﬂoor is available for wear before the

tongue is exposed .

A N 1 46 CARPENT RY D JOINERY .

. u r ﬂooring is well adapted to all kinds of work For ch ches, m a a fﬁ h wood blocks in . y be t ken as su cient ; for sc ools , a a w 2 . 1 % in . to in and for f ctories an d b rracks, here very 1 x as 2 rou gh wear is e pected , blocks as thick 57 in . may be employed . T a 5 . PARQUE FLOORS are composed of thin l yers of wood worked into some geometrical pattern , either extending over

' th e whole room or used only as a border rou nd the a b e room . The p rquet may laid direct on to the joists o n or is often l aid the top of an ordinary floor . This type of flooring is kept clean by the use of turpentine m and waxing, and is in every respect a ore sanitary a a finish to a room th n ordin ry washed floors . Parquet is

. in . k 1 . m ade in all thic nesses from r"; in to , and of oak ,

n &c . wal ut , or teak , l Parquet floors are also made to be removab e, an d are & c often laid down for temporary purposes, as for dances, . Mackenzie’s patent removable parquet ﬂooring is e asily a ﬁxed , each section being grooved an d tongued with met l

. tongues , and ﬁxed with secret nails This ﬂooring has a metallic backing which prevents its being affected by any

- r - a fr shrinking of the su b ﬂo o . C ork carpet ﬂoors are lso e m quently laid down for bathroo s, as the material being a non - conductor it is warm to the touch . n s f n There are various other pate t for these loors, havi g n m i e the same object in view, but they eed not be ent on d here . — have t o fte n S FLO O R s . 6 . PECIAL Floors to be constructed i for special purposes . Those used for danc ng Should a as s always be specially tre ted , so to give the neces ary

e fl o o r- a spring . To effect this obj ct boards are often l id on ’ r at a and . ind iaru b b e , as the King s H ll , Holborn , elsewhere ’ At the King s Hall the flooring to the main hall is floored

- in a ind iaru b b e r with oak in 3 . widths , l id on strips of placed

a in. on the j oists , bout 5 thick , in order to give the requisite elasticity for dancing purposes . ’ L A rt a r c l R ondelet , in de B ti , mentions a pe u iar ﬂoor are erected at Amsterdam , in which no j oists whatever used . S n a — a ar e x 0 . I t is a room 6 ft . square tro g w ll pl tes ﬁ ed round m w a the roo , secured ith iron straps at the ngles , and rebated 1 1 CARPENT RY A N D JOINERY . 4

c to receive the ﬂooring, which onsists of three thicknesses of 1 5 in . b oards without any joists . The ﬁrst layer is a placed di gonally across the room , and made to rise

2 . a 4, in higher in the centre th n the sides . The second 1 a a a layer of § in . boards is lso l id di gonally, but the reverse l a way to the ﬁrst, to which it is wel n iled . The third layer 1 l of 5 in . boards is placed para lel to one side of the r and l . oom , is also wel nailed to the boards beneath A ll a are n the bo rds grooved and to gued to each other, and 1 thus form a solid ﬂoor 4 ? in . in thickness . Other instances a could be n med , which are not, however , of interest in a a practical w y. H C APT E R XIV .

I N T T A N D FRAM ING PAR I IONS FRAME HOUSES .

BE FORE treating of the subjects of p artitions and framewo rk o n houses , a few remarks the designing and jointing of m a an a trusses y be of service d interest . The object t h t should be sought in a ' syste m of fra ming is to direct the pressu re into the longit u dinal direction of the timb ers composing the frame therefore the joints should be c o n structed so as to direct the pressure down the axes of the h l . a a pieces It Often appens th t, by sett ement or shrink ge, the pressure has to be sust ained entire ly upon the angu lar u a nd points of the joints , which are inj red by the strain , u thus often ca se a fu rther settlement . I n timber structu res a a x e of m gnitude this becomes manifest to an al rming e t nt, a P e rro ne t h a f ct that must have been brought home to , w en seven or eight pieces of each frame of his centre for the “ N C . 1 1 6 w bridge at euilly (see chapter on entres, ﬁg ) ere m fractured fro end to end , even although the joints were not very oblique . h When one piece of timber is perpendicular to anot er , the m ost usual as well as the most easy method is to m ake

a - h the joint squ re, with a short tenon of about one fourt of a the thickness of the framing to ret in it in position . C a are must be taken to cut the joint ccurately , or the has pressure will bear solely on the projecting parts . I t been suggested that the end of the perpendicular post should be convex and fit into a concave sinking in the horizontal beam although this would allow the joint m ore l a b a a p y, it has een proved by Hodgkinson th t in long pill rs which are fl at and firmly b edded the resistance to fracture by fl e xu re is three times greater than whe n rounded and c apable a a of turning , though this is somewh t less in short pill rs . n at When it is required to joi two pieces of timber, not t he a n b e r e n right angles, butme t if possi le should be p p a d ic u lar to the strain . In the c se of a principal rafter

- joining the tie beam , the rafter should be cut into the latter

1 44 C ARPENT RY AND JOINERY .

e posts or quarters (Q, ﬁg . about three fe t apart, divided by horizontal nogging pieces (N , ﬁg .

1 . . w not from in to 3 in thick, hich are generally ﬁxed more

a . th n 3 ft apart . I n common work and where space is a great consideration , the bricks are placed on edge, and thus Bric k n e d the width of the partition is reduced to 3 in . ogg a f p rtitions are generally used only on the ground loor, or where they have a continuous bearing, an d of course when

b - ih it is possible to uild a 9 . wall they should not be used . It is contended by some th at they become damp when used

1 9 u ar t e r o r ram e ar titio n 5 . Q F d P on the ground ﬂoor but if they are built on a good fou nd a a l tion with proper damp course, this argument can hard y a B ric k no e d apply any more th n it would to other walls . gg a an b p rtitions do not require y races, and are, in fact, better

- a are . without them , as cracks from cross str ins thus avoided 2 P A R T I T I O N — T s . I n . QUAR ER OR FRAMED cases where a m a no doorw y is required , these may consist Si ply of he d H ,

S . 1 sill , and quarters Q, as shown in ﬁg 5 9, which may be ff a d ou ble sti ened by braces B , B , meeting ag inst th e head of a T Y A N D CARPEN R JOINERY .

u a r ter in D q g Q, and thus assisting to transmit the weight on f to th e walls . The quarterings are sti fened by nogging pieces 1 every few feet . In ﬁg . 5 9 the following scantlings would — ’ fO r x 2 0 . z Heao . be used a bearing not e ceeding ft , 45 m

x x t d s . s ll . . u ar te r in s or s u 3 in . i , 45 in 3 in q g , 45 in ’ x 2 . aou ble u ar te r in s or r inci al osts . x . i n q g p p p , 45 in 3 in

b r aces x no in ieces x 2 . , 45 in . 3 in . gg gp , 3 in . in T h e ends of the head and sill should have a good bearing " w - w o h on ﬁr all plates, and thus keep the eight the ﬂoor, which probably would not be equ al to carrying the addi tio nal m load concentrated o n to so s all an area . The upper ends of the qu ar ters should be secured to the head by iron

160. u ar te r ar tition ram e for one oor Q P , f d d .

straps after having been tenoned into it, and they should b a a br aces — utt ag inst and be n iled to the , and stub tenoned

’ i . b e nto the sill The braces should housed into the sill, and also into the heads of the principal posts . 1 The studs should be about ft . apart , centre to centre , which will allo w of the laths being conveniently nailed to them . W w here a door ay is required in a quarter partition , the

“ method generally adopted is that shown in ﬁg . 1 60 . In this case the braces are tenoned into the prm c ipal posts at Y‘ 1 46 C ARPENT RY AND JOINER .

h the level of t e straining beams , and it will be seen that by this method the weight is well trans mitted to the walls . T r e d go ld advises that the braces should be placed at an

n . a gle of 4 0 deg . to the sill T T in t 3 . TRUSSED PAR I IONS are used the place of quar er partitions where it is required to assist in supporting the 6 1 . 1 ﬂoor above . Fig represents a trussed partition having a wide aperture in th e centre to receive folding o f n doors . It practically consists two very stro g trusses ,

- the sill of the upper one being the inter tie (I) . This

161 T r u ss e artiti o n . d P

ﬂOor is a very strong partition , well adapted to carry the a bove , and its strength is still more increased by the a — iron rods running from sill to he d through the inter , tie,

and securely bolted . ’ one - ou r t/z tr u ssea This partition is called f , meaning that

- e the upper truss occupies one fourth of the whole h ight . One of the best methods of tre ating a partition where two w door ays occur, one adjacent to each extremity, is shown 6 2 1 . in ﬁg .

N D CARPE NT RY A JOINE RY .

- In this example the inter tie I , the posts P , and the

- u - braces B form a kind of king post tr ss . The door posts are secured to the inter - tie by straps ; the king - post is ma de e u ivale nt h two q to running t rough the trusses, owing to the , 1 6 a use of the strap shown in ﬁg . 3 . In this c se it will be r u n seen that the sill does not through from wall to wall ,

- owing to the ﬂoor joists running transversely under it, and thus preventing it being placed between two of them . I t will be seen that the whole system of framing is dependent th e has upon upper truss, which not only to sustain itself d an a b . the lower portion , but has also to c rry the ﬂoor a ove

é ft Z .

ar ti t io n ram e for t h re e oo rs . 164. P f d d

1 6 The line diagram shown in ﬁg . 4 represents a partition

- s and framed on the principle of the queen po t trust , designed w for th e purpose of having three door ays , one in the centre an a d the other two at each end . The symmetric l arrange ment of the doors renders it easy to place the pressure on

a - - the w lls . Th e queen posts run right through the inter tie

- to the sill , and the inter tie itself is connected by straps

- across th e queen post . the a The braces , which correspond to princip l rafters i n

- f b x a a queen post truss , are sti fened y struts ﬁ ed ag inst the T A N D 1 CARPEN RY JOINERY . 49

- ie e - h i nter t and qu en post, as s own . As in the last case, the stability of this partition i s pri nci pally dependent upon the u pper truss . a W th e — I n c ses here door posts do not come on to a joist , ﬁ r r ings are ﬁxed between two of the joists upon which the extremities rest . Owing to imperfect j oints , and the t he tendency of timber to shrink, settlements frequently and occu r in partitions, often serious cracks are found to a a occur fter they h ve been plastered . It is very essential

- a b l that only well se soned tim er be emp oyed , and the partitions should be left some time after they are erected , and h t a n b e wit the whole ul im te weight upo them , efore th y

' la e tak e th e ir are p stered , so that th y may bearings, and any x d efect be made good . The arrises of all timbers e ceeding

2 5 in . in width should be bevelled off so as to admit of the

’ r l plastering having a proper key . T e d go d gives the follo w ing data which will serve as a useful guide

l s . r u a r b p e s q e . The weight of a square of partitioning may " to be taken at from i The weight of 'a square of single joist fl oor to w - ﬂ oo rin ing, ithout counter g The weight of a square of framed ﬂooring to with counter- fl ooring

Scantlings for the pr incipal timbe r s of a part tion b eari ng its ow n wen t only

x i n fo r n 2 6 . 4 in . 3 . bearing not exceedi g ft

x . 0 . 4 in . 35 in 3 ft

x . 0 . 6 in . 4 in 4 ft

h s I f the partition a to sustain the weight of a ﬂoor or roof, the sizes of the timbers must be incre ased to m ee t the addition al strain that will come upon them . The ﬁlling- in pieces should be just thick enough to

a i . e . 2 . nail l ths to, , about in

FRAMEWORK HOUSES are , as a rule , only erected in this country at the present time where other b u ilding

x a & c . m ateri als are e pensive, owing to the cost of carri ge, ,

a - or in the case of h lf timber houses , and sometimes for

- h - w tile ung exteriors . Wood framed alls are also frequently 1 0 T A N D ‘ 5 CARPEN RY JOINERY .

as e a - used for such purposes crick t p vilions , summ er hou ses , — and such like structures .

Fig . 1 65 shows the kind of building which is sometimes erected at the present day ; the framing used in all such a n constructions being of a very simil r ature . T he sound rule of construction of placing void over and void and solid over solid , which by symmetry corre spo nd e nc e of parts is always agreeable is as essential in b tim er as in any other kind of structure, and all the vertical a timbers , even to the qu rterings, should be so designed that no unnecessary strain be brought on the horizontal timbers . 1 6 S l In ﬁg. 5 , shows the ground sil , P the principal posts ,

- e a I the inter ti s secured by str ps, all the vertical timbers a being in the same pl ne . The ground sill receives the

tenons of the principal posts, the posts in return receiving

r ssu m rs - the tenons of th e b e e or inter ties , which latter

carry the ﬂoors . At the top the head or crownin g beam is a mortised to receive the tenons of the posts . The br ces divide the parallelograms formed by the vertical and hori zo ntal an ff timbers into tri gles, thus sti ening them , and n helpi g to keep their original form . Between the bres

sumers the door or jamb posts are framed , as are also the

window posts . The horizontal pieces framed into these, to transo m e s form the heads of the openings, are called or l a lintels , and there are also the sil pieces of a simil r con

struction . All beams which are framed into the principal

posts should be strengthened by an iron strap, and in the

- case of those returning to form the side walls, there should

a - be right angle strap going round the post .

- th e i n o f In half timbered work , fram g the carcase being a complete, the interstices are ﬁlled in with sm ll stones set a in mortar or concrete, the timbers h ving been previously a dressed 011 their exposed f ces . In many half- timbered hous e s the ground - ﬂo o r story is

b ﬁ re - m a a of rick or other resisting teri ls, and the wood Sill

a o n first - flo o r is pl ced the wall at the level , or is projected an fi W out d supported on the joists of the rst floor. here

h - alf timber is not adopted, the face of the framing, interior e and ext rior, is lathed and plastered , or faced with wooden

1 5 2 CARPENT RY A N D JOINERY .

a w b oards . The sp ce bet een the inside and outside face is a often ﬁlled up with some non conducting materi l . i Instead of lathing and plastering, the exter or face is w a i n often covered ith fe ther edged boarding , as shown ﬁg .

1 6 . 5 , and wooden cornices and other features are added In Ameri ca t i mber - framed houses are rather the rule than y the exception in the country districts . Being substantiall and b a built, the spaces etween the inner and outer f ces

- , specially treated with slag wool and double boarding _they are preferred by m any as b eing of a more equable a n S temper ture than ordi ary built houses . In weden a l a a 2 . a dwarf w ll , bout ft high, of gr nite is genera ly built ;

h 8 . r on t is the sill is placed and the posts , about in squa e,

are mortised to it, and the rest of the construction pro

c e e d e d with as previously described . The framing is then w a v . co ered on the inside ith j" in deal bo rding, and the o a a utside with two thicknesses of the s me, the ﬁrst being l id

r . ho izontally, the second vertically _ The joints of the latter are covered by ﬁllets nailed along their length . The void

between the two faces is ﬁlled with shavings or moss . More elaborately framed houses m ay be constructed on the

in a - pr ciples enunci ted previously under trussed partitions . HAP C TER XV .

A R P E N T R Y ORNAMENTAL C .

U P to the present our articles have dealt princip ally with carpentry as a constructive science, and with comparatively l ittle regard to artistic merit. The reader, on referring a n back , will observe th t constructive ecessity has initiated and controlled the shapes of the various types , and that in m any , if not most cases , the constructions were to have an been built in ediﬁce, and when ﬁxed were not to be visible . In such cases, it is but natural that little care should be expended on the appearance, and , in fact, it would be waste of time and labour to ornament it . Works on invariably leave out the decorative side “ car’ pentry l th e has ad vis of craft, and therefore it been thought able to include in this book a chapter in which the setting out and construction of some of the most usu al types of ’ decorative carpenter s work are explained . We m ust guard a e f the reader, however, gainst the id a that we are o fering these examples, even the ancient ones , as models of design they are merely given as illustrations of the type of work which is referred to . — - K T . I n HALF IMBER WOR the middle ages, houses formed w of timber framing ere common , and perhaps usual , in both town and country, and many are the picturesque groups of cottages and town fronts which are rapidly disappearing S l from our midst . In London the taple Inn , Holborn , stil

remains as an admirable example of this type, and should be studied in its detail for the true principles of this type of x building, of which it is in every way an admirable e ample . The ﬁre of London in 1 666 must have been responsible for the loss of a large number of important timber - fram ed houses . In C hester are an admirable series of such house

fronts, many of which have from time to time been illus h B u ld r trate d in t e i e . Houses on a larger scale are also th numerous , especially throughout e counties of Lancashire and C heshire , 1 5 4 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

A small illustration of a gable to a house at Hereford l s given as an example (ﬁg . showing the curved braces which are inserted as stiffening pieces, and whose design in a a many c ses is elabor te and effective . O ak u r sho ld of cou se be employed , where possible, as solid framing, but where this is impossible, it is often used a fa 1 as thin cing ( 5 in . ) to ﬁr posts and rails behind . Th e general framing of these buildings is composed in modern

in . work of upright posts and rails of timber, 45 in . by 45 ,

G ab l e t o a h ou se at e r e o r . 166. H f d m 6 i n. 6 . or in by , ortised and tenoned into each other, and a pinned where necessary with oak pins . C urved br ces are

inserted not only for strengthening the framing , but also as

an aid a . to the design , as shown in the illustr tion O ak has often been tarred in old houses for th e sake o f

preservation , and presents a very quaint appearance as seen in Lancashire and C heshire or the surface may b e left its

na a a . a a tur l f ce If _pine is used it may be tre ted simil rly or

1 6 5 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

- — BARGE BOARDS form a neces sary termi nation to a timber ' roof and are u su ally employed not only for half- timber houses but also - in other houses of a domestic type though “ it must be admitted th at those of the more ornamental

‘ c n lass are too often , whether in a cient or modern work , little better in an architectural sense than wh at m ay be “

. S called gimcrack till , there is a desire for them at

times , and if made at all they should be well and carefully

- a . a m de Th e purlins , ridge, and w ll plate project beyond t h e 1 2 ft. an . face of the gable from to , d support the rafters

ar e oar r o m r oit wic h . 169. B g b d f D

The end rafter is covered with what is known as a barge or

- 1 . verge board , and the tiles or roof covering proj ect in to

- 2 . 1 1 . in beyond its face . Barge boards, if over in wide , a n should be framed . In cert in cases they are teno ed at the

e . ridge into an upright post call d a ﬁnial, and are often a r d xa C el bo ately treate , as in the e mple from oventry,

- . 1 68 a ﬁg , in which a portion of the barge board is lso

- - shown on each side . An Open work barge board is also ﬁ 1 6 D given , g. 9, from an old house at roitwich , and a better

a ﬁ . 1 0 designed ex mple g 7 , from a cottage at Worsborough , T Y A N D I CARPEN R JOINERY . S7

a Y . zsho ws near B rnsley, in orkshire It a rather elaborate

- a s e c im e n o f a . p a barge bo rd , carved beam , and gable ﬁni l a w In the w lls in old ork, the face timbers occupy as much m ' roo as the intervening spaces, which gives a look of

o t e a . T s lidity, some im s w nting in modern examples his close spacing should be adopted it is shown in th e present illustration . TURRET S and fe atures of a like nature are often formed ‘ f n a a d . on the summits of roo s, both for use orn ment They may contai n an extract ventilator from one of the rooms l w be o , in which case they are treated so as to form an

1 0 G a - end rom o r r u h 7 . ble f W sbo o g .

' n A ' tu rr t artistic scre e . e of this kind often contains a A l a n bell . plan , e ev tion , and section of a desig for one

‘ ﬁ 1 of these is given ( gs . 77 and a reference to which l f w ' ‘ wil su ﬁciently sho the construction . As a feature of ‘ x a fh this kind i s e posed, it is necess ry to be braced su c 1e ntl w a - y to enable it to ithst nd considerable wind pressure ,

- and it cross braced in addition . It will ‘ ‘ b e no tic e d that the rafters to , the upper part are framed into

' a c a - entral post, through which tie rod passes , receiving the

o - r n is f ‘ ir n Weather cock . The upper po tio su ﬁciently ven T A N o 1 CA RPEN RY JOINERY .

il n t ate d by m ea s of the small louvres . The central post is held 1n position by t wo pieces of stuff passing on each side a of it, holding it to two sides of the oct gon . The framing to support the b ell is indicated . The posts to the octagon r f a a e . 2 out of 4 in stu f ; that forming the rching is in . thick , a tongued into the framing , the sh ped truss at the bottom 2 f u is out of ; in . stu f, grooved and tong ed i nto the posts , and held ﬁ r m by oak pins . The cornice is m ade up as shown .

E T are . 1 DOV CO S framed up in a similar way Fig s . 79 1 80 a a and show an ex mple lately erected over some st bles , where it was necessary to arrange for a ventilating shaft i n

or c h r m h u rc h o f u in t on . 172. lan of or c h . 171 . P f o C H dd g P p

o f the centre . It will be seen that it is very simple con

b . . a struction , eing 4 ft square over all The ngle posts are in a in . . b . . 5 in y 5 , intermediate posts 4 in by 4 , fr med at a a top and bottom into rails pinned with o k pins . The ngle

posts are carried down and framed with strong 6 in . _ rafters - I by 4 in . The pigeon holes are framed out of i in . boarding,

a 1 . b a n and the ventil ting shaft is also of ; in rough o rdi g,

n and - ploughed and to gued , made air tight with double

hinged and weighted ﬂaps at b ottom . The rafters are 4 in .

b in . y 3 , covered by rough boarding, spaces at the top being

1 60 Y CARPEN T RY A N D JOINER .

o ak w by pins, which are allo ed to project and tell their

tale . Th e illustra tion (ﬁg . 1 73) will ex plain the general principle of these

constructions .

C o N SE R VA T O R I E S . A lthough these have often not t e c e ive d the attention they deserve there is some scope fo r the

carpenter . An end elevation is given of

one lately erected, in which an attempt was made to improve on the ordinary stock pattern (ﬁg . T h e illu stratio n shows

the posts, out of stuff 6 in . 1 in . by 45 , and 75 . E n e e ati on of onse r at r d l v C v o y. the casements, and also the m oulded rafters and sliding sashes . GAT ES have to be very carefully together con sequence of the com parative ly rough wear they have to undergo by opening, shutting, and slamming . The j ointing should b e care fully performed , and the horizontal timbers should be as continu as ous as possible, the strain is mostly on A them . detail of a 1 8 1 gate (ﬁg . ) is given ,

r t o f an of onse r at or . forming an entrance to 176 . Pa pl C v y T h e r s . d n w a drive m etho o fﬁrmly secu i g the posts is ho n . - 1 9 . o e c ot wit h e . 7 . 177 . T u rre t , b ll D v - an oft u rre t . 180. an of o e cot . 178 . Pl Pl d v 1 6 2 T CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

These are 9 in . square, and are taken below th e ground 6 in and a . a to depth of 4 ft . , tenoned into continu ‘

and as . I ous sill , held in position by struts , shown he

a . g te itself is out of 4 in oak , and is 3 in . thick for the

1 1 E ntran at r i 8 c e e t o a e . . g d v principal timbers, the arching and the smaller uprights ff 1 . and . being of 5 in stu , mortised tenoned The oak n pali g at the side is started to show the junction .

Lattic e e nc in . 182. f g

K T I S . 1 A GARDEN WIC E shown in ﬁg 74 . The gate is hung o iron s aples in the wall by means of iron ban s t _ t d

x . with looped ends, ﬁ ed to the style P A LI N s —S G . everal types of these come under the car

1 6 T 4 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

’ E R N 1 — CARPENT RS FU T U R B . Although this may be deemed of hardly to come within the scope these articles , yet seeing that there has been a tendency of late years to drag the designing and execu tion of furniture out of the ” quagmire into which Tottenham C ourt R oad has drawn ’ a it, and to t ke it, as it were, out of the upholsterers hands , i ﬁ tl t. is considered that it might y end this chapter .

Of all things which the architect may design, furniture will assuredly teach him the most . The sizes are prae a tic lly fixed , and he must keep to them , which as a a e tr ining in regard to fitness is excellent . Of bench s, a a n tables , ch irs suitable for h lls, and havi g more of the a stability and solidity than is usual now days , there are many examples of the E lizabethan and Jacobean period the South Kensington Museum and elsewhere which should b e measured and drawn 1 8 to scale by the student ; fig . 5 is an example of the true prin c i le s a p of construction , lthough the decorative portion of the de sign - cannot be recommended in l every respect as an examp e . Individuality should be stamped on furniture as on the carcass of the house itself 5 and i n reality

there seems a tendency, which n we hail with satisfaction , amo g

the more educated classes, to allow the architect to design the whole of the intern al ﬁttings of

. ﬁ his house In the past, such t tings were a necessary comple

ment of the architecture proper . ‘Vb at would the interior O f an 185 h ai r r e nc'h o u r te e nth . C ’ F i f c e n m E li a Wi i t s m , zabeth n Hall be thout a a carved overmantel, its ch r cter istic — doors and enrichments, its sturdy table not covered w a c lo th - and ith to hide its imperfections last, the richly

- m moulded arm chairs ade to last, not for the date of a pass in f t l g ancy or fashion , but for the life of the s ructure itse f. E C HAPT R XVI . — T 1 N o rN E R v. H1N G1 N G JOIN S USED J .

I N treating of this section of our subject the name is an th e a evidence of its importance , for joinery is rt of joining and framing wood for the internal and external ﬁnishing of N a buildings . ewlands distinguishes c rpentry from joinery a c ar e nte t re by this , th t while the work of the p cannot be f n o f th e moved without a fecti g the stability a structure, work

. i m of a joiner may . Being of a finer descr ption a uch greater care and precision is required in joinery than in carpentry . Joinery then , as we understand it, is compara t ve l n a i y a modern art, the first evide ces ppearing in the l G pu pits , screens, thrones , and stalls of our othic cathedrals . I n the earlier samples the work is of such a sim ple nature ' the n o ne that it is surmised that the two crafts were , an d that only in later times has the elaboration of fittings ' tended to separate them 1 6 a The first work on th e subject was in 77, qu intly entitled “ Mechanic E xercises o n the D octrine of Handy works .

To proceed at once , however, to the consideration of oi m a b e joints in j nery, it y mentioned that several of the most common of these have already been referred to under

X - n C hapter I I I . Floor coveri gs . Following the system of h classiﬁcation we have adopted t roughout , joints may be roughly classed under

an I . Joints between boards in the same pl e . a 1 1 . Joints between bo rds meeting at a right angle .

II I . Joints between boards meeting at other than a right

angle . b IV . Joints etween boards in which one is at an inclina

tion to the horizon .

a . V . Joints for v rious purposes

O 1N T HE S P E I . J OINTS BETWEEN B ARDS AME LAN h . t e By referring to C hapter XI I I , such forms as following :P a are discussed l in or butt joint 5 rebated 5rebated, grooved , T 1 66 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

and tongued ; ploughed and tongued ; grooved and tongued b a ﬁlle te d and h re ted and ; dowelled, all of w ich are used a f in the l ying of loors , and may be equally used in other r n positions fo co necting boards in the same plane .

- n 1 Mai d boar d i g (ﬁg . 8 6) consists of b oards pl aced side b and b a y side , ﬁtted into each other y means of groove

formed in one board, into which a tongue formed on the

adjoining board fits . The quirked bead is stuck on th e angle of on e board so that in shrinking th e joint may not ’ b u t be u nsightly , forms a symmetrically shaped moulding . ' ’ - ar d in 1 8 Vjozrzi ea bo g (fig . 7) has the edge of each b oard d chamfere and grooved , and a loose wooden tongue is inserted to keep each in position , the junction of the two f chamfered edges orming a V on plane, hence the name . li — amer s S pfl are thin pieces of hard wood , such as oak , inserted into the length of the boards in grooves cut to receive them . For strength they should be cut across the as ar e grain , otherwise they liable to split along their length . ' ' — ‘ ’ ’ - n n ozm s 1 88 Mor tzse a nd l e o j ( . ) are used in joiners fig ’ a r ff work simil rly as in ca penters , the only di erence being ' a alte re d c irc u m s anc e s that they have to answer somewh t t , and to be executed with the greatest regard to accuracy and u and n finish . The joint is sed in doors , framing ge erally, and the teno n should be m ade about one - third of the thick ness of the stuff on which it is formed the width should as not be more than five times its thickness , , if more , it will a be li ble to bend . The dotted line shows a method of wh at is c alled haunching a tenon by leaving a projecting

1 . piece 5 in . to in in length , which gives the tenon greater strength to resist any side shock . — h D ou ble te nons . t e (ﬁg This form of tenon , which d f n a n rawing su ﬁcie tly expl i s, is used in wide pieces of framing in order to weaken the style i n which the mortise is a s b n a fr med as little as po si le . Two teno s of comp ratively a n as sm ll width do not shri k so much one large one . This

- m ethod is also used for the lock rail of doors, and is pro vid e d a with a h unch between the tenons , which strengthen them . B O N A T I I . J OINTS ETWEEN B ARDS MEETI G A RIGHT A — a — T h e mo f N GLE . . st common form o

1 68 T CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

n w h t o . 1 0 u iting _ boards at an angle is s own in ﬁg 9 , known

- E 15 as the mitre joint . ach edge planed to an angle of

4 5 deg . , and glued to the other . I n order to make a stronger

- 1 1 joint , a slip feather is introduced , as in ﬁg . 9 . In the ff case of boards of di erent thickness, which are often used as 1 2 in conjunction , the joint is effected shown in ﬁg . 9 , in which the mitre on the thicker stuff is formed on to the f corresponding depth on the thinner stu f, the joint therefore

b and - being a com ination of th e mitre simple butt joint . 1 w Fig . 93 sho s another method m which one of the boards 15 is rebated, and a small portion of each mitred ; this joint o may be strengthened y screws each way .

1 a l - I n ﬁg . 94 both bo rds are rebated and a s ip feather

. 1 and 1 6 inserted as a key . Figs 95 9 are combinations of

- grooving and tonguing with the last mentioned joint , they all are, however, seldom used . I n these j oints , the boards n n meeting at an a gle, the slight ope ing at the mitre caused i by shrink age would be scarcely not ceable .

When , however, two pieces of stuff butt against one ' n bu ff- om t a other, a j being formed , it is evident that the shrinkage would cause an open joint . For this reason a bead - moulding is run on the edge of one of the pieces as in

. 1 ﬁg 9 7, where one board is rebated from the back and a a bead is formed on the external angle of the butting board . 1 8 Fig . 9 shows a joint in which a groove is formed on the inner side of one board , into which a tongue on the edge of 1 the other ﬁts . Fig . 99 is similar to the last except that a bead and cavetto is run on the internal angle of one board e l n and a cav tto on the external ang e of the abutti g board , this would somewhat cover the shrinkage of the former board . 2 00 h n Fig . s ows a quirked bead run on the exter al angle of one board and the abutting board I S simply rebated 2 0 1 2 0 2 w u as shown . Figs . and Sho joints sed in the for h 18 mation of cisterns, in which , for strengt , one board con

tinu e d along the face of the adjoining board . ’ ’ - —I o etazl oznts . n b . D v j better class work this form is used

' - T h in preference to a plain mitre joint . e re are three kinds : and of dovetail the common , the lapped, and the lapped

mitre d ,

1 70 CARPENTRY A N D JOIN ERY .

2 0 The common dovetail is shown in fig . 3 . It will be seen that the junction is formed by alternate projections and indentations of a dovetail shape formed on one piece o n of stuff which fit into corresponding spaces the other . In the figure the pins and sockets respectively are m arked P ’ and S , and are seen alternately on each side of the angle . The strongest joint is when the pi ns and sockets are equal a in width , but for cheapness the pins are often pl ced much S farther apart . uch a form of joint is used for the back angles of drawers , which do not show on the face . I n hard oak the wood, such as , the angle of dovetails may evidently have more splay than in soft wood, such as deal , where they would have a tendency to split o ff on any strain being applied . 2 The l apped d ove tail is shown in fig . 04 in this the dove not b e tails are seen only on one side, th e front face ing interfered with , as this portion is not cut through by the dovetails . The joint is generally used for drawers or other n r pieces of joi ery in which the front is desi ed to be kept plain . a e d and mzl r ed d o e l azl 1 8 2 0 i t The l pp v shown In fig . 5 is used In cases where it is intended that the d ovetails should not be visible on either side or on th e top of t h e joint .

About two thirds of the joint is usually dovetailed , the rest being mitred as Shown B M A T I I I . J OINTS ETWEEN BOARDS EETING OTHER THAN — 6— 2 0 A . 2 0 A RIGHT NGLE Figs . 9 show methods which are a adapted to boards meeting at an obtuse ngle, which will sufﬁciently explain themselves . Such joints are useful in many p ositions . B H A T IV . J O INTS ETWEEN BOARDS I N WHIC ONE I S AN — I T o T HE Z . I n NCLINATION HORI ON certain cases, as in

h O e rs & c . ne c e s pp , tubs , , such a joint as indicated above is sary . It is of a dovetail character, and is performed as

ﬁ . 2 1 0 indicated i n g . FO R S —I t V . J OINTS VARIOUS PURPOSE is evident that b joints for various purposes , not mentioned a ove, have to be

w - . b a designed as occasion arises In windo cks, wall linings, h ar &c . e , w ere several widths of boarding united together by ploughed and tongued joints, a piece of wood, called a ke y (ﬁg . is inserted across the grain in a d ovetailed

I 7 2 CARPENTRY A N D JOINERY .

groove prepared to receive it, and prevents any tendency the b oards may have to get out of their proper plane . C l am m and 2 1 2 p g, both plain mitre , is Shown in ﬁgs .

2 1 - b a are and 3, in drawing oards and such like cases, bo rds m C kept in position by being framed into a cla p , placed at e a the ends across their grain , and grooved to rec ive tongue

b as . left on their ends , part eing carried through a tenon 2 1 m Mitre clamping (ﬁg . 3) is si ply performed for the sake of a ppearance . ’ ‘ Gl u ed fozm s are performed by butting two p i eces of wood together, their edges being previously well cleaned and dried and covered with a thin coating of glue and a rubbed together . If properly c rried out , such a joint , with e aid ha no oth r but glue, is stronger t n the wood itself, which , w1ll a a on pressure being applied , cr ck nywhere but on the D a joint . ovet il keys are placed across the grain at the back

of such boards . ’ A Glu ed and B loeked /oznl is used when two boards meet

“

. 2 1 in at an angle, as shown in ﬁg 4 , and when , addition to

d . being glue , a block , B , is inserted in the angle This con sid e rab l y strengthens the joint, which is much used in the

“ ' construction of stairs, as will be explained under that

section .

HINGING . n n w The hingi g or hangi g of doors, windo s, shutters, and

so forth to their frames can now be touched upon . There are many types of hinges and many ways of ﬁxing k each type, in order to ma e them answer certain require m ents but in all considerable care and judgment has to be u exercised for proper adj stment . For th e sake of cle arness they m ay be divided as follow B u l ls are used for ordinary doors and windows which have

. 2 1 no t to clear a projection . Fig 5 shows the hinging of a n a d oor to open at a right angle . Butt hi ges are m de of and and n wrought cast iron brass, the forming varyi g in size

. in I . 1 from i in to 4 in length , the latter from in . to 4 in . The size used in practice varies with the weight and import n ance of the door to b e hu g . ' '

- I n 6 r 1 in A C e nl r e zn Hin e . 2 1 e m tt p g is shown ﬁg , p g the a a a door to open either way, and fold back g inst the w ll in

1 Y 74 CARPENTRY AND JOINER .

T a - either direction . here are v rious other forms of centre pin n w . hi ges , hich need not be referred to ' P r eetzn B u tts n d w Q/ g are used whe a oor, indow, or shutter

. 2 1 2 1 8 has to swing clear of a projection . Figs 7 and Show n a method of hinging employed when the ﬂap , on bei g to a opened has be at a dist nce from the style , as , for example , w in shutters in reveal , or pew doors, and the like , hich have to be swung clear of the mouldings of the capping . R is in B u tts w m — and g , hich ake the door self closing also ha cause it to rise clear of a carpet , consist in the hinge ving w a portion of a spiral thread worked on to it, hich , on Open ing the door, causes it to rise as stated above . The weight of the door causes it to work down on this spiral thread and a shut itself by gr vitation .

T /ze B ark -fl ap or Sine /fe r [finge allows of the leaves fold a 2 1 h the ing back ag inst each oth er . Fig . 9 s ows hing ing of a back - flap when the centre of the hi nge is in the m 0 b iddle of the joint . Fig . 2 2 shows th e manner of inging a back - fl ap when it is necessary to throw the leaf back from the j oint . ' H a nd f] lzznges are sufficiently explained by their name ; they are used for common work and for such cases as ledged

f . doors or where stu f is too thin . to screw butts on the edge C r oss Ga r net:are in shape like the letter I' placed on its Side ; they are used in th e commonest for m of external doors and a re generally about 1 2 in . in length .

Hook - and - E ye hinges are used for gates and heavy outside t h e w doors , the eye being formed on portion hich is secured to the door and which ﬁts over the hook which is secured to the frame . ' A R nl e joznl s u ch as is required for a shutter is shown in

. 2 2 2 2 h ﬁgs 1 and 2 . These can be used w en the piece to be

hung is not required to O pen to m ore than a right angle . In such a case the centre of the hinge is necessarily placed

at the point of juncture of the two pieces . The d ivision of our subject d oes no t permit Ofdescribing or illustrating the elab orate specimens of wrought - iron hinges which form part of the door furniture of the Mediaeval n w period , and which add so largely to the i terest of the ork d of that perio .

H T E R X I C AP VI .

M D I N O U L GS .

MOULDINGS have bee n deﬁned as the varieties of outline or contour given to the various members in a buildin g. In regard to carpentry and joinery we may almost say that nearly all the mouldings applicable to architecture h generally are to be found in use, so t at it becomes necessary to b rieﬂy name and illustrate these and the manner in which they are set out . Any architectural member is said to be moulded when its edge presents continuous lines of alternate proj ections and recesses .

The subject may, historically , be classiﬁed as follows

lassm a o . I . C (so c lled) m uldings

m . I I . Gothic ouldings

I I I . Modern mouldin gs .

— ar I . CLASSIC MOULDINGS . These e so called because they are derived from examples left us . by the Greeks _ and

lle t . 2 2 R omans . Thefi (fig 3) is perhaps the simplest form a a of moulding ; in f ct, it is so simple th t it can hardly be a said to be a moulding proper, but rather a small plain f ce to sep arate other mouldings . It is used largely in connexion a a as i with more el bor te mouldings , in divid ng groups from each other. b a r asl r a a l 2 2 e d o . 4 The _ g (fig ) may be either a plain round a f a formed on the edge of piece of stu f as in the illustr tion , w a a a or, hen formed so th t the surf ce of the cylindrical p rt f and d is lush both with the face edge of the woo , a sinking a a b being m de on the f ce only, the com ination is called a ” quirked bead (fig . If a quirk is formed on each b a a f side of a e d stuck on the ngle of a piece of stu f, as in 2 6 a bead a d d ou bl u ir k 2 e . fig . , the moulding is called n q

These form the simplest kind of mouldings, and are used i n a almost every conceiv ble position in carpentry and joinery, p rincipally for the covering of the joint formed by two con ne c tin d ou ble be ad g pieces of stuff. A moulding called a

1 78 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY

and u ir k q is an extension of the above. It is shown in

. 2 2 m fig 7, and consists of two se i cylindrical mouldings, not necessarily of the same size . t r u fi o s . 2 2 8 The , g , is in many respects similar to a bead , the distinction being that i t is always used in con nexion w . 2 2 ith a fillet, whereas a bead is not so used Fig . 9 shows G a recian form . R d n ee i . 2 0 u o g, fig 3 , is so called when a s ccessi n of semi circular mouldings are stuck on a piece of stuff. ea ei l o l zo v lzo lo . 2 1 The or , fig 3 , is a quadrant of a circle, 2 2 and is much used . Fig . 3 shows the more refined outline which is found in Grecian work . lo u r t 2 ovo a er r ou nd . The or q , fig 33 , is described in a

w a . I S similar way, but ith the convex side outw rds It perhaps

& c . the most common joint used In joinery for sashes , doors ,

‘ Fig . 2 34 shows the same moulding as would pro b ab ly b e found in Grecian work possessing considerably more cha

rac te r a a . , and being less mechanical in ppear nce

All the above mouldings are comparatively Simple, the R oman mouldings being struck from one centre , and forming l v distinct and simp e cur es . We have no w to consider m o u ld 1ngs having com pound — . e m a r e el a curves Of these, the most frequent is the y or o ee 2 R g , fig. 35 . In oman work this was generally a curve u and of double curvature, formed of two eq al quadrants 2 G struck as shown in fig . 35 . In recian work the moulding m 2 6 n . partakes ore of the character of that show in fig 3 , an bein g of elliptic form . — - o u l u r e oer sa o e e r ener sa . 2 The j or g (fig is, as its name

a . implies , simply the l st moulding reversed or turned round S n uch a moulding is largely used i cornices . lia 2 8 a Seo . The , fig 3 , is a moulding origin lly used in T he C b . lassic work, in the ases of columns in particular f figure su ficiently explains its form , being composed of two a a h unequ l circular rcs , of which t ere are various methods

. 2 G of ﬁnding the centres . Fig 39 shows the recian form , w in G hich takes an elliptical or parabolic curve, as all reek mouldings . The eeb inu s (or more properly the ooolo) 'of the Grecian D 2 0 oric is set out in ﬁg . 4 . It is merely put in this form to

1 80 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

2 1 th e give the student its general outline . Fig . 4 shows a mouldings of a Greek base . The question of the dr wing out of C lassic mouldi ngs has frequently been discussed . In Grecian work these mouldings approach very closely to — b — conic sections either hyperbolic, para olic, or elliptic but a although this is so, it is not generally considered th t they a a w h d were set out m thematic lly, but merely dra n by an , and that the artistic perception of the Greeks caused them to take shapes approaching these exact sections . Whether this is so or not, the result is evidently to be preferred to the mechanical hardness characteristic of R oman mouldings which were practically set out with the com passes and form parts of a circle . — n I I . G OTHIC MOULDINGS I Gothic mouldings applied to woodwork we ﬁnd the same principles involved as in f c an those executed in stonework , and , in act, we trace the i period and style by means of the mouldings , S milarly to

m n . a the ore substantial work in sto e In the Medi eval period , mouldings were executed on the solid framework forming the structure, and it was left to the later periods of the craft for mouldings to be run themselves and planted on a G was afterw rds . I n othic structures , moulding strictly con ﬁned as such to its legitim ate Sphere as an orn amental ﬁnish to the edges of the timber itself. For this reason it is d interesting to stu y all old joinery, as the construction is

. a apparent For the Medi eval nomenclature of mouldings , b n the useful work pu lished ma y years ago by Professor Willis , l a l u a . and followed by writers on architect re, is dopted here c an a We , therefore, divide the mouldings of the Medi eval period in the s ame manner as the p e riods of architecture of a which they form such conspicuous part . I n the N or m an pe r iod the plain cylindrical edge roll and

. 2 2 was the shallow hollow, ﬁg 4 , th e principal moulding, but x x few e am ples e ecuted in woodwork have com e down to us . In the E ar ly E nglis/zper iod we have

1 . The edge roll or round bowtell .

2 . The pointed bowtell .

3 . The roll and ﬁllet. d b l l 2 . The r ou n ow e l or edge roll is shown in ﬁg . 43 Th e 1 8 1 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY . earliest and most simple method of moulding was no doubt that of chamfering the edge ; the next probab ly consisted in rounding the edge, which latter was probably developed into the ro u nd bowtell by cutting out a small angular channel a on e ch side as shown .

ointe d bowi e/l . 2 The p is shown in ﬁg 45 , and is generally taken as coeval with the introduction of the pointed arch . Its form ation probably arose from a wish to emphasise the angles of reces sed arches without interfering with the square

d . . 2 e ge Another adaptation of this form is shown in ﬁg 44 , in which it will be seen that a slight sinking is made close

— H. 2 an E A R L E N GLI S 46 . R o si e t Y — ll d de ﬁll . A T . 24 R o and e t . D ECO R ED 7. ll ﬁll

a h to the edge , so as to m ke the latter appear s arper and

. keel mou ld i n more distinctive This form is also called a g, form the outline resemb ling the k e el of a boat . r oll a nd ll t 2 and m The fi e is shown in fig . 5 4 , consists si ply a of the round bowtell and a fillet pl ced on the front, or it may b e consid ered a derivation from the pointed bowtell f a an with a fillet le t on the edge inste d of arris . r ol et h l and s id e ll . 2 6 A fi is shown in fig 4 , which is a furt er 1 8 2 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

' “ - 1n adaptation . The depth of the mouldings this period con stitu te s the most characteristic difference between it and the succeeding style . ' mou ld i n s m a b e a 1nc lu d e D ecor ate d g y s id to , besides b w derivatives from the a ove , the follo ing

1 R . . oll and triple ﬁllet 2 . Ogee .

D . 3 . ouble ogee

4 . Scroll moulding .

5 . Wave moulding .

6 . . Plain or hollow chamfer

7. Sunken chamfer .

r oll d an lle t . 2 18 The ﬁ , ﬁg 4 7, formed in this period with less u ndercutting than in the previous style, as is seen in

— D E O A T E . 248 R o l and t ri e e t . 249. e e . C R D . l pl ﬁll Og

u a ra a w the ill str tion , and is gene lly accomp nied by a hollo . h ha E E i T e fillet itself is broader t n in the arly nglish per od . d tr lle t 2 8 r ol l a n i l e . o The p fi , fig 4 , is a development fthe i s x a a . l st named , and the usual form e pl ined in the figure fi 2 o ee . d The g , g 4 9, is generally considered to be a evelop n ment of the roll and fillet, and , it will be see , has not the a h a as a s me c ar cter the cl ssic ogee mentioned earlier . I t will be noticed that the concave portion is not so large as th e

1 8 4 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

. w in plane is left on This , ho ever, is most common the next period . lain lzollow elzam er . 2 2 6 two The p or f , ﬁgs 5 5 , 5 , of or more

E AT — 2 c ro m ou in a e m o u in O 25 . . 25 3 . D C R ED . S ll ld g — W v ld g. 25 4 R o an e t . E A R LY E N GLI SH. 255 ai n c h am e r . . ll d ﬁll . Pl f

orders , is frequently met with , being divided by ghollows as

2 6 2 . shown in fig . s u nk elzam er 2 The f , fig . 5 7 , consists of a flat surface sunk between two raised edges on the chamfer plane . E O A T —256 o w c h am e r u n h am e r 8 D ou e o e e o 25 7 c 25 . . D C R ED . — . H ll f . . S k f . bl g - P N I ULA 25 9 and 260 R o an l e t . D E O A T . 261 . a e m o u PER E D C R . . ll d fi l C R ED W v ld i n w i t h ar t o f c h am e r ane e t 011 262. o ow c h am e r i i e g, p f pl l f . H ll f , d v d d b h oll ows y g . 1 86 CARPENTRY AND JOINERY .

P e r end icu l ar mou ld in s - p g . The mouldings peculiar to this ease me nt bowtell ci r cl e as period are the , the or used a ‘ d u e n t o bl o ee r oll a d ll e . nook shaft, the g , and the ﬁ n an th e a l The mouldi gs are mostly arr ged on ch mfer p ane,

' and although the above- mentioned are peculiar to this D a are period, most of the ecor ted mouldings also in use, bu t used with a decided tendency to ﬂatness , and width as f a e ease me nt opposed to depth . This lat hollow is c ll d a , and a common form is to ﬁnd one or b oth ends of the

26 3

— 4 a m P E R P E N D I ULA R 263 Th e owte . 26 . se e nt . 265 . ou e o ee O . . b ll C D bl g . 26 ou e o e e 267 ou e o e e 6. D bl g . . D bl g .

- 2 6 hollow returned in a kind of quasi bowtell as seen in ﬁg . 4 . I n later work this moulding occupies a large proportion of the width of the joint . The bowtell formed as a shaft is a feature always to be 2 6 th e u observed in the style . Fig . 3 shows us al position for such a shaft which is characteristic of the period . The d ou ble ogee is much more common in Perpendicular

a . 2 6 a D . 2 6 6 2 6 mouldings th n in ecor ted Figs 5 , , 7 show three very common varieties developed from the previous

1 88 A N D CARPENTRY JOINER Y .

boleetion m and the like . The use of ouldings may be ﬁrst ﬁ attributed to this period (see g. All sorts of com b inatio ns f c are used to produce the ef e t desired . Some examples of m odern mouldings to doors or framing are given

. 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 G e and here ( ﬁgs 7 , 7 , 7 , 73, In these r cian , R a h w not om n , models ave served ; the curves, ith the ex c e tio n p of the beads , being sections of cones , show the

— O N 272 t o 274 ane m ou in s . M DER . P l ld g

inﬁnite variety to be produced by th e combination of very

similar elements . n u Lastly, the method of buildi g p pieces of stuff on to a rough frame to form a series of continuous m ouldings for

a &c. such purposes as cornices, skirtings, rchitraves, , renders n a a f a it esse ti l th t the stu f should be used in sm ll widths , as k a the liability of wood to shrin age will , unless care is t ken , a cause th e pieces to split nd ﬂy . The method of framing “ ” a and these up is explained in the ch pter on Framing,

should be carefully detailed by the architect . A E R C H PT XVI II .

DOORS .

B F l E ORE going into th e question of doors themselves, it wil be well b rieﬂy to examine the methods that are usu ally D employed in hanging them . oors are generally either hung to

- 1 . Wrought iron band hinges . 2 S . olid frames . R 3 . ebated linings . — Wr ouglzt zr on band b ingcres are only used for inferior T m work and for outbuildings . his ethod is shown in

2 . ﬁg . 75 The hinges are usually at the top and bottom ,

w as . and are hung on pins ﬁxed in the all, shown S olid fr a mes are generally used in the case of external doors, the position in the wall being altered according to a 2 6 a circumst nces . Fig . 7 shows, in isometric l proj ection , a an e frame of this kind for xternal door . The feet of the

- two vertical posts are ﬁxed in cast iron shoes, having a pro e c tin are j g stud on the underside . These ﬁxed in the stone ' sill . The upper ends of the posts are tenoned into the head or lintel, which generally projects beyond the width of “ ” t e c hni the frame, the projections, or horns , as they are

b n . cally called , eing built i to the wall A rebate is formed round the whole of the inside of the frame, into which the a door shuts , the inner edge of the reb te being generally 2 chamfered or beaded , as in ﬁg. 77. R eba ted linings ai e mostly u sed for hanging internal

i s i n 2 2 . doors , an example of which shown ﬁgs . 94, 95 This 15 b door hung to the jam lining itself, the latter being ﬁxed in between the framed grounds . D oors themselves may be divided as follows

1 . . Ledged doors

. 2 . Ledged and braced doors . a 3 . Ledged , br ced, and framed doors . r a e r 4 . F amed and p nell d doo s . 1 90 CAR PENT RY A N D JOINERY .

l ed ed d oor s u se g are the commonest form in , and consist

V - n n of jointed or beaded boardi g, sometimes to gued to

- are . which secured the ledges , on one side only These are 1 k generally about 4 in . to 7 in . wide, and in . in thic ness , and are placed at the top, middle, and bottom of the door, h 2 8 . as s own in ﬁg . 7

s 275 . Wr ou h t i ro n an h i n e . 276. ram e for e xt r na oo r g b d g F e l d .

277 . an o f ram e fo r e xt e rna d oor Pl f l .

and br ared d oor s are exactly the same as l ast b x n at b descri ed , e cept that the ledges are stiffe ed the ack a 2 8 by braces s sho wn by the dotted lines in ﬁg . 7 ; these b races should slope downwards towards the jamb from

which they are hung . Fr amed led ed and br aced d oor s , g , are similar to ledged and in n braced doors, but they have, additio , a framing of

I 2 T A N D 9 CARPEN RY JOINERY .

- a n a six p nelled door, and the letters referri g to their various parts are pri nted upon them . The pl ans of the various are and panels of these doors shown in these ﬁgures, the following are the technical descriptions by wh ich each is a identiﬁed , fter stating the description, thickness , and number of panels

S . A . tuck moulding

B . Planted moulding .

. S . C quare framed and ﬂat panel , both sides

' -h \ - I 1 u “ . s . 1 s I 4 . m f// M _ 5 A K H

0 n f r m r c o r 281 28 . e cti o o a e e e and a e o . . ram e or ane e oor S f d , l dg d , b d d F d p ll d d ,

- o u r ane s 282. Si x ane e oor . f p l . p ll d d

Square framed ﬂush panel , but bead butt one side .

and . Ovolo moulded , with chamfered square back

a a . Be d ﬂush , with stop ch mfered back

a and a . Be d ﬂush front, with chamfered ﬂush b ck

a . Bolection moulded one side , ovolo moulded b ck and Moulded raised panel , with moulded rising on

each side .

. R w . L aised square panel in front, ith square back T A N 1 CARPEN RY D J OINERY . 93

The ﬁgures pri nted on the various parts represent the fol w n —C S HS h a n lo i g are the closing styles , are the ngi g a styles . These are always in one piece, the horizont l rails h of the door being framed into t em . The internal faces of d the styles have grooves down their centres about 5 in . eep ,

- a a . and for bout one third of their width , to t ke the panels

M are the muntings, which are tenoned at both extremities a into the r ils, and are grooved on both sides as above

2 m i n u a oor . 2 u nc ti n o f.two m e e ti n st 83 . o f ra 84. J o e s Me th o d f g p d g yl .

285 . e c ti o n t h r o u h an i h t and or ti o n o f u e r se ct io n of a oo r . S g f l g , p pp d

T R a FR described to receive the panels . is the top r il is MR the frieze rail is the middle or lock rail , the centre of h a 2 . . which is usu lly placed about ft 9 in from the ﬂoor, as t is h is generally considered to b e t e best height for it . Many h architects , _ h owever, prefer to place the lock rail somew at h higher, and 4 ft . is not at all an unusual eight for the top of h i t . The lock rail should be tenoned into the anging style w a n w t ith double tenon havi g a haunch bet een hem, as

2 w . s D . 8 w hown at in ﬁg 3, o ing to the idth of the rail At 1 94 CARPEN T RY A N D JOINERY .

l the the other end , the lock rail shou d be tenoned into b and d closing style, with a dou le tenon , both in heigh t wi th , 8 n . 2 w as shown at E in ﬁg 3, to allo of a mortise lock bei g a inserted without cutting aw y the tenons . BR is the bottom a r il , which should have a double tenon in height for the a a a re son stated above . All rails should h ve double tenon

2 . . 2 8 in width , when the door is more than in . thick Fig 3 a v shows the method of fr ming up a door. I t will be obser ed that the styles are longer than their actu al ﬁnished sizes ; this allows of the edges of the door being treated less car e u ll an d f y, d also prevents splitting when th e we ges are driven n home . These projecting pieces , or hor s, are sawn off after the door has been glued up and cleaned off ready for

fixing . e When the various parts of the door have be n made, they and should be carefully fitted together, the door put on one side to dry until it is wanted for fixing it is then taken to pieces and the joints cleaned . The whole door is then a fitted together gain , sometimes with the aid of a cramp, the tenons h aving received a coating of hot glue . The deal wedges which have been previ ously prepared are dipped in and n a glue , driven home i to the mortises , their flat surf ce being against the tenons the door is then left on a flat sur a and f ce till the glue is dry, the protruding portions of the ar wedges and the horns of the styles e then sawn off. D war d oor s d im e n f are, as their name implies , of small sions, and are chiefly used for cupboards, cisterns, and other positions where required for special purposes . jib d oor s are th ose which are made exactly like a portion wa of a room , the chair rail , skirting, and other ll decora h tions being carried across t em in fact, the only indication of their existence is the line of the framing on the wall . and are a They are seldom used , perhaps only justifi ble to a answer a speci l purpose in the decoration of a room . Fold in d oor s n a a g are those hu g in two fl ps, on e ch side of 2 8 h the door opening . Fig . 4 s ows the junction of th e meetin st les two closing or g y , as they are generally called in ' this case . The form of rebate shown is that generally used w e in the best ork, as it is more adapted to pr vent draughts, m nts e ase e c . and , in the case of French , to exclude the lamp

T A N D CARPEN RY JOINERY . 1 97

n door ﬁts into a pointed arch , and the vertical to gued boards are kept in position by ledges . An effective framing i a 2 8 of ra sed squ re panels is shown on plan in ﬁg . 9, which

oor ro m ta le h u rs t h u rch Ke nt . 288 . p , H p U D f S C 9 D oor r om o e ac h h u r c h . 28 . f H lb C — e a o r ne r 0 E e at i o n o f o or t o a i iar r oo m , r . 29 . l v d b ll d Hyd P k C 1 an o f oor to a i iar - r oo m e ar or ne r . 29 . Pl d b ll d , Hyd P k C

292 e tai at A ﬁ . 290. . D l , g illustrates the construction of a door from Holbeach

C hurch . a a m e or te An example of modern door, of r ther or elab a 8 T 1 9 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

2 0 design than usual , is given in ﬁg . 9 , and was recently

- . 2 1 erected for a billiard room in London . Fig 9 shows the

2 2 a . plan , and ﬁg . 9 a det il at A R e na issa nce d oor s — D b uring the Jaco ean period , doors a a of v rious types were constructed . A l rge proportion of the best examples of these are to be found i n the South

Kensington Museum . The method of construction i s ff simple, yet e ective , and they are well worthy of detail b study y the student . Finis/tin s and astenin s a g f g must be left to individu l taste, but the usual methods purs u ed will just be enu merated . Internal d oors generally have linings or casings which are either left plain , or panelled, according to the thickness of i . a n the wall They are usually plai n for w lls up to 1 4 in . thickness . 2 2 On looking at figs . 94 , 95 , it will be seen that the jamb L soffit SL G lining, J , and lining, , are fixed to the grounds, , which are plugged to the wall it will also be observed that the door itself hangs in the rebate of the linings, formed all a round to receive it . This rebate lso runs round the other external edge of the lining , which is therefore said to be d u r eb t a o ble a ed . The architrave, A, which is pl ced round x a both sides of the opening, is also fi ed to the grounds s

2 . a shown , and mitred at the angles , fig . 93 Before the rchi o trave is fixed, the plastering sh uld have been completed , so th at when it is fixed it will hide the 'j unction of the plaster and the wood this is a small matter which is much neglected, and consequently, after the plaster has dried, a fissure is often seen bet ween the edge of the architrave and a the w ll paper . The fu r nitu r e of a door depends upon its situation and character. For the first three kinds of door mentioned in this chapter, a thumb or Norfolk latch and a rim lock are

ﬁ . 2 8 fﬁ . su cient, as shown in g 7 For the better class of a doors, mortise locks with ornament l handles are generally

o ﬁ n e r- a used in conjuncti n with g plates , a l rge one above the lock and a small one below. The edge of the keyhole should be protected with a brass E plate and escutch e on . xternal doors require to be further secured by horizontal barrel bolts ; these should be vertical

2 00 T A N D CARPEN RY JOINERY .

’ when the doors are folding and should fasten into the head and sill . C hain and barrel fastenings are used in addition for front doors . There are numerous patent fastenings now

m ﬁ re - in the arket, such as exit fastenings for theatres which release the door when pressed from the inside . Beside the band hinges mentioned at the comme ncement of this

t b - - cr oss ar ne . 2 8 b oo a nd e e chapter, g , ﬁg 7 , and y hinges are d b u tt used for commoner doors . In framed oors, hinges ar w e generally used , the upper ﬁxed at the level of the lo er as edge of the top rail so just to clear the tenon , the lower, a for a simil r reason , being placed just above the level ofthe

- bottom rail the intermediate , if any, being placed half way a w between the two . Further rem rks on hingin g ill be “ found in the chapter on Joints and Hinging . H E R C APT . XIX .

WIN D OWS .

T HE consideration o f windows conveniently comes after

that of doors . The designing of windows in relation to both the exterior and interior of a room is one of the most T he important duties of the architect . window Openings of a a building should preser ve the same char cter, and should , b e a far m th e for structural reasons , pl ced as as possible fro a quoins . Further, it should be remarked th t where possible it is preferab le not to h ave an even number of wind ows in an a a partment because, if a pier is pl ced in the centre , it casts a a sh dow across the middle of the room , which is dis

pleasing . a a w e We may t bul te the various kinds of windows , ith th ir x w frames , as e ecuted by the joiner, as follo s

a . 1 . Solid frames with c sements 2 . Hollow, boxed, or cased fram es , with sliding

sashes .

3 . French casement windows . i hin ﬁ n s s . 4 . Window g , including shutters

5 . Furniture and hinges .

1 F T T — . SOLID RAMES WI H C ASEMEN S . The solid window l t . 2 6 2 2 8 a a o frame (ﬁgs 9 , 9 7, 9 ) is m de simil r y that for a and a door, consists of two vertical posts, a he d , and a sill . R a e ase m e nt ound this fr me is run a rebate, into which the shuts this rebate is usually placed on the outside to e nab lt a d the casement to Open outw r s, which is the more usual ff a b a way, as it forms a more e ectu l arrier ag inst the i as o ak admission of ra n . The sill , , is generally made of , e with its upper surface weath red to throw off the water, and throated so as to prevent the water being blown up and

a a - drawn in by capill ry ttraction . On the under side of the

i s a a m a wate r - ba r rob s oak sill pl ced et l , , which prevent k a any rain soa ing in between it and the w ll .

a a . The c sement (or s sh , as it is sometimes called) is a and fr med up with rails styles in the ordinary manner, the

O 2 02 C AR PENT RY A N D JOINER Y .

space thus enclosed being divided— originally because glass . and i could not be obtained in large pieces , since cont nued — ‘ for supposed e ﬂe c t into s m all squares by means of sash a sb d b rs , . In casements hung at their si es, the horizontal b ars should be continuous from side to side in order to

effe ctually withstand the jar of opening and shutting . These hori z ontal b ars are merely mortised to receive the tenons

296 e c ti on o fso i r am e wi th e ase m e nt s . S l d f .

297 E e ati o n o f so i ram e wit h e as e m e nts . . l v l d f

298 . an of so i ram e wi th e ase m e nt s Pl l d f . f ormed on the ends of the portions of the vertical bars, 0 8 a b which are scribed as shown , ﬁg . 3 , from to , to ﬁt the moulding on the horizontal bar . The joint between the a b ars is sometimes effected by me ns of a mitre . The bars

w . are rebated , as sho n , to receive the glass

N T A N D E 2 0 CARPE RY JOIN RY . 5

w a hollo box or case, made to receive the weights which

a . . 0 2 0 0 w counterb lance the sashes Figs 3 , 3 3 , 3 4 sho such a

w e 1 - in windo in plan , elevation , and s ction , placed in a 4 .

- in a li a b u t . ﬁ nis in s e w ll , with 9 window b ck , the g xtending

th e . a it to ﬂoor The fr me consists of the inside lining, , bl ol and the back lining , , the outside lining , , the pulley s a l a style, p , so c l ed bec use i t carries the pulleys over , which r u n th e a - s sh lines supporting the weights . The various parts of the boxing are groo ved together as shown in the i llustration . The pulley style is grooved into the head of

' - I f at the sash frame, , and housed into the sill the bottom , a X 0 : and secured by a horizont l wedge, , as shown in ﬁg . 3 5 The upper and lower sashes slide in their pl aces b y a ar ti n bead b me ns of a p g , p , which is grooved into the pulley style , and housed into the oak sill . The inside ib w bead , , is ﬁxed ith screws , so as to enable the sash to

b e n a . m _ removed whe required for rep irs At the botto of the window the inside be ad should be made a few inches wn in deep, as sho on section , order to enable the lower sash to lift and admit ai r at the centre of the window

a . a Without dr ught The r ils , where the upper and lower mr sashes meet , are called the meeting rails, , and the junction is formed by making them wider thanthe styles of t he window b y the width of the parting bead and they ﬁt a tight to each other by rebate, as shown , or by being w simply bevelled . The lo er rail of the lower sash is made

m 6 i n. fro 4 in . to deep, and is somewhat throated to keep

th e a . out we ther, as shown ( The method of ﬁg — hanging these sashes is as follows The styles of the sash i i 6 have grooves taken out of the r S des for a length of in .

- or so from the top, into these the sash lines or ropes are are a a b x placed , and p ssed over brass xle pulleys , p , ﬁ ed a into the pulley styles near the top , and h ving weights of a 20 a a n le d or iron, , ttached, which counterb la ce the weight o f - the sashes . Instead of rope lines , which are liable to w et rot or other ise g out of order , steel tape has of late a n b a ye rs bee introduced y patentees, and has the adv ntage of running smoothly and not wearing out . The weights are separated in the boxed frames by means of par ting sl i s s1 n a p , p , of wood or zi c , the upper end being p ssed 2 06 CARPE N TRY A N D JOINERY .

o . 0 through the head of the frame, as sh wn in ﬁg 3 5 , and secured by a wood pin or nail . At the foot of the pulley oelee t b a are style is formed a p , y me ns of which the weights and a w admitted , which is covered by ﬂush piece , kno n as oeb et ieee the p p , the lower end being rebated and the upper a rebated and undercut to the pulley style . The he d of the frame is generally strengthened by b locks glued to the angle

as shown . The wall behi nd the arch over th e window - frame is re lie vin arc h carried , as shown , by wood lintels and a brick g ,

V a - or , as is ery generally the e se in these days , a coke breeze

concrete beam is used instead . The upper end of the c an b e i frame na led to this , and the sides are also nailed obliquely through the inside lining to th e wood bricks or

slips in the reveal . The tops and sides are further secured v y by wedges dri en between the back linings and the masonr . as If the frame is built in the work proceeds , the head f l should be le t longer than the Width enclosed by the sty es, o so as to form horns resting on the mas nry , as already

- M m pointed out in solid door frames . ention should be ade of the various inventions which have been made towards

- improving the . ordinary double hung sash . I n many of these the sashes are arranged so as to easily take out in th e m n the room for the purposes of cleaning, thus inimisi g a chance of accidents . Other patents h ve been on View at a recent building exhibitions, such as the sashes b lancing b a each other without weights, the upper one eing m de to i a an a open b y tself s a casement sash at y inclin tion . They all deserve study as improve m ents on the useful b u t time m i worn ethod of sl ding sashes . T a a 3 . FRENCH C ASEMEN WINDOWS h ve solid fr mes and

i a . . 1 2 easements hinged vertically , opening l ke door Figs 3 , 1 1 w a x 3 3, 3 4 sho a French c sement e tending to the ﬂoor t and becomi ng in fac t a d o ub le door . I n his case it is m e a l b ade to Open inwards, the low r r i eing ﬁtted with a

- w water bar and having a throated sill as sho n . These m w a u forms of windows generally ad it the e ther, nless '

extreme care is taken in their construction . I t will be ob served th at a semicircular sinking is ru n along the rebate a n e of the frame, so that if any r in should pe etrat between

D 2 08 CARPENT RY A N JOINERY ..

- the window - frame generally ﬁnishes ﬂ u sh with the face of

the pl astering . The only ﬁnishing required in such a m a and si mple c ase is a window board, which y be moulded , which is tongued and grooved into the oak sill in the s ame

m anner as shown in the illustration . In addition an

13 E e vati o n o f re nc h c ase m e nt 3 . l F .

1 e c tio n o f r e nc h c ase m e nt . 3 4. S F

i i a e are li t ave is c rri d up the jambs and across the head ,

covering the jo m t b etween the grounds and plaste ring . 1 —in a b i In a 4 . or thicker wall , j m l nings have to be

employed , being grooved into the inside lining of the frame , 06 0 b a as shown in ﬁgs . 3 , 3 7, and the Window o rd is ar Wi dened in con sequence . The linings e further secured a m a to b at /t i ngs pl u gged to the w ll . The window back y be N D 2 CARPEN T RY A JOINERY . 09

a n 1 . either p nelled , as show , of 5 in framing , moulded one a side and fixe d to grounds at the b ack . J mb linings are e u a e a fr q ently designed to be pl c d on the spl y, i n which a a a x c se they are c lled spl yed linings, and are fi ed as shown 0 a n in fig . 3 7 . The architr ves are ofte fitted in the best 0 work with plinth blocks , as shown in fig . 3 5 , which forms a finish against which the skirting may abut .

n 1 1 . m a Li ings over in in width should be panelled , and y 06 be exec u ted as shown in fig . 3 . There is one point in connection with window fi nishings a which is often neglected, and that is, to provide proper space for the blinds this may be effected by lowering the architrave at the head of the window, forming a Space b e hind for the blind . i finishin s In conjunction with W ndow g , shutters deserve, a ns perh ps, the most important co ideration , although they are a not, especi lly in towns, used so much as formerly .

S . hutters are two kinds , folding and lifting Fold ing slzu tter s are so called because they fold b ack in one or more leaves into the boxings left for them on the

a b . 1 j m s of the walls . In ﬁg 3 5 , Shutters are Shown on plan a to a splayed face . A sp ce for the blinds to roll up and down is left by means of the piece of stuff B S ; the face of this is continued, and has tongued on to it the back linings x of the bo ing, which is panelled and moulded , and ﬁxed to w backings like a jamb lining, hich it reall y is wh e n the

- i Shutters are Shut at night t me . The inside e nd of this lining is tongued in a ground plugged to the brickwork , and h as placed to receive it . This also a rebate for the edge of the front shutter, and serves as a groundwork for the

. u moulded architrave I n regard to the sh tters themselves, m a they y be treated either richly or plainly, according to ’ . a f 1 i n the architect s designs They are usu lly out of stu f 5 . 1 or 5 in . thick The face of the shutter exposed in the . ti m day e is moulded to match the surrounding woodwork,

- a the back part being left square fr med or bead butt . The are all as edges rebated shown , so as to form one continuous face when Open . The design of the shutters in regard to general treatment and mouldings should be carefully set out i n conju nction with the side of the room in which they are 2 N 1 0 CARPENT RY A D JOINERY .

a i m a . . 1 8 situ te , so that the des gn y be continuous Figs 3 and 3 2 2 Sho w th e tre atm e nt to be adopted for the opening _ a b and closing of shutters so as to cle r the lind space , which

315 P an o f o i n sh u tte r s . l f ld g

16 an o f fo d i n sh u tt e r s I n a th i n wa . 3 . Pl l g ll

317 P an o f o i n s h u t te r s i n a th i n w a . . l f ld g ll

18 e ctio n o f o in sh u t t e r s ﬁ . 3 . S f ld g ( g an o f i ti n sh u t t e r s 319 . Pl l f g .

20 e c tio n o f i ti n s h u t t e r s . 3 . S l f g

s should be carefully considered , and to keep the shutter

- clear of th e window sill . Folding shutters in thin walls are sometim es arranged as

2 1 2 CARPEN T RY A N D JOINERY

a 2 1 speci l requirement :as an example of such a case ﬁg . 3 r e ol n a is shown . Here a v vi g Shutter w s designed to work a was w underne th a seat which formed in a windo opening . Seats formed in this manner are al ways use ful and are

sometimes framed as cupboards . u t fi 1 1 ar E xter nal s/z te r s ( g. 3 ) Where used e formed b and generally of a framing, ﬁtted in with louvre oards , h b a as ung y means of parli ment hinges , so to clear the

reveal when opened . T N E — 5 . FURNI URE AND Hi G s. The upper and lower leaves of a sash are generally held together when shut by

- f a means of a sash astener or clip, of which there are m ny a t wo v rieties . The lower sash should be provided with w sunk lifts ﬁxed in the lower rail , and the upper sash ith a pair of handles screwed to the underside of the meeting C rail . asements in solid frames require fastenings to secure s the e a e m e nts when shut or open . The commonest form

e — - a is a asement stay in iron or gun m et l . This is pivoted on to the e ase m e nt and provided with holes throughout its

length , which ﬁt at discretion on to a pin ﬁxed upon the

- sill . There are various other kinds of casement stays

wh ic h need not b e d escribed here . C asements are held in position when shut by a cockspur fastening ﬁtted to one in casement and entering a groove the other, which forces

the two together when turned . e ase m e nts a E s a nole tte I n . French , wh t is known as the p g

bolt is the only satisfactory fastening . It is ﬁxed on the and inside of one of the meeting styles, consists of top and m b botto bolts connected y a long rod , arranged so that by

turning the handle in the centre each bolt is shut, and the a t wo leaves brought closely to e ch other. C asements hung on their b ottom rail c an be made to fall inwards by means of a qu adrant stay (so called from being a quarter of a

are a . circle) , of which there v rious types They are

commonly employed in hospitals and schools, and in

a . b u ildings generally , which are ﬁtted with l rge windows H E R XX C APT .

FRAMING .

T HE distinctive difference between carpentry and joinery has a alre dy been mentioned, but it is well to bear in mind that whereas the strength of the work executed by the carpenter is mainly dependent on the skilful disposition of the various o n w parts, the joiner relies for stability principally ell executed joints One of the most essential points to be remembered in designing framing is that alteration in the lengtlz of the ﬁb res w h is very small indeed , esp e cially in oods aving a straight a ri grain , but that on the other hand , lateral expansion d h i e . contraction, . , s rinkage across the grain, is very consider

able, more especially in soft woods . In the formation of joints this must be especially t aken su ﬂi ie nt la into consideration and c p y allowed , as if the b pieces are too much conﬁned , defects are ound to arise,

as when timber expands it exerts a very considerable force . d ' Whilst heat causes metals to expan , and cold causes

them to contract, the exact reverse is found to be the case w with timber, o ing to the sap being condensed by the cold , and the heat (of course) acti ng in an exactly contrary stu te c h ni manner reduces the size of the wood , or f as it is a c lly called . l a As previously exp ined, in the chapter on Joints used in C ” h arpentry, dovetailed joints should not be used in t at

' a trade . But in joinery the shrinkage of the dovet ils tends

to make the j oints ﬁt more closely . From a consideration of the above remarks it is evident t a r t a that i is desir ble to educe the wood o n rrow pieces, thus e distributing its shrinking prop nsities, and to ﬁx it, where w possible, in such a manner as to allo of expansion and con c o tra ti n . 2 1 T A N D 4 CARPEN RY JOINERY .

The subject of framing will be treated under the follo w ing heads 1 G . rounds .

2 . z Architraves, cornices, frie es, and picture rails

. S n 3 kirti gs and dados .

4 . Linings and ceilings .

5 . Partitions .

6 . S hop fronts .

7 . C olumns .

- 8 . u Fixing and glueing p. 1 . GROUNDS are small pieces of wood nailed to plugs (which slips wood driven into the joints of the brick

323 . ixi n of rou n s arch itra e s and am inin s F g g d , v , j b l g .

work) or breeze bricks, so as to form a backing to which the i n jo ne may be attached by nailing or screwing . As early a are all the app rent surfaces in j oinery ﬁxed , to grounds, and as their accuracy must depend upon the true ﬁ xing of

these grounds , it is obvious that the latter require more a a c re and attention than is usu lly bestowed upon them, and that their faces and edges should be ﬁxed in true ve rtical b e or horizontal planes . Their thickness should eq u al to

2 1 6 CARPENT RY AND JOINERY .

o f The height at which they should be placed is , course, regulated by the proportions of the room .

2 e ct io n of ram e ar tition . 3 4. S f d p

E e ation of r am e arti t on . 325 . l v f d p i

SK T 3 . IR INGS are intended to cover the junction of the

T A N D N E R V CA R P EN R Y jo i .

ﬂoor with the walls to protect the l atter and to form a fram d ing behin which the plastering may be secured .

“ a l They may be secured to plugs in the w l , but it is better to fix them to grounds when not attached to any joinery w n b above . A narro horizontal grou d runs along ehind the n t e skirting ear its upper part, to which h latter is fixed it is also se cured to a sm all fillet which is carried round the floor

a 6 . 2 t . C . 2 l its base At in fig 3 , and detai fig 3 7 , the as b e in m ad e are skirting is shown g up in two pieces , which ' the b b tongued together , lower mem er eing also tongued into the floor ; thus it Will b e seen that it is enabled to a n shrink t both joints without a y fissure being seen . D ad os generally consist of panelled framing and may either be carried right down to the floor and b e fixed against in n grounds the wall at the base, and have a skirti g attached

2 6 . in front , or they may be fixed as shown in fig . 3 In this case the dado is tongued on to the skirting and fixed at this i n . point to a ground , the skirt ng bei g in two pieces It h will be seen that the grounds form a frame be ind the dado, to which it is secured . The top rail of the dado has a capping which conceals the junction of the plaster with the topmost ground . i 4 . LININGS are generally used to conceal some port on of the construction of doors or windows . amb linin s 2 j g (see fig . 3 3) are those which are used in

a . 2 2 the vertic l thickness of the wall (see ﬁgs 94, 95 , C hapter XVI I I . ) S oﬁit linings carry out the same purpose in hori zontal '

XV I I I . . 2 C ha te r thickness (see ﬁg 95 , p )

Wind ow backs 0 0 C a . are (see ﬁgs . 3 4 , 3 5 , h pter XIX ) “ those linings ﬁxed between the skirting and the under - side

of the window board . E lbow linings are those that cover the splay in the wall bet ween the sash - frame and the return of the wall (see

. 06 C a XI X fig 3 , h pter . ) Linings should be fixed as shown in the ill u strations a a gainst grounds plugged to th e w lls, and placed usually a 2 a bout ft . ap rt . e l a a C i ings are finished in wood in variety of w ys, the sim ‘ A ple st of which is matchb oarding naile d t o the joists . nother ' ‘' 22 2 C A R P EN T R v AN D jO I N E R ir.

2 8 a tim e s . is method (ﬁg . 3 ) frequently adopted in medi eval , to divide up the ceiling into a numb er of bays by moulded ribs placed in a parallel direction and attached to the joists a above . These spaces are further divided into p nels by

transverse ribs, the edges of all being ploughed to receive

the panelling, which , of course, is fixed in position first . Go n 2 8 are fer ed ceili gs (see fig . 3 ) formed by carryi ng the upper members of the cornice across the ceiling as ribs d secured to grounds attache to the joists, the panel resting on the upper memb ers of the rib the intersection of the

ribs is often covered by a carved boss , the panels them

selves being frequently painted or carved .

i n. 5 . PART IT IONS IN JOINERY are generally from 1 5 to

3 in . in thickness, wrought , ploughed , tongued , and panelled i n 2 2 various ways . Figs . 3 4, 3 5 illustrate a common form . at This partition is secured both of its vertical extremities .

I t will also be observed that it rests on a small sill, which is o t fixed t the floor, and that his joint is concealed by a r is narrow skirting . The framing th oughout of the same a thickness, and the raised p nels which are tongued into it are allowed to co ntract or expand at the joints in the same r way as in the framing of a doo , care being taken to fix the

moulding to the framing and not to the panels . The cornice

is ﬁxed to the top rail , and is generally of the same section

as the plaster cornice of the room . 6 S T . HOP FRON S vary very much according to the taste 2 a and discretion of the architect, but ﬁg. 3 9 gives a f ir idea

of the method usually employed . The cornice is framed up f a as be ore described, except that part of it gener lly comes

w - w away ith the sun blind as sho n , and it resumes its position ' re volv as part of the cornice when the blind is rolled up . A r ing shutter, which is composed of na row strips of wood con

ne c te d - by hinged joints, is shown just below the sun blind f n and behind the ascia . A continuous iron ventilati g grating a v is shown bove the sash , which is very necessary to pre ent a a a the condens tion of the atmosphere gainst the gl ss, which would prevent the goods or articles on the stall - board being

seen . This latter is too frequently neglected, sometimes no ventilation b eing provided at all and at othe r times not an a a dequ te quantity . The botto m of the sash is generally

2 2 T A N D 4 CARPEN RY JOINERY . f arthest from it . Glued joints are often stronger than the w ood itself, and their strength is not in proportion to the u q antity but the quality of the glue . When two pieces of wood are required to b e j ointed

&c . together to form a panel , , their edges should be care d fully shot and then drie , after which they should be forced m a together so as to exclude all superﬂuous glutinous ateri l . It should be remembered that when pieces of wood are j oined end to end they ab sorb more glue than when their a horizontal ﬁbres adjoin each other, though in the latter c se a better joi nt is made . In the case of veneering care should be taken to swell out the b ody of the material to be veneered with size, and thus , the veneer and the body being

l . both swe led out, curling is obviated C HAPTE R XXI .

SKYLIGHT S AND LAN T ERNS .

SKYLIGHT S and lanterns are formed in roofs in order to an admit light into apartment or staircase . They are n aturally of varied forms to suit special requirements . When such ' a light is formed in the slope of the roof it is a called a skylight, but when it is raised upon a vertical fr me,

ﬁlled in with sashes which form its sides, it is called a lantern . K T — S YLIGH S . The most useful form is that in which th e sash holding the glass is parallel to the side of the roof in which it is situated . An opening is formed by trimming u between the common rafters , as shown in our ill stration 6 e w ff ﬁg . 33 . The space thus formed is lin d ith stu , say

1 . 2 5 in to in . thick, but more in case of a large opening this lining projects 3 or 4 in . above the opening, and sup the th ports sash , whose frame projects over it on all sides, e underside being throated as shown to prevent water ﬁ nding its way to the interior . Another method , just as frequently

- b adopted , is to nail a cover piece over the joint formed e tween the sash and the lining which supports it as sho wn in fig . 337 . A gutter is formed at the upper- Si de of the skylight where it j oins the roof by means of a tilting fillet and a packing 6 G . . 6 piece, as shown at in fig 33 A sheet of lb . lead is worked round this and up under the slates as shown . At the lo wer edge of the skylight the lead apron is carried up over the lining and formed into a small semicircular as in gutter shown , order to catch and intercept any water which may form on the underside of the glass by con ‘ densation and prevent it running d own the lining o n to the ceiling . Too much stress cannot be laid on the importance of providing against water formed b y condensation findi ng a its w v down on to the ceiling . 2 6 2 CARPEN T RY AND JOINERY .

a C ondensation is sure to take pl ace on any Sheet of gl ss . It is caused by the heat of the room striking on the cold E surface of the glass . very precaution therefore must be m ff ade to carry o all such water formed by condensation .

- 2 The sash bars i n a skylight are generally placed from 1 in . to 1 5 in . apart they are continued down the slope of the

5 e t ai f h - ar 336 e c ti o n th r o u h s i h t 33 . o sas b . . D l . S g kyl g

37 e c tio n t h r o u h s i h t m a e t o o e n b s i i n . 3 . S g kyl g d p y l d g

38 e t ai ofc a in . 3 . D l pp g

n e n Skylight without any interruptio , and care should be tak ak h w w n to m e them strong enoug , not only to ithstand i d a a pressure , but lso the considerable weight of an occasion l a fall of snow . It is not an unusu l thing to see sash bars of r b and n skylights conside ably ent by continual weight, othing is easier to prevent by making the bars sufﬁciently strong to

T A N 2 1 CARPEN RY D JOINERY . 3

the queen - posts is in this case lined with boarding so as w to make it an inclosed shaft . The lo er rail of the light should be grooved and made to ﬁt on to an iron tongue n formed on the li ing, and a lead apron taken up the outside and passed into it .

l a lz k t . m a A y g , fitted as shown (figs 344, y be fixed

n - t at the ceili g level , in order tha the ceiling may be l i hts continuous . Lay g are discussed later on in this

. chapter _ — has T . LAN ERNS As been said , the term lantern is generally applied to any form of skylight or roof—light which

ab th e . 1 is raised ove roof and has vertical sides Figs . 34 2 w a and 34 sho a l ntern in the form of a hipped roof. e and 6 . . It is ft by 4 ft int rnally, is formed so as to rise n h out of a ﬂ at roof. The openi g in t is case is trimmed 1 6 i 1 . n. w with trimming joists , in by , and lined ith stuff

. 5 in . thick , framed and panelled

The lantern light itself is made up of 4 in . by 4 in .

- 2 - angle posts , into which are ﬁtted in . ovolo moulded sashes, hinged at the top and opening outwards . The posts are

8 . in tenoned into an oak sill, in by 35 . , which rests on a

- 6 curb piece whose scantling is in . by 4 in . This sill has a condensation gutter formed on the inside as shown , and

wee - koles is further provided at intervals with p , leading any water which may accumulate to the exterior . The sill ff projects over the curb , and is throated so as to throw o any rain which may fall on it . The lead apron lining is carried up under the o ak sill and

ﬁtted into a groove, being held in position by means of a ﬁ a 0 llet . The roof in this case is formed at an ngle of 3 deg .

2 . to the horizon , and is made up of 5 in bars supporting

a . a as 5 in . rough plate gl ss The gl ss, mentioned for sky in lights, is one continuous plane and held in position at the eaves by a copper clip ﬁxed with brass screws . Where the sash projects over the head of the framing it is throated as shown .

6 - lb The apex Is crowned with a wooden roll covered with . lead dressed over the top rail and held in position by clips are at intervals . The meeting rails at their junction further

- held in position by a cross tongue . 343 Lant e r n xe at a e x o f u e e n o s t r o o 344 and . . 345 . e t ch ans ofl a i h ts ﬁ d p q f Sk pl y l g . 346 and 3 7 e t ai s o fla i h ts . D l y l g .

2 A N D 34 CARPENT RY JOI NERY .

D a can be adopted in their design . uring the Medi eval period, many and various were the types of lanterns which w a ere constructed for v rious purposes . Lanterns over stair h D cases ave been specially treated in the past . uring the Queen Anne period and early in the present century examples were erected which bear evidence of thought and

skill in design . Th e b rothers Adam espe c ially treated such features with great re

ﬁ ne m e nt and taste . Figures 3 5 0 and 3 5 1 Show an example in plan and side elevation of an e llipti cal domical lantern of which the section on the m inor axis is a

circular segment . The

" method o fsetting ou t such a lantern will b e described in a su b se

quent chapter . The rib s are all set out g e o m e t r i c a l l y a n d ﬁlled in b etween with

curved glass . Unless this form is partie n larly wanted it should 2 35 0 i o f o m ica e i t i ca s i h t no t d , E le vat o n d l ll p l kyl g . be employe as

1 ans o f e i ti c a s i h ts . 35 . Pl ll p l kyl g c u rved g1ass if b roken 35 2 E e atio n of e lli t i c al sk li h t . . l v p y g is difﬁcult supply 15 b u se and expensive, and n o good obtained y its ﬁ s 1 2 I For this reason the shape shown in g . 35 and 3 5 S

i s fac t a . preferable , and , in , a very satisf ctory form The example is an elliptical skylight in plan and Side elevation . The construction is carried out in a similar manner to those described in the more Simple forms . Th e ' crown of the lantern - would nowad ays o ften be ﬁtted with an exhaust cowl to ventilate the staircase or apartment in Y 2 CARPENTRY AND JOINER . 3 5

. S r when at which it is situate kylights or lante ns, placed the bottom of an area, should always be provided with a f l n wire guard to protect them from anything a li g through . S h h erious accidents , and even deat s , ave been caused by a failing to observe this prec ution . La lz ﬁ ts y g , sometimes called ceiling lights , are often

at - formed the ceiling level for the sake of appearance, the light being admitted to these from an outer skylight often l li h ts in th e slope of the roof. These ay g are formed

n & c . 18 similarly as regards trimmi g , , to skylights, but there less ne e c to provide against condensation than in an outer l a a igh t, although in certain cases it is advis ble to m ke

n . 6 certain preparatio s for this . Figs 344, 345 , 34 , and 34 7 are examples of laylights which have been recently con structed . The construction is simple, the space being

h - i ff t e 2 n. trim med ; laylight, formed out of stu , i s made to rest on a stout lini ng nailed to th e sides of the opening . l an n Underneath is p aced architrave as shown , coveri g the

e d . A joint of th e plast r, groun , and lining sketch plan and detail is given of each laylight in order to show the general setting out . HAP X C TER XI I .

T S AIRCASES .

I T will be convenient to treat this subject under the fol lowing heads

1 D e x . eﬁnitions and planations of the various terms used . ff 2 . The di erent kinds of wooden staircases generally in

s u e .

3 . The designing and construction of staircases .

a l w 1 . D T EFINI IONS of the v rious terms are given be o , and the letters in brackets after each refer to the corre s pond ing parts marked in the illustration . The stair case is the name given to the space that contains the stairs . ’ A tr e aa is the horizontal surface of the step upon which m the foot rests when ounting or descending the stairs (T) . A r ise r is the vertical part of the step upon which the tread oin f rests . The g g is the horizontal di ference between two risers (G) . The r ise is the vertical distance between two adjacent treads . A nosin d g is the front e ge of the tread, usually moulded at N and projecting beyond the line of the riser bene h it ( ) . The line of nosing is an im aginary line connecting the edges of the nosing , which gives the angle of inclination of the stairs . A ﬂ ier is a s tep the enclosing lines of whose tread are all right angles (F) . A wind e r is a step whose boundary lines are not all right angles (W) . A cu r tail s tep is one in which the outer edge is projected

a . or curved , so as to form base for the support of the newel The terminating scroll of the handrail is often placed in such a position in order th at it may not interfere with the a S w width of the st irs . ometimes the lower t o or three steps a are of curt il shape (C S) .

6 CARPENT RY A N D JOIN ERY . 2 3

f wide, and help to sti fen the treads and risers and prevent any tendency to bending . ’ The spa nar el is the triangular space bet ween the treads and risers and the floor of the , lowest flight, and is gene ' rally enclosed with a panelled front called the sp a nar e l n fr ami g. A w e ll - note is the spac e contained by the handrails o f a in ff between flights st irs going di erent directions . T HE DI FFERENT KINDS OF STAIRCASES are as fol low S tr a i nt stair s w g , which are used for very narro staircases . is w l If there a a l on either side, the , wall string is fitted ' against each, and the treads and risers secured to these . a I f there is but one w ll, the upper end of the outer string is

w - secured to a ne el post if there is a break in the ﬂight, and a w in trimmers are c rried from the posts to the all , as shown

. 6 ﬁgs 3 5 5 and 3 5 . D og- legged or newel stair s are those in which the width of the staircase (or enclosure in which the stairs are formed) is divided longitudinally into two equal widths, and

- in which there is no well hole . Ope n ne we l stair s h ave a well- hole between the ﬂights a around which the newels re arranged . Geome tr ical s tair s have the ﬂight s arranged round a well

- hole , but have no newel posts , each step is housed into the wall string and is also su pported by the outer string . It h w is also up eld by the step belo it, and therefore the ' a treads should be of substantial sc ntling . The handrail is carried from top to b ottom of the staircase without co nstru c interruption . These stairs require more skill in

G a . tion , and were much used in the period of the eorgi n era w . e They are not, ho ver, as a rule , either so strong or so a a satisf ctory as the Open newel st ircase . C ir cu lar newel stair s consist of steps whose extremities are supported b y the wall at one end and at the other by a newel or column from which they radiate to the wall . C i r cu lar geometr ical sta ir s radi ate from an open well hole in the centre , and have their other ends pinned into w a the all , e ch step also derives some support from the step a bene th it . H T l N o r T 3 . T E DES IGN AND C O N ST R UC O S AIRCASES are Q 2 40 CARPENT RY A N D JOINERY . matters of great importance in the appearance and comfort a of house, the details of which are too often neglected .

The design , of course , varies with the class of house , but a S s the following points should alw ys be ob served . tair ' n d i should consist of ﬂights, runni g alternately in opposite S rections . uch ﬂights, as a rule, should not contain more

than from ten to twelve steps , and they should not rise

m 8 . l ore than ft without a anding . The landings between the ﬂights should be of a length and width not less than n a the length of the steps . Wi ders and isol ted steps should

be avoided as much as possible . The treads and risers — should be proportioned as follows Multiply th e rise b 2 in inches y , and add to this the width of the tread in b e 2 inches the result should 3 in . From this it will be seen that the wider the tread the less will be the rise . Steps that h ave a wide tread and high rise are very fatiguing to ascend . C are should be taken that there is plenty of head room between the ﬂights, and 7 ft . is generally considered the least that should be allowed for . Stairs should not, as a

b e . w rule, less than 3 ft in width , so as to allo two people a to p ss . They should always be well lighted, more especially ﬂ A at the commencement and termination of a ight . lantern light, at the top of an open newel staircase, is an a ide l method . Where this is not possible light should be a obt ined on every landing . Before planning a staircase the following details should be a scertained :( I ) the position and sizes of all openings which the stairs must not interfere with ; ( 2 ) the possible width and length of the ﬂights 3 ( 3) the heights between the

ﬂ o o r - a - levels, which should be m rked on a story rod ; (4) l w h the position of the o est and the top riser, whic , of course , l b e a l &c . must kept away from openings, The height of the risers must then be determined , so that they will go x a and e actly into e ch story, these should be marked on each b e i d e rod . The plan can then la d out when it has been a cided wh t description of stair is most desirable, whether

- & c a . w dog legged, open newel , , voiding inders as much as possible .

With regard to the latter, it should be kept in mind that a 1 6 a at a distance of bout ft . in . from the h ndrail, they

2 2 4 CAR PENT R Y AND JOINERY .

should , if possible, be of the same width of tread as the m fliers , because this is approxi ately the position of anyone a a scending or descending the stairs when using the h ndrail . The distance from the handrail should be h alf the length a a of the tre ds when they are of a less width th n 3 ft . a w I n the case of geom etrical st ircases with inders, they are often drawn converging to the centre of the semicircular termination of the handrail on plan , as shown by dotted lines in fig . 35 7. This, however, makes the treads very a w w n rrow near the handrail an d very wide to ard s the all, and as the inclination of the line of nosings of the winders a w is much steeper than th t of the fliers, an a kward knee n is give both to the string and to the handrail . To obviate this , the steps , with the usual exception of the first and “ ” are last four, made to dance, as shown by firm lines

. i e . on fig 3 5 7, . , the inequality is distributed amongst them as 8 n follows Let AB , fig . 3 5 , represent the line of nosi gs of BC the fliers , and that of the winders , as shown in dotted

. 8 BC D h lines in ﬁg 35 . Bisect in by the straig t line m BD A H E F, ake BA equal to , and set up at right

m E F . angles to BA , till it eets produced From this latter A D point of intersection d escribe the arc B . In like manner D K no h ﬁnd the arc C . We have w a ﬂat cyma wit out

. LM w any knee From the vertical height , dra the hori z ontal lines through to th e curved line of development which w can will give the risers and treads, hich latter be transferred

on to the plan . T /z cons tr u ction o stair s is 0 e f illustrated in ﬁgs . 35 9 to 37 .

60 d o - l e e Figs . 3 5 9 and 3 show the plan and section of g gg d

ta r s ha - s i . In this case there is a lf space landing carried by

a trimmer going from wall to wall , and to which the newel x b e th e is ﬁ ed , the outer string in oth cas s being tenoned into R b l atter . R ough strings ( S) are framed etween the trim R B n mers , and rough brackets ( ) are ailed on to them to d A n assist in supporting th e trea s and risers . plan and tra s f n e sta r cas verse section o an ope new l i e is shown in ﬁgs . 36 1 b e and 36 2 . It will seen in this case that the rough string

- abuts on a pitching piece (P) , and that bearers (B) are carried across the quarter space into the wall so as to carry ff the risers for the winders, and these are sometimes sti ened T A CARPEN RY ND JOINERY . 2 43

e cti on ofd o - e e stai rs S g l gg d .

- 360. an ofd o e i rs Pl g l gge d st a . 2 T A 44 CARPEN RY ND JOINERY .

by cross bearers (C B) . A trimmer is carried to the third newel , which is ﬁxed to it , and the stairs start ascending again from this point . The outer string is housed into the w ne els as before, and small lengths handrail and outer string connect the second and third n ewels . A ge o m e t r i c a l stair case is shown 6 in ﬁgs . 3 3 and 364

with dancing steps, both in part eleva tion and elliptical a on pl n . The po sitio n of the c ar riage s is shown

b o l t e d t h e r e o n . The position of the principal carriages is determined in t h e f o l l o w i n g — m anne r z Lay a s t r a i g h t - e d g e o n the plan and move it about “ until a s t r a i g h t l i n e i s m a found , which y be divided as near ly equ ally as may be b y’ th e inte rse c

tions of the risers . The object of this will be manifest when it is remem

36 e c tion of O e n ne we s tai r case . 1 . S p l d h bere t at , when n fo e n ne we st a1r c ase . 362. Pl a o p l the steps are of e w n l b e a roxi nearly qual idth and rise, the a g es will pp fe mately in a straight line , so that there are very w cases i n which carriages may no t be u sed for stairs if the above method be pursued . This method of

2 46 CARPENT RY AND JOINERY .

363 . E e at ion f e o m tric a t ai r ase 64 an o f e om e tr ic a st air case o e s c . 3 . l v g l . Pl g l

365 . e tai o f e m e tri st ai r 366 e ta o f e o m tr ic a stai r 3 7 . E l vm i . 6 o ca . . e e _ D l g l D l g l o t i n o f c i r c u ar ne we st ai r c a se . 368 . art an of c i rc u ar ne we stair case l l P pl l l .

370. e tai ofci r cu ar newe stairc ase D l l l . T A 2 CARPEN RY ND JOINERY . 4 7

r u r n r part plan and elevation of a ci c l a e wel sta i case . The

2 - in lower part of the newel is made up of staves of . planking, into which the risers and bearers to each step are ﬁxed . It is best in this case to tongue the risers into the string, which should be in small pieces 5 a band of iron is then screwed round both , as shown in dotted lines on the elevation 0 n and in ﬁg . 3 7 , and then a thin casi g of string board

. 6 . covers the whole . Fig 3 9 shows detail of framing Handrails are often ﬁxed to the balusters by means of 1 in an iron core, from 15 . to i in . thick and of the width of the baluster, being screwed down to the latter and screwed up to the former . Treads and risers , in addition to being hou sed into the strings, should also have triangular

b s - glued locks to tiffen them , on their under side . The methods adopted for setting out handrailing for different a staircases is a subject which must be de lt with by itself, as it would require several chapters to describe this some what intricate subject . E R X C HAPT XIII .

K SHAPED WOR .

I N the different chapters already given the interest h as lain rather in the construction than in the geometrical problems

which they involve . In practice, however, the student will ﬁnd that carpentry and j oinery require a knowledge of a certain amount of descriptive geometry before designs or working drawings c an be made of the different parts of a structure or piece of carpentry or joine rv which is circular

on plan or elevation , or in both . ’ S aomes nicnes end entives a n le - br acke ts uch features as , , p , g , ’ 7 cir cu la r - lze aaea saslzes in cir cu lar walls r akin m ou ld in s , g g , e lli tica l l ant r n lz lzts c e & . p g , , require a considerable amount of practical geometry to draw them out so that the car e nte r a f p or joiner can execute them . As a m tter of act,

this, of course, is usually done by the craftsman from the

- in é . scale drawings supplied by the architect and as no set of carpentry articles would b e complete without some notices h are of the rules by w ich they produced , it is proposed , a am b — therefore, to t ke an ex ple of each of the a ove men

t ione d features and work it out by means of an illustration . 1 . DOMES are composed of a certain number of ribs a placed vertically in planes , which in spheric l domes would,

u x . if prolonged, pass thro gh the vertical a is of the dome I n a true dome rising from a circular base it is evident that all the rib s have the same proﬁle or contour 3 but in domes on polygon al pla ns the angle - ribs at the intersection of the sides of the solid are alone in planes which pass through i a the ax s . In reg rd to the construction of ribbed domes, the rib s generally spring from a wall o plate or curb l aid on and the wall , forming a ring strong enough to resist the r b lateral th ust of the ri s, the wall thus supporting only the w do nward thrust or weight of the dome . When the height a of a dome is greater th n the radius of its base, it is said o e e t b surmounted 3 when less, surbas d

2 0 5 CARPENT RY AND JOINERY .

from the ﬁrst ﬁgure . The purlins supported on the diagonal

2 . are produced from the ﬁg . 3 7

Figs . 374 and 3 7 5 show in section and plan a surbased 6 dome on an octagonal plan . Fig . 37 shows the position of the ribs and the manner of ﬁnding the curve of the angle ribs . Fig . 3 74 is a section on line AB . The rib over MN is d rawn in elevation at m I 2 3 4 N and divided into equal parts from which ordinates are drawn to the chord line and produced to the line (on plan) of the angle rib KL ; from the points thus marked K 20 x y a L ordi nates are drawn at

right angles and , the height QN b e ing transferred to

them , give points which being joined form the curve of

- the angle rib . In the same manner the curve of one rib of any shaped dome being given

it is _easy to ﬁnd any of the others by means of ordi nates set out at 374 c n na1 m s atio ofoc tago o e . d ﬁ I ts 375 an f o t a o na o m e ght angles to o c . . Pl g l d

376 . e t h o of n i n c u r e s of r i s fo r o c ta ona M d ﬁ d g v b g l base , om e d .

2 . N I C H E S . The framework of these has often to be constructed in rough timbering, which is eventually covered with plaster, w w or in more ﬁnished ork , hen it is left exposed to view, as in the beautifully ﬁnished work of the Mediaeval and a A t re J cobean periods . other times they a cove red with boarding . T 2 1 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY . 5

Figs:3 77 and 378 show a spherical niche on a semi a n circular pl n , in section and pla . The ribs being all o similar, the constructi n of this is precisely like that of a

. 8 spherical dome Fig . 37 is the plan Showing the dis o f a position the ribs . Fig . 3 79 is section showing the contour of one of the ribs . Fig . 3 7 7 is a section of the niche with the ribs set up b y means of projection from the plan . The section (fig . 3 79) sho ws the bevelling of the back ribs, ’ c a a , , ag inst the front rib at lmn o n p l a n (fi g . 3 78) As another ex ample ofa sphe ri c al . 80 niche , fig 3 shows such a niche on a. seg l mental p an . Fig . 38 1 shows the p l a n a n d t h e method of setting out the ribs by drawing them to the centre, from which the plan of the niche . is 2 stru ck . Fig . 38 is th e s e c t i o n

377 . e ction of ni c h e 378. an o fn i c h e u S . Pl . through the p 9 e h n in cu r s for ri ofni c h t o of e b e . 37 . M d ﬁ d g v per part showing that the quadrant MN is drawn with the same radius as‘ the e plan of the niche, and the l ngths of the back ribs are found ’ a ca by t king the distance , ef, from the plan , and setting them off on the line MP .

There are, of course, various other combinations of spherical , segmental , and . elliptical niches , but enough has been shown to indicate the principle on which they are laid

8 - out . Let us take another type . Fig . 3 3 is the half plan of an octagonal niche showing the ribs it is proposed to 2 2 Y 5 CARPENT RY AND JOINER .

- . 8 ha . construct Fig . 3 4 is the lf elevation of the niche It a a P being a regul r oct gon , the curve of the centre rib , Qon

b e as a - n N in plan, will same the h lf fro t rib, Q, Shown

- a a . . 8 a elev tion In ﬁg 3 5 , therefore , dr w the half pl n of the N MO P a a niche, , and dr w the rib, PAB , equ l to half the D 8 . front rib shown in elevation in ﬁg . 3 4 ivide the contour an and of this rib into y number of equal parts , through these points of division draw lines parallel to the face of the n —rib O B iche, produced to meet the plan of the angle , , in ’ a e c a points , , , 3 on th e se points raise a perp e n d i c u l r s, and set upon them e l i the h ights, , ni z nB & 0. , , Join

the points , and the resulting con tour will be that of the angle- ribs a of the oct gon . The shaded part Shows the bevels at the meeting of the ri b s at the summit of the n iche . We will

give _on e other

example, as fol lows - The plan 380 e c t io n f e m e n tal ni h e o s c . . S g O f a se nn C I e U a- r 281 an o f se m e nt a ni c h e . Pl g l . 2 e t h o f n in c u r e o f r i s for se m e nt a 38 . M d o ﬁ d g v b g l niche in a con m e h e ’ a a c ve w ll b eing.

A B . 8 i . C g ven , to find the ribs Let , fig 3 7, be the a th e A E w pl n of niche , C , sho ing the line of the wall A C at D in which it is situate . Join , bisect it , and draw the plan of the ribs from this point as a centre 6 8 . and the elevation as in fig . 3 The ribs have all the e and sam e curvature, being segments of a spher , the length of each c an be obtained by describ ing the quadrant

LMN . 88 th , ﬁg 3 , which is the true elevation of one of e

2 T A 5 4 CARPEN RY ND JOINERY . the working out of th e se that the student will ﬁnd him self u most often called pon to undertake . T 3 . PENDEN IVES . If a hemisphere or other portion of a sphere be intersect ed by cylindric al or a cylindroid l arches , tri angular spaces ar e formed which ar e

called pendentives . The termin ation of these at the top will be a circle whereon may be placed a m a dome, which y be treated in a variety a of ways . T ke as an example the fo l lowing problem : T o cove tﬁ e ceili ng of a squ ar e r oom wit/z spner ical pend e nti oes lzaoing a cir cu l ar sk li lzt in c ntr y g e e . This is a practical instance wh ich an architect may have a to dr w out . Let D C . AB , ﬁg 393 , be the half- plan of the s u are S gl q room . From the centre describ e 4 D s 4 3 2 l r the semicircle which tion of se m e nt a nich e 386 . e c . S g l l an o f se m e nta nic h e . 387 . Pl g l is the p an of the

e t h o of n i n r i s of ni ch e . 388, M d ﬁ d g b hemispherical vault . e th o o f n in r i s o fnic h e . 389 , M d ﬁ d g b

e th o of n i n r i s o f n ich e . n 390. M d ﬁ d g b O the Side A C de e t h o of n i n r i s of ni ch e . 391 . M d ﬁ d g b scribe a semicircle representing the curve re sulting from the intersection of the hemisphere by the plane of the side of the room . Then

39 ti f ir a - h n wa 5 Se c on o c c u r e a e sas h i c irc ul ar . 396. . l d d ll o f rib for sash 398 e th o o f o tai ni n m ou t o e n c . . M d b g ld b d of o taini n m ou in s 401 e t h o o f o t ai nin m ou i b g ld g . . M d b g ld

T CARPEN RY AND JOINERY . 2 5 7

set out the ribs on plan as it is desired to place th em , ﬁrst describing the circle for the skylight by two lines re pre

. 2 senting the thickness of its curb The ﬁg . 39 is a section taken across the centre of the plan . From 0 as a centre

392 e c t ion o f e nd e n ti e . S p v .

393 an o f e n e n t i e . . Pl p d v 94 e t h o o f o t ai nin an e of wa b rack c t 3 . M d b g gl ll . draw the se m 1c 1rc le representing the intersection of th e e and se hemisph re , from the same point describe the g lm n t m ent , represen ing the section of the spherical sur face o n the line B D . Project the curb from the plan R 2 8 T 5 C ARPEN RY AND JOINERY . and ﬁnd the intersection of the other ribs with the side and the curb b y projecting lines from the plan from e to c and ’

5 a . n . to To ﬁnd the true le gth of each rib proceed as — follows I n plan on the arc A x draw xy parallel to the

' Sid e of the plan ; th e n with the same radius with D as a

z - centre describe the arc y , which will give the under side th of the rib A s . From the centre describe e arcs e m and c and wi r" a i if i s g and , draw , o , to intersect y in , , then and ’ z ea r o will be the true lengths of the ribs , f. i z By projecting the points , , and describing arcs with t he as a all m a a same radius y , the ribs y be drawn sep rately

1 2 6 . as shown in Nos . , , 3, 4 , 5 , The bevel of the ends

of the ribs is obtained by means of the double - dotted

A x e m r . curves , , g

- - K T . 4 . ANGLE BRAC E S (ﬁg The pieces of wood w a & c . a hich support the l ths ofcornices, , are called br ckets , and are ﬁnished t o as near as possible the general outlin e s of the cornice to be supported . These may be either for

n x re - a inter al or e ternal cornices, forming entering or s lient

. A BC a a angles Let be the elev tion of the cornice br cket, D E and FG the horizont al plan o fthe internal and external angle of the cornice . From points which represent the change in contour of D E the bracket draw perpendicular lines, cutting in certain m po ts . D D F E G G L n raw the line , FK, , , represe ting the plan of th e b rac keting and the p arallel lines from the inter n h M and l m n o as . E GN section , show T en make each u a A o r s a t d e n eq l to , to , g to , ﬁ to jg, and so on, and join the points so found to give t he contour of the brackets required .

A - S I N 5 . A C IRCUL R HEADED ASH A C IRCULAR WALL is a problem of frequent occurrence , and the following is the

. a method for setting it out Fig . 395 represents the elev a I n tion and ﬁg . 396 the pl n of such a window . order to ﬁnd the lines necessary for forming the head for the sash divide the quarter circle AB into any number of equal parts draw vertical lines intersecting the chord C D on the

a 6 . e r e n pl n , ﬁg . 39 From these intersections draw lines p p

d i D . w cu lar C . D to the chord , as shown in ﬁg 397 ra any

2 60 CARPENT RY A N D JOINERY .

cu rb into proportionate spaces . This is accomplished as h d ao s own by rawing the line , dropping a perpendicular l a co cc c . from its centre, and making equal to and Join ’ ’ ’ a o b a a d e sc r ib e e D are , , and from the arc ¢ ivide the into the same number of spaces that the quarter of the curb

is desired to have . Through these points from the centre ’ a d raw lines to intersect the line ab . From th e centre of the ellipse d raw lines through these points to intersect the

th e . line of curb, which will give the required points We have thus traced a few of the problems of shaped work and u ffi which the joiner has to carry out, s cient has been shown of t he principles ad opted to enable the stu dent t o n b apply them to a y special case . The question of evels t e a l in n a t will be r ated sep rate y the ext ch p er. C HAPTE R XXIV .

V BE ELS .

Y a a A N angle that is not a right ngle or n angle of 45 deg . l e el n (termed a mitre) is called a v a gle . The exact angles which pieces of st u ff make with adjoining pieces of stuff have to be accurately formed by the craftsman before they can be

ﬁtted together. The manner of ﬁnding the bevels (or cu ts as they are called) as applied to different construct i ons is i b e outl ned In the following remarks, by which it will seen

that it is in general a simple matter, requiring only a sound

knowledge of solid geometry . Following the principle of tab u lation adopted throughout this work as being most easy of comprehension , we may roughly class our remarks as under

1 . w Bevels for simple oblique ork . 2 l . Beve s which occur in hip roofs .

3 . Bevels which occur in valley roofs .

4 . Bevels for purlins . a w 5 . Bevels to spl yed windo linings .

6 . & c Bevels to louvre frames , . T h e instrument or tool called the l e vel has been already a 2 described and illustrated in a previous ch pter , ﬁg . 9. It consists of a stock made of h ard wood with brass mo u ntings

- at each end and a blade held together b ya screw pin . The a a bl de is made of a parallel plate of steel, with a Slot llowing it to move up and down on the screw - pin at the end of the a i stock which p sses through th s Slot . The slot in the stock permits the blade to b e pivoted completely round on the

- i n an screw pin , and as it can be tightened y position any n angle c an be made between it a d the stock . I B K — . BEVEL FOR O LIQUE WOR The simplest kind of bevel which the craftsman will have to perform may possi b ly ' ﬁ 0 i n v a be s omething like that shown in g. 4 4, which a ertic l in post is kept position by a _ stay or strut which is inclined to the grou nd at an angle of 6 0 d e g. As this strut has its side w aw parallel to the plane on hich the elevation is dr n , it will 2 6 2 T A N D CARPEN RY JOINERY .

b e seen that the true length and correct bevels are shown in l i th e l n e evation , and are ndicated by thick lines enc osi g the angle at which the strut h as to be sawn at the top and the b o tto m . This is , perhaps, the Simplest case it is possible b 60 . to Imagine, as the evel can be at once set at deg for w a 0 the lo er ngle and 3 deg . for the upper . 0 Fig . 4 5 shows a similar post, but in this case the strut

at . a l has its Sides 4 5 deg to the vertic l p ane . To con 77272 struct the elevation draw the line to this inclination , and

m o f l e d o s m e s t o r e e . 405 e e t w n r u an t . i . e e st t 404 . S pl f b v B v l b p

on this line draw a section of the strut to ﬁnd the necessary a a a a angul r points in elev tion , which will be obt ined by dr w

ing lines through these points . The plan is projected from

th e elevation as indic ated . b l d I n order to obtain the evels, the true ength of the e ges , i n e being seen elevation , it is necessary to develop the sid s at as and this is effected by turning round the side , shown , m n m m drawing a line parallel to through this point , fro ni x at mn x draw right angles to , then draw from to p , and

the necessary be vel is obtained . In the same manner for

2 64 CARPEN T RY AND JOINERY . drawing a line from the point r to cut the developed edge x x in 3 j oin p to , which gives the necessary bevel 3 the a lower edge is obtained in a simil r manner . l n th e e d e o b I n ﬁndi ng these beve s , the true le gth of g is _ taine d h , and then the sides are developed 3 and w ere the n n true le gth of th e edge is not Show , it must be proj ected u a a pon a pl ne p rallel to itself, thus Showing its true length . — m R o F . I n 2 . HI P o s its most si ple form , the hip roof is a a a a a a w i n qu dril ter l pyramid , each tri ngul r side of hich is a " , a a a acle r a te r s and the rafter in e ch angle is hip r fter . Th e j f h b are those common rafters whic , y abutting on the hip a r fters, are therefore shorter than the length of the sloping

side of the roof. — In a hip roof the following points are known The

angle of the slope of the roof, the height of th e roof, the length of the com mon rafters 3 and the points which require to be worked out are the angles which the hip rafters m ake

- with the wall plate, the angles which the hip rafters make with the ad joining planes of the roof (called the backing of

the hip) , and the length of the hip rafter . 0 l As a simple case, let ﬁg . 4 7 represent a portion of a p an w and elevation of a hipped roof, of hich it is required to

determine the length and inclination of th e hip rafter . The

pitch is assumed at 4 5 deg . for sides and end , and the 7 angles a and [ right angles . Take the length ac in plan and ’ o ff a n set it from to f in elevatio , from the pointf draw fo 0 perpendicular (the point being the height of the ridge) , l d o nd join c to 0, then is the true length a inclination of the w saw hip , and the bevel at A sho s the cut for the top end o f w the h ip, in the same manner as B sho s the bevel for the

foot . The hip rafter is therefore seen to have a ﬂ atter in c linatio n a a o b th n the common r fters , f eing level with them at the ridge and at their feet 3 this is brought about by the

hip having a longer distance to cover . e 08 To take a mor complicated example, in ﬁg. 4 let AB C D b e the plan of a roof in which it is required to ﬁnd

the length of the rafters , the backing of the hips, and the a D shoulders of the j ck rafters and purlins . raw GH a A D BC d n a par llel to the sides , ividing lo gitudin lly the D w space to be covered , from the points ABC ith any radius 2 6 CARPENT RY AND JOINERY . 5

w n describe the curves as sho n , intersecti g the sides of the w t plan , and from these points ith any radius bisec the four angles of the p l a n i n t h e points and fr o m ABC D draw the lines ' o f t h e h i p rafters through

t h e s e points , c u t t i n g t h e ridge line in

G and H . The d otted lines 408 an o froo . . Pl f £6 and if at right angles to the ridge indicate the plans of the end

entire common rafters . From any line M N set off the P N w height of the roof OP and join PM and , which sho '

th rafte r . G the true length of e From the points and H , and n o ff at right a gles to the plans of the hips , set the heights HS e GS and equal to the height of the ridge of the roof, th n D A S B S C S S . , , , are the true lengths of the hip rafters Take another case in which an irregular- shaped space has

to be roofed in , and it is desired to keep the ridge level

(ﬁg. La AB C D be the plan of o such a r of, b isect the an gles by the A d Bd lines , , a D a and C , , th ro u gh a draw m the lines a 409 an parallel to the sides B C A D and , and

09. an of roo . meeting the 4 Pl f lines b isecting these angles in m and n ; the rid ge wil

man . an then follow the line , which will enclose a ﬂat On y 2 66 T CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

f wn line HI set up th e pitch of the roo as sho , and from the 772 a n a points , , , and perpendicular to the pl n of the hips , set o ff b the height of the ridge, which , eing joined to the angles ' ive th e of the roof, will g true length of the hip rafters , and an the bevels at their head d feet . Another point which it is necess ary for the craftsman to

ﬁnd out in setting up a hipped roof, is what is known as the backi n g or angle on the back of the hip rafter, formed by the meeting of the two planes of the roof. 1 B th A C I n . 0 e ﬁg 4 let AB , C be common rafters , the

D E F . span of the roof, and the plan of the hip From

410 e t h o o f n i n ac i n o fh i r a te r . . M d ﬁ d g b k g p f

ff E H E G a E B set o th e height of the roof , , equ l to and '

o in HD GF HD G F a . j , , then , are the hip r fters In order th e b ac an to find the bevel for k of these, from y point jin a u a i E F i and FG dr w the perpendic l rj cutting in , through i d raw perpendicul ar to E F the line L771 cutting FC and FD and 772 a i K Km i n L 3 m ke equal to if, and join KL, and n a af the angle E KP is the a gle of the b ck of the hip r ter . Take another c ase in which it is required to find the a a 1 A B length and bevel of any j ck r fter (fig . 4 Let C be

C ARPENT RY AND JOINER Y . 2 69 the rafter to the wider span is obtained in a similar manner i ll . th s va e (see M) In constructing _ y, the jack rafters are kept below the edge of the valley to allow for the thickness of the boarding:In the ﬁgures E and F this is indi cated .

The ﬁgure. at F represents the roof O f30 deg . span with jack

- a and h rafter, wall pl te, valley board . T en , in order to ﬁnd

i k - the necessary notch in the rafter of the qu c er pitched roof, th e 6 a b draw perpendicular to 3 c rry this point , y means of the dotted line to 7, which will give the position within which the boarding must be kept at this point . In order to ﬁnd the b evels O f the valley rafter we must — proceed . as follows The ﬁg. 4 1 3 shows the same valley

r as d - b a rafte last described , the ri ges and wall plate eing lso m ab arked 3 on the line , parallel to the valley, is set up the true pitch and length of the valley . The student will notice

- at th e notching on the wall plate, and the bevel the top end, where th e valley comes against the ridge . To ﬁnd the b l a eve s develop the edge , and project e ch point, as shown both in the lower and upper ends . We have still to show the backing or bevel on the upper Side of the valley rafter . 1 R V Fig . 4 4 shows the method of ﬁnding this . W, , and

w - represent the all plates, ridge, and valley rafters of the roof 3 at any point on th e plan of the valley draw cd at right angles

mn - c to , meeting the line of the wall plates produced in d n no nm and 3 from the point draw at right angles to , and a m equal to the rise of the roof. By joining to the length and inclination of the valley is shown 3 from or draw xy a m o ff x x ) perpendicular to , and set from the distance 1 a sa c d equ l to y, j oin p and p , and the true shape of the angle f i a O the valley rafter s obt ined . —T O 4 . BEVELS FOR PURLINS . ﬁnd the bevels for purlins a 1 p ssing round a hipped roof proceed as follows (ﬁg . 4 5 ) E b e B A D Let the purlin , C the slope of the roof, and the b arc HN w plan of the hip . From F descri e any and dra

H] and N O perpendicul ar to the diameter HN . From I u and L, where the pper sides of the purlin cut the circle, K a I LM a FG a a . dr w , , par llel to H] , and , lso p rallel to H] K BD G From M and K draw MO , J , parallel to , and join ] and G . i s O Then FG0 the down bevel of the purlin , and

FG] its side bevel .

2 A N D 7 2 CARPENT RY JOINERY .

or cuts for the junction of the upper or side linings, shown h in black lines, hardly want furt er explanation . It is evi d e nt that the proper bevel can only be Obtained by develop i n r g the side and head espectively , and thus obtaining the c true uts . — 6 . 0 . St a 1 2 BEVELS FOR LOUVRE FRAMES, Figs 4 9 and 4 a are examples of a louvre frame for a ventilator in roof, of which it is required to ﬁnd the bevels of the various parts .

. 2 0 1 O f Fig 4 Shows the elevation and fig . 4 9 the section ec the ventilator. In the elevation a represents the inside of m the sloping fra e . I n order to determine the true Shape of the sides they should be developed as shown the real width drawn) and from the point I , where the side meets b a in the ack of the sill , draw a perpendicul r meeting the side at the point m 3 the n by joining c to m we Sh all obtain w the bevel N, which ill enable the sides to fit properly on to the top of the Sill . Again , the sides being grooved into the sill it is necessary to find the bevel from this groove ; for this purpose develop the top side of sill, as shown 3 from the i w a r point dra pe pendicular to meet the developed edge,

n no a . joi , and the bevel M for the groove is obt ined Next,

v - b m as to the lou re oards the selves, we must determine the are bevel for the groove in the sides into which these ﬁxed , a ar and lso the bevel to which they e cut . As to the former, r st r the louvre q is shown in elevation , and from the point , w a here the louvre cuts the back edge (see section) , draw perpendicular meeting the edge of the side developed i n u u t t he v a , join to , and be el for the groove is obt ined , marked P .

T O - c u t ﬁnd the side of the louvre, develop , as always , b and the top face of the oard , from the point q, where the O f a top edge cuts the side the frame, draw perpendicular z) b s meeting the developed edge in 3 then , y j oining to this

- b R a . point, the evel is Obt ined for this louvre board The others follow in a similar manner . We h ave now glanced at a fe w of the principal bevels u in and or c ts used carpentry and joinery, if, as we hope, the principles of forming these have b een grasped, they will be easily applied to any case which will engage the ’ t c raftm an s atten ion . C HAPTE R XXV

RODS .

BEFORE any work o r importance can be carried out it is necessary that at least some part of it should be drawn out a full size so th t it can be referred to at any moment . This r d is done on a board which is called a o . The old method O f setting out rods was to chalk an ordin ary deal a board and to m rk thereon with pencil lines, but this is l found not to be a good method , owing to the cha k wearing

Offso easily and thus obliterating these lines . T h e method now usually pursued in good workshops is to mix up a bucketful of whiting to the consistency of

cream and to ad d a cupful of glue . The pail is then pl aced on the stove when the whole is well stirred and mixed “ h h b e f toget er . T ere should just su ﬁcient glue to ﬁx the

whiting, in order to prevent it rubbing off too easily, bu t a there Should not be sufﬁcient to m ke it String, as it then is

fﬁ . 1 1 di cult to draw upon A pine board, in . wide by a gin . or 3in . thick , is gener lly employed , and after it has had ' a is l ft a good co t of the whiting, made as described , it e a three or four hours to dry, and is then p pered down with

- glass paper, when it is ready for setting out . b It is well to remem er that in setting out rods, excepting a a only in the c ses of very intric te or circular work , sections

(either vertical or horizontal) are only employed . fo r In the cases of setting out rods windows and doors , br ick o e nin it is most important to work from the p g, as very few brickl ayers are always particular to follow out the ’ a f architect s dr wings very exactly , and , in act , it is not a lways possible to do so, as the bricklayer is limited to the and O f w a size of his bricks the courses the brick ork , and lso

many b ricks vary considerably in size . a O f First, therefore, obt in the size the Opening , the width of

S 2 74 CARPENT RY AND JOINERY . which in the case of a window is generally between the b rick re veals , the pulley styles l n ini g up from these . The height being from the stone sill to the underside ofthegauged arch when the l atter is horizontal ; wh e n it is a segmental or circul r, of course the height is taken to the springing , and the rise is then added . It is almost a universal practice to treat all openings as though square in the n ﬁrst insta ce, and then to cut a template in the case of any arch not either of the ordinary circular or segmental t y p e . P e r h a p s t h e method of setting out rod s will be best ex pl ained by taking a simple example . Figs . — 4 2 1 4 2 3 represent the n a pla , section , and p rt

v a 2 - in ele tion of a . framed partition which is purposely made of a heterogeneous d e sign t o i l l u s t r a t e b e t t e r the method of setting 2 out of ﬁg. 4 4 . Let C D E F represent the 422 423 rod ab out to be set

an f ane e arti tion . 421 . Pl o p ll d p

22 e c t i on o f ane e artition . 4 . S p ll d p 423 a - e e at ions o f ane e ar ti tion . H lf l v p ll d p 2 e t h o ofse ttin o u t h e i h t r o d 4 4. M d g g

25 Me t h o o f se tti n o u t wi th r od . 4 . d g d

" 2 6 T 7 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

b e glued or dowelled according to the quality of the work . D ld in e . e i . raw the moulding of the panel and thefi g, , the flat “ f o f aw m sur ace or field the panel, and then dr in the ould ing on the inside . o w w N dra in the skirting on the face and inside , making a sinking of 3 in. within the thickness of the lower rail so as to prevent the joint showing in case of shrinkage, and allow for scribing to floor ; then draw on the cornice at a the top on the face side , or allowing in the c se of a thin b one a similar sinking as before descri ed for the skirting . The rod is now complete as regards the vertical section “ ” ” which is called by the joiner the height . The width a — n or horizont l section is set out as follows I fig . 4 2 5 let G HI K represent the width rod , commence by drawing “ ” in the outside or clear width (in this case 3 allowing a outside this 3 in . extr width for scribing (see dotted lines) , O f D mark on this the width the style on either side . raw 2 two lines in . apart to represent the thickness of the framing and also two lines 1 4in . outside these to indicate the and thickness of the skirting, outside this the line represent ing the greatest projection of the cornice . N r ow d aw in the panel , which can be gathered from the

height rod , showing here the section of the ain . bead ” as this is bead and ﬂush . The “ height ” and “ width rods are now complete for this simple piece of panelling . In more elaborate works such as a blank screen with a a mouldings, breaking round pil sters, all these bre ks would have to be carefully drawn in for the purpose O f obtaining ff mitres as the joiner measures these direct O the rod . The m ethods above described are usual in the case of all ’ O f j oiner s work with the addition, in the case shaped work ,

a w . O f of a full size elev tion , hich is made on a rod composed b a a d o rds, usu lly glued together and provided with le ges on the back to strengthen it . A E R X C H PT XVI .

K T W O R S H O P P R A C I C E .

I T is proposed to treat brieﬂy on the above subject under the following head s

1 . Framing up . 2 . Fastenings . an 3 . The use d sharpening of tools .

4 . Th e care of tools . — U P . a 1 . FRAMING Gre t care should be taken in framing

up work , as the stability of framing depends so much on

the close and proper ﬁtting of the j oints . The following is the method usually adopted in putting a door together

& c . d and All the styles and rails , , Should first be fitte , a every part marked with distinguishing letter or figure, so a a b e a th t the proper position of e ch piece may cle r .

C a - ommence by putting the lower r il in the bench screw, and x drive the munting into its mortise, ne t drive on the a a middle r il and put in the lower p nels , then lower this p art O f the framing on to the ﬂoor and drive the top

munting into its mortise . Next put in the top panels and 011 01 drive on the top rail , then turn , the framing the ends its tenons on one of its sides and drive on the style . Turn the door over and drive on the other style, by this means all the parts are put together without any bruising of the shoulders . la This having been accomplished , y the door on the b in bench upon two pieces of stuff, say 3 in . y 3 . , out of a and winding, as this ensures the door itself rem ining true, “ a . then try up with the cr mps Then knock to pieces, and well glue both mortise and tenons , quickly drive rails on u a the m ntings , then pl ce mortises of styles on ends O f and tenons of rails, gluing both sides of tenons mortises, and n o n drive home and well cramp up, usi g two cramps , e at each end of the door . Then dip the wedges in glue and drive them home ; after which leave the d oor till the gl u e is thoroughly dry . 2 8 T 7 CARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

The craftsm an should b e carefu l in th e selection of his glue ; th at of a pale Shade is generally superior to the a b b n d arker shades . It should be prep red y eing broke up a and a a h a v in sm ll pieces , left to so k in w ter t t just co ers for about twelves hours ; it m ay t hen be pu t in the glue - pot a as and thinned b y hot w ter desired . Work to be glu ed h h a c a an S ould be t oroughly dry , and be m de perfe tly cle n d an a a s b d s a . smooth , the glue be pplied hot possi le Glued articles sh ould not b e exposed to a c o ld tem perature till t he and h glue is set, t is it will not do in a freezing atmo x t h sphere . When glued work has to b e e posed o t e

n a - O il h a ar i ﬂuences of the we ther , linseed and w ite le d e e sometimes mix d up with the glue . — T . B olts are a 2 . FAS ENINGS gener lly used for the purpose a u h a of giving dded sec rity to j oints , thoug they we ken the d h y a and woo through whic the p ss by severing the ﬁbres, ar e li ab le to become loose through the Shrinkage of th e timber ; b u t this is generally ob vi ated by one end h aving a and a w a ab solid head th e other scre , on which is mov le

m a b e . o nut, which y tightened up The following prop r tions for nuts and bolts are generally used

and a f D o . iameter of head nut, of di meter bolt 3 T a O f a b h hickness of he d , 4 di meter of olt ; dept of a as the a nut, the s me di meter of the bolt . Washers Should be ab out three times the di ameter of and a a the bolt h lf the thickness of the he d .

D r a wbor ing consists of forc ing the shoulder of a tenon c th e and a a lose up to mortise , is ccomplished by m king h a s a the ole in the tenon ne rer the sho ulder, in te d of exac tly

coinciding with the holes in the cheeks of the mortise . h a a An iron pin is then forced throug , the l tter being fterwards n W i thdrawn and a o ak pin inserted . N ails are a b a am gener lly used for securing o rds to be s , and are much in request for temporary purposes and in ar a inferior work . They e gener lly known by their weight a and b per thous nd y their length in inches . Formerly they “ e . . nn were known by their price per hundred , g , tenpe y an n d n ails me t tenpence per hu dre .

2 80 C ARPENT RY AND JOINERY .

- saw a using the ripping , the bo rd or plank to be cut up

t wo - should be laid between sawing stools, an d the right “ knee should b e ﬁrmly placed upon the stuff so as to a saw b e a b keep it ste dy . The should gr sped y the right x e a hand, with the inde ﬁnger xtended ag inst the right Side an of the handle . The saw should be worked up d down in the same plane through the pencil line which has

previously b een marked on the stuff. It 18 well to constantly Observe both sides of the saw to see that no divergence i s

taking pl ace . A S the work proceeds it is well to drive a

' m as a a two wedge into the slit ade, this keeps p rt the ie c e s to a p be severed , and allows a freer p ssage for the

saw . After the sawing has been commenced b y a fe w short and b e gentle strokes , the length and strength of which should u a saw grad lly increased , the whole length of the should be l b cal ed into use, care eing taken not to draw it out of the

cut, as it is likely to be injured by striking against the wood G b e a a in the return thrust . reat care should t ken , especi lly a b when using both h nds, not to jam the teeth into the wood, b ti t and to work the saw evenly smoothly , as otherwise the ” saw may b e rendered useless b y being crippled . A Slight deviation from the straight line may b e rectiﬁed b u t ab by twisting the blade, this renders the saw li le to

b ind in the stuff. a ab 1 When cutting through wood more th n out 5 in .

thick it is us u al to l u b ricate the saw with oil . If the stuff a 2 a is more th n in . thick it is a good plan to m rk on both al u sides the desired position ofthe cut, and to occasion ly t rn

it over so as to cut from the opposite face, as this conduces

to straighter and more regular sawing . When using a saw care must b e taken to cut just a little thicker than the actual w b idth required , owing to the thickness removed y the “ ” w set of the sa . This especially applies to b ack saws

&c . and when cuttingtenons, , also where wood is not a going to b e pl ned up afterwards . b a A saw is sharpened y three different Oper tions, which — are . li n se ttin performed in the following order viz , ﬁ g, g, u m n b a nd g mi g. After the saw has een secured in a

clamp, teeth uppermost , the teeth are dressed with the CARPENT RY AND JOINERY . 2 8 1

a aw n a ﬁle t the desired angle . The s is the secured in

a are set i . e s horizontal vice, and the lternate teeth , . , truck in a uniform manner with a h ammer designed for the as at a purpose, so to bend every tooth the s me angle h from the true orizontal . The saw is then reversed and th e same operation is performed on the alternative teeth an u m on the Opposite Side and in opposite direction . G ming is the process b y which the throat of the teeth is m a deepened, and this is effected by e ns of punches . The a three Oper tions described are, at the present day, usually

performed by machinery where possible, owing to the saving of labour and to the greater exactness obtainab le b y this means . — h i 1 d P l anes T e ﬁrst th ng 5 to a ju st th e irons . These sho u ld be taken out of the plane by grasping below the fork of the wedge with the left thum b and pl acing the ﬁngers of the left hand round the plane and pl anting the back on the b ench :a fe w sm art taps on the nose

of the plane will loosen the wedge , and the irons may

be taken out . The screw connecting the cutting and back irons m ay

no w b e . loosened , and the former, if necessary, sharpened as b a w When this is accomplished , descri ed l ter on , scre

y - b a up the irons tightl together, the cutting iron eing bout 1 1 O fan th a - are 3 2 inch in advance of e b ck iron . The irons a then placed in the plane , which is held at an ngle towards a b the cr ftsman with its ack end on the bench , so that he

m ay look along the sole O f the plane . When the edge of the iro n projects the required distance

beyond the sole of the plane , the iron itself is kept in posi b tion y the left thumb, and the wedge is pushed into its “ ” a place by the right h nd , and is gently tapped home . The set of the plane may be adj u sted during use by as tapping the iron or the nose occasion may require, and when the iron is not set squarely with a sole a side tap is a f T h gener lly su ﬁcient to correct it . e wood to be planed b e should laid quite ﬂat upon the bench , and pressed against

b - l the ench stop to prevent it from shifting . The p ane must w and al ays be used in the direction of the grain , if iff the latter runs in d erent directions, it must be turned 2 8 2 CARPENT RY AND JOINERY .

c l h i a a . e u se an t e a ck bout cording y Wh n in . the h dle of pl a ne Shou l d be grasped b y the right hand with th e fore x a th e w ﬁnger e tended gainst edge . The left hand should h d r u t o f a e w th e ol the fo e p the pl n , with the thumb do n edge nearest the Operator .

tr i n - l a ne b e h a b u t The y gp Should eld in a Similar m nner, xe t o ff i n e a a the e rtion use it di ers this r s pect, th t where s the pressure of b oth arms should b e uniform throughout in th e a a - a a - a c se of the j ck pl ne, in the c se of the trying pl ne for the first h alf of the stroke the left arm exerts the most b u t a f ar m pressure, for the l tter hal the right does most ” i in - a of the work . For sh o t g work the trying pl ne is held h a with the fingers under the sole, which t us act as kind of gauge for keeping the plane on the edge of the stu ff. The s m ootlzing-pl a ne is held by grasping it b ehind the c u - tting iron , the fingers and thumb of the left hand being in r nd all f ont a pressing it down on the wood . The sole of l a O f a a a wood p nes is , course, li ble to wear w y , and must a a a u ab a occ sion lly be pl ned up tr e . The li ility to wear aw y a l u b is reduced by occasion lly wel r bing the sole with oil . When a pl ane- iron is required to be sh arpened it must be “ xa n and e mi ed , if the edge is found to be only dull it can — b e sh arpened on an oilstone in the following m anne r z Hold the iron with the right h and towards the top with the

- a fingers on the under side, and pl ce the fingers of the left b and h a T h e toget er and across the upper surf ce of the iron . 0 b iron is then held at an angle of ab out 4 deg . and ru bed a l as c reful y on the oiled stone for its whole length, it is most desirable to wear away the stone as little and as truly as e I a possibl . t is also im po rtant th at the same ngle Sh ould h e e th e - observ d throughout stroke, or the cutting edge will be convex i nstead of quite flat . b c an al b e d A lunt iron gener ly etected by a whitish , worn ‘ ” a e b . pp arance , whereas a keen edge is invisi le The wire edge o n the back o fthe iron should b e removed b y placing a fl at the and b n the b ck quite on stone, gently rub i g back an a a wards d forwards for few strokes . When the origin l b a at evelled edge m de by the grindstone, which is generally

an an ab 2 . gle of out 5 deg , has been much encroached u pon b u a n l y freq ent sh rpeni g on the oi stone, the grindstone

2 T 84 C ARPEN RY AND JOINERY .

n as a e no t an eglected , because, I ul , it is the duty of y f no t b e one in particular to look a ter them . They should

exposed to the rays of the sun , as they become so hard as and a to be worthless , the w ter in the trough should be a o ff w dr wn after every Operation , as if left to stand in ater b a the grindstone ecomes soft in that p rt . ‘ “ i lstones a th e a O are of sever l kinds , Washit , perhaps , a a being the best value for the price . A case should lw ys a be made for them , and they should be wiped fter use,

a S a - O il with handful of shavings . al d only should be used , a f and cle nsing with para ﬁn is not to be recommended , as it h hardens t e stone and thus reduces its cutting power . T HE C S — 4 . ARE OF TOOL The craftsman should always

tak e a pride in having his tools well kept . The wooden and parts of tools , such as the handles of chisels the stocks

are O - O il w of planes, ften soaked in linseed for a eek when and b fresh from the makers, then rub ed with a soft cloth

for a short time every day for a fortnight . This treatment at preserves the wood , and the same time gives a good a e c an b surface . All steel rticl s be preserved from rust y

- - pl acing a lump of freshly burnt lime in the tool chest . To prevent the lime from soiling the cabinet it should be

placed in a muslin b ag. TO preserve a polished surface the metal m ay be covered with a mixture O f one part of resin and to six of lard , dissolved slowly together, then thinned b b with a little kerosine . It should be very lightly ru ed and R m a on , can be easily removed when required . ust y

- be removed from metal by rubbing well with sweet oil , n a a d then leaving it to soak for two days in the oil , fter

u ﬁ ne l - u a which it should be r bbed with y pulverised , nsl ked a lime . Another method is to immerse the article short

a . time in solution of 3 oz of potassium cyanide to 4 oz . of water 3 it should - then be taken out and well brushed with a C a a cream paste composed of stile so p , whiting, potassium and a n . cy a ide , w ter I N D E X .

PAG E

e am D ra o n B , g A cac ia wo o d Flitc he d A fric an o ak C u rve d A ld e r wo o d I nd e nte d A m e ric an o ak J oggle d plane C oke - b re e z e ye ll o w pine F o r mu l a fo r b re aking A ngl e - b rac ke ts we ight o f A pro ns Fo r mu l a fo r c al c u lating A rch T rim m s re n h , e r t gt A rchi ra e s e e c h its u se t v B , ’ A rrise s timb e r e nch C ar e n e r s , B , p t A h e e s s its u se &c . , , B v l A stragal m o u ld ing fo r hip ro o fs A u s tralian pi ne Kau ri l ou vre fram e s A u strian o ak pu rlins spl aye d wind ow lin I ngs vall e y ro o fs o b liqu e wo rk Bind e rs Birc h wo o d Blind s o ard ind o w B , W V - j o inte d r ic a o ar d s o o r ve t l B , Fl fo d e d h o rizo ntal l b u tt - o in d Barre l b o lts j te r b t d Batte n e a e re b ate d ro o ve d Be ad , g an i nsid e d to ngu e d o u h e d and o u tsid e pl g o n u e d qu irke d t g ir r o o e d and d o u b l e and qu k g v ‘ to n u e d and d o u b le q u I rk g re b a e d and ﬁ l Be am T ie t l te d H am m e r c 2 8 6 I NDEX .

o ard s o o r d o we e d C e i in s B , Fl , ll l g fo r spe c ial pu r C offered o se s d anc in &c 1 0 p , g, 4 Bo l e c tio n m o u ld ing 1 88 T ab le o fwe ights o n o E s a no e te 2 1 2 C e s s o o s B lt , p g l t p l o e o in e d m o u d in 1 8 1 C h am fe r u n B wt ll p t l g , s k ro u nd 1 80 ain o r h o o w 3 , pl ll Bo xe d fram e 2 03 C hase - m o r tise i u u e rs . C h e s nu t ts se g tt S7 t , Brac e and b its 2 7 C hise l s Brac e s fo r s c affo ld ing 1 0 1 C l am ping rac e ts A n e 2 8 C e a B k , gl 5 l t Br e ssu m e rs 1 5 0 C l o se strings r ic s 2 06 C o sin s le B k , l g ty Br id ge C o gging T r u sse d gird e r C o ll ar - b e am ro o f T imb e r su s e nsio n o u m ns Ho w to ﬁ x p C l , C l ose - rib b e d fo rm u lae fo r d iffe re nt Fl at linte l thic kne sse s B rac e d linte l C o m m on rafte rs T r e stl e Ho w to se t o u t C l o se d rib C o nd e nsatio n gu tte r C u rve d rib C o nic al skylight B am b e r g C o nse rvato rie s ’ T raj an s C o rnic e ’ C ae sar s C o u pl e r oo fs tab l e O f l e ast rise fo r c l o se ro o f d iffe re nt spans C o v e ring to r o o fs fo rm u a fo r nd in c u r C rane D e rric l ﬁ g , k vatu re C ro ss garne ts ' ave rage strain pe r fo o t C u r tail ste p su pe r C u t s tring B r id l e j o int C u t and m it re d string Bu tt j o int R ising Proj e c ting D ad o s D anc in stairs M o d o fl g , e th ay ing o u t C anad ian ine D e a d im e nsio ns l , C ar pe nte r s b e nc h white f C ar riage s o r stair s . D e c o rate d m o u ld ings M e th o d o f fo r m ing D e fe c ts o ftim b e r

C as e m e nts D e rr ic k c rane . d xe n . ﬁ n . D o gs h u ng o n c e ntre s D o m e s C ave tto o r h o llo w su rm o u nte d C e d ar wo o d su rb ase d C e iling j o ists M e th o d o f se tting o u t

2 88 INDEX .

PAG E 2 I 5 fl inging 1 64 Hip r afte rs ro o f e e s fo r , B v l H o rnb e am wo o d

Gall e ry Gantry G ate s I nte r - tie G e rm an —o ak I ro n c o r e to Gib - and c o ttar j o int ir d e rs r u sse d wi h wo o d G , t t iro n fram e d tru ss J ac k - pl ane r f r u l e fo r sc antlings a te r am b inin d im e nsio ns re l ating J l gs arrah wo o d t o wid th ofb e aring J Gl ass wind o ws J ib - and - c o ttar lo w t Gl u e J o ggl e d b e am s in r G o ing o f a ﬂight O f stairs J o te pl ane hic m o u d i o ints C ar e ntr G o t l ngs J , p y J o ine ry r e e nh e ar its u se u t G t , B t G rind sto ne Lap G r o u nd s Gl u e d Fram e d and b l o c k e d u id e s ro n fo r S id in d o o rs G , I , l g G u m m ing a saw D o ve tail G u tte r s Lappe d and m itr e d M itr e Ke ye d fo r b e am s

— H al fSpac e tim b e r wo rk H and rail Wre ath e d I r o n c o re to H anging styl e H am m e r b e am H au nc—h ing H e ar t wo o d

- h a e o is s irrin to s k J t , F g

in e c e n re - in C e i in H g , t p l g c ro ss T r im m ing sh u tte rs Fo rm u lae fo r sc antlings H and H o f h o o k - and - e ye Sc antlings fo r b r id ging wro u ght - iro n b and b ind ing I N DE X . 2 89

PAG E PAG E

or ise - and -t e non o int I 1 6 M t j 35 , 35 , 9 c h ase o in 6 2 2 3 j t 3 o u d i n s 1 6 - 1 88 43 M l g 7 C lassic 1 6 - 1 80 46 7 e 1 6 tab l e of scantlings 50 ﬁll t 7 astra a 1 6 f Kne e in stairc as e s 2 37 g l 7 b e ad and d o u b l e qu irk 1 76 to ru s 1 78 r e e d ing 1 78 c ave tto o r h o ll ow 1 78 i h s E i ic a o o o 1 8 l g t , ll pt l v l 7 Lap j o int oge e 1 78 Larc h woo d oge e - r e ve rsa 1 78 La ch N orfo S c o ia 1 8 t , lk t 7 Layligh t e chinu s 1 78 Le ad apro ns raking 2 5 9

- Le an t o r o o f C omic 1 80- 1 82 Le d ge rs to sc affo ld ro u nd b o wte ll 1 80 Linings po inte d b owte ll 1 8 1 re b ate d ro ll and fill e t 1 8 1 j amb ro ll and sid e fil-l e t 1 8 1 so ffi t D e c o rate d 1 82 - 1 85 insid e ro ll and fill e t 1 82 b ac k r o ll and tripl e fill e t 1 82 o u tsid e oge e 1 82 e lb o w d o u b l e o ge e 1 83 ' wind o w sc ro ll 1 83 Lin e s o o d a e 1 t l , W w v 83 Lo u re fram e s B e ve ls t o r ain o r h o v , pl llo w wind o s ch am fe r w . Lyc hgate s su nk ch am fe r P e r p e n d i c u la r b o wte ll d ou b l e o ge e h o M a gany ro ll and fill e t its u se H o nd u ras b o l e ctio n M e xic an

“ ansard ro o f sh o in M , w g se tting o u t M atch - b o ar d ing N ails e d iae a d o ors M v l N e e d l e s in sh ore s ed u a r a M ll ry ys S c antlings o f e e tin r ai s N d e M g l e e l sh o ring and u nd e r pinning i M te r b o x N e we l j o ints N ich e s s u ar e q M e th o d o fse tting ou t 2 0 9 INDEX .

PAG E N o rfo lk l atc h 1 98 Princ ipal po sts N o rth e rn pine 9 rafte rs N o sings 2 36 P u ll e y style N o tching o fb e am s 34 P u rlins B e ve ls fo r 0 P u tl ogs . O ak A u strian and G e r m an A m e ri c an Q A frican Qu arte r partitions 1 44 sill spac e 2 37 Oge e m ou ld ing o r c yma Qu e e n - po st ro o f 5 2 r e c a 1 8 1 82 i h ri nc e sse s t 7 , w t p 53 Oge e - re ve rse or c ym a - r e ve rsa 1 78 tab l e of sc ant Oilsto ne 2 84 lings Ope n string 2 37 Qu irke d O u te r string 2 37 Ovo l o m o u ld ing 1 78

R ad ial b ars R afe rs ac t , j k hip princi pal c o m m o n to se t o u t vall e y R ails to , p b ric k no ggc d frie ze qu arte r mid d le tru sse d l o ck we igh t o f b o tto m Pe nd e ntive s m e e ting Pillars R aking m ou ld ing Pine N o r h e rn sh o re s , t A m e ric an ye llo w scantl ings o f C anad ian r e d R am p Kau ri R e b ate s Pitc h R e b ate d linings Pinning to j o ints R e b ating~ plane Pitchingpie c e R e e d ing Plane s R e lie ving arc h P ane s Ho w to u se R e naissanc e d o o rs l , P an im b e r R e e a l k , t v l Pocke t pie c e R ise o fstairs Poin e d b o e R o d s Se in o u t t wt ll , tt g Po l e pl ate s R o ll and fille t m o u ld ing Po plar wo o d and sid e fill e t Po rch e s and tripl e fill e t Princ e sse s to ape x ofroo f

2 9 2 I NDEX .

Stall - b oar d T o o l s Stand ard s saws Star - shak e pl ane s S e c u r ai c hise s t p , t l l in w i h e r ft su e r to r c i S ra e . . b a e and b s t , g t p p t all o w fo r o n b rid ge s vario u s Sti r ru ps the u se and sharpe ning Str aps ho w to pre se rve fro m S r in a r u s t g, w ll t o u te r T o ru s m o u ld ing c u t T ranso m s c u t and m itr e d T rave ll e r o pe n T r e ad c l o se T re nail s r o u h o r c ar ria e s g , g T rim m e r Stru ts Stu ff T rimm ing j o ists S e s h an in T r u sse d ird e r b rid e tyl , g g g g c l o sing T r ying m e e ting T u rre ts Su spe nd ing pie c e s Su spe nsio n b rid ge

T ab l e s o f l e ast rise fo r d iffe re n s ans o f c u r e d t p v V ro o f. .

ib b rid e s “ - r g V j o inte d b o arding T ab e s o fwe i h s fo r c e n re s l g t t Vall e y rafte r 5 5 i s fo r b rid ofscantl ng g Ho w to set o u t 2 68 i n o is s ro o f e e s fo r 2 gj t , B v l 67 T e a ch arac e ris ic s of k , t t V e ne e r 2 2 4 T e no n V e n i a io n sh o 2 2 2 t l t , p ro u nd timb er 1 33 tu sk

T ie - b e am T ilting fill e t m b e r h a f imb e r wo r a e nd e r T i , l t k W ll , F l o ad o f pie c e its gro wth pl ate s fe lling str ing fe c s a nu t its u se d e t W l , V go od qu alitie s V ate r - b ar s e asoning Wave mo u l d ing c o nve rsi o n o f We e p- ho l e s fo rm u l a fo r m e asu r We ight o fflo oring e i hts ind o w ing W g , W m arke t fo rm We l l - h o l e d e finitio ns o f W e t ro t INDEX . 2 93

PAG E hi e d e a o o d s e i ht o f W t l W , W g ind fo rc e a o anc e in ro o fs A m e ric an e o ine W , ll w y ll w p i 1 r W nd e rs 1 n stairs 3s b . pe ind o b o ard A u s ra ian ine Kau ri W w t l p ,

r 0. ft b l ind s 361b . pe

i h s O ak 8lb e r e . ft we g t 4 . p . f n l r fu r nitu re A ric a o ak 57 b . pe ft b ac ks c .

inin s s 1 a e d ah o an 6 lb . e r l g , p y M g y 4 p ft b e v e l s fo r e .

T a lb e r 0. ft gl ass e k 47 p .

Wind ows G ree nh e art 7olb . pe r

d o r m e r 0. ft .

A h l r ft . l o u vre s 5 o b pe o .

o o d ario u s E lm 2 1b . e r c . ft . W , v 4 p b l o c k flo o rs Wal nu t 4 1 to 431b pe r d e fe c ts in

h 1 e r e . ft . sill Be e c 45 b . p l inte l s b ric k s Y o o d s e i h o f Y ar t ah wo o d its u se W , W g t , a N o rth e rn pine 32 1b . Y e llow d e l f t . ine 0. p