The Linacre Quarterly

Volume 39 | Number 4 Article 6

November 1972 History of Psychotherapy: II. Hypnosis John R. Cavanagh

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Recommended Citation Cavanagh, John R. (1972) "History of Psychotherapy: II. Hypnosis," The Linacre Quarterly: Vol. 39: No. 4, Article 6. Available at: http://epublications.marquette.edu/lnq/vol39/iss4/6 In this section of "History of Psychotherapy," Dr. Cavanagh pre­ sents a thorough look at the begin­ nings and development of the use of hypnosis in medicine pointing to its role in the discovery of the unconscious and in the birth of psy­ chotherapy itself. He also treats the controversies of the moral implica­ tions and effect on the will and be­ havior control in the use of hypnosis.

History of Psychotherapy II. Hypnosis John R. Cavanagh, M.D.

As pointed out in the opening understandings about hypnotism so paragraphs of Part I of this article that a brief description is important. (see The Linacre Quarterly, Au­ A committee of the American gust, 1972, page 151), hypnosis was Medical Association was in agree­ an important instrument in the ar­ ment with a subcommittee of the mamentarium of Freud and his con­ British Medical Association as to temporaries. There are many mis- the nature of hypnosis:

Dr. John R. Cavanagh, an asso­ A temporary condition of altered atten­ ciate editor of Linacre Quarterly, tion in the subject which may be induced is in the private practice of psychi­ by another person and in which a variety atry in Washington, D.C. A pro­ of phenomena may appear spontaneously lific contributor to scholarly litera­ or in response to verbal or other stimuli. These phenomena include alterations in ture, Dr. Cavanagh is the author of consciousness and memory, increased Fundamental Marriage Counseling susceptibility to suggestion, and the pro­ and Counseling the Invert, among duction in the subject of responses and other volumes. He was Guest Edi­ ideas unfamiliar to him in his usual state tor of the August, 1972, issue of of mind. Further, phenomena such as anesthesia, paralysis, and the rigidity of The Linacre in which the first muscles and vasomotor changes can be part of his article, "History of Psy­ produced and removed in the hypnotic chotherapy" was published. state.

232 Linacre Quarterly Hypnosis is the black sheep of After Father Kircher, there was medicine, being regarded by many a period of about fifty years dur­ as an illegitimate child, an instru­ ing which nothing of serious con­ ment of charlatans and quacks. Al­ sequence was published on the sub­ though it is today more favorably ject. Such lulls have punctuated the regarded by the medical profession, history of hypnosis from its begin­ it has until recently been popular­ nings. During these long periods ly thought to be allied to demons of quiescence, charlatans flourished, and witches. To it and to those who while more serious students paused employ it are frequently ascribed to evaluate their results and consider strange and mysterious powers. In to what practical clinical use hyp­ spite of its use in medicine since nosis could be applied. 1680, very little of its scientific aspects are known even today to Mesmer members of the medical profession. Very little is known concerning the A notable figure in the history relationships of this illegitimate of hypnotism is Franz Anton Mes­ child which, although it was sired mer (1733-1815). He was a na­ by charlatans and quacks, had two tive of Itznang, Switzerland. He illustrious offspring: psychotherapy had been interested in the subject and the discovery of the uncon­ of animal magnetism from his col­ scious. It is probable that the full lege days. In fact, his thesis for impact of these discoveries has not graduation from medical school yet been fully appreciated. If hyp­ was on the subject of the influence notism had made no other contri­ of the planets on man (1717). In bution to scientific medicine than his experimentation with the prop­ these, it could rest on its laurels. erties of magnets while preparing These two offspring were the most his dissertation, he got the idea famous members of a genealogy, that a similar power was possessed the origin of which is lost in by the human hand. As it was ulti­ antiquity. mately formulated his theory was In more modern times, and in a as follows: more scientific way, hypnosis was There is a universally diffused fluid, so continuous as to admit no void, a fluid the subject of a scientific report in subtile beyond comparison and of its own 1680 by Athanasius Kircher (1602- nature qualified to receive, to propagate, 1680). Father Kircher, besides be­ and to communicate all the sensible effects ing a Jesuit priest, was a mathema­ of movement. I tician, physicist, optician, oriental­ It is by means of this fluid that we act upon nature and upon other beings like ist, musician, virtuoso, physician, ourselves; the will gives motion to it, and and microscopist. In his "Physio­ serves to communicate it. (Memoire sur logia Kircheriana," published about la decouverte de magnetisme animal.2) 1680, he recorded for the first time Animal magnetism he defined an experiment in hypnosis. He as that property of the living body died in this year and interest in that renders it susceptible to the the subject was not kept up by his influence of the heavenly bodies students.

November, 1972 233 and to the reciprocal action of Some insight into why Mesmer those that surround it, a property was so unceremoniously hurried out which is manifested by its analogy of Vienna is obtained from the re­ with a magnet. 3 port of a commission appointed by Mesmer first attempted to prac­ Louis XVI to investigate possible tice "magnetism," later called "Mes­ immoralities connected with the merism" in Vienna. There was no practice. Mesmer's methods pro­ disease for which this treatment duced a great variety of abnormal was considered contraindicated. states, and his selection of patients In Vienna, however, after a short was rather haphazard. His treat­ time, he was investigated by a com­ ments frequently terminated in a mission appointed by Maria Theresa "nervous crisis." This gave rise to and compelled to leave the city on the term "crisis room" for the cham­ 24 hours notice. As things later de­ ber in which he practiced. In 1784 veloped in Paris, his expulsion be­ this commission reported on the comes understandable. He went moral dangers associated with Mes­ from Vienna to Paris, arriving there merism. Since there has been a in 1778. His methods intrigued the persistent fear even to the present public and aroused a general if of immorality associated with hyp­ morbid curiosity which quickly notic practices, this report is of in­ brought fame and wealth to the terest to us. Some idea of the con­ clever charlatan. Perhaps we should ditions which caused concern over not be too hard on Mesmer be­ the possible immorality may be cause in his own frame of refer­ gathered by a brief quotation from ence he believed in what he was the report of the commission ap­ doing. Sincere or not, he was the pointed by Louis XVI. This report "rage" of Paris. He appeared at his was written by Bailley, who stated: seances in a lavender suit carrying The man who magnetizes ordinarily has a wand which he used "to pass on" the knees of the women between his own the "magnetic fluid." The number so that in consequence the knees and all of those seeking help became so the lower portions of the body are in con­ tact. His hand is applied to the hypochon­ great that Mesmer devised tubs driac regions or sometimes lower on the (baquets) for multiple treatments ovaries. Pressure is then exerted at one in which there was an odorous mix­ and the same time on an infinite number ture containing hydrogen sulphide. of parts and in the neighborhood of the Arising out of this tub were steel most sensitive parts of the body . . . often when the man has his left hand ap­ rods which were jointed so that the plied thus, he passes the right hand be­ end could be applied by the subject hind the body of the woman. The move­ to his affected part. At times the ment of both persons is to blend mutually number of subjects was so great toward each other to facilitate this double that contact between them, which contact. The proximity becomes the great­ est force. Face almost to face, they feel was considered essential for the each other's breath. All impressions are transmission of the magnetic force, shared instantaneously and the reciprocal was established by joining hands. allraction of the senses must react with

234 Linacre Quarterly filII f o rce. It is not extra-ordinary that the and several serious students began senses are fired .. . 4 to study the process. Among these Thus spoke Dr. Bailley concern­ was Abbe Faria, an Indo-Portuguese ing the technique of Mesmerism. priest. He began to hold seances, Other members of this commission the first of which was in 1814. were Lavoisier, Franklin, Guillotin, From the beginning he taught that and de Jussieu. Mesmerism reached in the process nothing passed from the United States in 1861, where the hypnotist. Everything, he taught, P. P. Quinby successfully treated comes from the subject and takes Mary Baker (Eddy), founder of place in his imagination. Abbe Faria Christian Science, for a hysterical was the creator of hypnotism as we paralysis. know it today; he practiced sugges­ An interesting sidelight on the tion in the waking state and post­ history of "Mesmerism" is a note hypnotic suggestion. in the April, 1956, issue of th~ American Journal of Psychiatry. 5 It is there recalled that there was Braid a warm personal relationship be­ tween Mozart and Mesmer. In this J ames Braid (1795-1860) of Man­ artick credit is given to Mesmer chester in England collected and as one of the first members of the clarified Faria's ideas. He differed medical profession to use psycho­ from him somewhat in that he felt therapy in the form of suggestion the hypnotic state was the result of and music therapy. Zilboorg refers purely physical changes. In his own to Mesmer in these words: words, "Faria and Bertrand act, or " ... he became the originator and the pretend to act, by the aid of a moral bearer of a totally new orientation in psy­ impression; their means is of the chological medicine; an orientation which mental order; mine is purely physi­ brought psychotherapy to the forefront, and with it ultimately, the deepest insight cal, and consists in fatiguing the yet attained by man into the inner work­ eyes, producing that of the brain." 7 ings of the inner mind. H Braid introduced the terms hyp­ Mozart, when he was only 15 notism, hypnotize, and hypnotic years of age, wrote an opera for into the language. Mesmer. This was the first Mozart opera ever performed, and in it he French Hypnotists immortalized the sounds of Mesmer's accordion in his instrumentation of The French schools under A. A. "The Glass Flute." Liebault (1823-1904), Hippolyte Bernheim, and J. M. Charcot 8 did Abbe Faria much to advance hypnotism as a science. In their clinics hypnosis After Mesmer, the practice be­ was used extensively and studied came less prevalent. In the absence scientifically to the best of their of any plausible theory it failed to ability. Sigmund Freud (1856- attract the scientific mind. The sub­ 1939) worked with all of them, ject was not forgotten, however, spending most of 1885 in Paris

November, 1972 235 with Charcot and of 1889 with Lie- brief description of the technique bault and Bernheim. may be of interest. During most of this time, Freud was studying his first choice of spe- cialty, neurology, but he was quick to realize the significance of some Before attempting to induce hyp­ of the hypnotic phenomena in re­ nosis, the nature of the process and lation to a hidden mental life. He its goal should be carefully ex­ recognized the birth of psychother­ plained to the patient. Such an apy in the work of Braid and Lie­ explanation will serve to reduce bault, and in 1893 published with resistance and increase susceptibil­ Breuer an article on "The Physical ity. Not all subjects can be hyp­ Mechanism of Hysterical Phenome­ notized, although a high percentage na." This was the birth announce­ of willing subjects are susceptible. ment of the second of hypnotism's Susceptibility will depend on, a) the illustrious children, the unconscious. subject's previous hypnotic expe­ This was a discovery of the great­ rience, b) his willingness, c) the est significance - the value of which skill of the therapist, and d) the is perhaps not fully realized even method of induction. Emotional today. If hypnotism had produced disturbances and fear of the pro­ this one discovery only, it would cedure reduce susceptibility. have justified its existence. In a properly disposed patient Freud, however, soon dispensed there are numerous methods of in­ with the use of hypnotism in favor ducing the hypnotic state. Most of of free association. From the time these call for the fixation of the of Freud up to quite recent years eyes on some bright object. The hypnosis was largely in the hands simplest procedure is to hold a of charlatans and stage operators. bright object in front of the pa­ A few years ago a tremendous up­ tient's eyes, closely enough, and surge of interest in the subject oc­ slightly above the level of the eyes, curred with the publication of so as to cause upward and internal "Bridey Murphy" and its descrip­ rotation of the eyes. He is instruct­ tion of hypnotic age regression. 9 ed to stare at the object and at the This publication threw light on a same time attempt to eliminate any number of serious investigations distracting thoughts from his mind, into the use of hypnosis in ther­ concentrating on the thought of apy, particularly in the form of sleep. The operator then speaks hypoanalysis. This work is being in a low, monotonous voice sug­ done by Wolberg, 10 Brennan, 11 gesting to him that he is becoming Gill, 12 Kubie, 13 Watkins, 14 and relaxed and that his eyes are clos­ others. ing, and he soon will be able to respond only to the suggestions of Methods of Induction the operator's voice. In suitable sub­ jects the hypnotic state can usually Since most individuals have nev­ be induced rather quickly. The er seen hypnosis in practice, a speed of the induction depends to

236 Linacre Quarterly a large extent on the method em­ Father Alois Wiesinger, o.es.o., ployed and the skill of the hypno­ in his book on Occult Phenomena, tist. published in 1957, speaks of "in­ The mental state produced by ducing animal magnetism" by strok­ hypnotism, although not fully un­ ing, an idea discarded by Braid. He derstood, is very similar to that in speaks of "irrestistible likes and hysteria, and while under its in­ dislikes," states that all the sen­ fluence, the patient is very sug­ sorium disappears "completely," gestible. It is because of this in­ states further that "all" people can creased suggestibility that the be hypnotized, that once they method has therapeutic value. A have been hypnotized they lose suggestion made to a patient in a their power of resistance, that by hypnotic state will usually be car­ reason of hypnotism "men lose ried out when he is restored to his their freedom of will forever," and waking state. that once lost "can never be wholly This is known as posthypnotic recovered." 16 suggestion. For example, a patient There is a modicum of truth in with a severe pruritus vulvae of hys­ these statements, but they are gross­ terical origin was hypnotized and ly exaggerated. To some extent the told the symptoms would disappear subject does relinquish, to the hyp­ next time she took a bath. Although notist, control over his activity but the patient did not remember this it is an error to state this in such suggestion when she was awakened, extreme terms as Father Wiesinger she reported the next day that her uses. Suggestions can be resisted. symptoms had disappeared the pre­ Any suggestion which the subject vious night while she was taking finds repugnant to his conscience a bath and had not returned. An­ will be rejected point-blank either other patient with a severe phobia by waking up or going into a deep­ about impending death was hypno­ er sleep. An individual cannot be tized and it was suggested to her made to do in the hypnotic state that this feeling would have dis­ what he would not do were he in appeared completely when she was full possession of his faculties. He awakened. Upon being roused from cannot be made to do anything her hypnotic state, she not only which would be repugnant to him forgot about her symptoms, but she in normal consciousness. We must expressed some wonderment as to remember, however, that many exactly why she had come to see things are not repugnant to the un­ the physician. 15 conscious mind, and that although the subject may not do things which Control of Behavior he would normally not do, in the trance he may not be able to resist There are certain misconceptions actions which are done to him. in regard to the hypnotic state The statements made in the last which are prevalent even among paragraph were those taught by members of the medical profession. almost all who have written on the

November, 1972 237 subject. In recent years, however, Aside from the criminal use experiments seem to demonstrate of hypnosis there is another as­ that the subject may be induced to pect of its possible use which is perform immoral acts. 17 very important. Is it possible to There is danger that a clever, cause the hypnotized individual to powerful hypnotist could cause perform a dangerous act? Rowland, the subject to perform morally rep­ con~idering this aspect of the prob­ rehensible acts by presenting them lem, concluded: to him under the guise of being acceptable. Repetition of such Persons in deep hypnosis will perform acts unreasonably dangerous to others. 2 1 suggestions sub specie bani could eventually wear down the resistance Because the possible immoral of the subject. 18 uses of hypnotism are of special A final answer, as Eastabrooks interest, this list of possible crimi­ has repeatedly pointed out, would nal uses of hypnosis prepared by require that the subject be permit­ Heron is of interest: ted to commit the crime. 19 1. Assault of the hypnotized This moral requirement, which person by the hypnotist. Seduction is understandable, of not attempt­ is the most likely crime in this ing to force the subject into actual category. criminal acts keeps the honest ex­ 2. The posthypnotic production perimenter at a rather superficial of some functional difficulty, e.g., laboratory level. Unscrupulous op­ paralysis. This might be done by erators, on the contrary, do not connivance of the hypnotist and the have this handicap, and one does subject for the purpose, let us say, not know how far they would go. of the latter escaping military ser­ By pr;!senting the criminal act to vice. Or it might be done by the the subject under the appearances hypnotist without knowledge of of a good act it is quite possible the subject in order to bring injury that it would be performed. For to the latter. this reason the subject should not 3. The production of abortion submit himself to anyone not known through hypnotic suggestion. to him as honest and trustworthy. 20 4. Causing an individual to com­ It is reasonable to assume that mit suicide by means of posthypnot­ most subjects could not be induced ic suggestion. to perform criminal acts, but the 5. Murder by arousing the emo­ fact that one person could be in­ tionality of the subject through hyp­ duced to do so is more important notic ·suggestion to the point of from the moral standpoint than overworking the heart. that many people could not be. 6. Securing illegal possession of This would also apply to whether property through posthypnotic sug­ a subject could be hypnotized gestion in reference to signing of against his will . One such subject wills or other legal papers. who can is more important than 7. The production of false testi­ many who cannot. mony by causing the subject to have

238 Linacre Quarterly hallucinations which he accepts as will "forever" as Father Wiesinger real or by suggestion to cause a states? The answer to these ques­ falsification of memory. tions is "no." The will per se is In addition there are two most not involved unless by will we commonly thought of possibilities: mean a consent to be hypnotized. 8. By hypnotic or posthypnotic It may well be that some individ­ suggestion causing the subject to uals with a strong will are more harm someone else. suggestible. Each act of hypnotism 9. By similar means causing the requires a separate act of consent individual to harm himself short of on the part of the subject and ex­ committing suicide. cept in rare cases he cannot be Possibly still another conceivable hypnotized without his acquiescence. application should be suggested, al­ It is true that an unscrupulous op­ though I am not qualified to state erator might take a very susceptible whether it would be considered subject by surprise and produce a criminal: trance before he has a chance to ex­ 10. The implanting in the sub­ ert his will. This, of course, could ject of mean or obnoxious thoughts not occur on the first attempt. and attitudes thus producing unde­ sirable personality traits. 22 The Dangers of Hypnosis , This list is no doubt incomplete and contains possibilities which Another misconception is that are quite far-fetched, but since hypnosis is free of danger. This is the ingenuity of the criminally in­ certainly not true although its dan­ clined occasionally seems to be gers are not as great as some of its almost boundless, perhaps it could opponents claim. It is proper that be greatly extended. the danger of hypnosis be stressed. The following statement of Weit­ It is not a parlor toy. It is a thera­ zenhoffer sums up the situation in peutic instrument which if not prop­ regard to criminal acts: erly used, has physical, physiologi­ a) Whatever intrinsic compulsive power cal, psychological, and moral dan­ or property hypnotic suggestion may pos­ gers. Repeated studies have shown sess, this alone is incapable of causing in­ dividuals to commit antisocial acts, and these dangers. b) subjects can be induced to act crimi­ Dr. Bernard Teitel reported at nally if they are made to perceive their the meeting of the American Psy­ actions as occurring in a situation (or con­ chiatric Association in May of 1958 text) in which they are not antisocial. 23 on seven patients who became se­ riously ill, psychiatrically, after re­ Effect on the Will ceiving hypnotherapy. Hypnotism, because of its dangers, should be Must the subject be of a weaker employed only by stable individuals will than the hypnotist? Does the skilled in its use. These facts con­ ability to be hypnotized indicate cerning the hypnotic state confirm weakness of the will? Does hypno­ this. The hypnotized person is, most sis take away the freedom of the of all, suggestible: he has increased

November, 1972 239 muscle strength, his skin and mu­ the psychiatrists in a large city cous membranes are anaesthetic, his found that none were using it rou­ special senses are increased in acui­ tinely in their practices. Most of ty, he acts as an automaton under them felt that there were but few the will of the hypnotist, although indications for its use. This in spite he may often say "no" and refuse of the fact that, in expert hands, to act. Posthypnotic suggestion may they would consider its use quite cause him to act after he awakens, safe. this being accomplished in an at­ The medical opinion on the dan­ mosphere determined by the hyp­ gers of hypnotism was well sum­ notist. On awakening, the subject marized in an article in Today' s may retain no memory of anything Health, 24 a publication of the which transpired during sleep. Al­ American Medical Association. In though the first attempt to hypno­ this article, Dr. J ames A. Brussel tize may be difficult, each succeed­ of Willard, New York, said that ing attempt is easier to perform three principles regarding hypno­ and each time less consent is re­ tism to which medical science sub­ quired on the part of the subject. scribes are: Consider now these effects and realize the serious potentialities for I. Where hypnotism removes harm which may come as a result symptoms, an illness may be ob­ of their manipulation by a neurotic, scured and prolonged, since causes unscrupulous, or unskilled operator. are not treated. Realize also that in the operator 2. Where hypnotism treats emo­ there is generated a feeling of pow­ tional symptoms instead of causes, er - a feeling that he now has more serious personality defects control over another person, that may occur. another being is "enslaved" to him 3. Where hypnotism evokes de­ and can move only at his command. lusions, habits of thought as harm­ He will be reluctant to give up ful as drug addiction may be such power. He will want to re­ formed. peat the performance. Hypnotism can be useful, espe­ Aside from this feeling of pow­ cially in psychotherapy, by reliev­ er, serious harm may arise when ing certain symptoms and manifes­ attempts are made to hypnotize in­ tations. However, these gains are dividuals who have a borderline sometimes exploited by untrained mental illness. It may activate neu­ and irresponsible persons, Dr. Brus­ roses, produce serious anxieties, and sel said. increase the suggestibility of others. I t is because of these dangers It is an instrument only for those that the committee of the Ameri­ skilled in its use. Hypnotism as a can Medical Association empha­ therapy would seem to be one par­ sized that a background of psycho­ ticularly adapted to the use of com­ dynamic psychology and psychiatry petent and conscientious psychia­ is essential to understand hypnosis. trists. However, a recent poll of Equally important is that use of

240 Linacre Quarterly hypnotic techniques for therapeu­ move symptoms of a hysterical na­ tic purposes should be restricted to ture. For example, Diethelm speaks those individuals qualified by back­ of its value in the treatment of men­ ground and training to fulfill any strual difficulties, frigidity, impo­ necessary criteria for a complete tence, sleep disturbances, and pains diagnosis of the illness to be treat­ of various types. 25 Each of these ed. Hypnosis should be used on a symptoms could have a deep seated highly selective basis by such per­ significance and there is a real sons and· never should become a danger that removal of the symp­ single technique used under all toms may produce more serious circumstances. manifestations. Removal of the de­ fense mechanism may result in the Clinical Valoe rise of a new and less effective ego defense. Hypnotherapy should be As a means of treatment hypno­ used only after careful study of the sis includes many elements such as personality structure of the patient. ventilation, abreaction, suggestion, Hypnosis may have value in diag­ persuasion, and insight therapy. nosis. Such methods of treatment can be In summary, hypnosis has very properly used only by one trained little real value as a therapeutic in their use, i.e., a psychiatrist. agent. Almost everything which it Psychiatrists as a group, however, does can be done more simply are those most reluctant to employ and less dangerously by other it. Some of the dangers have already means. been pointed out. There are other more subtle dangers, such as marked Moral Implications transference and dependency reac­ tions. This is being discovered by The Catholic Church early ex­ many dentists and gynecologists who pressed a cautious opinion in regard have adopted hypnosis in their to the use of hypnosis. In response practices. The dentist who uses to a question the Holy Office on hypnosis exclusively for the pur­ June 2, 1840, replied: pose of anaesthesia is not so like­ The use of magnetism, that is to say, ly to get into difficulties. If he the mere act of employing physical means otherwise permissible, is not morally for­ uses it too frequently, however, bidden, provided it does not tend to an he may get fixation and dependency illicit end, or one which may be in any reactions that he is ill equipped manner evil. to handle. The gynecologist is deal­ ing with a greater variety of ma­ An encyclical letter of the Sacred terial and a more susceptible group Penitentiary, Tribunal of August, of patients. Unless the gynecologist 1856, only confirms this. 26 has had extensive psychiatric train­ The present moral opinion can be ing he should utilize hypnosis spar­ summarized briefly in a few words. ingly in his practice. Hypnosis should be employed only Hypnosis has the ability to re- for a serious purpose by one skilled

November, 1972 241 in its use. Skill in its use should be be settled. If the performed act is understood to include an awareness suggested sub specie boni, the sub­ of its dangers. With the possible ject is quite likely to accept it if he exception as an anaesthetic agent in is sufficiently deep in his trance. dentistry, its use should be restricted Therapeutically, hypnosis is a to members of the medical profes­ poor substitute for other more ac­ sion. On the part of the subject ceptable procedures. When em­ care must be taken that when he ployed, it should be by one prop­ submits to hypnotic procedures he erly trained. It should be ·only em­ is assured of the competence and ployed under proper medical­ honesty of the hypnotist. dental auspices. More research is It has previously been taught needed. The use of hypnosis for that it should be done only in the frivolous purposes should be vig­ presence of a witness. I believe orously condemned. with Father Kelly that this neces­ sity for a witness is not absolute when the technique is employed FOOTNOTES: I. The Catholic Encyclopedia (The En­ by a conscientious physician. 27 cyclopedia Press, Inc., 1913), Vol. 7, In summary then, while the op­ p. 605. posite opinion of others is recog­ 2. Ibid. nized, it is my opinion that if the 3. Ibid. purpose for which it is employed 4. Leon Henri Thoinot, M.D., Medico­ Legal Aspects of Moral Offenses (F. A. is serious and proper, if the opera­ Davis, Co., Philadelphia, 1930), p. 99. tor is skilled and morally above 5. Vol. 112, No. 10, April 1956, pp. reproach in his professional conduct, 848-849. that hypnosis is licit. 6. Gregory Zilboorg, A History of Medi­ cal Psychology (W. W. Norton and Co., N. ·Y., 1941), p. 378. Conclusion 7. The Catholic Encyclopedia, op. cit., p. 606. In conclusion, hypnosis has a 8. Zilboorg, op. cit., p. 356 ff. long and not always honorable his­ 9. Lewis R. Wolberg, M.D., Hypoanal­ tory. Most of the time it has been ysis (Grune and Stratton, Inc., N. Y ., in the hands of charlatans and 1945). 10. Lewis R. Wolberg, M.D., Medical quacks, although more recently it Hypnosis (Grune and Stratton, Inc., has been the subject of serious study N. Y., 1948), vol. 2. on the part of certain members of 11. Michael J. Brennan and R. P. Knight, the medical profession. Some den­ "A Note on the Indications for the tists have found it useful in recent Use of Hypnosis in Psychotherapy," Bulletin, Menninger Clinic, 12 :49- years but because of its difficulty 57, 1948. it seems unlikely that they will con­ 12. Merton M. Gill, "Spontaneous Re­ tinue to use it. gression on the Induction of Hyp­ The long argument as to whether nosis," Bulletin, Menninger Clinic, an indi vidual can be persuaded to 12:41,1948. 13. Lawrence S. Kubie, M.D., "The Use perform criminal or immoral acts of Induced Hypogenic Reveries in under its influence seems likely to the Recovery of Repressed Amnesic

242 Linacre Quarterly Data," Bul/etin, Menninger Clinic, 7. Bernard Hollander, Methods and 7:172,1943. Uses of Hypnosis and Self-Hyp­ 14. John Goodrich Watkins, Hypno­ nosis (MacMillan, N. Y ., 1928). therapie (Ronald Press, N . Y., 1950). 8. Paul Schilder, and O. Kauders, 15. John R.Cavanagh, M.D., Fundamental Hypnosis, trans. by S. Rothberg Psychiatry (The Bruce Publishing Co., (Nervous and Mental Disease Pub­ Milwaukee, 1958), pp. 291-292. lication, N . Y. and Washington, 16. Alois Wiesinger, O.C.S.O., Occult 1927). Phenomena (The Newman Press, 9. Paul Thomas Young, "Is Rapport Westminster, Maryland, 1957), p. 235. an Essential Characteristic of 17. Eric Marder, Research on Hypnosis, Hypnosis?" Journal of Abnormal A Memorandum (International Public and Social Psychology, 1927, Vol. Opinion Research, Inc., N . Y .), p. 64. 2, pp. 130-139. The degree of coercion which can 18. Ibid., p. 85. be exercised over a hypnotized sub­ Even in situations in which the net ject is a central element in the long effect of four key variables is such and heated debate about whether it that a direct command will not be is possible to use hypnosis to coerce carried out, however, the subject can people to commit crimes. Bernheim still be influenced (provided that he (I), Lebow (2), Bjornstrom (3), Binet can be hypnotized "deeply" enough and Frere (4), Forel (5), and others of to experience hallucinations) by per­ the older school believed that hypno­ ceptually restructuring his situation in tized subjects can be coerced to per­ such a way that his natural rejections form acts ordinarily repugnant to them. in the situation, as perceived by him, Bramwell (6), Hollander (7), Schilder will produce the results desired by and Kauders (8), Young (9), and oth­ the hypnotist. The Lieutenant in Wat­ ers, on the other hand, denied this kins' experiment, for example, would possibility. More recently, there have probably have refused to attack his been a number of experimental at­ friend. The moment he was a "dirty tempts to throw further light on this Jap" in front of him, however, the question. force of his training left him to im­ I. Hippolyte Bernheim, Suggestive provise (pulling out a knife he car­ Therapeutics: A Treatise on the ried in his pocket) in order to attack Nature and Uses of Hypnotism, the "enemy" who was about to kill trans. by C. A. Herter (Putnam, him; behavior entirely appropriate, N . Y., 1900). in keeping with his training, and not 2. John Milne Bramwell, Lebow opposed to his basic convictions in Quoted by Hypnotism: Its His­ the situation as he saw it. tory, Theory, and Practice (Rider, 19. Ibid., pp. 78-79. London), 3rd ed. 20. Milton Hyland Erickson, " An Ex­ 3. Frederik Johan Bjornstrom, Hyp­ perimental Investigation of the Pos­ notism: Its History and Present sible Antisocial Use of Hypnosis," Development, trans. by Baron Nils Psychiatry, 2:391-414, 1939. Posse (Humboldt, N. Y ., 1889). Erickson, too, agrees on this point: 4. Alfred Binet and C. Frere, Animal It is doubtful if any definite answer Magnetism (Appleton Century, to the general question can be ob­ N. Y., 1890). tained except by an experimental 5. August Forel, Hy pnotism: Or situation in which the suggested anti­ Suggestion and Psychotherapy, social act really can become an ac­ trans. by H . W. Armit (Rebmann, complished fact, obviously and un­ N . Y., 1907). mistakably so, and without the pro­ 6. John Milne Bramwell, Hypnotism, tection afforded by a falsified situa­ Its History, Theory, and Practice tion which can serve only to vitiate (Rider, London), 3rd ed. or negate the experimental procedure

November, 1972 243 for both subject and investigator. 3. ; The Practice and 21. Quoted by Milton Kline, Hypodynam­ Theory of Individual Psychology (Har­ ic Psychology (The Julian Press, Inc., court, Brace, and Co., N. Y., 1932). N. Y., 1955), p. 16. 4. Study of Organ 22. William T. Heron, "Hypnosis as a Inferiority and Psychical Compen­ Factor in the Production and Detec­ sation (Mental Diseases Monograph tion of Crime," British Journal of Series No. 24, Nervous and Mental Medical Hypnotism, Spring 1952, Vol. Disease Publishing Co., N. Y., 1932). 3, pp. 15-29. 5. ; Understanding Hu- 23. Quoted by Kline, op. cit., p. 32. man Nature (Greensburg Publishing 24. February 1956. Co., N. Y., 1927). 25. Oskar Diethelm, M.D., Treatment 6. Allport, Gordon W.; Personality: A in Psychiatry (Charles C. Thomas, Psychological Interpretation (Holt, Springfield, III., 1950), 2nd ed., p. 67 If. Rinehart, and Winston, N. Y., 1937). 26. The Catholic Encyclopedia, op. cit., 7. American Journal of Psychiatry , Vol. p.609. 112, No. 10, April 1956, pp. 848-849. 27. Gerald P. Kelly, S.1., "Medico-Moral 8. Braceland, Francis J.; ''The Practice Notes," Linacre Quarterly, Oct., 1949, of Psychiatry," Quarterly Bulletin, p. 15 . Northwestern University Medical Also, it seems to me, the condition School, 22:312,1948. concerning the need of a trustworthy 9. Brennan, Michael J., and R. P. Knight; witness needs interpretation. In some "A Note on the Indications for the psychiatric interviews material might Use of Hypnosis in Psychotherapy," be of such an intimate nature that the Bulletin, Menninger Clinic, 12:49-57, patient himself might not want to 1948. communicate it to a witness. More­ 10. Brusse\, James A., M.D.; Today's over, though, this necessity of a wit­ Health, February, 1956. ness is generally emphasized by the­ 11. The Catholic Encyclopedia (The En­ ologians in their discussion of hypno­ cyclopedia Press, Inc., 1913). tism. I am of the opinion that today, 12. Cavanagh, John R., M.D.; Fundamen­ in this clinic and record age of ours, tal Psychiatry (Bruce Publishing Co., there is greater need of stressing the Milwaukee, 1958). patient's right to privacy. Hence, I 13. Cobb, Stanley; "Psychosomatic Medi­ am of the opinion that we cannot put cine," in R. L. Cecil, Textbook of Med­ this need of a witness down as an icine, 7th ed. (W. B. Saunders Co., absolute condition. Much will depend Philadelphia, 1947). on circumstances. In some cases, for 14. Dalbiez, Roland; Psycho-Analytical instance, a witness might be necessary Method and the Doctrine of Freud to safeguard the reputation of the (Longmans, Green, and Co., N . Y., doctor or hospital, but granted that 1941). the physician is known to be conscien­ 15. Diethelm, Oskar, M.D.; Treatment tious - and the presumption is that in Psychiatry (Charles C. Thomas, only such physicians are allowed to Springfield, III., 1950), 2nd ed. practice in Catholic hospitals - I 16. Donceel, Joseph; "Second Thoughts see no special need of a witness to on Freud," Thought, Vol. XXIV, No. safeguard the patient. 94. 17. Draper, George; Human Constitu­ BIBLIOGRAPHY tion: A Consideration of its Relation­ I. Adler, Alfred; A Briefer General ship to Disease (W. B. Saunders Co., Psychology (Harper and Brothers, Philadelphia, 1924). N. Y., 1935). 18. ; "Disease, A Psy- 2. ; The Neurotic Con- chosomatic Reaction," Journal of stitution (Dodd, Meade and Co., N.Y., the American Medical Association, 1930). 90:1281-1285, April 21, 1928.

244 Linacre Quarterly 19. English, O. Spurgeon, and J . H. G. 35 . Kraines, Samuel H.; The Therapy of Pearson; Common Neuroses of Chil­ Neuroses and Psychoses (Lee and Fe­ dren and Adults (W. W. Norton and biger, Philadelphia, 1941). Co., Inc., N. Y., 1937). 36. Kubie, Lawrence S., M.D.; "The Use of Induced Hypogenic Reveries in 20. Erickson, Milton Hyland; "An Ex­ the Recovery of Repressed Amnesic perimental Investigation of the Pos­ Data," Bulletin. Menninger Clinic, sible Antisocial Use of Hypnosis," 7:172,1943. Psychiatry, 2:391-414, 1939. 37. Ludwig, Emil; Doctor Freud: An 21. Freud, Sigmund; Autobiographical Analysis and a Warning (Hellman­ Studies (Norton C. Norton, N. Y., Williams, N. Y., 1949). 1936). 38 . Marder, Eric; Research on Hypno­ 22. ; Civilization and Its sis: A Memorandum (International Discontents (Norton C. Norton, N.Y., Public Opinion Research, Inc., N.Y.). 1962). 39. Moore, Don T. U.; The Nature and 23. ; The Future of an Treatment ofMental Disorders (Grune Illusion (Doubleday, N. Y.) and Stratton, N. Y., 1943). 24. ; "Selected Papers 40. Murphy, Gardner; A Briefer General on Hysteria and Other Psychoneuro­ Psychology (Harper and Bros., N. Y., ses," trans. by A. A. Brill, Nervous 1935). and Mental Disease (Monograph Se­ 41. Mullahy, Patrick; Oedipus. Myth and ries No. 4, 1920). Complex (Heritage Press, Inc., N. Y., 25 . Gill, Merton M.; "Spontaneous Re­ 1948). gression on the Induction of Hypno­ 42. Munice, Wendell; Psychobiology­ sis," Bulletin. Menninger Clinic, 12: Psychiatry (The C. V. Mosby Co., 41,1948. St. Louis, 1939). 26. Heron, William T.; "Hypnosis as a 43. Nicole, J. Ernest; Psychopathology Factor in the Production and Detec­ (Bailliere, Tindall, and Cox, London, tion of Crime," British Journal of 1946). Medical Hypnotism, Spring 1952, 44. Sadler, William S.; Theory and Prac­ Vol. 3, pp. 15-29. tice of Psychiatry (The C. V. Mosby 27. Horney, Karen; Our Inner Conflicts Co., St. Louis, 1936). (W. W. Norton Co., N. Y., 1945). 45. Thoinot, Leon Henri; Medico-Legal 28. ; The Neurotic Per- Aspects of Moral Offenses (F. A. sonality of Our Time (W. W. Norton Davis Co., Philadelphia, 1930). and Co., N. Y., 1937). 46. Watkins, John Goodrich; Hypno­ 29. ; New Ways in Psy- therapie (Ronald Press, N. Y., 1950). choanalysis (W. W. Norton and Co., 47. Watson, John B.; Psychology from N . Y., 1939). the Standpoint of the Behaviorist 30. Jung, Carl G.; Contributions to Ana­ (Lee and Febiger, Philadelphia, 1924). lytical Psychology (Routledge, and 48. Wiesinger, Alois, O.C.S.O.; Occult Keegan Paul, Ltd., London, 1948). Phenomena (The Newman Press, 31. ; Psychology of the Westminster, Maryland, 1957). Unconscious (Routledge, and Keegan 49. Wolberg, Lewis R., M.D.; Hypoanal­ Paul, Ltd., London, 1936). ysis (Grune and Stratton, Inc., N. Y., 32. ; "The Question of 1945). the Therapeutic Value of 'Abreac­ 50. ; Medical Hypnosis tion'," British Journal of Psychology. (Grune and Stratton, Inc., N. Y., 1948), Medical Section. 2:22, 1921. Vol. 2. 33 . Kelly, Gerard P., S.J.; "Medico-Moral 51. Woodworth, Robert S.; Contempo­ Notes," Linacre Quarterly, October, rary Schools of Psychology (The Ron­ 1949. ald Press Co., N. Y., 1931). 34. Kline, Milton; Hypodynamic Psy­ 52. Zilboorg, Gregory; A History of Med­ chology (The Julian Press, Inc., N. Y., ical Psychology (W. W. Norton and 1955). Co., N. Y., 1941).

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