The Linacre Quarterly

Volume 39 | Number 3 Article 6

August 1972 History of Psychotherapy John R. Cavanagh

Follow this and additional works at: http://epublications.marquette.edu/lnq

Recommended Citation Cavanagh, John R. (1972) "History of Psychotherapy," The Linacre Quarterly: Vol. 39 : No. 3 , Article 6. Available at: http://epublications.marquette.edu/lnq/vol39/iss3/6 an act involving the total human actions. Otherwise we will be HISTORY OF PSYCHOTHERAPY 1 person. It is a human act, as Kass conditioned gradually so as to John R. Cavanagh, M.D. .•• .. ' • has noter , precisely because it ~ n­ eventually forget what is human. ~ ..: gages t''.' people physically and Obviously, too, this is a complex Dr. Cavanagh sets the stage with cc tributions to the ps ~ 1odynam- • • 'i'' spirituall : and not merely ration­ and ongoing process of examina­ a preliminary discussion of various ics of mental disease re mad·· • I ally, as :. , a laboratory procedure. tion and decision. We must not schools of psychotherapy in the before the time of Freud ~ Breuer. .·' ·· With w :ificial insemination we lose the benefits of research out first of a two part "History of Psy­ Prior to that time, the t .ment of have al ady de-humanized the of fear. Mistakes will be made in chotherapy" to be published in the the mentally ill was Jar· v a mat- act invoi i in conceiving a human our decisions. But we will retain Linacre. The second part of the ter of custodial care a ugh nu- and grow in our humanity if we history, an in-Jepth look at the his­ merous studies had be 'lade of being b. 11 aking it a merely ra­ ·, tional ac. recreation thus becomes look beyond the immediate "good" tory of hypnosis will appear in the hysteria. reproductt a word borrowed to what will allow us to reach November issue. That issue will Breuer from the l H)ratory, but now es­ our full measure of dignity as phys­ also include Dr. Cavanagh's exten­ Modern psychopath >gy may be tablished in our daily usage. ical, rational, and spiritual persons, sive bibliography for th e two parts said to have had its .rigin in the Perhaps, too, medicine, and es­ not reproduced or manufactured, of his article. work on hysteria of Joseph Breuer. t ...... pecially the area of research, ought but "call ed into being." As such, Breuer, as a result of his studies to reexamine itself in terms of its human procreation is a mystery, This issue of the Linacre Quarter­ with hypnotism, was led to believe ·, . public relations. Perhaps we bear and not a problem. Whereas given ly deals with the morality of psy­ that neurosis had its origin in a ... no small share of the blame in enough money and time, one may chotherapy. As a preliminary to this failure to express the effect of causing a demand for the realization solve virtually any proble m, mys­ discussion, it is important to know past mental trauma. He taught that ' • ..• 1, of even legitimate desires by over­ teries can only be contemplated. something about the various schools the affect had been suppressed but ··:. .. sell ing our wares or distorting our Given the intricacies of the hu­ of psychotherapy. The most popu­ came forth in the form of symp­ : ' ~ true task. For example, the unfor­ man mind, we doubtless possess lar of these schools was that of toms, and tha t the condition could tunate word "cure," and by implica­ the potential for reproducing some­ Freud. As a consequence, more only be relieved by hypnotizing the ... .. ,. \ tion "satisfaction" and "happiness" day, to exact specifications, a human time will be spent on Freud and patient, bringing about a recall of as well, has crept into the language person. But should we? Should we less on the other sc hools. the initial trauma and at the same when we real! y mean "treat." In have even taken the first step? Until Freud developed free as­ time helping him to abreact (work truth, we have no rose gardens to sociation and dream interpretation, oft) the associated emotion. Breu­ REFERENCES promise. his main therapeutic instrument was er's work would have received lit­ I. Kass LR: Making babies: The new Obviously, we must examine biology and the "old" morality. Public In­ hypnosis. Not only did Freud use tle attention except for his associa­ more than the end result of our terest No. 26, pp. 18-56, 1972. hypnosis, but many of his contem­ tion with Freud, whom he had met poraries did also. Although hypnosis in Bruche's laboratory where Freud cannot be considered a school of was studying prior to the comple­ psychiatry, it was so important to tion of his medical degree. all schools that I believe it should Before Freud had gone to Paris be described. For this reason, hyp­ in 1885, Breuer had discussed with nosis will be briefly described in him the case of hysteria in a young this first section of this history and girl whom he had studied by means considered in length in part II in of hypnotism and which had re­ the next issue of the Unacre. vealed to him new concepts as to Although the history of psychia­ the causation and significance of try is full of well-known names hysterical mani festations. This dis­ such as Benjamin Rush, Tuke, cussion marked the beginning of Pinel, Esquirol, Falret, Mesmer, the development of Freud's sys­ Charcot, and others, 1 no notable tem of psychoanalysis.2

150 Linacre Quarterly August, 1972 151 . ,.

Freud ' I pillar upon which the edifice of nt urotic manifestations •vere due Sigmund Freud was born of Jew­ psychoanalysis rests." He explained to conflicts between sexual impulses ' ' .• ' ish paren'-; in 185 6 in a small to m this process as follows: A mental ar J resistance to the ace ptance of in what i now Czechoslovakia. At conflict occurs between a particu­ these impulses. The crit sm which the age ol our, he moved to Vienna lar impulse or instinct which craves followed the publicatic of these where he remained until 1938. In satisfaction, and the moral standards findings discouraged B uer, and that yea1 because of the German of the individual. The normal so­ he later withdrew from ollabora­ invasion f Austria, he moved to lution would be reached by con­ tion with Freud, who cc nued his England here he remained until scious deliberation, a decision be­ studies alone. his death 1939. ing reached regarding the satisfac­ Freud's study of the sons for ', In 18' he became a medical tion of the impulse or its repudia­ the repression of sexua led him student in ' University of Vienna. tion. In a neurosis, however, the back to very early chi ;hood, and While th er~ he spent about six patient cannot tolerate the impulse, he concluded that .1rly sexual years working on the histology of refuses it entrance into conscious­ traumata formed the basis of later the nervous system in the laboratory ness and its direct motor discharge, neurotic disturbances. He pub­ / ...... of Bruche. Due to his neglect of although the impulse retains its lished these findings in 1950 under I ' other phases of his medical studies full energy charge. The repressed the title "Three Contributions to ·, . he did not receive his medical de­ Dr. John R. Cavanagh, a graduate impulse, although unconscious, the Theory of Sex." I ... gree until 1881. In 1886 he mar­ • ·•• 1 ' ofthe Georgetown University School then finds its discharge and substi­ . l . •. ried and entered private practice in Freud's Concepts of Sexuality . . of Medicine ('30), is in the pri­ tutive gratification through symp­ ' ...... Vienna as a specialist in nervous vate practice of psychiatry in Wash­ Since the Freudian concept of ·::::. ',..·. tom formation. ,I diseases. His study of his chosen ington, D. C. For many years, Dr. During the ten year period of sexuality forms such an important specialty was handicapped by the Cavanagh was editor of the Bulletin basis of present psychiatric thought, isolation, Freud continued to devel­ ".\ I I opposition of physicians when he of the National Guild of Catholic op his theories. He developed the particularly his ideas on the oedipal ,·,· •:' attempted to study patients in the Psychiatrists. He is the author of process of free association and situation, it will be given in some hospitals, and he was excluded from Fundamental Psychiatry, Fundamen­ abandoned the use of hypnotism. detail. Freud separated the concept work in many places. As a conse­ tal Pastoral Counseling, and Coun­ He felt that free associations are of sexuality from the close associa­ I 1 , •, quence, he withdrew from academic seling the Invert, among other vol­ I ' , • subject to determinism and are not tion which it had with the genital I life, ceased to attend medical society umes. a matter of choice. He regarded organs. He felt th'at it included "all meetings, and limited himself for The honor of Knight Commander of those merely affectionate and I this method as the "via regia to ,. ten years to the treatment of private of the Order of St. Gregory the the unconscious." He recognized friendly impulses to which usage .. patients with neurotic complaints. Great was bestowed on Dr. Cava­ the phenomena and importance of applied the exceedingly ambigu­ •, During this period, Freud began nagh by Pope Paul VI. transference. In 1900, he published ous word 'love'." He considered to repeat Breuer's studies on his Dr. Cavanagh is a frequent con­ his studies on dreams under the pleasure as the goal of the sexual ... ' . own patients and to confirm and tributor as well as associate editor title, "The Interpretation of function and felt that this func­ amplify this method of therapy which of the Linacre Quarterly. He is th e Dreams;" this was followed in tion exists from the beginning of he now designated as the "cathartic guest editor of the special section in 1904 by "The Psychopathology life. method." As a result of these stud­ this issue. Articles in the special of Everyday Life" and in 1905 These sexual feelings, he stated, ies, he came to the conclusion that section deal with some of the moral by "Wit and Its Relation to the are at first diffuse and their object there was a difference between issues related to psychotherapy, as Unconscious." is the subject's own body (auto­ conscious and unconscious mental well as the spiritual moral role of Freud was quite impressed with erotic). These feelings later become acts and studied the significance of the psychotherapist and the role of the frequency with which there was localized in certain erotogenic zones, the emotional life. In this manner, the spiritual counselor in relation a sexual significance to the rumina­ the first of these areas being the Freud formulated the theory of re­ to patients (clients) with psychologi­ tions of his patients, and his inves­ lips, and the pleasure that the infant pression, which he stated is "the cal and/or psychiatric disorders. tigations led him to the belief that gets from sucking (oral stage) is

152 Linacre Quarterly August, 1972 153 . '

.' I considered sexual in nature. Lat .. r, is the mother, upon whom, at first, finall y realizes that she cannot have is r he nicest girl I know." :; the erotogenic zone shifts to he he is entirely dependent. He craves a penis but hopes that the father \ t first, Freud's studic<. received anus, wl -re the sensation ar .es her full attention, her interest, and will give her a baby instead. The w :y little attention fro r psychia- father continues to favor the moth­ tri::-.ts or the medical prof ~ ion , but, 1 her caresses. He becomes disturbed first in ~ pleasure in giving fe­ • I ces (am, ;:: rotic stage) and later when she shows interest in any er, and this increases th e child's hos­ beginning in about I c , a few in withr. ,ding feces (anal-sadistic others, but especially disturbed by tility, but she soon fears that the students began studyin ~:- ith him stage). 'e next shift is to the any interest she may show in the mother may retali ate, and, therefore, in Vienna. About the .1e time genitals. here it is at first unor­ father, of whom he is jealous. He turns her aggressive feelings toward in Zurich, Switzerland Bleuler, ganized 'hallie stage) but later regards his father as a rival for hi s others outside of the family and de­ Jung, and others begar 1 apply velops tender feelings toward her psychoanalytic teaching o their develo p~ •to the adult or genital mother's Jove. He feels that his ·, mother. Freud felt that the female treatment of psychotic .ents. In stage. father may be successful in his 1 To ext •in certain neuroses, attempt to win his mother, and, as oedipal situation was not as well 1906, Jung publisheJ ttis well­ Freud stated that the libido, the a result, he wishes to do away with worked out as th at in th e male. known work on "ThC" Psychology ,• ·.' his father. He also stated that it is resolved of Dementia Praecox,'' in whi ch he energy of the sexual instincts, does ·~. '' not move smoothly along the He discovers about that time that much more slowly and that a com­ used analytic interpretation in ex­ l .. plete solution may not occur. 4 course of development, but that, some people also have no penis plaining the symptoms and thought I, ' as a result of a traumatic experience, and wonders why. Could this be Repression, according to Freud, content in cases of schizophreni a. ·, . it may become fixated at any level, as a punishment (castration fear) he accounts for the fact that these In 1907, Freud received his first ideas are not only forgotten, but public recognition when he was ••• f .1 . or, if the individual has progressed asks himself? If so, perhaps he had . . . beyond, he may regress to an y pre­ better curb his aggressive feelings seem so fantastic to us as adults. visited by men from the Zurich . •. That such situations occasionally clinic. Later, a meeting was arranged ..·:· ,,: . vious level where pleasure was toward his father so that he will ,I obtained. The stage of libido fixa­ not be punished. He, therefore, re­ occur is undoubtedly true, so also by Jung in Salzburg, Austria, where tion determines the choice of the linquishes his sexual feelings toward do cases of " penis envy" and "cas­ ideas were exchanged and the first neurosis. This mechanism of fixa­ his mother and develops tender tration fear." These cases, how­ journal devoted to psychoanalysis tion he also used to explain the feelings instead toward both par­ ever, are very much in the minori­ was founded. This was to be pub­ various sexua l perversions, which ents, and turns his erotic feelings ty, and, as a universal concept, there lished by Freud and Bleuler and he felt represented merely either towards females and his aggres­ is no scientific bas is for them. edited by Jung. Brill, who had fixation at, or regression to, the sive feelings towards other males That there is a strong emotional been a student at the Zurich clinic, appropriate childhood level of outside of the family group. bond between the child and its learned there of the work of Freud sexuality. parents is generally admitted and and became his enthusiastic disciple. He further stated that the first The female oedipus complex, can be easily demonstrated. It was Brill who introduced his love object in both sexes is the sometimes referred to as the Elec­ The idea of Kraines in this re­ works into the United States and mother. This relationship he de­ tra complex, is, at first, the same spect is probably much nearer the tra nslated most of them into Eng­ scribed under the title of the oedi­ as that in the boy, inasmuch as the truth. He feels that th e child has lish. pus complex, which was one of his girl's first love object is also the never learned emotional inde­ About four years after this meet­ most disputed concepts. This con­ mother and she wishes to destroy pendence and early in life iden­ ing ( I 91 1-1913), the first disagree­ cept forms such a basic part of the all rivals for her affection. She tifies with the parent of the same ments appeared among the o riginal Freudian theory, and, since it has also discovers that some people sex. The boy learns th at he is mas­ group and two major movements been adopted in some measure by have penises and wonders why. culine "like hi s father" and that of disagreement appeared. Adler, many subsequent writers, it war­ She feels that in some way her marriage may occur with girls who had been active in psychoana­ rants a rather full description. a mother has failed her and is hurt. " like his mother." The boy's lytical work for ten years, developed Because of this, she turns from her thought runs somewhat as follows: his school of "Individual Psychol­ The Oedipus Complex mother to her father in the hope "Boys marry girls, I am a boy and, ogy" and Jung developed another, that he will give her a penis. This when I grow up, I will marry a which was called " Analytical Psy­ The male child's first love object hope does not materialize, and she girl just like my mother since she chology" at the insistence of Freud,

155 154 Linacre Qua rterly August, I 972 • l'

.' I so that it would not be confu ~:· d not necessaril y bound up with will. There is no will in Freud's c h : determin;sm. Freud, of course, .. 11 with his school of psychoanaly is. Freudian psychology exclusively. theories. d · s not mentio n this exception. ,• • .. ' Much f the terminology f0111d They are not inseparable nor com­ 3. The Su/Jerego: The su per­ Objectionable Feah es in in psycJ· malytical literature .as plementary . Free association and ego with numerous restrictions is '.•~. :.~ Freud's Theorit . origi nate by Freud. The terms dream analysis (with the patient the power in Freud's doctrine which .' · forecom us or preconscious, un- doing the analysis) can be used by comes closest to conscience. T he fo llowing are a , v of the . consciOl as well as ego, id, and anyone irrespective of his philo­ 4. The Censor: This is an in­ more objectionable featu s to be supereg' were first used in thei r sophical and psychological back­ fluence which prevents ideas con­ found in Freud's writings. present .;; e by Freud. ground. trary to accepted standards from I) Freud was in nu ;ense a We think the fo llowing citations coming into consciousness. This trained •: hi/osooher. He \ ..,, there­ Mor cceptable Features of from Donceel fairly well represent inhibiting force may be considered fore, unable to apply the ·rinciples 1 ·ud's Doctrine the dualistic reaction to Freudian to correspond to good moral hab­ underlying logic, psychoh gy, ethics, psychoanalysis. its which work almost automatical­ or natural religion to ,ne solution ,· . ' ly and instinctively. of any case. "Nowhere in his works It is evident that Freud's teach­ ·... ings in psychiatry contain points There are in psychoanalysis quite a 5. The Libido: There has been has Freud boldly confronted the I . . number of notions which, if well under­ too much controve rsy on this topic problem of problems- meta­ of view and captions for which a stood, can be easil y integrated into a I , ' psychological equivalent in a wide Christian conception of man. However. to say that the libido and all that phys ics." ·, . sense of the word has always ex­ even these notions, as they are presented it entails in Freudian literature is "Even when I have moved away •• 1 isted in dualistic psychology. Cer­ by the Freudians, too often imply mate­ wholly acceptable. It seems, how­ from abstraction, I have carefully I • ., rialistic connotations and must there­ ever, only reasonable that there avoided all contact with philosophy . tain aspects, therefore, of the Freud­ 6 fore be carefully examined. should be some psychic energy proper." 10 ian system, if correctly grasped and It must be emphasized that there are interpreted, may be carried over to valuable elements in psychoanalysis. but which is th e dynamic source of II) Freud was a materialist. a psychiatry based on dualism. that they are generally connected with a ll our instinctive impulses. Al­ Though Freud makes use of psy­ Amongst such common elements errors, exaggerations, and distortions. though Freud seemed in the be­ chic terminology, his underlying and material, the following items T he system as a whole, in its pure ginning to be using this term in current of thought was invariably Freudian form, must be rejected. i seem to stand out with striking its commonly accepted meaning, materialistic. Hence the structure emphasis. Ill. The concepts of the id, ego, he later stated that such impulses of the psychic life in Freud's writ­ I. Substitution of a psychologi­ and superego which Freud were not sexual in the common ings. cal for an organic approach elaborated have their vague sense of the term, but included all Ill) Freud maintained com•)/ete to the etiology of mental dis­ general equivalents in dual­ impulses regarding self and the human evolution. The entire man orders. istic psychology. preservation of the race. as envisaged by Freud was the end This does not mean that Freud I . The /d is described by Freud 6. Psychic Determinism: To resul t of evolution from more prim­ abandoned materialism. In his dis­ as a sort of storehouse of instinctive quote Donceel: itive forms of life. cussion of psychic ·life, Freud never energy, the fount of untamed drives According to this hypothesis. psy­ IV) Freud overem•Jhasizes sex. ascended higher than the instincts and passions. In general, it may be chological phenomena, as well as phys­ "A remarkably illogical procedure and impulses. However, he real­ said that instinct could be consid­ iological or physical phenomena. have seems to be responsible for over­ definite causes. from which they fo ll ow ized that a merely organic approach ered the scholastic equivalent of emphasis on sex by psychoanalysts with absolute necessity. Forgetting a (by Freudians especially). Whatever to a mental disorder was fatal and the id. Race images need not be name, dreaming a certain dream. expe­ that a psychogenic explanation was considered and cannot be admitted riencing a mood or a certain emotion, fo rm of behavior or thought is ever essential. as part of instinct. manifesting a neurotic symptom - all found in any life to be associated II . Certain aspects of the tech­ 2. The Ego: The ego is the re­ these are psychologica l phenomena. with sex, they seem to assume to Philosophically there is no objection nique underlying psycho- sult of the combined influences of be always connected with sex in to the principle, provided we accept every life.'' 11 analysis. the external reality, the id, and the free decisions of our w il l. Only Contrary to general impressions, the superego. The ego corresponds man's will, in its deliberate and con­ V) Freud does not differentiate the technique of psychoanalysis is to a blend of the mind and the scious decisions, escapes the law of psy- between sense and rational kno w/-

156 Linacre Quarterly August, 1972 157 ,.

edge. on the Psychoanalytical Method and ject of serious study on the part f he psychopathology of Adler VI) Freud denies the will r ·d the Doctrine of Freud by saying of certa in members of the medica l is •ased on the " masculin·· protest" ...··· . itsfreedo •t. that: profession. Some dentists have w ch he seems to ha' derived VII) I •ud incorrectly exp!t·t nS ,.. found it useful in rece nt years but fro n the "will-to-live" 0 Schopen­ I '• o;,. the origt and the developmen' of Psychoanalytical investigation does not because of its difficulty it seems haucr and the " will-to >wer" of morals I means of the activity of explain the philosophical aspect of phi­ .'·· losophy, the artistic aspect of art, the unlike ly that they will continue to Nietzsche. His reason calling the SU fJt 0 . scientific aspect of reli gion. T he specific use it. the " protest" of the n ew c " mas­ VII I) reud rej ects a rational na ture of the spiritual values eludes the T he long argument as to whether culine" is based on the C1 ~ pt that approac J God's existence. instrument of investigati on which an individual can be persuaded to the " male" man has al been God '~ istence, Freud maintains, Freud's genius has created. Psychoanal­ perform crim inal or immoral acts take n as the criterio n (· ,1mplete is a self- 1ted hypothesis designed ysis leaves the fundamental problems of ·. the human soul where it found them. 16 under its influence see ms likely to human potency, whe rea .'JC fe m­ to fill m. ' fe lt need for protec­ be settled . If the performed act is inine aspect of the ind tdual has tion. " He ·cates for himself the suggested sub specie bani, the sub­ always been relegated t• an inferior gods, of who m he is afraid, whom Hypnosis ject is quite likely to accept it if position. he seeks to propitia te, and to who m ·., .. he is su fficiently deep in his trance. One importa nt aspect of this ' .. he nevertheless entrusts the task As pointed out in the opening Thera peutically, hypnosis is a masculine protest, according to for protecting him." 12 paragra phs, hypnosis was a n im­ '· . poor substitute for other more ac­ Adler, resulted from an inheri ted ·, . IX) Freud denies the divine ori­ po rtant instrument in the arma men­ ceptable procedures. When em­ inferiority of bodily organs and the gin of religion. R eligion, he cl ai ms, ta rium of Freud and his contempo­ ployed , it should be by one prop­ nervous tissues controlling the m. is a " mass delusion." ra ries. There are many misunder­ . , erly trained. It should be only em­ T hi s inferiority led to attempts at . ~ ... each one of us behaves in some re­ sta ndings about hypnotism, so that ployed under proper med ica l-denta l com pensation by either the organ spect like the paranoiac, substituting a a brief description is importa nt. >' wish-fulfillment for some aspect of the auspices. More research is needed. itself, its paired mate, or organs A committee of the American world which is unbearable to him, and The use of hypnosis for frivolous e lsewhere. If, for example, one Medical Association was in agree­ .. carrying this delusio n through into real­ purposes should be vigorously con­ kidney was damaged or inferior, ..-· ,. . ity. When a large number of people me nt with a subcommittee of the de mned . the opposite kidney would com­ .. make this attempt together and try to British Medical Associa tion as to pensate for it. The enlargement of obtain assurance of happiness and pro­ the na ture of hypnosis: tection from suffering by a delusional Individual Psychology the heart in hyperten sion is a fa­ transformatio n of reality it acquires milia r example of this type of com­ A temporary condition of altered at­ special s ignificance. The religions of Alfred Adler li ved from 1870 to pensation. This o rgan inferi ority hu manity, too, must be classified as tention in the subject which may be in­ might in turn gi ve rise to psyc hi c mass-delusions of this kind. Needless duced by another person a nd in which 193 7 . A resident of Vienna, he to say, no one who shares a delusion a variety of phenomena may appear joined Freud and hi s group in 1902 ma nifestations which would reveal spo ntaneously or in response to ver bal recognizes it as such. 13 but his studies in organ inferiority themselves clinica ll y as feelings of or other stimuli. These phenomena in­ T he child's defensive reaction to his forced him to conc lusions incom­ inferiority. helplessness gives the character istic fea­ clude alterations in consciousness and me mory, increased susceptibility to patible with Freud's theories. There­ In compensating fo r these feel­ tures to the adu lfs reaction to his own ings of inferiority a nd hi s sense sense of helplessness, i.e .. the formation suggesti on, and the production in the fore, in I907 he began to secede subject of responses and ideas unfamil­ of religion. ' ~ from that school and established of inadequacy, the pe rson achieves ia r to him in his usual state of mind . his own school of Individual Psy­ a sense of importance or dignity Ludwig cla ims that: F urther, pheno mena such as anesthesia, sufficient to balance his sense of pa ralysis, and the rigidity of muscles chology. He had assisted Freud in Freud was li ke a man consta ntly look­ and vasomotor changes can be produced the d evelopment of a concept of weakness or frustra tion. Man is ing through a too strongly cut lens. a nd removed in the hypnotic state . the ego but was forced away fro m guided by some goal (directive Because he passed on the glass to the Hypnosis has a long and not al­ him when Adler began to place fi ction) or end connected wi th his rest of humanity, mi ll ions are seeing desire for superio rity. It is in his the world distorted, just as he did ­ ways honorable history. Most o f more emphasis on the ego as th us supplying themselves with wholl y the time, it has been in the hands against the libido. He also believed inability to achieve this goal, Ad­ unnecessary headaches. 15 of charlatans a nd quacks, although that Freud was overemphasizing ler states, while still conducting Dalbiez concludes his discussion mo re recently it has been the sub- sexua lity. himself as a membe r of society,

158 Linacre Q u arte rly August, 1972 159 .' i which is the genesis of a neurc s. This lack of preparation may be traced with psychotic patients in Zurich. ung distinguished in ·nan fou r As Adler amplified this syst . 11, back to the earliest years of childhood. As previously noted, J ung was one b tc functio ns: he paid 'ess attention to org. ,1ic It is a matter not so much of the con­ of the original group which col­ Thinking scious or the unconscious, as to the ") Feeling ,. defect a more attention to h:el­ laborated with Freud in 1907 but, I •• ·.~ lack of understanding. . . . We can­ I ings of feriority and inadequacy not trace all neurotic conditions back as in th e case of Adler, it soon be­ 3. Intuition .... and the ge toward compensation. to a faulty education of the child for came apparent that they were using 4. Sensation . Murph: sums up Adlerian meeting the difficulties of life. different methods of research and Thinki ng and feeling places psycho! ,, in this way: Adler also failed to distinguish that they had little to contribute to at the two ends of the 'le and clearly between the striving for ra­ each other. In 1913, he discontin­ intuition and sensation .he two ... he rds all mental illness as de- tional and irrational power. As ued his work with Freud while ends of another pole in •d imen- rived eit directly or indirectly from pointed out by Mullahy: still remaining President of the sional spati al system. 0 :1e basis humiliati <- ·nd a sense of failure and International Analytical Association. of these functions he d' :nguished believes th. every patient aims at the . . . he did not see clearly between This apparently displeased Freud four types of mental rna: . up. ··. removal of 'uch humiliation and the the striving for irrational power- the .. . . who with some of his followers I. Rational types acquisition of a sense of power or striving for power over people-and • prestige. the sense of adequacy, competence, and became very critical of Jung, not a) The Thinking Type .... . Adlerian psychology was the first power which comes from self respect only of his work, but as a man, b) The Feeling Type dynamic theory of personality, and, a nd respect for others - a rational feel­ and accused him of anti-semitism. 2. Irrational Types although incomplete and thought ing of power. Hence, he was not able Some of J ung's work is well a) The Intuitive Type to see that is the manner in which hu­ ... ·. pudiated some of the basic postu­ known although his connection b) The Sensational Type .. ' man potentialities are given a chance • l • ... lates of Freud, e.g., he denied the with it is frequently overlooked. He regards the latter types as ir­ ., . to develop, or are thwarted, or distorted, . ~ importance of repress ion, he re­ which is the essential point. 23 For example, Jung, before his as­ rational because they are more im­ ..·:,! jected his theories of infantile psy­ In his work, The Practice and sociation with Freud, introduced pulsive, do not judge or evaluate chosexual development, he ignored Theory of Individual Psychology, the association test which has be­ as do the first two types, and are ··: the latent content of dreams, he come an integral part of clinical not as discriminating. When any ... Adler has attempted to apply his con­ ,'( . paid little attentio n to the role of cepts to clinical psychiatry and a l­ psychology. The purpose of the type is dominant, its opposi te must .. the unconscious, and ascribed little though this work contains numerous test is to discover by means of be repressed. For example, the or no driving power to the emotions. clinical cases with statements in re­ free association the presence and feeling type represses thinking 18 19 20 21 gard to etiology, very little scientif­ nature of hidden complexes. J ung and the intuitive type represses ' ' ' Adlerian psychology was the ic evidence for the statements is prepared a list of 100 common sensation. The repressed or inferi­ first dynamic theor y of personality, given. words which were read to the pa­ or type makes itself felt in the un­ and, although incomplete and thought tient one at a time and he was conscious. Reference has already by many to be superficial, it is, Analytical Psychology asked to give his first association been made to the characters of in­ nevertheless, an important contri­ to each word. Any delay, unusual troversion and extroversion; these bution which emphasized an aspect Carl G. Jung was born in Basel, emotional response, or unusual do not depend in any way upon of personality which had been Switzerland, in 1875. He was in­ association, was regarded as a "com­ mental function but upon one of previously underestimated. Clinical­ terested in abnormal psychiatry from plex indicator" and was used as a attitude, a way of regarding the ly the system has considerable value an early age, and was a student of basis for further clinical investiga­ world of reality around us. Just in understanding the behavior prob­ the Zurich School which had Eu­ tion. Two other terms in common as the inferior function is repressed, lems of children, but as pointed out gene Bleuler at its head. In 1905, use - introversio n and extrover­ so too, according to Jung, is the by Moore 22 it is not a com­ he was appointed lecturer at the sion - were coined by Jung and secondary attitude. An introvert's plete psychology. University of Zurich and became have been universally accepted in­ unconscious is extroverted, and a senior member of the Zurich to psychological terminology. Jung vice versa. Thus according to Nicole: Adler seeks the ongm of neurotic group. While Freud was working is probably best known for his conditions in the degree to which an with neurotic patients in Vienna, work on the psychoanalytic inter­ The extrovert seeks contact with the individual has been well or ill-prepared world, he goes outside of himself to to meet and solve the problems of life. Jung was using similar techniques pretation of dreams.

161 160 Linacre Quarterly August, 1972 ,. meet it, and his reactions are dire ' y which both the conscious and the un­ sexualized. So the libido is considered r chological tendencies a• e striving. .' i related to the present condition of !S conscious life of the individual devel­ to be manifested in various activities < ... cannot. ·as though it 1 ere a for- . '• ' environmc 1 1. But the introvert beh .:s ops. Only rarely does this deepest un­ and forms, in nutrition, in play, sexual e 1 body, simply extract •·1e morbid conscious show itself in dreams or in feeling and love, etc . For Jung the real el .nent, lest one remove ·tith it an otherwise; 1e shuns the world, re ~' :ts ' the neurosis, but fantasies of really value of the libido theory lies not in e • 'ltial piece, which, afte til, is des­ .. .·...... it, withdr, ; into himself, and his ,r ti­ I tude is m subjective than objecuv-:.24 insane persons sometimes bring to sur­ its sexual definition, as he put it, but tined to be lived with. Th. 1iece must • I face weird ideas and ways of thought in the "energic" conception of it. "We not bl! weeded out, but m be trans- which have never been experienced owe to the energic conception," says formed, until it attains that rm which Anal ~ \I psychology can be before, that seem like vestiges of the Jung, "the possibilit y of dynamic ideas can be included in a way !1 is mean- better t ~ rstood when compared primitive thinking of the race. The and relationships, wh ich are of inesti­ ingful to the whole of human with th etter known psychology collective unconscious is inherited, mable value for us in the chaos of the psyche. 27 of Freu< just as everything else is, by way of psychic life." In other words, psychi­ 6. According to Jung ~ impor­ I . Tl ·ructure of the personal- the structure of the organism. Inher­ cal "energy processes" are life-process.es. tance of religion, or at , st a reli­ ited brai n structure disposes the indi­ 26 ity. Th ~ •o psychologies differ gious attitude cannot l overesti­ vidual to think and act as the race has 3. Jung used dream analysis as greatly 11 . heir concept of the mated as an element in .he psychic been habituated to think and act through did Freud, but he interpreted dreams structure o, the mental li fe. The countless generations of primitive life. li fe. as not simply revealing old re­ principal difference is in the The collective unconscious consists of 7. " Psyche" as u sed by J ung is ...·~.. pressed sex wishes, but as indicat­ J ungian belief in the collective instincts and archetypes. The instincts more akin to the Catholic concept ing the patient's unconscious atti­ I, ' unconscious. According to Jung, are primitive ways of acting. The arche­ of soul and the term is used as re­ types are primitive ways of thinking. tude toward his present problems. ·, . the conscious part of the psyche ferring to an immaterial substance The collective unconscious does not 4. Jung differed from Freud re­ ... ', is that whic h is in direct contact contain ideas exactly- nothing as clear which he describes as "character­ ,, 1 garding the role of family life sur­ ' . with external objective reality. cut as that. But it contains natural ways ized first of all by the principle of ...... '· of thinking, lines of least resistance, rounding the child in shaping his ,• . The conscious part has an outer spontaneous movement and activity, ''',, ';:I shell or cover, the persona. The tendencies to gravitate in our ideas later development. While Freud secondly by the property of free ·' towards primitive modes of thought. claimed that to hold that the oedi­ persona is na med after the mask creation of images outside of sense In dreams, nightmares, hallucinations pus complex was of a purely sex­ ' .. worn by the ancient Greek play­ and delusions of the insane, and even perception, thirdly by the autono­ • ' ual nature was most important, Jung .. ,. ' ers and according to Jung expresses in our waking life when we are caught mous and absolute manipulation held that this was important but the personality as it appears to off guard by something for which we of these images." others. The ego forms the central are totally unprepared such as an earth­ that the attitude of the pa rent is The psychology of Jung is less quake, our recently won scientific con­ most significant. He believed, as ,•, "core" of the conscious. Out of materialistic than that of Freud al­ ceptions of natural processes drop away many since have believed, that the field of consciousness and a nd we think animalistically or have though still heavily, tainted. In some problem parents make problem chil­ forming the next deeper layer, so vague pnm1t1ve notions of magic and places indeed, it becomes quite dren and both must be treated. to speak, is the repressed material spirits, fairies, witches, dragons and mystical. 28 29 30 There is no forming the personal unconscious. the devil. 25 proof of his concept of a collec­ 5. The concept of psychotherapy Below this, in still a deeper layer, 2. lung's theory of libido dif­ tive unconscious and on the basis resulting f rom lung's psychopathol­ is the impersonal or collective un­ fered radically with that of Freud. of our present knowledge of hered­ ogy is radically different from the conscious. J ung's concept of the Mullahy summarizes this difference: ity it seems unlikely that such ideas analytic technique of Freud. Moore unconscious is described by Wood­ could be inherited. In (Jung's) The Theory of Psycho­ describes this difference in these worth as follows: analysis the concept of li bido is altered words: so that it is made synonymous with un­ The Psychobiology of Meyer Jung regarded the unconscious in differentiated energy. In this sense, the The psychological treatment must the same significant fashion as Freud mea ning of libidinal or psychical energy not only destroy an old, morbid atti­ Perhaps the most influential fig­ a nd if anything made more of it. In is analogous to the meaning of energy tude, it must also build up a new, addition to the personal unconscious in physics, which may be considered ure in modern American psychi atry sound attitude. But for this a reversal 1 that Freud writes about, Jung states as manifesting itself in various forms; was that of Adolph Meyer.3 His of vision is needed. Not only shall the that there is another part of the uncon­ potential, kinetic, etc. Due to evolu­ contribution is not so much in the patient see from what beginnings his scious which is more important and tionary change, the libido, which was neurosis arose, he shall also be able to realm of theory as in the realm of which he calls the racial unconscious originally to a large extent of a pri­ see towards what justifiable aims his practical technique. Essentially, his or the collective unconscious, out of marily sexual character, became de-

August, I 972 163 162 Linacre Quarterly .' I is a practical, common-sense metr J "too scientific and thoroughgoing." according to behaviorism. is a mat­ Jraper, fQr the sake c. f conve­ of dealinp with the integral indi\ That criticism is hard to understand. ter of conditioned reflexes; mind, ni :ce in study, divided th person­ will, personality, do not exist. aL into four main cat< ories or ual as a ing. Normal, and e'> .:­ He also says that his concept is . : 0 Training and educatio n are to be pau· Is , "The use of the t m panel ' ..... cially at )rmal people, must be "too common-sense," his termi­ I • I viewed psychobiological units nology "too involved." The latter achieved by controlling the reflex arm.,· from the concer t1 of a made up a united body and soul. remark has much merit. · Many and are· entirely a matter of stimu­ Japanese screen compos of four He hi m defines his system as would want further enlightenment lus and response. panels, across which w: >ainted Behavioristic psychology is real­ a study the total integrated and on the charge that psychobiology a complete picture; any ' of the function personality of the in- is "too common-sense," but what­ ly physiology. Other materialists panels of such a screen at would make some pretense of salvaging signify !ittle. for upon it .•uld be dividual ~ulting from the biolog- ever validity these criticisms may ical and •1tal forces at work, and enjoy they are secondary in impor­ the intellect and wi ll, but the be­ found but one phase of t vhole." haviorist makes none. The system The four categories wl. . he se­ these in :ation to the environ- tance. The strongest criticism of ··. has been condemned by material­ lected for study were 1 1 morphol­ ment. Adolph Meyer's theory and work is ists themselves as being ultra­ ogy, t2) physiology, 13) psychology, In order to obtain such an un­ that it is predicated upon a materi­ '•,•, derstanding of the functioning in­ alistic concept of man and human materialistic and mechanistic. The ~ 4) immunology. This work repre­ . .. conditioned reflex is an important sents a marked ad vance over the dividual, it is necessary to obtain life. Mind is matter. Anything like I . ' fact in psychology, but behaviorism work of Kretschmer and others a complete picture of the individ­ a supra-organic life is unknown. ; . ual as acting. This is the composite If this materialistic concept of man hopelessly exaggerates its signifi­ who attempted to classify men with­ ' • 1' picture formed as a result of a and human life is true, then psy­ cance, and, in general, contributes in specific types. This type of .. very little to the understanding, study is inadequate and, as point­ ., careful study of the individual's chobiology loses much of its value. . ' '· treatment, and prevention of ab­ ed out in our chapter on etiology, :: ·. . past, and an understanding of his None of Meyer's many fo llowers . ~; . without a firm scientific founda­ dominant interests, traits, difficul­ have as yet presented a view of normalcy. The materialism of the ties, handicaps, social activities, am­ psychobiology expurgated of ma­ system renders it well -nigh useless tion. Draper attempted to study man in his entirety and his work .. bitions, fa ilures, etc. A complete terialism. qven though it is not a in the understanding of psychiatric .. ,. ·: physical and mental examination is philosophy but rather a technique, data. furnished a spearhead in the de­ required. Anything a nd everything it cannot be fo rgotten, that as pre­ velopment of psychosomatic medi­ is utilized to give a complete pic­ sented by Meyer and his followers Constitutional Psychology cine, for in 1928 Draper's fi rst pa­ ture. All theories are eschewed ; the the system is predicated upon and per, " Disease, A Psychosomatic 1 facts of the case are the all-impor­ takes for granted the typical psychol­ According to Draper, constitu­ Reaction" appeared, ' 3 His empha­ tant thing. A single factor is sel­ ogy of the materialist. tion is defined as "that aggregate sis on the unity of the organism 14 dom, if ever, considered the only of inherited characteristics, modi­ is credited by both Cobb ' and cause of a disorder. It is most gen­ Behaviorism fied by environment, which deter­ Bracefand 3'• for the present day erally brought about by a cluster mine the individual's reaction to awakening of the profession to the the stress of environment.'' ~2 concept of psychosomatic medicine. of factors. This school of psychology enjoyed . . There is much virtue in this pop­ a tremendous popularity in the first The possession of each individual ularly accepted technique. It capi­ part of the current century and, of a factor of personal identity Karen Horney talizes on common sense. It is pre­ even though it has ceased to be a whi ch marks him as a unique spec­ dominantly interested in facts. It dominant school of thought, it imen is a basic belie f of constitu­ A brief description of the work painstakingly employs every de­ continues to exerc ise some influ­ tiona l medicine. of Horney is presented to show vice to acquire the necessary knowl­ ence. As its name indicates, behav­ Dr. George Draper founded the the extent to which the newer edge of the patient. It fully com­ iorism insists that the study of psy­ Consti tutio n Clinic at the Presby­ school of psychoanalysis has de­ prehends the tremendous complexi­ chology should be that of behavior terian Hospital in New York in viated from the original postulates ty and diversity of clinical cases. and not of consciousness. J. B. 1916. Since that time he has con­ of Freud. Horney, as do many oth­ tinued his researc h and is the rec­ er recent writers, p!aces much Sadler 32 thought that Meyer's Watson ~~ was the chief expo­ philosophy and technique were nent of this system. All conduct, ognized leader in the field . more stress on environmental in-

August, 1972 165 164 Linacre Quarterl y p. 423. ftuences than on childhood trau a. people. " In each of these attitudes (Bailliere, Tindall & C.' x, London, • I This di'ference may be state<. .n one of the elements involved in 6. Joseph Donceel, "Second Thoughts 1946), p 39. .. .. her own ords: basic anxiety is over-emphasized: on Freud," Thought, Vol. XXIV, Robert - · Woodworth. Contempo­ No. 94, p. 468. rary Sc/; Jo/s of Psyc logy (T he he Iple ssness m the first, isolation 7. Ibid., p. 483. . : I do n believe that any confl 1 be- Ronald Press Co., N . 'I 193 I). . ~ ·: in the second, and hostility in the 8. Ibid., p. 468. I tween d· ! S and fears could ever ac- 26. \ lullahy, op. cit., p. 1 3 ~ .•.. I count f< ~ e extent to which a neu- third." (I) It should be under­ 9. Gordon W. Allport, Personality, A 27. \ loore, op. cit., p. 63. rotic is ided within himself and for stood that all three attitudes may Psychological Interpretation (Holt, 28. Carl G. Jung, "The Q, Jn of the an outc so detrimental that it can be present in any one individual; Rinehardt, aud Winston, N. Y., Therapeutic Value of ·action'," 1937), p. 188. actually •1 a person's life. A psychic one attitude, however, predomi­ British Journal of Psyc ry, Med- s ituatio r :h as Freud postulates would I O.Sigmund Freud, Autobiographical ical Section, 2:22, 192 1. nates. Based on this predominance imply tl neurotic retains the capac- Studies (Norton C. Norton, N. Y., 29. Carl G . J ung, Contrib11 · to A na- ity to st for something wholeheart- Horney describes three types of 1936), p. 109. ly tical Psychology (R dge, and edly, that is merely frustrated in personality, (I) the compliant type, II. Roland Dalbiez, Psycho-Analytical Keegan Paul, Ltd., L tu n, 1948). these striv1. ; by the blocking action (2) the detached type, (3) the ag­ Method and the Doctrine of Freud 30. Carl G. Jung, Psyc/. ogy of the ··. (Longmans, Green, and Co., N. Y., of fears. As 1 see it, the source of the gressive type. Moral problems play Unconscious (RoutJ e ,_. ,.:, and Kee­ conflict revolves around the neurotic's 1941), p. 280. an important part in neurosis ac­ gan Paul, Ltd., London. 1936). loss of capacity to wish for anything 12. Sigmund Freud, The Future of an 31. Wendell Munice, Psychobiology- .'•, ..'· wholeheartedly because his very wishes cording to Horney, this being a Illusion (Doubleday, N. Y.), p. 42. Psychiatry (The C. V. Mos by Co., are divided, that is, go in opposite di­ further departure from Freud, who 13. Sigmund Freud, Civilization and St. Louis, 1939). I , rections. This would constitute a much fe lt that morality was not a ques­ its Discontents (Norton C. Norto n, 32. William S. Sadler, Theory and ·, . N.Y., 1962), p. 35. more serious condition indeed than tion for scientific consideration. 39 Practice of Psychiatry (The C. V. .. 3 14. Sigmund Freud, The Future of an I ' 1' the one Freud visualized. 6 Mosby Co., St. Louis, 1936). l - Horney presents a theory of neu­ Illusion, op. cit., p. 42. 33. John B. Watson, Psychology from In her study of neuroses Horney rosis which has been expurgated 15. Emil Ludwig, Doctor Freud: An the Standpoint of a Behaviorist points out, with others, that the of many Freudian misconceptions Analysis and a Warning (Hellman­ (Lee and Febiger, Philadelphia, essential factor common to all neu­ and faults. She has particularly Williams, N. Y ., 1949), p. 31 I . 1924). 16. Dalbiez, Psycho-Analytical Method 34. George Draper, Human Constitu­ roses is anxiety and the defenses eliminated the libido theory which '• . . . op. cit., p. 325. tion, A Consideration of Its Rela­ .,. .. built up against it. She describes was one of Freud's most contested 17. G ardner Murphy, A Briefer Gen­ tionship to Disease (W. B. Saunders a neurosis as "a psychic disturb­ ideas. Her own theory, while well eral Psychology (Harper and Broth­ Co., Philadelphia, 1924). ance brought about by fears and worked out at some levels, is not ers, N. Y., 1935). 35. George Draper, "Disease, A Psycho­ defenses against these fears, and by very clear in its fundamentals which 18. Alfred Adler, Understanding Hu­ somatic Reaction," Journal of the man Nature (Greensburg Publ. Co., .·. attempts to find a compromise solu­ need further clarification. A merican Medical• Association, 90: N.Y., 1927). 1281-1285, April 21 , 1928. tion for conflicting tendencies." 37 FOOTNOTES: 19. Alfred Adler, The Neurotic Consti­ 36. Stanley Cobb, "Psychosomatic Med­ I . Gregory Zilboorg, A History of Med­ As to the source of this anxiety, llltion (Dodd, Meade & Co., N. Y., icine," in R. L. Cecil, Textbook of ical Psychology (W. W. Norton and she feels that it arises from hostile 1930). Medicine, (W. B. Saunders Co., Company, N.Y., Vs & \12 Vs(. 20. Alfred A dler, The Practice and impulses of various kinds. 38 Philadelphia, 1947), 7th ed. p. I 646. 2. Sigmund Freud, "Selected Papers on Theory of Individual Psychology 37. Francis J. Braceland, "The Practice She feels that underlying all neu­ Hysteria and other Psychoneuroses," (Harcourt, Brace, & Co., N . Y., of Psychiatry," Quarterly Bulletin, roses regardless of their variety Trans. by A. A. Brill, Nervous and 1932). Northwestern University M edical there is a "basic anxiety" which Mental Disease (Monograph Series 21 . Alfred Adler, Study of Organ In­ School, 22:3 12, 1948. ... No. 4, 1920). she describes as a feeling of be­ feriority and Psychical Compensa­ 38. Karen Horney, New Ways in Psy- 3. Patrick Mullahy, Oedipus, Myth ing small, insignificant, helpless, tion (Mental Diseases Monograph choanalysis (W. W. orton and and Complex (Heritage Press, Inc., Series No. 24, Nervous and Menta l Co., Inc., N.Y., 1939), p . 38. endangered, in a world that is out N.Y., 1948). Disease Publishing Co., N. Y. , 191 7). 39. Karen Horney, The N eurot'< Per­ to abuse, cheat, attack, humiliate, 4. 0. Spurgeon English and G . H. J . 22. Don T . U. Moore, The Nature and sonality of Our Time (W. W. Nor­ Pearson, Common Neuroses of Chil­ betray, and envy. This "basic anx­ Treatment of Mental Disorders ton and Co., Inc., N. Y., 1937), p. 15. iety" gives rise to three basic atti­ dren and Adults (W. W. Norton and (Grune and Stratton, N. Y., 1943), 40. Karen Horney, The N eurotic Per­ Company, Inc., N.Y., 1937). p. 68. sonality . . . op. cit., p. 63. tudes which cause the individual 5. Samuel H. Kraines, The Therapy of 23. Patrick Mullahy, Oedipus, Myth and 4 1. Karen Horney, Our Inner Con­ to move (I) toward people, (2) the Neuroses and Psychoses (Lee Complex, op. cit., p. 325. flicts (W. W. Norton, Inc., N . Y., away from people, and (3) against and Febiger, Philadelphia, 1941 ), 24. J. Ernest Nicole, Psychopathology 1945).

166 Linacre Q uarterly August , 1972 167