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LATIN AMERICA, MOBILIZATION, and a MOVE to the RIGHT Four Country Analyses Maristella Svampa Luis Tapia Donka Atanassova Edgardo Lander CONTENTS

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LATIN AMERICA, MOBILIZATION, and a MOVE to the RIGHT Four Country Analyses Maristella Svampa Luis Tapia Donka Atanassova Edgardo Lander CONTENTS LATIN AMERICA, MOBILIZATION, AND A MOVE TO THE RIGHT Four country analyses Maristella Svampa Luis Tapia Donka Atanassova Edgardo Lander CONTENTS Contents Argentina: conflicts and socio-political reconfigurations during the Kirchner era By Maristella Svampa 3 Analysis of Bolivia By Luis Tapia 26 Colombia: some contributions to understanding the changes in social configuration and policy over the last 15 years By Donka Atanassova I. 37 Notes for a collective reflection on the Venezuelan situation By Edgardo Lander 53 Argentina: conflicts and socio-political reconfigurations during the Kirchner period Maristella Svampa* August 2016 accompanied by greater protagonism on the part of transnational companies. These In this analysis of the Kirchner era, I will last two processes also explain the decline, deal with four topics. In the first place, I isolation and, in some cases, transformation will refer to changes in Argentinian social of social subjects linked to other agrarian- structure over the past 15 years. In this productive models. regard, it is important to underline the Thirdly, I will refer to the aspect of recovery of social sectors that had been mobilizations and social movements, penalized in the previous decade, for focusing on the central conflicts of example the urban middle classes and Kirchner period, such as the confrontation the popular sectors (formal and informal between the agricultural corporations and workers), a process that had its roots in the the Government of Cristina Fernández growth of the economy, the expansion of de Kirchner, and the mobilizations of the the industrial model and the increase in middle classes (for and against Kirchnerism). consumption. However, it is worth noting I will then refer to the peripheries, i.e. that as in other Latin American countries, to mobilizations that took place outside the upper classes also benefited a great the binary field, that were linked to the deal during the Kirchner era. expansion of the frontiers of extractivism Secondly, I will provide an account of the and the appropriation of land. large scale rural transformations, starting Fourthly, I will speak briefly to the with the expansion and consolidation current political scene and social struggles. of a new agrarian model (agribusiness, In this regard, it is important to clarify that, particularly genetically modified consistent with other experiences on the soybeans), a change that brought with it continent, Kirchnerism demonstrated the emergence of new globalized rural great ability to monopolize progressivism subjects, although one not totally detached as the center-left option, and to expel from the old agrarian oligarchy. We should other political forces. At the same time, it also highlight the expansion of extractive promoted an interpretation of conflict as activities and megaprojects, as well as dichotomous or as a binary code, making the growth of the transnationalization some trade union conflicts (sexual diversity, of the Argentine economy, which was media, agricultural producers) visible, while * Maristella Svampa is a sociologist, writer and researcher. She has a degree in philosophy from the National University of Córdoba and PhD in Sociology (School of Advanced Studies in Social Sciences, France). Principal researcher of Conicet and principal profes- sor at the National University of La Plata (Argentina). She is part of the Permanent Working Group on Alternatives to Development. 3 Argentina: conflicts and socio-political reconfigurations during the Kirchner period Maristella Svampa banishing others from its area of vision and Equipped with significant cultural capital, interest (amongst others: mega-mining, but weakened in terms of their economic, land grabbing, the social and health capital and social aspirations, the middle impacts of the soy production model, classes were the main protagonists of and even drug trafficking). This is still the the social protests that toppled several situation today despite the setbacks that Governments during 2001 and 2002. As a Kirchnerism has suffered, above all in the result, in the last 15 years, that is during judicial field. post convertibility and the arrival of the commodities consensus, the improvement 1. Social and economic structure. of their economic position and access to Recovery of positions and return consumption was not experienced as a to ‘normality’ type of ‘democratization’ (as happened in The changes and transformations that other countries, for example Brazil), but as took place within Argentine society during the ‘recovery’ of a standard of living and of the Kirchner period (2003-2015) are of consumption patterns that had been lost various types, both with regard to social in the previous decade (Kessler, 2016). structure and emerging social subjects in the conflict dynamic. In this section I will briefly summarize the changes and In the Argentina of the last reconfigurations within the middle classes, 15 years the middle classes as well as in the popular and dominant were boosted due to the sectors. To begin with, it must be said that in the increase in employment Argentina of the last 15 years the middle and wages and the recovery classes were boosted due to the increase in of consumption. employment and wages and the recovery of consumption. Also worthy of note is that despite their social heterogeneity, In this sense, a second transformation the urban middle classes have played associated with economic reactivation a central role in the configuration of an was the improvement of the situation of image of ‘Argentinian exceptionalism’. formal workers, thanks to the generation It is an image of a more homogeneous, of employment and economic growth. At more egalitarian country in comparison the same time there was a reduction in with Latin American countries that are the marginalized sectors and unqualified more marked by greater social disparities groups compared to the previous period. or greater inequality. Nevertheless, Again, we must take into account what took this image was shattered during the place in the previous period, when broad nineteen nineties, when, in a framework sectors of the urban working class suffered of social polarization, the middle classes a process of de-collectivization and swelled experienced a setback, made visible by the numbers of the marginal proletariat intra-class fragmentation and a major (informal or precarious workers) or simply reversal of upward social mobility. This became unemployed. This massive de- translated into the impoverishment of vast collectivization was the origin of a series swaths of the population (autonomous of unemployed movements (piqueteros) and salaried middle class sectors). that between 1997 and 2004 constituted 4 Argentina: conflicts and socio-political reconfigurations during the Kirchner period Maristella Svampa the major proponent of social conflict in result of the confinement of conflict with Argentina, blocking roads throughout the unions to the labor area. This repositioned country and reorganizing the social fabric the formal workers’ unions as central of popular neighborhoods. actors and, from a symbolic point of view, In short, the post-convertibility period renewed their ability to generate a certain demonstrates, at least until 2011, a reversal amount of class confidence, visible in the of the dominant trend of the previous recovery of a ‘productive model’ based on decade related to popular sectors: an employment, as opposed to the financial increase in skilled employment from 17.5% model of the nineties. The traditionally to 33.8%, as well as industry job creation peronist General Confederation of Labor until 2006, in construction, and then in (CGT) was once again unified behind the service sector (Benza, 2016). But if Peronism/Kirchnerism, and under the the qualified and manual worker sectors leadership of Hugo Moyano, the head experienced a marked improvement and of the truckers, which had been one of increased, the reduction in the numbers of the sectors that most benefited from unqualified and marginal workers was less the policies of the nineties (as a result of significant. Certainly, at least until 2007 dismantling the trains). there was a robust increase in employment It is also interesting to observe what (about 5 million jobs after the crisis of 2001- happened regarding precarization: despite 2002), a fact that although it involved an the increase in formal employment, the industrial recovery, did not entail substantive informal employment rate continued to structural changes, as “the same dependent be high (around 30%, when in 2001 it and vulnerable industrial structure of the was 48%). On the one hand, there was an past” was still in place. (Katz, 2013). extension of the frontiers of precarization The growth of the economy and the due to outsourcing and third party increase in employment and salaries contracts, especially in the area of services. contributed to a substantial reduction As a consequence, and in the context of an of poverty compared to 2001-2002, increase in union protests, many protests when it had reached 52%. According to against precarization were led by internal the Institute of National Statistics and groups, in certain cases outside the trade Census (INDEC), in 2007 poverty had unions’ leadership or recognized unions been reduced to 20.6% of the population, themselves. Amongst these, the services while indigence was reduced to 5.9%. and transport sector stood out. Conflicts At the same time, during the 12 years of such
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