World Transport Policy and Practice Volume 24.1 March 2018

ISSN 1352-7614 © 2018 World Transport Policy and Practice PAUL TRANTER SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTAL & PROFESSOR JOHN WHITELEGG MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES, SCHOOL OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES, LIVERPOOL JOHN MOORES UNIVERSITY AUSTRALIAN DEFENCE FORCE ACADEMY CANBERRA ACT 2600, AUSTRALIA EDITORIAL BOARD PUBLISHER PROF. DR.-ING. HELMUT HOLZAPFEL ZENTRUM FÜR MOBILITÄTSKULTUR KASSEL WORLD TRANSPORT POLICY AND PRACTICE, DÖRNBERGSTR. 12 41 CHURCH ST, 34119 KASSEL CHURCH STRETTON, WWW.MOBILITAETSKULTUR.EU SHROPSHIRE Tel: 0049-561-8075859 SY6 6DQ TELEPHONE +44 (0)1694 722365 ERIC BRITTON E-MAIL: MANAGING DIRECTOR, [email protected] ECOPLAN INTERNATIONAL, WEB: CENTER FOR TECHNOLOGY AND SYSTEMS http://worldtransportjournal.com STUDIES, 9, RUE GABILLOT 69003 LYON, FRANCE

CONTENTS Contents 2

Editorial 4

Abstracts and Keywords 7

Planning as if Children Mattered: A Case for Transforming Automobile Dependent Cities and Some Examples of Best Practice. Jeff Kenworthy 12

Re-working Appleyard in a low density environment: An exploration of the impacts of motorised traffic volume on street livability in Christchurch, New Zealand. Wiki J., Kingham S., and Banwell K. 60

Transportation Equity in Morocco: A preliminary analysis of Casablanca’s Tram Line. Asmâa AIT BOUBKR 69

Electromobility: Will a changeover to electric-powered vehicles make transport systems environmentally friendly? Working Group of German and Austrian Emeritus Transport Professors 78

Driverless Cars Technology. What next? 30 Million cars on roads now, projected growth rates 20/30/2040? Upsides and downsides. John Mullins 85

Driverless Cars: On a road to nowhere. Christian Wolmar Reviewed by John Whitelegg 91

World Transport Policy and Practice 2 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 “We are grateful for the financial support of the journal from the Dr Joachim und Hanna Schmidt Stiftung fuer Umwelt und Verkehr, Hamburg, Germany”

http://www.dr-schmidt-stiftung.de/28-0-Aktuelle+Projekte.html

World Transport Policy and Practice 3 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 EDITORIAL road building and motorised transport sub- This issue brings together two important sidies. Casablanca has made a great deal strands of thinking in sustainable mobil- of progress on its public transport projects ity and the bigger picture around how the but as Asmaa Aitboubkr shows that we world is changing and now faces a rath- need to do a lot more thinking and priori- er stark choice. We can either go down tisation about equity and social justice and the route of high quality, people-centred, this means delivering traffic reductions healthy, active, child-friendly cities or we and increases in walking and cycling and can finish the job started by Henry Ford reductions in road traffic danger. and shape a future dominated by vehi- cles and technology, exterminate walking, The forces that are re-shaping our world in cycling and public transport and deeply ways that Henry Ford would have approved entrench our total submission to a space of so that we become even more depend- greedy, dollar-greedy, unhealthy techno- ent on sitting in cars and using vehicles for logical domination of the way we live. The as many trips every day of any length to latter is the world of electric vehicles and as many destinations as possible, are very autonomous vehicles (AVs) and is now strong. Electric vehicles (EVs) have suc- attracting large scale support and buy-in cessfully colonised the thinking of many from politicians, corporations and environ- transport planners and sustainability or- mental groups. ganisations for their ability (allegedly) to sort out climate change. Our view is that In this issue we are delighted that Jeff they do not represent a solution to climate Kenworthy has set out a very clear case change problems and the huge reductions and argument for the sustainable ethi- in greenhouse gases that are required to cal, child-friendly option that is available deliver even a small chance of heading-off and is already working in many best prac- the worst consequences of climate change. tice cities around the world. He provides This is a difficult subject for all of us work- a wealth of evidence and case studies to ing on sustainability issues. The EV has an show that we can design high quality cit- excellent track record in shifting thinking, ies with low level of car dependency and a planning, spending and delivery into car very high quality of life. This is supported world and contributing to the demise of by Wiki, Kingham and Banwell who pick up walking, cycling and local public transport. the Donald Appleyard revelations around “liveable street” and how attractive social Support for EVs requires a very strong spaces and quality of life depend on low reminder of prioritisation of options in ur- traffic volumes. We can have a high qual- ban planning, transport and design. This ity of life based on community activity and has been put very well indeed by Michael social interaction but only at low levels of Cramer of the European Parliament Com- traffic volumes. mittee on Transport:

The article on public transport planning “Electric mobility can be part of the so- and funding in Casablanca reminds us all lution – but only if we overcome a nar- that the issues around sustainable mobility row vision focused almost exclusively are being tackled in different ways in Afri- on private cars. Let’s start by reducing ca, China, India and South America and re- transport demand and by shifting to quire a very sensitive and evidence-based modes that are already very environ- approach to the development of solutions. mentally-friendly, like walking, cycling, The European and North American model public transport and the railways. It is of widespread car ownership and use and absurd that some people now want to huge subsidies from tax dollars to road build overhead contact lines on motor- building, car parking and vehicle manufac- ways, while only 53% of the EU’s rail turing is being exposed around the world network are electrified. and colleagues in the countries struggling with congestion and pollution need assist- Electrifying transport can make sense ance to provide alternatives to even more provided that we choose a targeted ap-

World Transport Policy and Practice 4 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 proach. Let’s first focus on highly-used at Mullins and the book review and contact vehicles such as taxis, shared cars, us with comments. buses and trains. And e-bikes already Christian Wolmar is very good indeed at offer a real alternative for longer-dis- identifying the hype around AVs and the tance commuting or cycling in hilly ar- very poor track record on delivery. In one eas. Moreover, even the EU transport of those wonderful serendipity moments ministers confirmed that e-cargobikes that often crop up in the fertile world of could carry out more than 50% of all sustainable mobility writing this editorial freight operations in European cities. coincided with the receipt of a press re- lease on AVs: E-mobility must be thought across all modes, and as such it is only a propul- Driverless car will be able to turn sion technology that can never replace water vapour to tea as they travel good planning and clever policies.” NEWS COPY - WITH PICTURES AND Michael Cramer MEP, VIDEO Member of the Committee for Transport and Tourism, European Parliament Commuters could soon be taken to www.michael-cramer.eu work in a driverless car which is so clean they could relax on the journey We are very pleased indeed that we have with a cup of tea - brewed using water been given permission to publish the let- from the tailpipe. ter sent by 15 German transport profes- sors to a major German newspaper on EVs The state-of-the-art Hyundai Nexo is and very grateful to Professor Helmut Hol- a crossover SUV vehicle which runs on zapfel for arranging the translation. The electrical energy generated by hydro- letter makes some very important points gen fuel cells. that have been missed or misunderstood by many environmental organisations in Unlike traditional combustion engines, the UK including Friends of the Earth and hydrogen cars don’t emit carbon diox- Greenpeace. EVs are not a solution to cli- ide or nitrous oxide so its only by-prod- mate change problems. uct is water vapour.

The world of car-centric thinking has now The water produced by Nexo could moved heavily into autonomous vehicles even be stored and used later to pour (AVs) sometimes known as driverless cars on plants or even used to make a cup (DCs). In this issue we have an article by of tea or coffee. John Mullins who works on AVs for a ma- jor UK based car manufacturer heavily in- Source: SWNS Digital, London volved in AV’s. The views expressed are his own, in his private capacity. His main We do not know whether this is real or a points are well made and will stimulate de- “wind-up” and a joke but it fits very well in- bate. I disagree with most of his points but deed with Christian Wolmar’s emphasis on this journal does not censor and wants to hype. Assuming for the moment that it is stimulate debate and will be delighted to real we note that there would appear to be publish any comments on AVs and their nothing that driverless cars cannot deliver impact on re-shaping cities, societies and and help us all to improve our sad lives by public health making it possible to make tea from water dripping out of an exhaust pipe. In this issue we carry a book review of “Driverless cars: on a road to nowhere” by The articles in this issue bring into very Christian Wolmar. The book and the review sharp perspective two visions of the future. are very critical indeed of the hype around We can have tried and tested, ethical, sus- AVs and the ways it is intended to trans- tainable, socially just policies and inter- form mobility and cities and (possibly) ventions that shape our cities in ways that exterminate walking, cycling and public are very child-friendly and like Freiburg transport. We hope that readers will look are delightful places to walk and cycle and World Transport Policy and Practice 5 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 prioritise non-car modes as the preferred solutions. Alternatively we can have a fu- ture dominated by vehicles, streets that are dripping in vehicles and are unpleas- ant environments for residents and cities that are decidedly not child-friendly but are totally given over to an auto-utopia and a future that would be welcomed by Henry Ford, road builders and global cor- porations. On current form the choice has been made and it is auto-utopia and sev- eral billion vehicles taking over every as- pect of street life.

John Whitelegg Editor

World Transport Policy and Practice 6 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 ABSTRACTS AND KEYWORDS Planning as if Children Mattered: A unifying concept of traffic calming. Con- Case for Transforming Automobile clusions are drawn about the key things Dependent Cities and Some Examples cities need to do to avoid the problems of Best Practice of automobile dependence and to begin Jeff Kenworthy to transform themselves into places that better meet everyone’s needs and which Abstract: contribute to environmental, social and The automobile with its accompanying ur- economic improvement. ban sprawl, roads and parking has changed cities dramatically in the last century from Keywords: Children, Urban Density, places where walking, cycling and public Sprawl, Cities, Automobile Dependence, transport were the dominant or even only Community, Independent Mobility, Public modes of transport. While the automo- Realm, Walking, Cycling bile can be a good servant it is a very bad master and has led to a host of environ- Re-working Appleyard in a low densi- mental, economic and social problems for ty environment: An exploration of the cities. One of the casualties of automobile impacts of motorised traffic volume dependence is the independent mobility of on street livability in Christchurch, children and other vulnerable populations New Zealand. in cities, such as the elderly and those with Wiki J., Kingham S., and Banwell K. disabilities. This paper shows the extent of these problems and many of the fallacies Abstract that lie behind the idea that the car-based Street space was once an essential ele- model of urban development has uniformly ment of urban environments and provided led to a better quality of life for everybody. a place for community interaction and en- It is presented in three parts. The first part gagement. This role however is increas- provides a brief review of the problems of ingly being subverted by vehicular domi- automobile dependence and the differ- nance. As a result street space no longer ences in this dependence between Ameri- acts as a driver for social interaction in can, Australian, Canadian, European and many places, which has significant impacts wealthy Asian cities (Singapore and Hong on the liveability of streets and the wellbe- Kong). The second part considers some of ing of their residents. This study sought to the primary ways in which the character assess the extent to which motorised traf- and qualities of cities can impact on the fic volumes impact street liveability and ability of cities to meet the mobility and community severance in Christchurch, a other needs of people, especially children. relatively low density city in New Zealand. It particularly tackles the question of den- Based on Appleyard’s work of the late sity. It shows how assumptions about the 1970s, data was collected from six streets, benefits of low density and the negatives in two areas, categorised into three motor- of high density have been overstated and ised traffic volume classifications. Results how children have become a key casual- showed that residents on light trafficked ty in this planning and policy-driven fal- streets have more neighbourhood connec- lacy, which has helped drive cities towards tions and community interactions and per- greater automobile dependence. The third ceive their street to be more liveable. Fur- part of the paper shows how unnecessary thermore, residents on heavy trafficked it is to continue along such paths by show- streets had a negative perception of their ing some best practice examples from street environment, smaller local home around the world of cities that have en- areas and a decreased sense of belong- sured a better balance of transport modes ing to their community. This affirms rela- and a much fairer and just system of land tionships found in previous research and use and transport planning for children and raises questions about what and whom the other vulnerable populations, often mak- residential street spaces of Christchurch ing up about 50% of urban populations. are, and should be, designed for. Zurich, Vancouver, Freiburg im Breisgau, Portland, Munich, Stockholm and Seoul Keywords: traffic, low density, environ- are examined, as well as the somewhat ment, community, liveability, Christch- urch. World Transport Policy and Practice 7 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Transportation Equity in Morocco: A preliminary analysis of Casablanca’s Tram Line. Asmaa AIT BOUBKR

Abstract: In Morocco, the city of Casablanca - The 5th largest city of the country, with five million inhabitants- is facing important transport challenges of current burgeoning cities: the social sustainability of transpor- tation sector remains inadequate, notably for the poor and women.

In order to remedy to this situation, the Mo- roccan Government has designed a broad program of investments in Casablanca by implementing a network of four tramway lines. Improving Casablanca’s transporta- tion systems tends to achieve social eq- uity objectives. However, transport equity analysis has not gained enough attention in tram line project studies as a concept of its own. This research is a preliminary analysis of mobility equity in the city of Casablanca undergoing the implementing of the first Tram Line.

Keywords: Vertical Equity, disadvantaged people, mobility equity.

World Transport Policy and Practice 8 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Planning as if Children Mattered: A people every year, particularly children. Case for Transforming Automobile Natural areas and rural landscapes recede Dependent Cities and Some Examples as suburbs advance (Figure 1). The sense of Best Practice of urban community has declined and so- Jeff Kenworthy cial isolation has become a norm for many single parents, elderly people, young peo- Introduction ple of non-driving age, and those with disabilities. The city’s public spaces, its The suburban home, and later the auto- streets, squares and parks, have become mobile, appeared to offer unprecedented dominated by transport infrastructure and freedom and amenity to the residents of dangerous levels of traffic (Figure 2). For cities, especially families with children. fear of traffic, many parents don’t allow Separated from the noise, air pollution their young children independent mobility, and perceived crowding of the old central not even in suburban neighbourhoods. In and inner cities, and freed from the need the USA, parents are being prosecuted for to rely on public transport, it seemed that permitting children to walk on the streets cities could become healthy, livable, en- without adult supervision (St. George and joyable places to live, despite industrial Schulte, 2015). development. This paper examines the extent to which However, the unfettered use of the auto- automobile dependence has become a mobile and the design of modern cities feature of modern cities and provides a around its movement and storage require- rationale for reducing this dependence. It ments, have brought a new era of environ- also examines various ways in which cities mental decay to cities. Many cities again today are reclaiming the space and amen- have bad air pollution from car exhausts. ity which the automobile has stolen and Traffic noise affects nearly everyone. Traf- shows how cities might again become con- fic accidents kill and maim thousands of venient, safe, attractive and clean envi-

Figure 1: Suburban sprawl in Western Australia: Loss of bushland, poor walkability, little community and nowhere for children except the family home.

World Transport Policy and Practice 9 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 ronments for people of all ages and needs The paper is divided into three parts. Part and especially the most vulnerable mem- I provides an overview of a large body of bers of society, children. international research that we have con- ducted over the last 40 years into how Such cities would become places in which different cities vary in their degree of au- it is again a pleasure to stroll around the tomobile dependence. It also briefly ex- public spaces and where it is possible amines some of the problems stemming to gain convenient, safe access to most from that dependence. This helps to set needs on foot, bicycle or public transport the context for the discussion to follow by - environments in which a car is no longer showing the wide range in automobile de- essential for every trip. pendence and the extent of the problems that exist in cities across the globe. The paper considers the central city en- vironment and how to bring people back A full account of all the data including de- through pedestrianisation, traffic calming tailed methodologies on each item can be and public activities, how to make sub- found in Kenworthy and Laube et al (1999) centres, more pleasant places, and how to and Kenworthy (2017) and further discus- traffic calm and beautify streets to make sion of the data’s policy implications are them safer and more attractive. It looks at available in, for example, Newman and case studies of cities that have designed Kenworthy (1999, 2015) and Schiller and public spaces for more vulnerable mem- Kenworthy (2018). bers of society, those which have brought nature and gardens back to the public Leading on from this quantitative over- realm, and developed easily accessible view, Part II considers some of the primary and safe public transport systems for eve- ways in which the character and qualities ryone. It also looks at case studies around of cities can impact on the ability of cities the world of appealing ‘urban village’ or to meet the needs of people. It addresses transit-oriented development (TOD) alter- several key themes and arguments which natives to the suburbs. provide the rationale for the positive in-

Figure 2: Designing cities around the needs of the car such as in Auckland, New Zea- land, designs out the mobility needs of around 50% of the population. World Transport Policy and Practice 10 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 ternational examples of city ‘re-shaping’ much of their spare time during the week described in Part III. engaged in “serve passenger” trips, to use the transport planning jargon. But again, Part I – The Problem of Automobile after several generations of living with the Dependence: An International Over- automobile, such problems have become view part of life and what has been lost is often not appreciated or understood (Figure 3). This section examines some key environ- Part II discusses in more detail some of mental, social and economic problems of these problems for children and vulnerable automobile dependence through the lens populations generally and shows in part of a large international comparison of cit- why it is so important to develop creative ies in the USA, Canada, Australia, Western solutions to auto dependence. Europe and Asia that has been published in different forms over the last 35 years Naturally these problems tend to become (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989; Kenwor- more visible and extreme in cities as au- thy and Laube et al, 1999; Newman and tomobile dependence escalates. Figure 4 Kenworthy, 1999; Newman and Kenwor- from our detailed comparative work on cit- thy, 2015; Schiller and Kenworthy, 2018; ies over almost 40 years, shows how the Kenworthy, 2013a, b, 2014a, b; Priester key indicator of automobile dependence, et al, 2013). The data presented here are the annual level of car use per person, for 1995 and 2005 so that changes can be varies dramatically around the world. seen. Note that only Singapore and Hong Kong, as representatives of wealthier, US cities have extreme levels of car use more developed Asian cities are included. and experience some of the most potent, widespread and intransigent combinations Environmental Problems of Automo- of problems listed above. On the other bile Dependence hand, European and wealthy Asian cities have much less car use per capita and less The problems for urban livability and sus- dramatic manifestations of these prob- tainability which widespread use of the lems, though no city is exempt from bad automobile in cities has created are well cases of all the problems in Table 1. known and hardly need detailed elabora- tion. Some of the more significant envi- One sees particularly how local emissions ronmental issues are listed in Table 1. We per capita of the main transport air pol- have become somewhat desensitized to lutants (CO, VHC/VOC, NOX, SO2) vary and accepting of these problems because systematically with the level of auto de- our perception of the urban environment pendence shown in Figure 4. Figure 5 il- in cities where automobile dependence is lustrates that per capita transport emis- endemic and where its associated prob- sions decline with declining car use. One lems are rife, is largely shaped by the view sees that the American cities in 2005, had through the windscreen of an automobile. almost a five-and-a-half times higher per The environmental impacts of the automo- capita emissions than the Asian cities. The bile are especially hard on children whose European cities are almost identical to the once rich street and community experienc- Asian cities despite significantly higher car es have been replaced by anonymous and use, due to their more stringent emissions mind-numbing chauffeured trips in cars standards. and the parents of these children spend

Environmental Problems of Automobile Dependence • High energy use • High air pollution • High traffic noise • Severance of neighbourhoods • Destruction of rural and natural landscapes • Deterioration of the public realm

Table 1: Environmental problems in the automobile-based city World Transport Policy and Practice 11 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 3: Low density, single-use suburbs designed around the automobile with little to walk to and long distances, leave little possibility for the independent mobility of children (Perth, Western Australia). Some of the other factors in Table 1 are of life from intrusion into dwellings and more difficult to quantify, though a discus- work places to the inability in some cases sion of energy use in transport is provided to converse in public places. Furthermore, in the next section. As well, the consump- since the automobile began to dominate tion of land for sprawl, roads and parking urban transport systems, neighbourhoods is a major environmental as well as eco- have been carved in two by large freeways nomic problem in many cities (Schiller and and roads have been widened making it Kenworthy, 2018). This is indicated in Fig- impossible for neighbours to maintain con- ures 6 and 7, the latter of which shows tact across their own streets (Appleyard et the urban densities characteristic of cities al, 1981). The public realm has suffered around the world (urban density includes immeasurably as streetscapes have be- all urbanised land for all purposes). The come dominated by car parks, roads and data clearly demonstrate how the auto cit- the other paraphenalia of auto depend- ies of the US and Australia are exception- ence (Whitelegg, 1993, 2016; Newman ally low density, consuming large quanti- and Kenworthy, 1999). ties of land per person compared to cities in Europe and Asia. Even Canadian urban regions have about twice the density of US and Australian cities. Traffic noise, neighbourhood severance and deterioration of the public realm are more difficult to specify and we have not collected systematic comparative data on these factors. However, from observation and from detailed discussions in other work, traffic noise pervades every aspect World Transport Policy and Practice 12 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 4: Trends in car use per capita in global cities, 1995-2005.

Figure 5: Per capita transport emissions in global cities, 1995-2005.

World Transport Policy and Practice 13 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 6: Perth, Western Australia - large land consumption for housing and roads.

Figure 7: Urban density in global cities, 1995-2005.

World Transport Policy and Practice 14 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Some Characteristics of Automobile little more than 1 parking space for eve- Dependence ry 10 jobs in their CBDs (Figure 10). The negative effect of high parking availability Cities vary quite systematically in many is clearly seen in the vast, sterilised and physical characteristics according to their fragmented public realm that has come to degree of auto dependence. For example, characterise many US and Australian cities one of the factors that facilitate high levels (Figure 11). of auto dependence is the extent of the freeway system (Figure 8). Auto cities in One of the key resource outcomes of these the US and Australia clearly have much patterns of automobile dependence is how greater per capita freeway provision than much passenger transport energy the ur- those in Europe or Asia (Figure 9). Gen- ban systems require. This naturally follows erous freeways and their grade-separated the level of car use and shows how utterly interchanges have a dramatic effect on dependent the US cities are on cheap and the urban environment in terms of space readily available conventional oil and how consumption and community severance. comparatively little energy is expended on Urban sprawl that is facilitated by high ca- public transport (Figure 12). Other cities pacity extensions to the road system con- in Australia and Canada have an unhealthy sumes vast quantities of rural and natural dependence on oil too, while cities in Eu- land. rope, but especially in Asia, seem much better positioned in a global context to Cities that have committed themselves to weather any forthcoming oil shock or price the automobile in an intense way also must hike. devote vast areas to parking lots. This is- It must be remembered that dependence sue is drawn into sharp focus in the central on oil is potentially one of the most desta- city area. The number of parking spaces bilising geo-political problems in the world per 1000 CBD jobs shows a dramatic pat- and that the US particularly seems pre- tern of variation around the world with pared to go to war to protect its regional cities in the USA having more than one oil interests (Campbell, 1991; Fleay, 1995; parking space for every two jobs in their Campbell and Laherre, 1995). CBDs, while the two Asian cities average

Figure 8: Large land consumption of freeway right-of-way (Miami).

World Transport Policy and Practice 15 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 9: Length of freeway per person in global cities, 1995-2005.

Figure 10: Central business district (CBD) parking spaces per 1000 jobs in global cities, 1995-2005.

World Transport Policy and Practice 16 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 11: Vast land consumption required for parking in cities such as Los Angeles.

Social and Economic Problems of Au- The US cities have mostly reduced their tomobile Dependence public transport systems to a mere social safety net, while the Asian and European The livability and sustainability of cities are cities have public transport systems that significantly undermined by a whole host are central to the life and character of of social and economic problems attribut- those cities and are used extensively by able to automobile dependence. Some of everyone. the key problems are summarised in Table 2. Social and Economic Problems of the Automobile-Based City • Decimated public transport systems • Little opportunity for walking and cycling • Reduced mobility for those without cars • Traffic accidents and deaths • Loss of urban community - social isolation • High costs of operating passenger transport

Table 2: Social and economic problems of the automobile-based city.

The first issue in Table 2 is clearly illus- Likewise, in auto-based cities the role of trated by existing patterns of public trans- walking and cycling has gradually been port use around the world’s cities shown eroded and it is difficult for these modes in Figure 13. Some 97% of all passenger to compete for many trips. This is not just movement in US cities is by private motor- because of distance (in fact large numbers ised modes (mainly cars), whereas in the of trips in auto cities are short and quite two wealthy Asian cities the figure is 37%. comfortably managed on foot and bicycle),

World Transport Policy and Practice 17 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 12: Private and public passenger transport energy consumption per capita in glo- bal cities, 1995-2005. but because the public realm has been most likely result in a change of govern- made so hostile to non-motorised trans- ment. The data show that in every region, port that it is gradually being squeezed transport-related deaths declined signifi- into oblivion. cantly between 1995 and 2005. Some of this would be the result of improvements However, in developed cities efforts have in vehicle technology (e.g. air bags), but been and are being made to assist a re- some of it may be reduced exposure of turn of these most sustainable modes, vulnerable populations (children, the eld- with varying degrees of success (e.g. Pha- erly) due to withdrawal from walking and roah and Russell, 1989; Roberts, 1989a, cycling because of the perceived danger of b; Buehler and Pucher, 2011; Buehler et these modes resulting from traffic and lack al, 2016). of facilities for pedestrians and cyclists.

Linked to the decimation of public trans- Figure 15 shows the proportion of daily port, walking and cycling in auto environ- trips that are catered for by walking and ments is the escalating road trauma seen cycling. Notwithstanding the above prob- in the patterns of death from transport lems, there is some good news in these causes (Figure 14). These data follow the data. Non-motorised modes have slightly patterns of car use and show how expo- increased their share of trips over the dec- sure to the automobile by way of high lev- ade, except in Australian cities where they els of use is the key factor in determining declined marginally. The bad news is that transport deaths. Transport deaths in cit- with only between 9% and 14% of daily ies amount to billions of dollars in exter- trips by these most sustainable modes in nal costs every year, but this seems to be American, Australian and Canadian cities, largely absorbed or accepted by society as it indicates the difficulty of choosing such natural or inevitable (Whitelegg, 2016). A modes in auto-dependent environments, war inflicting the same losses on a country especially for children, when this is com- with soldiers returning in body bags would bined with fears about “stranger danger”.

World Transport Policy and Practice 18 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 13: Public transport’s share of total motorised passenger kilometres in global cit- ies, 1995-2005. A more difficult to quantify area that is trances to dwellings and business were negatively impacted by automobile de- arranged in such a way along the street pendence is the quality of neighbourhoods or in courtyards which allowed for the pos- and community life. Traditionally in cities sibility of friendly interaction and “acciden- that were based around walking, cycling tal” meetings which are the stuff of urban and public transport, housing was more community (Engwicht, 1993). Businesses densely developed. Frontages and en- were mixed with housing and streets were

Figure 14: Transportation-related deaths in global cities, 1995-2005.

World Transport Policy and Practice 19 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 lively, human places. Streets were for so- private and public passenger transport cial interaction and for children to play in, is much higher in auto-dependent cities not just for movement. than in cities that rely on so-called expen- sive and heavily subsidised public trans- This changed as the automobile took over. port systems or on the cheapest modes of Streets became passages for motor traffic all, walking and cycling (Kenworthy and rather than places. Houses became sep- Laube, 2001). arated, other activities were zoned out, people entered and left properties by car The result of this is that car-based cities and streets became deserted and certainly will tend to have less money available for not places where children were expected investment in productive or income-earn- to play. Some cities such as Freiburg im ing economic activity or on other societal Breisgau in Germany are bringing back uses such as good education and health these qualities (Figure 16). care. This is because a disproportionate amount is invested in the infrastructure The gradual or not so gradual switch in of sprawl which will also tend to make cities from urban living to suburban living them less competitive in a global economy parallels increased privatism and a weak- (Frost, 1991). ening of the connections between people at a local level (e.g. Davis, 1990). The This concludes this brief overview of the negative consequences of this trend are problems of automobile dependence in felt in many areas such as increased need modern cities. It suggests that the more for formal policing, vandalism, youth prob- auto-dependent cities are tending to lose, lems, increased crime, problems of social economically, environmentally and social- isolation for those without direct access to ly compared to cities with more balanced cars and so on. transport systems and more compact pat- terns of land use. A final area for which we have collected data is the costs of operating transport systems in cities. Our 1995 data show that the proportion of a city’s gross regional product (GRP) that is spent operating both

Figure 15: Modal split of all daily trips by walking and cycling in global cities, 1995-2005

World Transport Policy and Practice 20 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 16: Children have independent mobility in Vauban, a model ecological neighbour- hood in Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany

Part II – More livable and sustainable from suburbia. The obsession with the pri- cities - a rationale for revising the vatised, suburban family can lead to enor- suburban, car-based model mous extra pressures on family life. This is because the burden of responsibility for Some Key Themes most of the needs of everyday life (ma- Flowing on from this international overview terial, social and spiritual), falls heavily of the patterns of automobile dependence, on individual households, whereas some this section argues in more detail for a re- of these needs are inherently a function vision of the suburban, car-based model or even responsibility of the larger com- of urban development. Three key themes munity within which family life should be are argued: grounded.

• The need for community - The focus in • The need for higher densities - The pre- automobile dependent cities on the sanc- vious section has shown the low density tity of the suburban, detached house as nature of automobile cities and has im- the only acceptable living environment, plied the need to address this factor in re- has shaped a highly privatised view of shaping cities into more sustainable forms. the world in which ‘isolation’ rather than However, the strong emotional attachment ‘connectedness’ has become a norm; the to low density suburbia leads many in au- importance of ‘community’ for both adults to-based cities to label most attempts at and children has been severely downgrad- higher density development as necessarily ed. As this has happened our public spaces bad. For example, Stretton (1989, 1994) have been downgraded, not only streets and Troy (1992) in Australia provide argu- and other interstitial spaces, but also pub- ments in favour of suburban environments lic transport systems. There is an irony in and against density increases. There has this for the institution of the family, the been generally, though this is changing, a one social institution deemed to gain most very low recognition and understanding in

World Transport Policy and Practice 21 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 automobile dependent cities that other at- • The need to reduce automobile depend- tractive forms of housing exist which have ence - Along with an obsession with the the potential to shape a different, more suburban home has come a love affair people-friendly and supportive environ- with the car, which is reflected in the data ment, while still meeting people’s needs on car use in cities in the previous section. for open space and privacy. It is argued The car is marketed as an essential con- that higher density development in the sumer good and as an object of desire - as form of urban villages or TOD can provide, the only way people can avail themselves for many households, both with and with- of the resources of both city and coun- out children, an attractive and convenient try and maintain or enhance their social way of life. For too long high density liv- standing and enjoyment of life (Schiller ing has been labelled as negative in social and Kenworthy, 2018). Public transport, terms, while suburbia has been largely ac- walking and cycling are rarely promoted cepted as providing a better quality of life as viable means of transport for all people for most people, especially families. Such and yet they clearly are in many societies views are being increasingly challenged (Figure 17). This is again reflected in the because they overlook positive aspects of large differences in transit use between higher density settings and some of the cities in the previous section. negative features of suburbs.

Figure 17: In rapidly motorizing cities such as Bangkok, both regular and electric cars are aggressively marketed everywhere.

World Transport Policy and Practice 22 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 The low-density nature of suburbia, with It is argued here that for cities to become its lack of interspersion of other activities more livable they must have good public such as work places and corner stores, transport systems that cover most of the means that a large proportion of trips destinations people need and the vehicles are difficult to serve by public transport, themselves must be accessible to the least walking or cycling. Trying to provide for able members of society. It must become transport needs across generations and possible for people to meet a significant different activity patterns is hard without number of their needs on foot and bicy- neighbourhood-based services and facili- cle in the local area through better infra- ties or without good public transport and structure for these modes and better land safe infrastructure for walking and cycling. use planning. It is also argued that to cre- Older people, children, those with disabili- ate more livable urban environments that ties, those who cannot afford a car, and better meet peoples’ needs, streets must people stuck at home without the house- again become places for people, not just hold car, find it extremely difficult to main- passages for motor vehicles. Cities have tain independent access to their everyday been in existence for many millennia, but needs and needed social contact, unlike in streets have only since World War II, be- many European cities (Figure 18). People come the sole province of motorised ve- with cars are placed in the role of chauf- hicles. feurs and the burden of responsibility for providing expensive transport resources On at least some of this, even the pro- falls on the household unit. This can create ponents of suburbia can agree. Stretton both economic hardship and stress. What (1994) argues quite strongly against the is more, the design of urban environments private car and the destructive system around the car means greater dangers es- it has created and says that “Australians pecially for children and older people - this would rather lose their cars than lose their comes about both from traffic and a lack of cars and their houses.” (p. 136). people in the streets to help maintain se- curity, especially at night (Jacobs, 1961).

Figure 18: People, especially children, need to again feel comfortable and safe in a city’s public spaces, such as here in Budapest.

World Transport Policy and Practice 23 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Cities, Density and Community There is also a paradox here. Wohlwill sums it up saying: There has been an enormous amount of research and policy discussion within “...the emphasis in past research and many different disciplines about the ef- discussions of density has been al- fects of population density on people and most entirely on one end of this [bi- their quality of life. Much of this has fo- polar] dimension, i.e. the high density cussed on the alleged negative effects of or crowding pole...Yet possible effects higher density in terms of stress, social of low rates of social interaction have breakdown and other disorders. There is rarely been considered...Curiously, this also a well-documented literature on the situation is just the reverse of what has anti-urban traditions of Anglo-Saxon cul- happened in the field of sensory stimu- ture - life in rural areas and the bush has lation, where virtually all of the work been romanticised and viewed as uplifting has been concentrated at the low-stim- and purifying, while the city is seen to cor- ulation end (e.g. the effects of sensory rupt moral virtues. The suburbs provide an deprivation)...what does low density escape from most of what was bad about mean, and to what extent is it equiva- city life, and achievable without leaving lent to physical and social isolation?” the city (Newman and Kenworthy, 1999). (Wohlwill, 1985; p18/19).

Various authors have pointed out the fal- It is not the intention here, nor is it pos- lacies in such views. Newman and Hogan sible, to review the plethora of research (1981) reviewed an extensive range of into such questions. The issue has rath- literature and found that most of the re- er been raised to introduce an important search purporting to show the negative point. What value do we place on commu- physical and social effects of higher den- nity in our thinking about city livability and sities has been overturned, or the results sustainability, and how might more com- are explainable in terms of other factors munitarian environments assist in creating which have little to do with density per more livable and sustainable cities? se. Wohlwill and van Vliet (1985) provide a far-ranging discussion on the impact of Jacobs (1961) is unashamed in her sup- density on children’s habitats. Wohlwill port for big, dense, diverse cities and (1985) points out that developmental psy- claims that places such as the North End chologists have paid little attention to the of Boston and Greenwich Village in New density variable in their work - they have York with their busy street life present been primarily concerned with the quality more interesting and complex environ- of parent-child relationships and the ef- ments for human development (Figure fects of siblings and peers. They have not 19). In a discussion of liberalism and civic considered how few or how many interac- virtue, Lasch (1991) takes Jacobs’ work tions children have with people, yet some in such cities and shows the link between authors have suggested that such factors the communal life of cities and the sta- are ‘far from negligible’ (Wohlwill, 1985, bility of family life. After a discussion of p18; Jacobs, 1961). the failure of the school system (or more generally, “formal systems of socializa- Important here is that the first approach tion”) to replace the physical, mental and tends to focus on the development and social training of the child that should oc- welfare of individuals in isolation from the cur in families, Lasch goes on to explain broader community setting in which they the importance of informal associations in exist. By contrast, the latter begins to rec- developing social trust and human poten- ognise broader environmental influenc- tial. These are the very associations that es...the influence of ‘others’ on children’s are to a strong degree dependent on the development (or, as put by Wohlwill - “the density at which people live and the qual- rate of encounter with other unspecified ity of the public realm through which they individuals”; p.17). must move and which have been grossly neglected in modern conceptions of what is good in city planning.

World Transport Policy and Practice 24 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 19: Jane Jacobs’ beloved North End of Boston, today still a high walkable, com- pact, mixed use environment also catering for bikes.

“The informal associations that have city streets, filled with ordinary peo- been allowed to wither...include not ple, are innately evil for children, boils only the family but the neighbour- down to a deep contempt for ordinary hood, which serves much more ef- people...people must take a modicum fectively than the school as an inter- of public responsibility for each other mediary between the family and the even if they have no ties to each other” larger world. Jane Jacobs speaks of the (quoted in Lasch, 1991; p. 64). ‘normal, casual manpower for child- rearing’ that is wasted when city plan- Los Angeles epitomises the breakdown of ners and other well-meaning reformers what Jacobs calls “casual public trust” with seek to get children off the streets into devastating results on many levels. There parks, playgrounds and schools where is a pervasive sense of fear in the city’s they can be professionally supervised.” public environments, despite most people (Lasch, 1991; p64). living in the suburban homes that are the hallmarks of the Australian and American Lasch goes on to talk about the way in dream, though more recently even LA has which city streets teach lessons available been developing more people-oriented nowhere else. This can include, perhaps, spaces (Figure 20). Davis (1990) in the the way in which a child scolded by a lo- City of Quartz talks of the “militarization cal shopkeeper for running onto a road, of city life”, the “ecology of fear” and of learns that adults unrelated to each other, “Fortress LA” - a city of secured gated except by propinquity, maintain certain communities, of high-tech surveillance civic standards by assuming responsibility and para-military style action to repel in- for a neighbourhood. Jacobs again: trusion.

“The myth that playgrounds and grass Lasch explains that Los Angeles demon- and hired guards or supervisors are in- strates the logical extreme of liberal phi- nately wholesome for children and that losophy, the most important pillar of which World Transport Policy and Practice 25 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 is privacy - “the privatization of the good It is instructive to remind ourselves that life” and relief from most civic obligations. the world of Los Angeles can be seen in But this has been with disastrous results microcosm in many cities: because public order must be largely by self-policing and cannot be just ‘handed - the call for more and more police to pa- over’. trol city streets; the retreat from public transport systems by women, especially To sum up, Lasch again refers to the impor- after dark; tant role Jacobs assigned to city streets: - fears for personal security in central ar- eas after office hours; “City streets, as Jacobs reminds us - a retreat by families from the tradition- keep the peace and instruct the young al centres and sub-centres which are the in the principles of civic life. Neigh- civic focal points of our urban communi- bourhoods recreate many features of ties; village life celebrated in American folk- - a trend towards more centralised elec- lore...Neighbourhoods provide the in- tronic surveillance of public spaces such formal substructure of social order, in as rail stations, trains and city squares; the absence of which everyday main- - the walls that go up around new sub- tenance of life must be turned over urban development, ostensibly for exclu- to professional bureaucrats. In Los sivity and status, but at root to create a Angeles, a city deliberately designed sense of enclosure and retreat from the to maximize privacy, we see how this rest of the city; hyperextension of the organizational - the tendency towards higher levels of sector is the necessary consequence of domestic security systems; the retreat from the neighbourhood.” - the increasing lawlessness in suburban (Lasch, 1991; p.65). streets, epitomized oft-times in the pub- lic’s mind by the increasing incidence of car theft and car chases.

Figure 20: Los Angeles too is gradually changing in small projects towards more human- scale, shared environments.

World Transport Policy and Practice 26 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 The list goes on. The Mayor of a large sub- used to characterise suburban life in Aus- urban municipality in Melbourne once said tralia in the 1990s. He describes “caving” that “the only safe place left is my house as an: and the cocoon of my car” (Kenworthy and Newman, 1991). In 1992, the Com- “...ultimately defensive form of escap- munity and Family Commission found in a ism: a retreat to the comfort, privacy survey that a significant number of people and, above all, security of home base... in Perth, Western Australia wanted to see There is a growing emphasis on enter- more local community resources and ac- tainment and recreation equipment tivities, more local involvement to break being installed in the home, to mini- the anonymity of suburban living. Essen- mise the need to go out...as the sense tially, they expressed a desire for more of neighbourhood community gradually village-like qualities in suburban environ- broke down in the ‘70s and ‘80s, we ments. developed a compensatory obsession with the notion of privacy which, in Hugh Mackay, in an article about what life turn, further fuelled the fortress men- in Australia might be like in the next cen- tality.” (Mackay, 1993). tury, made some powerful points about the deterioration of community in Austral- The major point that I wish to make here ian cities. A major thrust of his piece is the is that it is extremely difficult to maintain way we all help to change the nature of any sense of community or togetherness in neighbourhoods through relatively simple an urban environment if the very physical choices such as saving a few cents at the structure essentially builds out any possi- regional supermarket versus buying from bility of casual interaction. In other words, smaller local shops. But his major attack it is difficult to have a livable and sustain- was on the car and its role in the deterio- able city if unplanned encounters which do ration of neighbourhoods. not constitute an invasion of privacy, but which help maintain a sense of belonging “If you’ve decided to be a two or three- and can lead to unexpected loose social car household, you’ve already estab- connections and mutual support systems, lished some fundamental patterns for are eliminated. your own life in the 21st century. For a start, you’ve increased the probability In discussing the merits of dense neigh- that you will continue to be a stranger bourhood redevelopment, Allen (1980) to neighbours you never meet on the suggests that many suburbs can be quite footpath. We may complain about the ethnically diverse but that: loss of a sense of belonging to a local community but, by our perfectly under- “the failure of the suburbs as a physical standable enthusiasm for the car, we’ve arrangement lies in their low densities. taken such giant strides away from a The suburbs create the illusion of ho- communal life that we can hardly ex- mogeneity because one seldom sees or pect the community to re-emerge all has face-to-face contact with different by itself...The fear of urban violence... kinds of people...The real ingredient has already gripped many older people that is missed in the suburbs is den- and many parents of young children... sity.” (Allen, 1980; p. 416). But many of us have already decid- ed to create a climate of fear, which Along similar lines van Vliet (1983a) has is conducive to violence, by teaching tackled the widely-held belief that fami- our children to avoid eye contact with lies, and particularly children, living in strangers and by staying away from apartments (a more extreme form of high public spaces, such as streets and density living) has inevitable detrimental parks, which if only we thronged them effects. He provides evidence that sup- would remain safe.” (Mackay, 1994). ports the benefits of increased density, particularly the need for a critical mass He goes deeper into the phenomenon of of population to “support the desired type community decline in Australian cities, re- and quality of facilities and services within ferring to the idea of “caving”, which he acceptable distance from the home.” (p. World Transport Policy and Practice 27 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 215). He also reports evidence which sug- were less familiar with their central city. gests that the wider urban context of the • Children in Melbourne spoke of their apartment is important, particularly ac- own room or the homes of friends as the cess to community facilities, public trans- best places to be, to meet friends or be port and proximity of other children, which alone. While other cities showed similar tends to eliminate any boredom of apart- responses, their children added signifi- ment living. He concludes that “...specific cant public places such as streets, the factors may also create situations in which plaza, local street corners and woods. apartments are an acceptable and satis- • Melbourne children spoke constantly factory form of family housing.” (p.228). of boredom and the lack of new things to see or do. “The children seem to suf- This conclusion regarding density, or at fer from experiential starvation.” (Lynch, least the style of urban environment, is 1977; p.24). Contrasting statements by borne out in a different way by authors Melbourne and Polish children highlight who have looked at issues to do with cog- the point: Melbourne - “Nothing much. nitive development of children, a feeling of Just messing around; there’s nothing belonging and the development of compe- else to do.” Cracow - “ I like to be in the tent functioning in the urban environment. Old Town. I look at historic monuments. Lynch (1977) summarises the results of I like window shopping”; “My street is a cross-cultural examination of how ado- the best to live in. It’s in the center, you lescents (13-14 year olds) function in and don’t have to go anywhere by train.” perceive their urban environments. The • Places that were considered beautiful study involved communities in six cities by Australian children were all some- covering four nations - Salta in Argentina, where else (gardens, parks, trees) and Melbourne, Australia, Warszawa and Cra- ugly places were “their own factories, cow in Poland, Toluca in Mexico and Ecate- old houses, impersonal public buildings, pec in Mexico City. Bearing in mind that pollution and rubbish.” (Lynch, 1977; p. the survey work was conducted in the ear- 51). There were ugly places in the other ly 1970s when all cities were significantly cities but many spoke of local beauty - less dominated by cars and traffic, the of plazas, flowery local streets, parks study still has some interesting results. and monuments in the city centre, new Results relevant to the present discussion stores, luminous signs and multi-storey are summarised below, focussing particu- apartments. Some even said they knew larly on Melbourne as an example of an no ugly places. auto-dependent environment. • Asked to draw maps of their own area and the central city, most drawings were • Streets and courtyards, their own room either rich with a sense of place and fa- and to a lesser degree, sports facilities, miliarity, or endowed with minute detail wastelands, natural open spaces and the of the activities and places lining the central cities, are the places that adoles- streets. By contrast, Melbourne adoles- cents talk about when asked what they cents did not provide much detail, main- do, their places of interest and how they ly streets and main roads. spend their time (or would like to). An exception is one Mexican community “Every map is essentially a street map. where streets and narrow footpaths are The streets are drawn large; other lo- so dangerous with speeding traffic and cations are appended as small rectan- the solid walls lining the streets have gles along them...They have difficulties no recesses, that children retreat to the in recording the neatly planned, basi- parks and playgrounds. cally rectangular, but frequently inter- • Major barriers to movement were not rupted, layout of streets...they have distance but fear, dangerous traffic, a no vivid image of that central district lack of spatial knowledge, cost of public [CBD], while the Salta and Cracow transport and parental control. children display a clear conception of • Melbourne children had by far the big- their downtown plaza with its historic gest physical range but were exposed to buildings. The Melbourne home region a restricted variety of people, were less has no definite boundary, no center... at ease in areas unlike their own and The social facilities are the conven- World Transport Policy and Practice 28 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 tional sports fields and schools. The all very poor...The resultant inhibited playgrounds are featureless and emp- thinking of the children was extremely ty. The asphalted, treeless streets are evident in the interview.” (Lynch, 1977; equally empty. The houses seem solid p.117/18 - Figure 21). and comfortable, but the yards ap- peared unused, except for sheds. The This low-density structure which appears Australian scene is almost perfectly to have some rather negative implica- unmanipulable by its children, except tions in terms of children’s perception of that they can move through it.” (Lynch, the environment and their development, 1977; p. 44/45/48). also makes public transport, walking and cycling impossible for most trips. This The original survey work for this study means people are seldom on the streets reports that low density is an important without driving or being driven in a car. variable in explaining some of the results But what can be done? How, for example, and that raising densities could improve can the benefits of denser cities that work the situation, particularly in relation to better in a communal sense and provide a children’s access to more activities and richer more diverse place to live, be bal- lessening boredom (Lynch, 1977; p118). anced with the desire for open space, es- Peter Downton who conducted the survey, pecially in auto-oriented cities in Australia makes a particularly damning summary of and North America, where this is such a Australian suburbia for adolescents: major issue? Examples are provided later of more compact developments that can “The effect of the physical environ- provide some balance between the private ment on these children is primarily one needs of ‘home’ and the need for an en- of limiting their experiences severely... gaging and cared for public realm. The chances for self-development, broadening of outlook, and contact with a variety of people and ideas are

Figure 21: Australian suburban houses and streets have become larger and more mono- cultural over time, leading to all the problems mentioned above over 40 years ago.

World Transport Policy and Practice 29 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Cities, Community and Transport This slow process of attrition in the inde- pendent mobility of the most vulnerable Cities have evolved essentially through members of society is being increasingly three stages: Walking Cities, Transit Cit- questioned. In some ways, the mobil- ies and Automobile cities (Newman and ity problems of children can be used as a Kenworthy, 1996, 1999; Newman, Koso- yardstick of this process and some litera- nen and Kenworthy, 2016). The old walk- ture has been reviewed here on this sub- ing cities which existed up until the lat- ject. ter half of the 19th century were small, compact places with activities strongly The general questioning of suburbia as mixed together. Many activities took place an environment for children, has been in the city’s public spaces and nearly eve- well-documented by authors such as Cun- rybody walked. Transit cities developed in ningham and Jones (1993 and 1994 a, the mid-to-late 19th century as trains and b), Tranter (1993) and Tranter and Doyle trams allowed the city to grow beyond the (1994). The degree to which children are old walls. Cities were still very communal given free range over their city environs places with lots of activities in the streets has gradually been reducing because of and with compact communities built in several factors, but the growing use of nodes within walking distance of rail sta- cars and associated traffic dangers is high tions or as strips along the tram lines. The on this list. Nevertheless, independent advent of the diesel bus and the car al- mobility by children is still considerably lowed the previously inaccessible spaces higher in European cities today than it is, between the rail tracks to begin filling in. for example, in Australian cities such as The automobile city with its footloose ur- Canberra, despite its reputation for excel- ban development was born (Newman, lence in suburban planning. For example, Kenworthy and Vintila, 1992; Newman and Kenworthy, 1996, 1999). - 9 to 11 year olds in German cities vis- ited twice as many places alone than In urban North America and Australia, those in Canberra; ever since the transition to automobile cit- - 58% of German children were allowed ies, the car has increased its role in urban to catch buses alone, compared to 25% transport every year and the other modes in Canberra; have withered, though since around 2004 - only 13% of German children were there has been increasing evidence of driven by car to school, compared to “peak car use” in developed countries and 43% in Canberra (Tranter, 1993; p. 62). their cities (Newman, Kenworthy and Gla- zebrook, 2013; Newman and Kenworthy, While Tranter shows that in England chil- 2011; Millard-Ball and Schipper, 2010). dren’s independent mobility is also bet- European cities still retain a significant ter than in Canberra, the traffic situation amount of public transport use and walk- is generally worse than in countries such ing and cycling, though they too strug- as Germany where there is better public gle to maintain the role of these modes transport and more traffic calming. For (Newman and Kenworthy, 1989; Kenwor- example, a study by Sully (1976) showed thy and Laube et al, 1999), especially to- that while 80% of British children over 9 day with electro-mobility and autonomous years old owned bikes, only 2.5% could vehicles taking over the transport debate ride them to school due to parents’ fear of (Schiller and Kenworthy, 2018; Whitelegg, traffic, even on streets with sporadic ve- 2016). This process of growing automobile hicle numbers. In terms of changes over dependence has, on the one hand, provid- time in children’s mobility, 88% of 9 year ed an enlarged degree of travel freedom olds in England went to school unaccom- and choice for those with cars or access panied in 1971, but by 1990 it was only to car services, though not without costs. 27%. Some traffic engineers attempt to However, it has gradually eaten away the show through statistics on reduced deaths independence of others in the communi- per capita, that on the whole roads have ty, particularly children, the elderly, those become safer over the years. However, it with disabilities and the poor. can also be shown that people are simply reducing their exposure to increasing road World Transport Policy and Practice 30 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 danger by restricting children’s activities children’s independent mobility due pri- and taking more precautions themselves marily to the physical form of their envi- (Hillman et al, 1990). ronments. He reports the mean distance (metres) and mode of travel of after- As Tranter (1993) notes, such a dramatic school and weekend trips of 14 to 16 year reduction in independent mobility would olds in typical city and suburban sections not have been allowed to occur in a short of Toronto for eighteen different trip pur- space of time, but because it has occurred poses. All eighteen trip purposes were over a long period, it has been accepted longer in the suburbs, and for eleven out as the norm. Adults join in an unconscious of the eighteen, they were longer by fac- conspiracy against their children’s oppor- tors of between 1.5 and 4.5 times (aver- tunities for independent access to their age 2.3 times). city. They accept unwittingly that parks, playgrounds and play and social events The data are summarised for all trips in organised by adults will somehow replace Table 3. It shows that suburban adoles- the freedoms that were once enjoyed in cents had to travel a total of nearly twice the street and other informal meeting as far as their city counterparts to reach places outside the home (Figure 22). the multitude of activities they require. They are considerably more dependent Children in different types of urban envi- on chauffeurs and their level of walking is ronment obviously enjoy different levels of below the city dwellers, though bicycling independent mobility and this has implica- is higher in the suburbs. Public transit is tions for them and their parents, as well as higher in the city than the suburbs. How- the physical sustainability of the city. ever, the difference is not as high as it would be in Australia or the US because In a study of city and suburban environ- Metropolitan Toronto has a relatively good, ments in Toronto, van Vliet (1983b) pro- safe and cheap public transport system vides further evidence for differences in based on trams, buses and subway and is

Figure 22: Children in the city centre of Freiburg enjoy the freedom and interest of city spaces without the danger.

World Transport Policy and Practice 31 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 accessible to children in the suburbs and Summary city alike. The need for higher densities, less car de- Children in the suburbs nevertheless made pendence and greater freedom, especial- “frequent complaints about poor accessi- ly for children and those without cars is bility and the lack of ‘something to do’ in aptly summarised in an empirical way in a their own neighbourhood...” (p. 63). The study which compares the qualities of two suburbs contained few or no land use ac- New Towns, one in England - Milton Key- tivities other than residential, and as Table nes - and one in The Netherlands - Almere 3 shows, there were less than one-quarter (Roberts, 1992). Both cities claim to be as many children per square kilometre in influenced by the Garden City movement, the suburbs than in the city. but only Almere comes close to having the

Factor City Environment Suburban Environment Mean total distance (all 25.57 km 48.23 km trips) % trips by public transit 30% 25% % trips by walking 52% 42% % trips by bike 3% 9% % trips by car 14% 23% Density of 15-17 year olds 520/squ.km 124/squ.km Table 3: Travel characteristics of 14-16 year olds in Toronto (early 1980s). Source: compiled from van Vliet (1983; p. 62)

One of the most important points made by density of population typical of the origi- van Vliet in the present context is the self- nal Garden City (see Newman et al, 1994). esteem and independence of children. Milton Keynes is designed as a low density residential environment, heavily zoned, “There is no question...that spatial mo- with a big emphasis on roads and car bility plays a crucial role in children’s parks. People in public spaces are notable physical, social and intellectual devel- by their absence. Almere is more typical of opment. To mature, children need to the European compact planning tradition, explore opportunities in their environ- designed on a human scale with lots of ac- ment. The specialization and separa- tivity in the public spaces, and a great deal tion of land uses has dispersed those of walking and cycling (Figure 23). Table 4 opportunities and has increased chil- summarises the differences in urban form, dren’s need to travel.” (van Vliet, 1983, transport characteristics and the degree to p. 63). which the environment encourages inde- pendence in the child population. Like Lynch (1977), children in studies by van Vliet were asked to draw mental maps The table shows that Milton Keynes, with of their neighbourhood. There was a strik- its lower density, zoned land use, greater ing difference between children with a car orientation and retreat from the public small independent travel range and those sphere, has over half of households with with a large one based on public transport, children under 12 years of age always be- walking and cycling. The former typically ing supervised outside home; only 8% are drew a grid of streets with nothing much never supervised. In Almere, with its com- more than street names, while the latter munity atmosphere, lots of walking and were rich with buildings and the names of cycling and mixed use environment, only individual shops and establishments. Such 16% are always supervised outside home independent travel was shown as linked to and 48% never supervised. The Dutch greater independence and maturity, sat- new town is also clearly better designed isfaction with their neighbourhood and a for people without cars. greater number of friendly people known. Building more livable cities is clearly a com- World Transport Policy and Practice 32 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 23: Like Almere in The Netherlands, Freiburg in Germany has generous, safe green spaces often inhabited by free-range children. plex process tied up with physical planning approaches, the diversity of transport op- tions, access to green space, the health of communities and social equity and justice. The degree to which these different quali- ties are played out in various cities is out- lined in Part III below. Milton Keynes (UK) Almere (Neth.) Density (dwellings/ha) 20 35-40 Urban form Scattered, separated Organic, mixed use % trips by car 59% 35% % trips by public transport 17% 17% % trips by walk and bicycle 24% 48% % of trips < 3km 45% 85% Households with children under 12 years who are 52% 16% always supervised outside home Never supervised outside 8% 48% home

Table 4: Differences in land use and transport between Milton Keynes, UK and Almere, The Netherlands.

World Transport Policy and Practice 33 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Part III – Building more livable and By 2006, the average had risen to 96 trips sustainable cities - some alternative per person. approaches to housing, transport and public spaces. In Zürich, it is possible to access every part of the city on some form of public This section describes some positive as- transport - light rail/tram, diesel bus, trol- pects of physical planning and transport ley bus, minibus, electric train (S-Bahn), development in other cities which are funicular, ferry and cable car (Figure 24). making them more functional, attractive The marketing of public transport is ag- and livable places. It is not exhaustive, gressive and high profile, and the product but is representative of the efforts of many is excellent. cities to try to bring back a public dimen- sion to urban life based on more compact • Passenger information systems - there living, more use of public transport and are network maps and easy-to-use rhyth- non-motorised modes and active use of mic timetables at every stop. Signage and the city’s public spaces. It has been ar- identification of the system is excellent. gued in Part II that such opportunities in Every stop in Zürich, regardless of mode cities are supportive of urban community has a name (an identity – in common and particularly the needs of more vulner- with most continental European cities), able populations. The blind pursuit of pri- which means that people’s mental maps vatised, car-based suburbia fails to recog- of the region can be built around the nise these benefits. public transport service. To assist this, the transit authority introduced in the Zürich, Switzerland 1990s four custom designed information The Zürich region of around 1 million peo- brochures/system maps showing how to ple (or depending how it is defined, up to get to specialist destinations - Education 3.8 million) is something of a model of the and Hobbies; Sport and Recreation; Eat- kinds of approaches that make a medium ing and Drinking; Culture and Entertain- density city more livable. I was fortunate ment. Of course, information systems enough in 1993 to spend a month living in for public transport have evolved like in a small apartment in Zürich with my fam- most cities, towards on-line mobile in- ily without a car. Later, I lived for 7 months formation and guidance, but the physical in Switzerland and visited Zurich many presence and in-person information has times. It taught me many lessons about been retained and enhanced through, the way suburbia, while often acclaimed for example, more electronic, real-time as the ultimate living environment, can public transport information displays. sometimes defraud people of the oppor- • Quality of transit environments - eve- tunities for an active, interesting and con- ry effort is made to provide good qual- venient life. ity shelters and waiting environments. Cleaning of stations and waiting areas Public transport - Zürich’s public transport is routine and reliable. Vehicles are kept is second to none in the western world, clean and are refurbished on pre-deter- beaten only in usage by Eastern Europe- mined rotations. Vandalised facilities and an cities such as Prague (Kenworthy and information systems are repaired or re- Laube, 2001). Through big improvements placed. Facilities are provided at many in availability as well as marketing, adver- stops, or the stops are located near tising and operations, use of public trans- shops, mail boxes, telephones, toilets port has risen in the Zürich region from etc. 363 trips per person in 1980 (1 trip per • Connectivity - the different modes are person every day) to 505 trips per person strongly interconnected through timed in 1995, or 1.4 trips per person (Kenwor- transfer points across the region, so thy and Laube et al, 1999) and 535 trips changing modes and directions is not per person in 2005. By comparison, use of an obstacle. In inner locations services public transport in Australian cities in 1996 are so frequent that interchanging can ranged from a low of 59 trips person in be reliably achieved without timetables. Perth to 136 in Sydney (average 90 trips Zürich’s public transport prides itself on per person; Kenworthy and Laube, 2001). being faithful to its published timetables World Transport Policy and Practice 34 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 and this increases public acceptance city - the transit authority believes that of the system. Reliability is enhanced one shouldn’t be able to take a photo of through a high level of reserved routes a street scene in Zürich without public for all public transport modes (rights- transport’s presence being recognized in of-way that are fully protected from all the form of their colour scheme or logos. other modes). • Fares - a great majority of all fares Public transport is used by all age groups are pre-sold at big discounts (general at all hours of the day. People of all ages abonnement) so that regular users are and socio-economic status pack the sys- benefited and encouraged. Seasonal tem on weekends getting to favourite des- passes are transferable between family tinations throughout the city or using it to members, encouraging use of the sys- connect with the national system for more tem throughout the day by different age distant day trips (the general abonnement groups. covers all public transport in Switzerland • Marketing - the advertising of public apart from some smaller specialized sys- transport is well thought-out with so- tems, mainly in the mountains). cial pressure being exploited as much as possible to discourage car use. The Public places - natural and man-made - transit authority has been known to pro- Zürich is rich in attractive public environ- mote its services and commitment to the ments and opportunities for contact with systems through things such sponsored nature. dances for younger riders to help raise the profile of public transport and make Forests and woods - The ridge tops and it more socially acceptable amongst ma- slopes surrounding Zürich are forested and turing residents. Physically, the transit are all accessible via the public transport system is designed to be seen and recog- system and a short walk. Most residential nised, with a coherent and highly visible areas are only a relatively short walk from set of signs and colors throughout the wooded areas. People have direct access

Figure 24: Zürich has an extensive, well-used tram/LRT system.

World Transport Policy and Practice 35 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 to natural areas in a way that is disap- enading, especially near the central city. pearing or has disappeared in Australia Car ferries negate the need to build road and North America because of the car and bridges over the lake. suburban home’s appetite for land. Walking networks - The Zürich region is totally interconnected with named, sign- Gardens and farming - Community gar- posted and mapped walking trails that dens and allotments proliferate the region lead through forests, farmland and other and functioning agricultural areas can be public areas. It is possible to walk between found throughout the city - they can be any parts of Switzerland using this nation- observed from the public transport system al system. A national cycling system, the as close as a few kilometres from the city Swiss Veloland Cycle Network also exists. centre. Compact planning and strict regu- Pedestrianistion/traffic calming - The old lation of land use has ensured that Zürich city is pedestrianised and the main street is not covered by development. People liv- of the city is a transit mall with light rail ing in apartments can take walks through and limited car access (Figure 25). The forests and farming districts right next to city has many small public spaces where their apartments. people play life size chess games, children play on swings or where small fairs are set Water - Like many cities, Zürich is well up with merry-go-rounds etc. endowed with water environments - the Lake of Zürich is the central water body Housing areas - Zürich, like any city has and there are numerous other smaller a range of housing styles from quite high lakes. The lake is well-utilised for recrea- density apartments to separate houses, tion and is very well serviced by ferries. though the bulk of housing consists of There is an emphasis on non-car pub- compact, ‘attached’ dwellings and some is lic access and people use the lakes edge cooperative housing. Walking through the and linear parklands intensely for prom- range of housing areas one is constantly

Figure 25: The old pedestrianized city centre of Zürich.

World Transport Policy and Practice 36 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 struck by the extent to which community environment and are usually designed for life is visible. Public space - the streets, parental surveillance from inside dwell- the playgrounds, the communal areas and ings. gardens around multi-family dwellings - is well-utilised. There is a lot of contact at Overall, Zürich is a city which acquits itself ground level between children and their well in providing for both the private and parents and between neighbours. public dimension of everyday life - civic re- sponsibility, both for each other and the Urban villages/TOD - There are numerous physical environment, is an essential part examples of new housing developments of the way the city functions. The private which have been consciously planned to domain is not allowed to dominate the de- provide an attractive living environment at velopment of the city to the extent that medium to high density. it does in more auto-dominated environ- ments. The city’s public realm is first class There is an emphasis on good quality dwell- (both transport and land use) and people ings set amidst generous, well-designed can be seen using it together in a way that public space with traffic totally excluded - encourages community and minimises the parking is underground (Figure 26). Some possibility of individuals becoming inad- provide ecologically-based landscaping vertent victims of isolation. The independ- with natural or semi-natural wetlands and ent mobility of those without cars is strong water courses running through the devel- because of the extremely good and safe opment. The developments are always set public transport system. adjacent to public transport stops, espe- cially rail stations. Some are integrated with seniors housing and on-site shopping and eating places. Play areas are focal points for families to enjoy the communal

Figure 26: Transit-oriented development on the S10 S-Bahn in Zürich, designed also for bikes and pedestrians.

World Transport Policy and Practice 37 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Vancouver, British Columbia car dependent suburbs, though housing has become increasingly expensive and Vancouver is a metropolitan area of over unaffordable (Figure 27). Specific design 2.3 million people. Its distinguishing fea- manuals are aimed at producing com- ture in a North American context is that the pact environments suitable for a whole City of Vancouver at the core of the region range of household types. The City of (close to 650,000) has no urban freeways Vancouver (inner Vancouver) population and is preparing to tear down two short rose by 172,000 people between 1986 viaducts (Dunsmuir and Georgia Streets), (431,147) and 2011 (603,502) due to reminders of the freeways that were nev- intensification of dwelling construction er built. Compared to most American cit- (in the face of falling household sizes); ies Vancouver enjoys quite high levels of transit use (134 trips per person in 2006, (b) development of large scale, compact compared to the average for 10 large US developments with a strong focus on metropolitan areas of 67 trips per person community development, public spaces in 2005). The New York-New Jersey-Con- and a mix of housing types and afford- necticut metropolitan region is by far the ability e.g. False Creek South and North most transit-oriented US urban area and at the foot of Vancouver’s CBD and Arbu- has 168 trips per person in 2005; Schiller tus Lands in the close inner suburbs, and and Kenworthy, 2018). (c) integration of new residential and Vancouver is noteworthy for its attention mixed use development in strong nodes to: around stations on the Skytrain driver- less metro to reduce car dependence, (a) intensification of housing in the in- e.g. Metrotown, New Westminster and ner area through medium to high den- smaller developments at other stations sity infill with special attention to the such as Joyce-Collingwood and Edmonds. needs of families wishing to escape the

Figure 27: South-East False Creek neighbourhood planned with non-motorised modes in mind.

World Transport Policy and Practice 38 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 The larger nodes on Skytrain have mixed ville Island). The extensive open spaces commercial, office, residential, retail and and children’s play areas are traffic free as markets within a short walk of the station. road access is from the rear of the devel- The new housing consists of high-rise tow- opment and parking is mostly under the ers, 3 to 4 storey condominium style de- buildings at the rear. velopments and townhouses. Some of the housing consists of individual housing co- There is an enormous variety in housing operatives. New Westminster is set along forms and styles including townhouses, an attractive boardwalk that includes play- terraced units and medium rise apart- grounds for children and people are often ments, many of the earlier ones of which seen talking to each other in the public were cooperative housing ventures. False areas (Figure 28). The family units have Creek is linked together by a generous, inner courtyards in which families and meandering boulevard and series of open friends congregate. The farmers market spaces for pedestrians and cyclists along where residents do some shopping is com- which there are a variety of local shops, munally orientated with open eating areas businesses and other facilities built into and a more relaxed, less structured, less the housing areas. sterile atmosphere than a supermarket. A guiding principle in these developments False Creek South (about 5,000 people), is that the facilities and resources which North (3,000 people) and now South East people need already exist in inner loca- (11,000 people) are excellent examples of tions and that it is advantageous to make how to build high density, planned, green these available to as many people as pos- communities in a central location with sible. Where large developments such extensive and beautifully designed open as False Creek, New Westminster, Joyce- spaces, together with adjacent mixed land Collingwood or Main Street/Science World uses such as markets, hotels, cultural ac- (Figure 29) occur on previously derelict tivities, shops and restaurants (e.g. Gran- industrial land, there is also a need to

Figure 28: New Westminster transit-oriented development on the Fraser River in the Vancouver region.

World Transport Policy and Practice 39 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 29: Main Street/Science World TOD on Vancouver’s Skytrain. provide community facilities on-site such transport policies which discourage car as child-minding centres, libraries, meet- use and encourage, bicycles, walking and ing halls, community playgrounds, sports public transport. areas, theatres etc. The absence of free- ways in Vancouver is a contributing fac- Pucher and Clorer (1992) outline how the tor in improving the attractiveness of the city, while growing in auto ownership and inner city and areas around Skytrain sta- wealth, remained static in car use over 15 tions for residential development. If free- years (a mere 1.2% increase). But total ways had been built, not only would the trip making by all modes, excluding walk- land that presently houses these develop- ing, increased by 30%; public transport ments have been alienated, the quality of grew 53% and bicycle use by 100%. The life would have also been reduced due to relative shares changed as shown in Table fumes, noise and severance. 5.

Freiburg, Germany By 1999, modal split for all trips, including walking had cars at only 32%, non-motor- Freiburg im Breisgau is a small southern ised modes at 50% and public transport German city of around 250,000 people set at 18%. The aim is for even further re- in a wider urban region of around 650,000 ductions. For full modal split for Freiburg which has become renowned for its green for 1982, 1999 and a projection for 2020,

MODE 1976 1991 Cars 60% 47% Public Transport 22% 26% Bicycles 18% 27%

Table 5: Relative share of non-pedestrian trips by mode in Freiburg, 1976-1991. Source: Pucher and Clorer (1992)

World Transport Policy and Practice 40 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 please refer to: greening of the city and attention to urban www.freiburg.de/pb/site/Freiburg/ design detail such as beautiful designs and get/311570/Modal-Split.jpg accessed No- colours for different parts of various size vember 24, 2017) streets (footpaths, public transport right- of-way). The three policies which Pucher and Clor- er (1992) suggest were used by Freiburg • Water theme - The city celebrates wa- (and still are) to “tame the auto”, are: ter in its public areas. In the days before waste disposal systems, Freiburg in com- “First, it has sharply restricted auto mon with other cities, had small open use in the city. Second, it has pro- drains along all streets. Today this theme vided affordable, convenient and safe continues with fresh water running in alternatives to auto use. Finally, it has small channels (Bächle) throughout the strictly regulated development to en- city and continuing into residential neigh- sure a compact land use pattern that bourhoods and new developments. Chil- is conducive to public transport, bicy- dren love the streets for this reason and cling and walking.” (Pucher and Clorer, can be seen playing with and paddling in 1992, p. 386). the water. Small wooden boats can be pur- chased which children use to float down In implementing the above three policies the Bächle. This melding of urban design (which could be loosely translated as em- and the needs of children, gives the cen- bodying the use of light rail, traffic calm- tral city a family and child-friendly atmos- ing and urban villages; see Newman, Ken- phere (Figure 31). worthy and Robinson, 1992), Freiburg has created a people-friendly, livable city: • Extensive traffic calming - Outside the central city, many streets have been made • Pedestrianisation - The central area is safer and friendlier for bicycles and pedes- almost entirely pedestrianised with many trians through traffic calming (Verkehrs- people of all ages enjoying the city’s spac- beruhigung) treatments such mid-block es (Figure 30). This is complemented by neck downs (room for only one vehicle at

Figure 30: Freiburg’s pedestrianised city centre.

World Transport Policy and Practice 41 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 31: Freiburg’s signature urban design feature – the Bächle - combined with pe- destrianisation and quality public transport.

Figure 32: Extensive use of bikes throughout Freiburg.

World Transport Policy and Practice 42 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 a time), strong entry statements leading a large urban village consisting of a variety into residential areas, such as green arch- of different types of multi-family dwellings. es, canyons of trees to reduce perceptible It is set adjacent to several light rail stops width etc. Spaces such as parking areas and its central feature is the large inte- have been reclaimed for civic uses and grated lake and parkland on city property children’s play areas as the city has be- (former State Garden Expo site). The en- come less car-orientated. vironment is traffic free and internal circu- lation is all on foot and bicycle. Parking is • Bicycles - Many off-road facilities for underground or restricted to traffic calmed cyclists (and pedestrians) have been de- peripheral streets. The public spaces were veloped as well as bike storage facilities designed for a short term and long term around the city (Figure 32). purpose - initially as the site of the State garden show and then as a multi-purpose • Light rail - Light rail has become the public park which melds with the surround- backbone of Freiburg’s public transport. ing housing as a seamless whole (Figure In places, the light rail lines run along 33). Vauban is a widely publicized urban grassed track beds either on their own redevelopment neighbourhood, renowned right-of-way through parkland settings, or for its renewable energy and family friend- in the centre of roads. Buses have become ly, green spaces (see extensive discussion primarily feeders to the light rail system in Schiller and Kenworthy, 2018). and mobility by public transport has im- proved greatly (Pucher and Clorer, 1992). The overall results are extremely attrac- The central city has benefited environ- tive and convenient living environments mentally by having a clean, quiet mode of in which people of all ages can be seen transport servicing it. sharing the public spaces. Activities in Der Seepark include swimming in the central • Urban villages - There is a concerted lake; cycling; strolling; eating in the on- effort to provide for Freiburg’s popula- site facilities; enjoying open air concerts; tion growth in planned urban communities using adjacent formal sports facilities; linked to public transport, e.g. Der Seep- sunning in the ‘meadows’; resting in for- ark, Rieselfeld and Vauban. Der Seepark is mal gardens and children’s play activities.

Figure 33: Part of Der Seepark urban village development in Freiburg.

World Transport Policy and Practice 43 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Portland, Oregon • Coordinated transport planning and urban design in the central city - With Portland is a US metropolitan area of 2.4 the light rail line has come a total re- million people with a density of 13 persons organisation of the street space in cen- per ha (like most auto-orientated cities in tral Portland to give more room to public the US and Australia, but much less than transport and people on foot. Trees have Canadian urban regions). Although car- been planted throughout, flowers, civic orientated, it has done numerous things to art, fountains and pedestrian squares improve its livability and diversity of hous- have been provided by converting car ing environments, as well as its commit- parks (Pioneer Courthouse Square – Fig- ment to the public realm of the city. ure 35). The business community has played a key part in the changes. Cars • Light rail - Instead of building another have been restricted to one lane along freeway, Portland used freeway funds to key public transport streets (both light open a light rail line (MAX) in 1986 which rail and bus streets). Quality bus shel- has played an integral part in revitalis- ters, waiting areas and information sys- ing a declining central city. For example, tems have been developed. A ceiling has retail sales in the ‘downtown’ rose from been in force since 1972 on parking sup- just 5% of the region’s total sales to 30% ply, though very recently this has been (Transactions, September 1993, p. 2). relaxed. Some parking areas have been reclaimed for civic space. Jobs have • Downtown market area - One of the grown from 56,000 in 1975 to 91,000 big draw cards for families with children in 2005, but traffic congestion has not in central Portland is the Saturday Mar- increased and air quality has markedly ket through which the light rail runs. It improved (Arrington, 1993). was previously a derelict, car-based area and now has a human scale vitality to • Central city housing - Mixed use devel- which people flock (especially on the opments such as River Place (built partly light rail line). An historic tram services on a former parking area) have provided the area on market days and is popular housing above shops set in pedestrian with locals and tourists (Figure 34). and bicycling environments. These new

Figure 34: Portland’s MAX light rail transit operating through the Saturday Market area in downtown.

World Transport Policy and Practice 44 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 35: Pioneer Courthouse Square, Portland, built on a former car park and now a place for celebration.

Figure 36: Pearl District of inner Portland built around a new tram line.

World Transport Policy and Practice 45 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 public spaces are popular with people One aspect of Portland’s multi-faceted vi- from across Portland. More recently, sion helps summarise the relevance of the the Pearl District adjacent to downtown, above for city livability in the Portland of has been revitalized and new residential the future. and mixed use development integrated with a streetcar (tram – Figure 36). At “The lifestyle is more urban than sub- the heart of the development is a large urban. Despite considerable growth family-oriented park with computerized Portland has retained a ‘neighbourly’ fountains for everyone to cool off in dur- feel to it. The city is bustling, but also ing summer. Other parks have also been provides citizens quiet time. In Port- provided (Figure 37). land, unlike most American cities, peo- ple spend their interludes of quiet in • Transit-Oriented Development - The parks, in open spaces, along the riv- light rail line has been the site of sig- ers and in museums - rather than en- nificant new commercial, institutional, tombed in lonely cars stuck in traffic residential and mixed use developments. jams.” (Arrington, 1993, p. 12). There is a conscious programme of Tran- sit Station Area Planning to provide al- ternatives to suburban sprawl and less car-dependent development. The aim is a mutually reinforcing set of transport and land use policies to reshape Portland into a less car-dependent city. A strong urban growth boundary helps to support this, though it also pushes up land prices which helps reinforce the need for den- sity (Arrington, 1993).

Figure 37: A park in the Pearl District, Portland.

World Transport Policy and Practice 46 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Munich, Germany 10,000 residents in rental and owner/ occupier apartments, employment for Munich has notable good examples of 18,000 workers and 2,000 hotel rooms. urban villages/TODs that have been de- The result is a fine grained, lively mix- signed with livability strongly in mind and ture of land uses including offices, shops, which provide greater independence for restaurants, hospitals, movie theatres, children. night clubs, an adult evening school, a city library, post office, swimming pool, • Arabella Park (Bogenhausen District recreational centre and sports facilities Centre) - This is an excellent TOD, both as well as a multitude of peripheral fa- in the intensity and mixture of the activi- cilities and service companies. There are ties it contains, and in the extremely high undercover bicycle storage facilities and quality of urban design and human scale, ramps incorporated into steps for people traffic-free and traffic calmed public with bikes or prams. spaces in which the development is set. There is a strong emphasis on landscap- In the public spaces of Arabella Park there ing and general greening of the environ- is a lot of social interaction with people of ment. It is based around a rapid transit all ages on foot and bike making use of (U-Bahn) station located in the centre’s the green boulevards and market areas market square. The development is ap- to talk and relax. The number of parents proximately 5 km from Marienplatz in the and grandparents with children playing heart of Munich’s pedestrianised core. in the public areas and on their bikes, Arabella Park has excellent accessibility is particularly striking. Child-minding oc- to other parts of the city on the U-Bahn curs around small areas of running wa- line, which is an important selling point ter and public sculptures. There is also a of the centre (Figure 38). steady stream of business people walk- ing through the area (Newman and Ken- Arabella Park consists of homes for worthy, 1991).

Figure 38: Arabella Park TOD on the U4 U-Bahn line, Munich.

World Transport Policy and Practice 47 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 • Zamila Park - Zamila Park is locat- parents on balconies and children in the ed on Munich’s S-Bahn system and is a public spaces. The number of families short walk from a station. It is a 19ha site living in the development is clear from which contains a mixture of 1300 dwell- the amount of children’s play equipment ings of different types (ranging from 2 visible in the yards of many dwellings, storey homes and units with private gar- the formal playgrounds built into the dens, up to 6 storey quality apartments). development and the number of small There is also 50,000 square metres of bikes parked in courtyards. office space, as well as a neighbourhood centre within walking or bicycling dis- It appears from observation that a sense tance of all dwellings (it contains local of privacy and ownership over private facilities such as restaurants, food shops, territory is maintained, but that this does newsagent, public laundry and other fa- not limit the opportunities for interaction cilities). There is also a large lake on one where residents decide that is what they side of the development and a complex want. Play opportunities for children are of sporting facilities a short walk from all many. By building in opportunities for dwellings. sociability in well-designed, inviting pub- lic areas, it appears that the likelihood of The emphasis in the design is on traf- isolation, and possibly crime, would be fic-free or traffic-calmed public areas reduced in places such as Zamila Park including quiet inner courtyards, pedes- (Newman and Kenworthy, 1991). trian and bicycle spines and park-like green areas that link the development • Messestadt Riem – The old Munich air- together into a contiguous whole. Dwell- port has been transformed into a new ings of different styles and colours add compact community with a town centre a large amount of visual variety to the built around an extension of the U-Bahn project and avoid any sense of a mon- system with numerous feeder buses olithic environment. There is minimal (Figure 39). The housing areas are di- penetration of roads and traffic into the verse, the green space is extensive and site. The public spaces within the area roads are minimal. Within the develop- are characterised by children playing and ment most circulation is by non-motor- parents and adolescents strolling or sit- ised means. Children can be seen arriv- ting on the seats provided. There is a no- ing and leaving school on foot and bike ticeable amount of interaction between accompanied or unaccompanied by par-

Figure 39: Messestadt Riem Town Centre, Munich.

World Transport Policy and Practice 48 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 ents and without having to deal with the area (Figure 41). Marienplatz, Karlsplatz dangers of traffic (Figure 40). and the Viktualienmarkt have become focal points for all age groups and most • Central city revitalisation - Munich has people arrive there on rail transport (U- also been very successful in creating Bahn or S-Bahn which share common an extensive pedestrianised central city rail stations in the central area).

Figure 40: Outside a Messestadt Riem school, showing the focus on non-motorised ac- cess.

Figure 41: Munich’s pedestrianized city centre. World Transport Policy and Practice 49 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Stockholm, Sweden easily convertible to meet new service needs as times change; It has long been policy in Stockholm to focus urban development around stations •Create housing variety from low 2 sto- on the Tunnelbana (metro) system. One rey dwellings with good ground contact; of the first and best known examples of 4-6 storeys around courtyards; and 10- this was the development of Vällingby in 13 storeys near stations; the 1950’s. Since then numerous other satellite centres have been added such as •Urban environment to have rich varia- Kista, Akalla, Tensta, Rinkeby, Skärholmen tions in form and colour; and so on. The centres are strung togeth- er like pearls on a bead along the railway •Multi-family housing no more than system and are all high density, particu- 500m walk to station; larly around the station core, but taper off in density towards the periphery (Cerve- •Single-family housing no more than ro, 1995, 1998). Some of these TODs are 300m from a bus stop; predominantly residential while others are highly mixed centres. The general physical •A bus-rail interchange in all communi- planning principles in Stockholm on which ties and; these centres are based can be summa- rised as follows (Stockholms Stadsby- •Centres to be linked and permeated by ggnadskontor, 1972): a coherent network of foot and bicycle facilities separated from roads with the •Site workplaces close to houses; convenience of people with disabilities in mind. •Minimise distance from houses to shops; Stockholm’s centres are compact and walking scale with a rich array of facilities •Concentrate service functions in eas- clustered together within a relatively small ily accessible areas and make premises area. In Kista, for example, the rail sys-

Figure 42: Kista pedestrian area outside the rail station, Stockholm.

World Transport Policy and Practice 50 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 tem delivers passengers directly into an These areas are preserved and surround enclosed large shopping mall which opens the housing areas due to compact plan- into a car-free town centre surrounded by ning principles. community facilities, shops and housing. The excellent network of footpaths and cy- While there is an emphasis on local self- cleways feeding into it makes these modes sufficiency within Stockholm’s sub-cen- the easiest and most convenient way to tres, the broader need for good public move around and the relatively short trav- transport connections to the rest of the el distances assist further. The shopping city is paramount. It is recognised that the centre forms a bridge between the rail sta- smaller satellite centres cannot contain all tion and the predominantly residential de- the diversity of typical central city func- velopment on one side of the railway and tions and people will always want to travel the commercial/office development on the beyond their local centre for a range of other side (Figure 42). needs. There is an assumption in Stock- holm that feeder buses and the rail sys- The total segregation between motorised tem, rather than cars, will be used as a and non-motorised traffic in Stockholm’s major way of getting to Stockholm’s core centres, together with traffic-free town and other areas across the city in peak squares and well integrated community and off-peak periods. spaces such as children play areas, help make the environment of a human scale, The striking success of this strategy is de- despite being high density (e.g. Vällingby scribed in detail by Cervero (1995, 1998) – Figure 43 and 44). Stockholm’s centres and runs directly counter to those who ar- are also well endowed with open space gue that dispersion is the best way to get networks weaved throughout the hous- people and activities closer together and ing areas and a comprehensive network of to minimise travel (see Newman, Kenwor- natural open spaces (lakes, forests, fields thy and Vintila, 1993). etc) are in direct contact with each centre.

Figure 43: Vällingby town centre, Stockholm.

World Transport Policy and Practice 51 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 44: Vällingby town centre in Stockholm showing separation of traffic from pedes- trians.

Seoul behaving more like a gas than a liquid and has been followed by further conversions Seoul undertook one of the boldest ever of sections of freeway into pedestrian en- projects of ‘trip de-generation’ involving vironments (e.g. Seoullo 7017 conversion the tearing down of 5.86 km of the Cheong- of freeway infrastructure to a Highline- gye four-lane elevated freeway and the style pedestrian space, locally dubbed as surface street below, which together car- the “sky arboretum (https://steemit.com/ ried more than 168,000 vehicles per day design/@mintvilla/seoullo-the-highline- through the heart of the city, to exhume of-seoul accessed November 28, 2017). the culturally significant Cheonggyecheon River beneath (http://www.globalresto- Traffic engineers and transportation plan- rationnetwork.org/uploads/files/Litera- ners are trained to think of traffic as a liq- tureAttachments/270_restoring-cheong- uid that holds its volume and will flow over gyecheon-stream-in-the-downtown-seoul. everything if blocked or allowed to grow pdf; http://preservenet.com/freeways/ beyond its current ‘container’. However, FreewaysCheonggye.html accessed No- traffic tends to shrink when road capacity vember 28, 2017 - Figures 45 and 46). is removed, as has been proven time and again when pedestrian zones have been The freeway alignment has been trans- created (Kenworthy, 2012). formed into a linear, green heart for the city, a place to promenade, relax and en- The full story of the Cheonggyecheon joy, especially for children and families. restoration project can be found in a This occurred without any significant traf- 25-minute PBS documentary called Seoul: fic disruption and furthermore changed The Stream of Consciousness and more the direction of transportation planning details at: http://preservenet.com/free- in the city towards prioritizing transit and ways/FreewaysCheonggye.html. accessed non-motorized modes. The project was a November 28, 2017. large-scale example of the idea of traffic World Transport Policy and Practice 52 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 45: Cheonggyecheon river restoration project in Seoul after tearing down the surface road and elevated freeway.

Figure 46: Cheonggyecheon freeway removal has provided a large pedestrian heart and green boulevarde for Seoul.

World Transport Policy and Practice 53 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Traffic calming good examples of the way traffic calming has encouraged people to use the streets Many cities in Europe and increasingly in in high density districts (e.g. Leipziger- more auto-oriented cities are developing strasse in the Bockenheim district – Figure programmes to traffic calm residential ar- 48). Cunningham and Jones (1994a) pro- eas, sections of main roads and urban cen- vide a list of the key things that planners tres where a balance is needed between need to do to make more child-friendly cars and pedestrians (e.g. Ministerial Task neighbourhoods. The second item on their Force on Traffic Calming, 1994). The aim list is that “...streets themselves should is primarily to improve safety for people primarily be designed as playspaces - so- on foot and bicycle, though there are im- cial space for children and adults. Motor portant benefits in terms of more attrac- traffic functions in residential areas should tive street environments, reduced noise have lowest priority...” (p. 92). and emissions and business is known to improve in environments where the car is Conclusions brought under control (Hass-Klau, 1993). Newman and Kenworthy (1999) provide a The extent of automobile dependence var- literature review of traffic calming and its ies dramatically in cities around the world benefits for urban living which are the di- with US and Australian cities, and to a rect opposite of much of the planning that lesser extent Canadian cities, having far today characterizes places such as Dubai greater auto dependence than cities in Eu- (Figure 47). rope and Asia. The trend in automobile- dependent cities in Australia and North Area-wide schemes are known to be most America over many decades has been effective in improving the urban environ- towards increasingly privatised, and to a ment so that it becomes more livable. Cen- significant extent, isolated forms of living. tral and inner Frankfurt have some very The roles of community, cared for public

Figure 47: Dubai: A reminder of the kind of city designed around the car that is anti- thetical to the needs of children and other vulnerable populations and which should be roundly rejected in today’s urban and transport planning.

World Transport Policy and Practice 54 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 48: Traffic calmed Leipzigerstrasse in Frankfurt, Germany. spaces, good quality public transport and • revitalisation of the public realm in rec- walking and cycling infrastructure in sup- ognition that a good city must provide porting the livability and sustainability of for useable, healthy public spaces in all urban areas have been neglected. Use of areas, and not just pander to the desires the private car has had increasingly de- for private space (see Newman, 1990); structive effects on the physical and so- cial environments of the city. The physical • commitment to curbing use of the pri- sustainability of the city, the maintenance vate car and to providing excellent public of civic virtues, the freedoms and devel- transport systems that are accessible to opment potential afforded to children, the all people at most times of the day; elderly and others without access to cars, have been grossly eroded. Some of the • providing more infrastructure for walk- worst urban environments in the world ing and cycling and the kind of land use have been created through a single-mind- planning that brings activities closer to- ed pursuit of ‘private splendour’, resulting gether so that they can be conveniently in almost universal ‘public squalor’, such accessed by these modes. as in parts of Los Angeles and other highly motorised cities. • removal of large road infrastructure and its replacement with linear parkland Nevertheless, there are many cities around and pedestrian environments. the world which demonstrate that other approaches are possible which attempt to Such strategies will assist in creating a provide for urban living through: more communitarian atmosphere in cities by providing the opportunities for people • more compact housing arrangements to come together in constructive ways. which have a greater variety of facilities These changes will, however, require ei- closer at hand and which provide traffic ther or both a strong political vision and free, shared open spaces, both natural commitment from mayors and other de- and man made; cision makers (quality top-down lead- World Transport Policy and Practice 55 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 ership), as well as powerful community References: pressure and civil society organisation and Allen, I. (1980) The ideology of dense commitment. neighbourhood redevelopment: Cultural diversity and transcendent community ex- “We have a rather unattractive ten- perience. Urban Affairs Quarterly 15 (4), dency to hope for better things, with- 409-428. out actually doing anything to make them come about. Our faith in the new Appleyard, D., Gerson, M. and Lintell, M. century...or the new car, or the new (1981) Livable Streets. University of Cali- school, or the new leader...is touching fornia Press, Berkeley, CA. and understandable but, in the end, we are always left with ourselves and with Arrington, G.B. (1993) Portland: Transpor- the consequences of our decisions.” tation and land use - A shared vision. Pas- (Mackay, 1994, p. 16). senger Transport, 2 (3), 4-14.

More livable cities and sustainable cities Buehler, R. and Pucher, J. (2011) Sustain- can be achieved. But we must be prepared able transport in Freiburg: Lessons from to work or even fight for them. Germany’s environmental capital. Inter- national Journal of Sustainable Transpor- NOTE: This is a significantly revised, updat- tation. 5 (1): 43-70. ed and illustrated version of a paper origi- nally published as: Kenworthy, J.R. (2000) Buehler, R., Pucher, J., Gerike, R. and Göt- Building More Livable Cities by Overcom- schi, T. (2016) Reducing car dependence ing Automobile Dependence: An Interna- in the heart of Europe: Lessons from Ger- tional Comparative Review. In: Lawrence, many, Austria, and Switzerland. Transport R (ed.) Sustaining Human Settlement: A Reviews, dx.doi.org/10.1080/01441647. Challenge for the New Millennium Urban 2016.1177799, accessed 24 August 2016 International Press, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne. (pp 271-314). Though originally published Campbell, C. J. (1991) The golden century 18 years ago, its call has unfortunately of oil 1950-2050: The depletion of a re- been inadequately heard and cities need source. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dor- more than ever to heed its message. drecht, The Netherlands.

Campbell, C. J. and Laherre, J. H. (1995) Author details: The world’s oil supply 1930-2050. 3 vol- Jeff Kenworthy umes, Petroconsultants, Geneva. Professor in Sustainable Cities Curtin University Sustainability Policy Cervero, R. (1995) Sustainable new Institute towns: Stockholm’s rail served satellites. Curtin University Cities, 12 (1), 41-51. Bentley, WA, 6102 AUSTRALIA Cervero, R. (1998) The Transit Metropolis: A Global Inquiry. Island Press, Washington and DC.

Guest Professor Community and Family Commission (1992) Frankfurt University of Applied Sciences Speaking out, taking part. Community and 60318 Frankfurt am Main Family Commission, Office of the Family, GERMANY Government of Western Australia.

Email: Cunningham, C. and Jones, M. (1993) [email protected] Child friendly neighbourhoods? A critique of the Australian suburb as an environ- ment for growing up. Presented to the 12th World Conference of the Internation- al Association for the Child’s Right to Play, Melbourne, Australia, 16 February. World Transport Policy and Practice 56 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Cunningham, C. and Jones, M. (1994a) Kenworthy, J. (2013b) Deteriorating or Im- The child-friendly neigbourhood: Some proving? Transport Sustainability Trends questions and tentative answers from Aus- in Global Metropolitan Areas In: Renne, tralian research. International Play Journal J. and Fields, W.M. (eds.) Transport Be- 2, 79-95. yond Oil: Policy Choices for a Multi-Modal Future. Chapter 14, pp. 244-264, Island Cunningham, C. and Jones, M. (1994b) Press, Washington DC. The child in the suburb: Erosion of the play environment. Presented to the community Kenworthy, J. (2014a) Trends in Transport seminar of the New SouthWales Play Alli- and Urban Development in Thirty-Three ance, State Office Block theaterette, Syd- International Cities, 1995-6 to 2005-6: ney, NSW, 18 August. Some Prospects for Lower Carbon Trans- port. In: Lehmann, S. (ed.) Low Carbon Davis, M. (1990) City of quartz: Excavat- Cities: Transforming Urban Systems. ing the future in Los Angeles. Vintage, Chapter 5, pp 113-130, Routledge, Lon- London (462pp). don.

Engwicht, D. (1993) Towards an ecocity: Kenworthy, J. (2014b) Total daily mobility Calming the traffic. Envirobook, Sydney. patterns and their implications for forty- three global cities in 1995 and 2005. World Fleay, B. J. (1995) The decline of the age Transport Policy and Practice 20 (1) 41-55. of oil. Pluto Press, Sydney. Kenworthy, J.R. (2017) The good, the bad Frost, L. (1991) The new urban frontier: and the ugly in urban transport: compar- Urbanisation and city building in Australa- ing global cities for dependence on the sia and the American West. University of automobile. In: Hartz-Karp, J. and Mari- N.S.W. Press, Sydney. nova, D. (eds.) Methods for Sustainability Research. Chapter 3, 46-62 Edward Elgar Hass-Klau, C. (1993) Impact of pedestri- Publishing, Cheltenham. anization and traffic calming on retailing: A review of the evidence from Germany Kenworthy, J. and Laube, F. (2001) The and the UK. Transport Policy 1 (1) 21-31. Millennium Cities Database for Sustain- able Transport. (CDROM Database), In- Hillman, M., Adams, J. and Whitelegg, J. ternational Union (Association) of Public (1990) One false move: A study of chil- Transport, (UITP), Brussels and Institute dren’s independent mobility. Policy Studies for Sustainability and Technology Policy Institute Press, London. (ISTP), Perth.

Jacobs, J. (1961) The death and life of Kenworthy, J., Laube, F. with Newman, P., great American cities. Random House, Barter, P., Raad, T., Poboon, C. and Guia, New York. B. (Jr) (1999) An International Source- book of Automobile Dependence in Cities Kenworthy, J.R. (1997) Automobile De- 1960-1990. University Press of Colorado, pendence in Bangkok: An International Boulder (forthcoming). Comparison with Implications for Planning Policies and Air Pollution. In: Fletcher, T. Kenworthy, J. and Newman, P. (1991) and Michael, A.J. (editors) Health at the Moving Melbourne: A public transport Crossroads: Transport Policy and Urban strategy for inner Melbourne. Inner Met- Health, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, ropolitan Regional Association, Victoria England (Chapter 19, pp 215-233). and Institute for Science and Technology Policy, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Kenworthy, J. (2013a) Decoupling urban Australia, 6150, 64pp (Main Report). car use and metropolitan GDP growth World Transport Policy and Practice 19 (4) 7-21

World Transport Policy and Practice 57 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Kenworthy, J. and Newman, P. (1993) Newman, P.W.G. and Kenworthy, J.R. Automobile dependence: “The irresist- (1996) The land use-transport connection: ible force”? Commissioned report for the An overview. Land Use Policy 13 (1) 1-22. University of Technology, Sydney, Faculty of Design, Architecture and Building, In- Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1999) Sus- stitute for Science and Technology Policy, tainability and cities: Overcoming automo- Murdoch University (49pp). bile dependence. Island Press, Washington DC. Lasch, C. (1991) Liberalism and civic vir- tue. Telos 88, 57-68 Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (2011) ‘Peak Car Use’: Understanding the Demise Lynch, K. (ed.) (1977) Growing up in cit- of Automobile Dependence. World Trans- ies: Studies of the spatial environment of port Policy and Practice 17 (2) 31-42 adolescence in Cracow, Melbourne, Mexi- co City, Salta, Toluca and Warszawa. The Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (2015) The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts End of Automobile Dependence: How Cit- (UNESCO, Paris). ies are Moving Away from Car-Based Plan- ning. Island Press, Washington DC., 273 Mackay, H. (1993) Reinventing Australia: pp The mind and mood of Australia in the ‘90s. Angus and Robertson, Sydney. Newman, P., Kenworthy, J. and Robinson, L. (1992) Winning back the cities. Aus- Mackay, H. (1994) The future stops here. tralian Consumers’ Association and Pluto The Weekend Australian, The Weekend Press, Sydney. Review, September 3-4, p. 16). Newman, P., Kenworthy, J. and Vintila, Millard-Ball, A. and Schipper, L. (2010) Are P. (1992) Housing, transport and urban we reaching peak travel? Trends in passen- form. Background Paper 15 + Appendices ger transport in eight industrialized coun- for the National Housing Strategy, Com- tries. Transport Reviews, 2010, 1-22. First monwealth of Australia. published on 18 November 2010 (iFirst). Newman, P., Kenworthy, J. and Vintila, P. Ministerial Task Force on Traffic Calming (1993) Can we build better cities: Physi- (1994) Traffic calming in Western Austral- cal planning in an age of urban cynicism. ia: A discussion paper. Minister for Trans- Urban Futures 3 (2) 17-24. port, Government of Western Australia, August. Newman, P., Kosonen, L. and Kenworthy, J. (2016) Theory of urban fabrics: Plan- Newman, P. (1990) The search for the ning the walking, transit/public transport good city. Town and Country Planning, 59 and automobile/motor car cities for re- (10), 272-275. duced car dependency. Town Planning Re- view, 87 (4), 429-458. Newman, P. and Hogan, T. (1981) A review of urban density models: Towards a reso- Newman, P., Mouritz, M. and Burke, G. lution of the conflict between populace and (1994) Greening the city: Can the ecologi- planner. Human Ecology, 9 (3), 269-303. cal and human dimensions of the city be part of Town Planning? Presented to: A Vi- Newman, P. and Kenworthy J. (1989) Cit- sion for a Greener City, National Green- ies and automobile dependence: An in- ing Australia Conference, Fremantle WA, ternational sourcebook. Gower, England, October. September, (388pp). Pharoah, T. and Russell, J. (1989) Traffic Newman, P. and Kenworthy, J. (1991) To- calming: Policy evaluation in three Euro- wards a more sustainable Canberra: An pean countries. Occasional Paper 2/89, assessment of Canberra’s transport, ener- Department of Planning, Housing and De- gy and land use. Institute for Science and velopment, South Bank Polytechnic, Lon- Technology Policy, Murdoch University. don. World Transport Policy and Practice 58 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Poboon, C. and Kenworthy, J. R. (1997) Stretton, H. (1994) Transport and the Bangkok’s traffic disaster: An international structure of Australian cities. Australian comparative assessment of transportation Planner 31 (3), 131-136. and land use in Bangkok with its implica- tions for air quality. Presented to Pathways Sully, J. M. (1976) Child cycling. Town and to Sustainability Conference, Newcastle, Country Planning (June), 323-25. NSW, Australia, June. Tranter, P. (1993) Children’s mobility in Priester, R. Kenworthy, J and Wulfhorst, G. Canberra: Confinement or independence. (2013) The Diversity of Megacities World- Monograph Series No.7, Department of wide – Challenges for The Future of Mo- Geography and Oceanography, University bility In: Institute for Mobility Research College, University of New South Wales, (ed.), Megacity Mobility Culture: How Cit- Australian Defence Force Academy, Can- ies Move on in a Diverse World (Lecture berra, ACT 2600. Notes in Mobility) Chapter 2, pp. 23-54, Springer, Munich Tranter, P.J. and Doyle, J.W. (1994) Re- claiming the residential street as play Pucher, J. and Clorer, S. (1992) Taming the space. Department of Geography and Oce- automobile in Germany. Transportation anography, University College, University Quarterly 46 (3): 383-395. of New South Wales, Australian Defence Force Academy, Canberra, ACT 2600. Roberts, J. (1989a) User-friendly cities: What Britain can learn from mainland Eu- Troy, P.N. (1992) The new feudalism. Ur- rope, TEST, London. ban Futures 2 (2), 36-44.

Roberts, J. (1989b) Quality streets: How van Vliet, W. (1983a) Families in apart- traditional urban centres benefit from traf- ment buildings: Sad storeys for children? fic calming. TEST, London. Environment and Behaviour 15 (2), 211- 234. Roberts, J. (1992) Changed travel - Better world? A study of travel patterns in Milton van Vliet, W. (1983b) Children’s travel be- Keynes and Almere. TEST, London. haviour. Ekistics 298, 61-65.

Schiller, P. and Kenworthy, J. R. (2018) An Whitelegg, J. (1993) Transport for a sus- Introduction to Sustainable Transporta- tainable future: The case for Europe. Bel- tion: Policy, Planning and Implementation haven Press, London. Second Edition. Earthscan, London 420pp (published November 10, 2017) Whitelegg, J. (2016) Mobility: A New Ur- ban Design and Transport Planning Phi- St. George, D. and Schulte, B. (2015) losophy for a Sustainable Future, Straw ‘Free-range’ parents plan to file lawsuit Barnes Press (Amazon Digital Services after police pick up children. The Wash- LLC), Church Stretton, UK. ington Post, April 14, 2015. (https://www. washingtonpost.com/local/education/ Wohlwill, J.F (1985) Residential density as free-range-parents-plan-to-file-lawsuit- a variable in child development research. after-police-pick-up-children/2015/04/14/ In Wohlwill J.F. and van Vliet, W. (eds) ed4f7658-e2b7-11e4-b510-962fcfabc310_ (1985) Habitats for children: The impacts story.html?utm_term=.9d02029f7dc1) of density. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, accessed November 19, 2017 Publishers, Hillsdale, New Jersey.

Stockholms Stadsbyggnadskontor (1972) Wohlwill J.F. and van Vliet, W. (eds) (1985) Stockholm urban environment. Stock- Habitats for children: The impacts of den- holm, (169pp). sity. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Pub- lishers, Hillsdale, New Jersey. Stretton, H. (1989) Ideas for Australian cities. 3rd edition, Georgian House, Mel- bourne. World Transport Policy and Practice 59 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Re-working Appleyard in a low densi- noted since the 1980s yet vehicle use is ty environment: An exploration of the still dominant and very evident through- impacts of motorised traffic volume out Christchurch. The lack of freedom and on street livability in Christchurch, fear of endangered safety this generates New Zealand. for pedestrians, particularly children, has Wiki J., Kingham S., and Banwell K. led to life becoming increasingly privatised with a significant proportion experienced 1. Introduction inside the home. To assess street livability and community severance within Christch- The majority of the developed world’s pop- urch it is necessary to consider the role ulation live on streets, using them to trans- that motorised traffic plays and under- port and access the essential elements of stand if the relationships between traffic life. The way in which such spaces are used volumes and social harm found in previ- is complex and constantly evolving to suit ous research are present in contemporary societal and environmental norms. As ur- Christchurch. ban sprawl continues to intensify there are increasing numbers of people living away This study utilised a similar approach to from diverse and pedestrian-orientated Appleyard’s work of the 1970s and 80s, streets. In some areas the neighbour- collecting data from streets of varying hood has become vehicle-orientated and traffic volume and examining the impact considered no longer as a place of social of motorised traffic on community live- connection and value. Such relationships ability and wellbeing. It was conducted have been recognised worldwide with re- in Christchurch, New Zealand, a city of search in San Francisco among the first to 350,000 people. Population density is low, clearly demonstrate that motorised traffic car use high and many residential streets volume can decrease street livability, have are wide. In many ways, it is similar to negative social consequences and impact many medium sized towns and cities in significantly on community wellbeing (Ap- more recently urbanised parts of the world pleyard, 1980). such as North America and Australasia, and very different to San Francisco and Such relationships have also been recog- European cities where similar studies have nised within New Zealand. Kingston et al been conducted. (1982) sought to identify the extent to which awareness of motorised traffic, ef- 2. Literature Review fects of motorised traffic on life and activi- ties, and feelings about motorised traffic “We have taken the creative crucible of increase in proportion to volume, resident the city – its streets – and handed them response to volume, and the thresholds at over to a form of movement which de- which these change. Results showed that stroys both the essential elements of vehicle speed and volume promote a pre- creativity: diversity and spontaneity” dominantly negative social response, with (Engwicht 1999, p30). the perceived health effect of heavy vol- umes as a dominant concern (Kingston et Streets, holding the dual function of ex- al, 1982). Despite the limited nature of this change and movement, were once, and in study they did arrive at significant conclu- some cases still are, a significant part of sions, confirming that the negative social the individual and community’s urban en- effects of motorised traffic volume found vironment. Motorised traffic has changed by Appleyard (1980) were also present the traditional roles of streets however, a in New Zealand. More recently, research paradigm shift has occurred where what by Tranter and Pawson (2001) found that was once considered safe for social inter- motorised traffic volumes impact signifi- action and play are now often viewed as cantly on children’s freedom in Christch- dangerous and impersonal. It is argued urch. They noted that a place where there that this is largely due to increases in mo- needs to be an emergence of values in torised traffic, and while vehicles have en- Christchurch is in “[the] traditional role abled improved access for many the quali- of the street as a place for social interac- ty of life in other areas has been eroded by tion and community integration” (Tranter their presence (Marsh and Watts, 2012). and Pawson, 2001, p46). The need for This is particularly true of the public space a revitalisation of such values has been World Transport Policy and Practice 60 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 outside the home, the street, where car- ble traffic speeds, volumes, and noise lev- rying vehicular traffic has become the ac- els. Bosselmann et al (1999) and Hart and cepted purpose. Engwicht (1999) argues Parkhurst (2011) replicated Appleyard’s that the introduction of the vehicle has study, looking at residential streets in the converted streets into the single function USA and UK respectively, and showed sim- of movement only, decreasing the oppor- ilar results to Appleyard’s (1980), demon- tunity and diversity of social and cultural strating that motorised traffic acts as a human exchange and forcing society into barrier to street liveability and social in- polarized intimacy with significant losses teraction. This emphasizes that such re- in casual community contact. search is still applicable to varying con- texts today. This is also referred to as community sev- erance where motorised traffic speed, vol- A number of studies have also demon- ume or infrastructure acts as a psycho- strated the impacts of motor vehicles on logical or physical barrier to community health and wellbeing (Dora and Phillips, interaction by inhibiting access to goods, 2000; Gee and Takeuchi, 2004; Marsh and services and people (Boniface et al, 2015; Watts, 2012). Gee and Takeuchi (2004) Mindell and Karlsen, 2012). The health im- examined relationships between traffic pacts of community severance have been stress, vehicular burden, health and well- discussed by Boniface et al (2015) with being in urban populations and found that emphasis on the effect of transport on so- people living in areas with high vehicular cial interactions and the impact this has burden reported not only the most traffic on individual and community health and stress, but also the lowest health status quality of life. Additionally, Mindell and and increased depressive symptoms. A Karlsen (2012) found through a compre- number of studies including Dora and Phil- hensive literature review that community lips (2000) have examined the effects of severance impacts significantly on street vehicle pollution on health and wellbeing livability, travel and social networks and and found that the consequences of mo- it is suggested that such impacts directly torised traffic volume and transportation contribute to poorer health. Community systems go beyond the individual, having severance has various understandings the ability to affect the health and wellbe- and interpretations however and Anciaes ing of communities. In addition, motor ve- and colleagues (2015) acknowledge that hicles can lead to injuries from accidents there is a lack of consistent guidelines for and a reduction in physical activity which the identification and solution to issues of is associated negative health outcomes. community severance. Furthermore, there is a lack of consistency and use of quanti- 3. Methods fication measures demonstrated by Anci- aes and colleagues (2015) discussion sur- The research presented in this study rounding techniques and the sensitivity of adopts Appleyard’s (1980) approach of input variables on quantification. street observations coupled with resident questionnaires and interviews, to examine A wealth of literature demonstrates the the impacts of motorised traffic volume importance of recognising that the resi- on street liveability and community sev- dential street should be viewed as a neigh- erance within the context of Christchurch, bourhood, a destination and social centre, New Zealand. To gather information on rather than a channel for vehicles (App- residents in the chosen streets, a survey leyard, 1980; Hart and Parkhurst, 2011). was distributed to residents in seven study Appleyard (1980) found significant differ- sites on six streets, with options of both ences in the social nature and liveability paper and electronic completion. Respond- of streets with varying traffic volumes. He ents were also invited to participate in fur- found that motorised traffic does more ther, in-depth interviews. The six streets than just take over physical space; it has were broken into seven study sites as one a zone of influence that controls a space street, Grants Road, had two study sites psychologically, and as vehicle speed and due to significantly differing traffic condi- volume increase, the zone of influence and tions on the length of this road. Observa- home territory shrinks. He further argued tions of all study sites and their surround- that street livability is enabled in protected ing areas were used to construct figures neighbourhoods which require the right of reflecting the environmental layout and way for pedestrians and enforce accepta- ambience of each study site. Such figures World Transport Policy and Practice 61 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 were based on those used in comparative age daily traffic (AADT), with level 3 clas- studies (Appleyard, 1980; Bosselmann et sification indicating the highest volumes. al, 1999; Hart and Parkhurst, 2011), and Level 3 roads are not included in this re- were used to demonstrate the extent to search project, but to indicate their meas- which traffic volumes affect where resi- ure they are associated with high volumes, dents consider their local home area to be high speed and multi-lane roads and mo- and to show their neighbourhood connec- torways that are typically divided by a tions. carriageway with average speeds exceed- ing 75kmh (NZTA, 2013). Each street for Motorised traffic volume levels were based this study was selected because they had on the New Zealand Transport Agency’s varying traffic volume counts accessed us- (NZTA) Code of Practice for Temporary ing CCC data available on level 2, level 1 Traffic Management (CoPTTM, Fourth Edi- and low volume classification roads (CCC, tion, Second Amendment), which has been 2012/13) (Table 1). As noted, there were designed in line with the Road Controlling six streets with seven study sites in total, Authority guidelines for designating road with Grants Road broken into two study levels and has been effective since July, sites (Table 1). 2013. The CoPTTM describes annual aver- Study Classifica- NZTA Classifica- Traffic Volume tion tion (VPD†) Milton Street heavy level 2 13,720 Grants Road (a) heavy level 2 8,400 Grants Road (b) moderate level 1 2,500 Roker Street moderate level 1 1,400 Proctor Street light level 1 500 Taunton Green light low volume 150* Stenness Avenue light low volume 100* Table 1: Traffic Volume and Street Information * CCC does not display accurate information for counts of less than 500 VPD, estimated numbers only. † Vehicles per day, two way traffic volumes.

Heavy Moderate Light Total N N N N % Gender Female 10 11 10 31 59.6 Male 6 9 6 21 40.4

Age <30 0 0 0 0 0 30 - 39 3 2 0 5 9.6 40 - 49 2 3 2 7 13.5 50 - 59 3 10 7 20 38.5 60+ 8 5 7 20 38.5

Ethnicity NZ European 12 15 15 42 80.8 Asian 1 2 0 3 5.8 MELAA 0 1 0 1 1.9 Other* 3 2 1 6 11.5 Table 2: Descriptive Information *Included European, Canadian, English, Irish, Scottish

World Transport Policy and Practice 62 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 4. Results and Discussion streets, and four from heavy trafficked streets. There were slightly more female There were 52 respondents involved in respondents than male and the mean age this research, a fairly small response rate of respondents was 50.6, with the majori- for the given areas; 16 from the heavy ty of respondents aged above 50 and none traffic streets, 20 from the moderate traf- below 30. The majority of respondents, fic streets, and 16 from the light traffic 80.8%, were New Zealand European with streets. Interviews were conducted with only small percentages of Middle Eastern, eleven residents; two from light trafficked Latin American and African (MELAA), Asian streets, five from moderately trafficked and other ethnicities (Table 2). Addition-

Figure 1: Local Home Areas

World Transport Policy and Practice 63 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 ally, there were no respondents of Māori tive connotations, indicating a dissatisfac- or Pacific ethnicities which was surprising tion with the street environments in areas given that these two ethnic groups make of heavy traffic volume (Figure 1). This is up a significant proportion of New Zealand an important consideration when discuss- residents. ing street liveability as the perceived im- age and nature of the street contribute 4.1 Home area to the way it is viewed, and subsequently Light and moderately trafficked streets used, by both residents and visitors. commonly had local home areas extend- ing into the street or beyond, with many The perceived negative liveability impacts respondents noting local recreational ar- of motorised traffic volume can also alter eas and greenspaces as areas of particular the way in which the street is utilised. In importance (Figure 1). Additionally, heavy this research, street utilisation was judged trafficked streets had significantly smaller on a scaled index score based on respons- local home areas with the majority only es to five variables; restricting children encompassing the respondent’s house or from playing and crossing the street, ac- part of their side of the street, emphasis- companying children to school, going out ing the barrier effect motorised traffic can on the street less often, sitting outside less have in residential areas. Comments giv- frequently, and having a fenced property. en during interviews describing the street There was a significant relationship, indi- image for light and moderately trafficked cating that as motorised traffic volumes streets demonstrate that the most com- rose residents were increasingly aware of mon feelings associated with these street the impact it was having on the liveability environments were positive, indicating an of their street (R2 = 0.18, p = 0.02). appreciation of the quality and nature of the streets with low traffic volumes (Figure 4. 2 Community Severance 1). Conversely, responses from heavy traf- To understand the effect of motorised traf- ficked streets have predominantly nega- fic volume on community severance, re-

Figure 2: Sense of Belonging

World Transport Policy and Practice 64 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 spondents were asked to indicate if they Engwicht (1999). While motorised traffic felt a sense of belonging to their street volumes seem to be impacting on the rela- and community or not (Figure 2). tionship with community belonging within this study further research is required to This shows that as motorised traffic volume understand the extent of this and what increases, the proportion of residents who other factors are involved. Respondents feel a sense of belonging to their street were also asked to indicate on a map of and community reduces slightly. While their street the number and location of other factors may have contributed to this neighbours they knew or had connections relationship, motorised traffic volume can with. These maps were transformed into act as a barrier to social interaction by representative images to protect the con- taking away the street space both physi- fidentiality of respondents (Figure 3). cally and psychologically as discussed by

Figure 3: Neighbourhood Connections

World Transport Policy and Practice 65 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Light and moderately trafficked streets teraction between the study streets dem- had high numbers of neighbourhood con- onstrates the impact and restrictions that nections, with an average of 5.1 and 5.9 motorised traffic volumes are having on respectively, extending to both sides and this aspect of community severance within ends of the street (Figure 3). Heavy traf- Christchurch. ficked streets were shown to have an aver- age of only 2.1 neighbourhood connections While neighbourhood connections are an however, significantly less than those of important aspect when discussing commu- the light and moderately trafficked streets. nity severance, the level of neighbourhood Additionally, neighbourhood connections interaction is also important to consider on heavy streets are shown to centre on as it reflects not only how many residents one side of the road only with only five know each other but how often they stop connections extending to the other side of to interact. An indication of how often re- the street, once again demonstrating the spondents involved in this research inter- barrier effect of motorised traffic volumes act with others in their street and commu- in residential areas (Figure 3). Comments nity can be seen (Figure 4). from respondents on heavy trafficked streets demonstrate that motorised traffic Respondents from all streets had occasion- volume acts as an inhibitor to community al community interactions, while respond- interaction with a decline in people talking ents from light and moderate trafficked and children playing, and the street be- streets had significantly more frequent ing viewed predominantly as a place for interactions, and respondents from heavy vehicles. Comments from respondents on trafficked streets were more likely to never moderate and light trafficked streets are have interactions within their community shown to have very different perceptions (Figure 4). Motorised traffic volume may of the social interaction within their neigh- be a contributor to this relationship as it bourhood and community however, with restricts residents from using the street the majority of respondents commenting space outside their home as an area for on the regularity of social interactions. community interaction. The distinct differences in community inin-

Figure 4: Community Interactions

World Transport Policy and Practice 66 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 The level of community annoyance with- the substantial effects of changes in road in the research areas was also used as a closures and traffic diversions due to post- measure to judge the community sever- earthquake circumstances and road re- ance impacts of motorised traffic. Commu- pairs. Additionally, while being broken into nity annoyance was based on responses intersectional counts for heavily travelled to the level of annoyance felt by the fol- or long streets, it does not take into ac- lowing factors around their home; dangers count varying traffic volumes which can be affecting children, motorised traffic noise present within segments of some streets, and vibration, lack of greenspaces, lack of particularly those less travelled, some- contact with others, and motorised traffic thing that was notable in observations of volumes. The only significant finding was moderate streets involved in this research. regarding the traffic volume variable, in- Further research, wider research areas, dicating that as motorised traffic volumes and up to date data is needed to give a rose residents were increasingly annoyed better indication of accurate motorised by its presence (R2=0.17, p=0.001). Re- traffic volumes within Christchurch and spondents were also given the opportunity their causal relationship with street live- to note other factors that contributed to ability, community severance and health. annoyance including on-street parking and general neighbourhood noise, however the 6. Conclusion majority of respondents noted motorised Streets and roads are where the majority traffic as their primary source of annoy- of the world’s population live, and are also ance. how a large proportion of the world’s in- habitants access the essential elements of 5. Limitations life. How we use such spaces has evolved within varying contexts over time to suit There are various limitations implicit in societal and environmental norms, dem- this study, including that the research onstrating the complex nature of the areas within Christchurch are limited in street space, its use, and the impact it number, and data collected from this study can have on populations. This is particu- is not fully representative of the popula- larly important when discussing residential tion within either the research areas or spaces and communities where increas- greater Christchurch. The sample size of ing motorised traffic volumes in the street 52 is too small to confidently draw caus- space have been shown to impact signifi- al inferences from and the response rate cantly on livability and community sever- was fairly small, indicating that findings ance worldwide since the 1970s and 80s, would be more robust if gathered from a with many areas implementing urban de- larger sample of residents within the study signs and initiatives to minimise the nega- sites. Additionally, there were no respond- tive impacts of vehicular dominance. While ents of either Māori or Pacific ethnicities there are many other factors which impact or of younger age groups. While this may on these relationships, research from var- have reflected the demographic nature of ying contexts has identified the repressive the chosen study areas it is an important and pervasive effect that motorised traffic consideration for both this study and fu- can have in residential spaces. ture research. Further research should This research sought to understand the also control for confounding variables to extent to which motorised traffic volume strengthen findings. The accuracy of data was impacting on such relationships with- over time and space also needs to be tak- in contemporary Christchurch, examining en into consideration, presenting a further the effects on street liveability and com- limitation of this study as the data used munity severance. Results indicate that for both motorised traffic volume and de- residents on light and moderate trafficked mographic information are from 2013 and streets have more neighbourhood connec- may not accurately reflect the current situ- tions and community interactions in addi- ation within Christchurch. Motorised traffic tion to perceiving their street to be more volumes levels are based on classification liveable. Furthermore, residents on heavy by average annual daily traffic and reflect trafficked streets were shown to have a counts which do not take into considera- negative perception of their street envi- tion temporal and seasonal variations or ronment, smaller local home areas and a World Transport Policy and Practice 67 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 decreased sense of belonging to their com- Christchurch City Council (2012). Volume munity. This affirms relationships found in Count Search. Retrieved from: www.ccc. previous research, indicating that increas- govt.nz/CCC.Web.TrafficCount/cityleisure/ ing motorised traffic volumes can have projectstoimprovechristchurch/transport/ significant impacts on street liveability trafficcount/volumecount.aspx and community wellbeing. Ideally further research will be conducted to address the Dora, C., Phillips, M., Danzon, M., and Mol- limitations of this study and specifically terer, W (2000). ‘Transport, environment assess the impact of motorised traffic on and health’. World Health Organization community wellbeing in a more overt and Regional Publications - European Series, substantive way. (89), 4-54.

Acknowledgments Engwicht, D (1999). Street reclaiming: This research was partially funded by the Creating livable streets and vibrant com- New Zealand Ministry of Business, Inno- munities. Annandale, NSW, Australia: Plu- vation and Employment (MBIE) ‘Resilient to Press. Urban Futures’ programme. Gee, G. C., and Takeuchi, D. T. (2004). Author details: ‘Traffic stress, vehicular burden and well- Wiki J., Kingham S., and Banwell K. being: A multilevel analysis’. Social Sci- Dept. of Geography, ence and Medicine, 59 (2), 405-414. University of Canterbury Christchurch, New Zealand, 8140 Hart. J. and Parkhurst, G (2011) ‘Driven to excess: Impacts of motor vehicles on the Email: quality of life of residents of three streets [email protected] in Bristol, UK’, World Transport Policy and Practice, 17 (2), 12-30. References: Anciaes, P. R., Jones, P., and Mindell, J. S Kingston, Reynolds, Thom and Allard- (2015). ‘Community severance: Where is ice Limited (1982). Traffic in residential it found and at what cost?’ Transport Re- streets: The social response. Wellington: views, doi:10.1080/01441647.2015.1077 Road Research Unit, National Roads Board. 286 Marsh, K. and Watts, C (2012) ‘Literature Appleyard, D (1980). ‘Livable streets: review on community severance and so- Protected neighborhoods?’ Annals of the cial connectedness: Definitions, pathways American Academy of Political and Social and measurement’. NZTA. Sourced from: Science, 451 (1), 106-117. www.nzta.govt.nz/assets/resources2012

Boniface, S., Scantlebury, R., Watkins, Mindell, J. S., and Karlsen, S (2012). ‘Com- S., and Mindell, J (2015). ‘Health implica- munity severance and health: What do we tions of transport: Evidence of effects of actually know?’ Journal of Urban Health, transport on social interactions’. Journal of 89 (2), 232-246. Transport and Health, 2 (3), 441-446. New Zealand Transport Agency (2013). Bosselmann, P., Kronemeyer, T., and Mac- Code of Practice for Temporary Traffic donald, E (1999). ‘Livable streets revisit- Management (4th Edition, Amendment ed’. Journal of the American Planning As- 2). ISBN 987-0-478-40773-0. Retrieved sociation, 65 (2), 168-180. from: www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/code- temp-traffic-management/docs Christchurch City Council (2012). Road Level Classification List. Regulations 2012. Tranter, P., and Pawson, E (2001). ‘Chil- Retrieved from: resources.ccc.govt.nz/ dren’s access to local environments: A files/RoadLevelClassificationList.pdf case-study of Christchurch, New Zealand’. Local Environment, 6 (1), 27-48.

World Transport Policy and Practice 68 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Transportation Equity in Morocco: analysis has not gained enough attention A preliminary analysis of Casablanca’s in tram line project studies as a concept Tram Line. of its own. This research is a preliminary Asmâa AIT BOUBKR analysis of mobility equity in the city of Casablanca undergoing the implementing Introduction of the first Tram Line.

Transportation continues to be a civil Our focus is largely on: rights issue. Transportation investments, enhancements, and financial resources - Measuring vertical equity, i.e the distri- can bring new life and revitalization to bution of benefits and costs across socio- much needed urban areas and disadvan- economic groups, with a particular focus taged people . It provides access to oppor- on poor population; tunity and serves as a key component in - Examination of the impact of the First addressing poverty, unemployment, and Tram-line on the disadvantaged people’s equal opportunity goals while ensuring ac- quality of life and general satisfaction. cess to education, health care, and oth- er public services. Transportation policy Due to lack of data, it was not possible to tends to achieve equity objectives. conduct a horizontal equity analysis.

In the context of transportation the con- This article is structured as follow: 1st cept of equity refers to the fair distribu- section provides a literature review about tion of benefits and costs that arise from equity aspects; section 2 provides some transport between travelers. As explained background about the case study metro- by Holden (2013), mobility equity refers politan area and the transportation policy to an access to a certain minimum level of implemented there; section 3 describes mobility for all people. the methodology of the research section 4 provides the results and finally the section There are growing body of literature and 5 concludes and discusses the results. studies addressing the concept of equity in transportation planning and investments 1. Equity in transportation all over the world. The USA (Pyrialakou & al. 2016), UK (Litman 2016), Germany 1.1 Equity Definition (Shirmohammadli et al. 2015), Australia In transportation planning and invest- (Curie et al. 2015), Iran (Mortazavi and ment, the subject of equity is becoming Akbarzadeh 2017), Israel (Nahmias-bi- increasingly important and there is no ran et al. 2013) Canada and a few Latin consensus among scholars on how trans- American countries (Lucas 2012) have ac- portation equity should be defined (Litman tively attempted to revise their planning 2017, Thomopoulos et al 2009). and policy perspective to account for the phenomenon of transport disadvantage. The Oxford English Dictionary defines the term Equity as “The quality of being equal In Morocco, the city of Casablanca - The or fair; fairness, impartiality; even-hand- 5th largest city of the country, with five ed dealing”. In the economic literature, million inhabitants- is facing important equity refers to the fairness in the distri- transport challenges of current burgeoning bution of impacts (goods and services or cities: the social sustainability of transpor- costs and benefits) and to the correspond- tation sector remains inadequate, notably ing injustice caused by substantial uncom- for the poor and women. pensated losses.

In order to remedy to this situation, the Mo- In the context of transportation, the con- roccan Government has designed a broad cept of equity refers to the fair distribution program of investments in Casablanca by of transportation effects between travel- implementing a network of four tramway ers (Litman 2002), especially for “ter- lines. Improving Casablanca’s transporta- ritorially excluded individuals” whom are tion systems tends to achieve social eq- “those from the poorest areas, which are uity objectives. However, transport equity suffering often from their peripheral lo- World Transport Policy and Practice 69 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 cation, limited accessibility, lack of basic pared with others in their community. It infrastructure, socio-economic backward- focuses on two issues: access for people ness, low level of education development, with disabilities, and support for transit deteriorating housing and life conditions, and special mobility services. difficulties with access to public services and the huge number of people which be- 1.2 Indicators of transportation equity long to groups with risk of social exclu- Transportation equity analysis is not a sim- sion” (Zakowska, Pulawska 2014). ple issue because of the diversity of types of equity, numerous impacts to consider However, transportation equity analysis and various ways of measuring these im- is not a simple issue. As explained by Lit- pacts (Litman 2002). However, there are man (2017) there are no recognized and two commonly used primary indicators of acceptable methods for analyzing equity transportation system performance: mo- impacts of transport because there are bility and accessibility. various types, measurement units, and categories of people to consider Two types Mobility reflects to the ease of moving of equity are identified: Horizontal Equity throughout the transportation system. The and vertical Equity. primary measures of this are travel time savings and travel costs. Horizontal Equity implies to give the same treatment to people in an identical situ- - Travel time savings can be significant ation. Consumers should “get what they benefit to the poor that typically face pay for and pay for what they get”. This very long travel times due to a combina- is concerned with the fairness of impact tion of poor location and limited access allocation between individuals and groups to high-speed modes. considered comparable in ability and need. - Travel costs or affordability is a key constraint to mobility among the urban In transportation, horizontal equity re- poor. There is a need to be cognizant to fers to the distribution of costs and ben- the equity implications of fare policies efits which are results of external effect (Deakin and Harvey). (environmental sustainability and climate change, access to basic and secondary Accessibility is perceived as the ease of services…). reaching a number of key activities and opportunities (education, health care, Vertical Equity, is based on the idea that employment…). Two types of accessibility those who earn more money, or have measures can be distinguished (Floridea more economic resources, should be taxed Di Ciommo, yoram shiftan 2017): at higher rates than those earning less money. In transportation, this approach - Isochrones measures used to deter- supports vulnerable individuals or social mine the accessibility level each group groups, who could be in a difficult situation has; (children, disabled people, older people…). - Gravity-based indicators measure the The vertical equity can be stratified (Lit- value of destination the further it is lo- man 2016) into: cated from the place of residence of pop- ulation group. - Vertical Equity With Regard to Income and Social Class: transport is most equi- Bills and Walker (2016) distinguished two table if it provides the greatest benefit at high level approaches to transportation the least cost to disadvantaged groups, equity analysis. The first one called “mod- therefore compensating for overall social eling approach” refers to equity impacts inequity. This approach is often used to using regional travel demand model. The support transport subsidies and oppose second one, “non-modeling approach” is price increases. characterized by the use of spatial analy- - Vertical Equity With Regard to Mobility sis tools to map the residential locations of Need and Ability poor communities in relation to location of the proposed transportation projects. This is a measure of how well an individ- ual’s transportation needs are met com- World Transport Policy and Practice 70 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 2. Background - Most users have to inefficiently com- bine different tickets, passes, and fares According to a report1, existing conditions for the same journey because of defi- of inequitable transportation accessibility ciencies in intermodal interoperability. among the city of Casablanca have result- - Accessibility to public transport is espe- ed from transportation planning process- cially problematic for people with limited es. The poor cannot use public transport mobility (PLM), including the elderly and services. Public transport coverage of poor women that are pregnant or are carrying neighborhoods is frequently insufficient children. because of their location in peripheral ur- - Traffic accidents disproportionately af- ban areas and the poor quality of roads. fect the poor as pedestrians, cyclists and motorcyclists are the most vulnerable 2.1 Mobility characteristics in Casablanca road users and account for the majority The Demand for urban mobility in Casa- of traffic-related deaths and injuries. blanca has sharply increased in the last decades. However, Walking remains the This situation hinders the citizens’ access primary mode of transport of the poor, al- to jobs, education, and health services, though the urban environment is largely which perpetuates the current deficit of unfavorable to pedestrians and the length social integration. of trips tends to increase. The table1 presents the key characteristics of trans- In order to remedy this situation , the Gov- port demand and modes in Casablanca2. ernment has designed a broad program of

. 11 million trips per day . 2.9 trips (on average) per inhabitant per day . 35 % of trips are related to commuting to centers of education . 28 % of trips are from domiciles to work places . 63 % of trips are obligatory (not elective) . 140 vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants . 53 % of inhabitants have to walk due to lack of transport . Taxis: 15,000 units . Bus system: 736 buses for 77 lines covering 1,350 kilometers; fare = 4 dirham . Tramway (since 2012): 1 line of 31 kilometers, 48 stations, and 37 cars with 600 seats; Fare = 6 dirhams (0,09€)

Table 1: key characteristics of transport demand and modes in Casablanca

2.2 Insufficiencies of urban transport in investments in Casablanca by implement- Casablanca ing a network of four tramway lines that Based on the analysis of available docu- connects Casablanca’s strategic hubs, two mentation (urban master plans, World traversal (T1, T2) and two radial (T3, T4). Bank Reports and data from urban trans- These lines will interchange with the oper- port operators), the main insufficiencies of ational AlBidaoui suburban railways (Fig- urban transport in Casablanca are: ure 1). By 2022, Casablanca will have a - The commercial speed of public urban network totalling 76 route km costing 5.9 transport as reported by transport op- billion dirhams (Figure 1). erators is particularly low and unpredict- able. It may go down to around 5 kilom- The first tramway line (T1) for the city has eters per hour on average during peak been launched on December 2012. At 31 hours. km in length, the line connects the city’s Eastern districts (Sidi Moumem and Mou- 1 DOCUMENT OF THE WORLD BANK Report No. 101010-MA) November 2015 lay Rachid) with the Southwest (Hay Has-

2 Autorité Organisatrice des Déplacements Urbains. sani and the university district) via the city “Situation de la Mobilité à Casablanca,” Casablanca, centre. September 2014. World Transport Policy and Practice 71 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Figure 1: Casablanca’s Tram Line network by 2022

By 2013, the tramway had met its objec- factors that apply, the more disadvan- tives by carrying over 100,000 passen- taged an individual or group can be con- gers a day. However, only relatively few sidered. For example, a person who has a passengers or 1 percent of travel demand low income but is physically able, has no (100,000 passengers per day) are served care giving responsibilities, and lives in an by the tramway, which had cost as much accessible community is not significantly as US$800 million. transportation disadvantaged, but if that person develops a disability, must care for 3. Methodology a young child, or moves to an automobile- dependent location, their degree of disad- Social meaning of public transportation vantage increases. service is not identical for all citizens. Public transportation is considered an es- Litman (2002) introduced some criteria to sential good for captive users but only identify potentially vulnerable people such an option for choice users (whom own a as having low-income, being car-less or car). It’s better to distribute public trans- living in a geographically disadvantaged portation services based on vertical equity area etc. (Mortazavi and Akbarzadeh 2017). In this study the analysis of vertical equity Vertical equity evaluation requires that focuses on evaluating the distributional people be categorized by demographic impacts of the first line Tram among vari- and geographic factors such as income, ous groups of the population by using de- employment status, age, education level, mographic and geographic factors: gender, car ownership and the place of residence to identify those who are trans- Geographic factors: People living in pe- port disadvantaged (Fan and Huang 2011; ripheral urban areas with low income and Hine and Mitchell 2001; Jiao and Dillivan served by the first tram line (T1) (figure 2013; Karner and Niemeier 2013). 2 & 3). The income profile of the served areas is mixed, ranging from upper-mid- Disadvantaged status evaluation should dle income households to very low income take into account the degree and number people. (Figure 2). of these factors that apply to an individu- al. The greater their degree and the more

World Transport Policy and Practice 72 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 In this study, the vertical equity analyses will be conducted on a per-trip rather than Demographic factors per-kilometer basis and per- person rather Age >55 years than per-household (Litman 2012). Income <2000 Dhs/month Vertical equity was conducted using de- scriptive statistics to analyze the distribu- Economical -Unemployed, tion of the first Tram Line’s impacts on status -Retired travel behavior of different groups.

Gender Female Data collection Educational Level Illiterate This study is based on an on-board sur- vey conducted in 2014, two years after the first tram line was launched. It was

Figure 2: Casablanca’s poverty map

Figure 3: Casablanca’s first Tram Line

World Transport Policy and Practice 73 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Unemployed 1.7% Economical Retired 3.0% Status Student 27.8% Employee 61.4% 15-24yrs 36.0% 25-34yrs 28.8% Age 35-44yrs 15.7% 45-54yrs 11.7% 55yrs+ 7.8% Male 59.3% Gender Female 40.7% <2000 Dh 7.0% 2001-4000 Dh 31.7% 4001-8000 Dh 33.8% Income 8001-14000 Dh 15.7% 14001-20000 Dh 8.4% 20001-25000 Dh 3.5%

Table 2: Socio-economic characteristics of Tram Line passengers designed to estimate the overall percep- tive users; they used the bus for their tion and satisfaction of passengers with travel before the implementing of the 1st the Tram services. The survey included tram line (table 2). passenger socio-economic characteristics, trip origin and destination as well as travel Gender issues in public urban transport behavior which includes trip frequency, are also particularly relevant in Casablan- travel purpose, trip duration and portion ca as women are less reliant on public ur- of passenger income devoted to transport. ban transport. The population of the survey is composed of 3000 passengers. The students and the employee use the Tramway intensively (more than twice a 4.Results day). During the week, the tramway is used mainly for the trip home work or 4.1 Who use the Tramway? home study, and the trip duration declared The majority of tramway passengers are by the users is more than 30 minutes. students, employees with an average Passengers were asked for their satisfac- age of 34 years. Before the tram line was tion with the using of the tramway com- launched, 90% of the passengers are cap pared to the bus system. 95% of the pas- sengers are generally satisfied.

Figure 4: Trip frequency for different groups

World Transport Policy and Practice 74 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 4.2 Vertical equity analysis As Casablanca residents’ income rises Vertical equity was investigated between they will tend to choose automobiles as four groups: Students, seniors, unem- their main mode of transport, which ex- ployed and low-income people. The figure plain the low average of public transport 4 shows that unemployed (1,7%), seniors budget for higher income (1% for people (7,8%) and low-income people are the earning more than 8000 Dh/month). least mobile group. The low-income group frequently travels on foot or by bicycle. 5. Discussion and conclusions

Travel cost The increasing rate of mobility-disadvan- Affordability is acknowledged as a key con- taged groups as well as the lack of ade- straint to mobility among the urban poor. quate mobility equity studies in Morocco In this case, the tramway offers lower inspired this study as an introductory work fares as reported by 85% of passengers. for this issue.

Despite relatively low fares in Casablanca This paper presents some results of the compared to other middle-income coun- preliminary analysis on transport equity in tries (World Bank, 2015), the poor are of- Morocco. Examining the data and consid- ten priced out of urban transport due to ering the results of vertical equity enables the necessity to combine different modes. an evaluation of whether the new tram Spending on urban transport can repre- line promotes equity among four separate sent as much as 20 percent of the poorest disadvantage groups -Students, seniors, households’ incomes in Casablanca. unemployed and low-income people- in Casablanca. This analysis by socioeco- However, the portion (per day) of poor nomic variables showed that unemployed, people income (less than 4000 Dhs) de- seniors and low-income people are the voted to tram line still important (10%) least mobile group despite relatively low even if the tramway is perceived as af- fares. fordable. This situation can be explained by the fact that most users have to inef- However, the tram line is students’ first ficiently combine different tickets, passes, choice of transport mode thanks to the and fares for the same journey because of low-price tickets. deficiencies in intermodal interoperability (figure 5).

Figure 5: Proportion of income spent on public transport (per day)

World Transport Policy and Practice 75 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 A World Bank report (2015, page 3) con- Fan, Y., Huang, A., (2011). How Afford- firms these results. It shows that “Social able is Transportation? An Accessibility- sustainability of the urban transport sec- Based Evaluation. CTS Report 11-12, Tran- tor remains inadequate, thus worsening sitway Impacts Research Program, Center the deficit of social integration”. Gender for Transportation Studies. issues have become increasingly relevant as a rapidly growing number of women be- Hine, J., Mitchell, F. (2001). Better for come more reliant on public urban trans- everyone? Travel experiences and trans- port. However, despite the implementation port exclusion. Urban Studies, 38(2), 319- of the Tram Line, most women still experi- 332 ence inadequacies particularly in terms of safety, which obstruct their access to ba- Holden E, Linnerud K, Banister D. (2013). sic social services, limit their labor force Sustainable passenger transport: Back to participation, and potentially reduce their Brundtland. Transportation Research Part income. Accessibility is especially prob- A, 54, p. 67 lematic for persons with limited mobility (PLM), including the elderly, which repre- Jiao, J. and D. Maxwell. (2013). Transit sent up to 18 percent of citizens in major deserts: The gap between demand and cities. supply. Journal of Public Transportation 16(3): 23-39 Future studies should calculate the Gini in- dex to measure the horizontal equity and Karner, A., Niemeier, D. (2013). Civil rights should also investigate the incorporation guidance and equity analysis methods for of equity issues into the appraisal of trans- regional transportation plans: a critical re- port projects; in order to define where and view of literature and practice. Journal of for whom transport plans are really made. Transport Geography, 33(0), 126-134.

Author details: Litman, T., (2013). The New Transpor- Asmâa AIT BOUBKR tation Planning Paradigm. ITE Journal Vol. Laboratory of research on Management, 83, June, pp. 20-28 Information and Governance (LARMIG), Faculty of Legal, Economic and Social Sci- Litman, T., (2017) Evaluating Transpor- ences Ain Sebâa, tation Equity Guidance For Incorporating University Hassan II Distributional Impacts in Transportation Casablanca, Morocco Planning. Victoria Transport Policy Insti- tute Email: [email protected] Litman, T. (2002). Evaluating Transporta- tion Equity. World Transport Policy and References: Practice 8: 50–65. Bills, T.S., Walker, J. L., (2016). Look- ing beyond the mean for equity analysis: Lucas, K. (2012). Transport and Social Examining distributional impacts of trans- Exclusion: Where are We Now? Transport portation improvements. Transport Policy Policy 20: 105–113. 54(2017) 61-69. Mortazavi, SAH., Akbarzadeh, M. (2017). Deakin, E., Harvey, G., Pozdena, R., A Framework for Measuring the Spatial Yarema, G., (1996). Transportation Pric- Equity in the Distribution of Public Trans- ing Strategies for California: An Assess- portation Benefits. Journal of Public Trans- ment of Congestion, Emissions, Energy. portation 20 (1), 44 – 62 And Equity Impacts. University of Califor- nia Transportation Center. Pyrialakou, V. Dimitra & Gkritza, Konstan- tina & Fricker, Jon. (2016). Accessibility, Di Ciommo, F., Shiftan, Y., (2017). Trans- mobility, and realized travel behavior: port equity analysis. Transport Reviews, Assessing transport disadvantage from a 37:2, 139-151 policy perspective. Journal of Transport Geography. 51. 252-269. World Transport Policy and Practice 76 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Ricciardi, A. M., J. Xia, and G. Currie.( 2015). Exploring Public Transport Equity Between Separate Disadvantaged Cohorts: A Case Study in Perth, Australia. Journal of Transport Geography 43: 111–122.

Ruiz, M., J. M. S. Pons, J. M. Lladó, and M. R. M. Reynés. (2014). Improving equity of public transportation planning. The case of Palma de Mallorca (Spain). Paper pre- sented at proceedings of the AGILE’2014 international conference on geographic in- formation science, Castellón, Spain, June 3–6.

Shirmohammadli, A.Matin & Louen, Conny & Vallée, Dirk. (2016). Exploring mobility equity in a society undergoing changes in travel behavior: A case study of Aachen, Germany. Transport Policy. 46. 32-39.

Thomopoulos, N., Grant-Muller, S., & Tight, M.R. (2009). Incorporating equity considerations in transport infrastructure evaluation: Current practice and a pro- posed methodology. Evaluation and Pro- gram Planning, 32, 351-359.

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Zakowska L., Pulawska S. (2014), Equity in Transportation: New Approach in Trans- port Planning – Preliminary Results of Case Study in Krakow, “Transport Problems”, 9, 3, 67–74.

World Transport Policy and Practice 77 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Electromobility: Will a changeover and new technological developments is to electric-powered vehi-cles make foreseeable. To ensure a positive impact transport systems environmentally on solving future transport and environ- friendly? mental challenges in urban and regional Working Group of German and Austrian areas it will be necessary for the involved Emeritus Transport Professors political decision makers to establish the necessary framework and parameters Foreword without delay. A group of emeritus professors in transport studies and retired directors of transport There are, however, many open ques- re-search institutes at German and Aus- tions that must be clarified in order to trian universities meet annually in Fulda, take these im-portant steps. More inten- Germany, to discuss evolving issues in the sive participation of the involved cities and transport field. At these gatherings, much regions, civil society, political actors and attention has been paid to developments policymakers, administrative bodies and surrounding the use of electric-powered business leaders in this crucial process is vehicles in urban and re-gional transport therefore essential. systems. At their most recent meeting, the transport experts have called on all in- Electromobility: Will a changeover volved parties to use the emerging techni- to electric-powered vehicles make cal possibilities responsibly for the general transport systems environmentally welfare of persons, cities and the environ- friendly? ment, and to make a realistic assessment of what these possibilities in fact are and 1. All forms of energy generation and use what their effects will be (see accompany- entail costs ing text). In the current public discussion, the tech- nology of the drive systems used for cars The transport experts see long-term op- and trucks has been brought into close portunities to improve climate and envi- connection with desired changes in the ronmental protection in urban and region- global climate and environment. Limiting al transport systems through the use of global warming is recognised as an impor- electromobility. How-ever, they point out tant objective around the world. An effort the necessity of introducing these new to limit CO2 emissions in accordance with technical possibilities with an informed the Paris Agree-ment is one focus of this overview of the overall context of urban effort. Another focal point concerns nitro- and regional transport systems and set- gen oxide emissions coming from diesel- tlement patterns. They identify the many powered vehicles, an additional matter as yet unclarified technical questions as- which demands effective countermeas- sociated with electromobility. In this con- ures. Both of these goals give rise to de- nection they call for an augmentation of mands for change in the transport and the strategic ap-proach “Clean Energy in mobility concepts used in the field of ve- Transport” outlined by the Austrian Trans- hicle propulsion systems – particularly in port Ministry (bmvit). For an independent urban areas. performance review of electromobility de- velopments, a “national electromo-bility Road-based transport is responsible for a expert platform” should also be established significant portion of ongoing2 CO emis- in Austria as well as in Germany, which in- sions. In the past, the principal effort to cludes independent experts from the field reduce CO2 emissions has been made of transport planning. The professors call through the de-velopment of more effi- for a comprehensive impact assessment cient internal combustion motors. Another and also for an informed consideration of possible route to re-duce such emissions possible nega-tive effects that may occur could be the use of electrically powered in the development of electromobility. vehicles in connection with modern bat- tery technology and fuel cells or hydrogen Increased use of electrically powered road combustion. More and more gov-ernmen- vehicles in personal and freight transport tal support is available for such develop- in the pursuit of climate protection goals ments, which also have a growing posi-tive World Transport Policy and Practice 78 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 reception in the general public discourse. Of course, it is advantageous if at least In consequence, they are being pursued part of the energy used to power vehicles more and more intensively by the involved comes from renewable sources (wind, so- industries. Nonetheless, it is necessary to lar). In the current discussion, however, pose the question to what degree e-mobil- often the prob-lems of alternative power ity really serves environmentally friendly sources (electric vehicles) are not ad- trans-port policy and what secondary ef- equately considered. In the following pa- fects are associated with it. per, the main alternative to the internal combustion motor currently under consid- Against the background of ongoing dis- eration – namely, battery-powered electric cussions of exhaust emission values from vehicles – will be analysed with regard to diesel motors that have become almost a number of disadvantages that to date incomprehensible, the public debate re- have received little attention. Other elec- garding future transport systems is con- tric-powered alternatives such as fuel-cell centrated mainly on various vehicle pro- vehicles will not be considered here even pulsion technologies, which should either though many of the factors that will be cit- be required or regulated one way or an- ed also are relevant for such systems. In other. This is particularly the case for elec- the following examination, existing deficits tric-powered vehicles. A possible man- in the current strategy will be identified datory introduction of such vehicles by which urgently need to be addressed. a certain date (e.g. 2030) has been the subject of heated debate among politi- cians of various parties in Germany and 2. Deficits in the comparison of elec- Austria. In this situation, it is useful and tric-powered vehicles and other forms necessary to undertake a comprehensive of pro-pulsion scientific assessment of the current efforts to develop more efficient and environmen- 2.1 Disregard of the size and weight of ve- tally sound drive systems for vehicles. This hicles should also include an identification of the It is well known that all forms of techni- deficiencies of the existing debate as one cal progress can also trigger so-called important step in find-ing the most prom- “rebound effects” (see Santarius, Tilman, ising way forward. 2012). Thus, for example, the energy sav- ings that are achieved by more efficient There exist only highly specific and not vehicle drive systems are at least partially easily comparable1 compilations of the dissipated through more intensive vehi- advan-tage and disadvantages of various cle use as well as the purchase and use of vehicle propulsion energy sources due to larger and heavier vehi-cles with greater the com-plex chains of factors in the pro- engine power while operating costs are duction and use of energy. Depending on kept more or less constant. Precisely this the standpoint taken in the debate regard- rebound effect was in evidence in recent ing future energy sources, only certain years with the ever more exces-sive en- advantages of the one or the other type gine capacity in passenger cars – with in- of energy are highlighted, depending on creasing vehicle size and performance. In the interests of the involved parties. Of- connection with the introduction of electric ten one gets the impression in this type of vehicles, however, this type of develop- discussion that the laws of physics (which ment has not yet received the attention of course underlie the entire situation) are that it should. simply being ignored. It is a fact that in the production, storage and use of energy, It is already foreseeable, however, that energy consumption is necessary, which the automobile manufacturers are aiming typically involves direct or indirect emis- to fol-low the example of the Tesla Model sion of pollutants and the use of limited S and will bring large and heavy electric re-sources. vehicles to the market while categorising such vehicles as “ecological”. The involved 1 Also of significance in the production chain of en- ergy (including the storage of the produced energy) energy losses occurring through sheer 2 are perti-nent social factors such as child labour, oil size and weight have not been addressed production in nature sanctuaries, etc. Although rel- evant, these factors will not be considered in mor 2 Energy consumption increases disproportionately detail here. to the size of a vehicle’s frontal surface. World Transport Policy and Practice 79 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 – either as a technical or a political top- of a larger mass is simply not possible. ic3. This strategy is abetted by current law The fact that the electricity is produced at that on the one hand re-quires that speci- another removed location and that it may fied fleet averages in fuel consumption or well be that “indirect emissions” are pro-

CO2 emissions are met while calculating duced there is only ac-knowledged with the emissions from electric-powered vehi- the formulation “vehicles that are locally cles as zero and falsely undercalcu-lating free of emissions”5. the values for hybrid-drive vehicles. Even without the electrification of vehicles and However, even this description is not cor- most certainly with it, there is an urgent rect. The fact is that the particularly dan- need to limit the size and weight of pas- gerous emissions, namely fine particu- senger cars or at least to subject it to tax- late matter, are also generated with the ation. operation of elec-tric vehicles. The street cross section at the Neckartor location in 2.2 Disregard of acceleration Stuttgart has been very thoroughly stud- Owing to the characteristic line of their ied in connection with the current debate motors, electric vehicles can accelerate regarding diesel motors in Germany. The very rapidly at all speeds. In all the rel- particulate matter there has been ana- evant publications, this is judged nearly lysed in detail to determine its ori-gin, and without excep-tion to be a great benefit (a it has been shown that at least 85% of “delightful driving experience”, etc.). That emitted particulate matter in the size of PM the acceleration realised with these vehi- 10 does not come from the motors of the cles also consumes energy is only men- involved vehicles. This is a very complex tioned peripherally, if at all. That the in- situation6. Measurement results obtained creased acceleration in urban settings may by the State Institute for the Environment be exceedingly dangerous because the ve- and Conservation in Baden Württemberg hicles approach at once swiftly and silent- (LUBW) are regularly updated on the web- ly, thus denying pedestrians and bicyclists site of the Institute. A useful summary of the necessary time to react and avoid ac- the findings is provided in an article by cidents, is also hardly mentioned. Nor is Christof Vieweg7. it considered that the increased accelera- tion results in higher rates of wear to the 2.4 Disregard of energy consumption of roadway and to tyres with increased lev- electric vehicles or of the distances co- els of particulate emissions. A limitation of vered with electric power by plug-in hybrid ac-celeration capacity in electric vehicles vehicles (which presents no technical problems) Axel Friedrich, the former head of the UBA is there-fore urgently required4, also for researching for the German environmental safety reasons as the reflexes of drivers in organisation “Deutsche Umwelthilfe”, has an aging society are also declining. rightly demanded that “efficiency stand- ards must also be established for electric 2.3 Use of the description “emission-free” automobiles to prevent the waste of valu- or “locally emission-free” for electric auto- able ecologically generated electricity8.” mobiles It has often been stressed that electric ve- Ecologically generated electricity is not hicles generate no emissions – and thus available in unlimited amounts at a giv- are emission-free – in the locations where en time or place. At night when the wind they are used (in urban centres, for ex- blows less strongly, every kilowatt hour is ample). However, in accordance with the particularly valuable (more on this later). laws of physics, emission-free movement 5 A comparison of the emissions caused through the production of electricity with those resulting from 3 In addition, effects such as road wear should be motor com-bustion will not be undertaken here. The considered. Calculated approximately (Cambridge literature on this subject is as diverse as the various Road For-mula), road wear increases at a pow- viewpoints regard-ing this topic. er of 4 relative to axle load; a vehicle with twice 6 Depending on the particle size, differences can oc- a given weight increases road wear by a factor of cur which bring turbocharged petrol-fuel motors into 16. focus as a causal agent. 4 Outside of urban areas, the reflex of increas- 7 Vieweg, Christof: Feinstaub – Die Motoren sind ingly elderly drivers will in many cases also not be nicht das Problem, in ZEIT-online (2017). commensurate with the possible rates of accelera- tion. 8 See, Friedrich, Axel (2017). World Transport Policy and Practice 80 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 To act as if the energy consumption lev- 3. Errors and misconceptions regard- els in electric vehi-cles are irrelevant – as ing energy provision suggested by terms such as “zero emis- sions” or “zero energy” – has serious con- 3.1 Providing energy for electric vehicles sequences. Because these figures have is no problem also been used for the official consumption It has already been mentioned above that levels, it benefits the manufacturers to re- ecologically generated electricity is particu- place large and heavy combustion vehicles larly valuable. Making such power availa- with high CO2 emissions through large and ble in the desired quantities without time- heavy (or even heavier) electric vehicles based or location-based limits will not be so that the “fleet consumption value” is ef- possible in the directly foreseeable future. fectively reduced for the brand as a whole. In addition, there will be other consumers of such energy, for example in the heating This has a particularly unfortunate effect sector if the goal of completely eliminating with the regulation for plug-in hybrid ve- CO2 emissions for such purposes is to be hicles which in practical use only achieve met. The en-ergy requirements for heating low consumption values of combustion will compete particularly with the require- fuels when there is a sufficient amount ments for char-ging electric vehicles, es- of electric recharging. Even the specified pecially on winter nights (despite reduced petrol/diesel con-sumption values used for night-time heating needs). The scenario of the fleet consumption figures are highly a windless winter night in the year 2050 unrealistic due to the overestimation of indicates that consider-able investments distances covered with electrical power, in power storage facilities will be neces- which are included in the cal-culation with sary if ecologically generated electricity is a “zero” value. In all of this, the question going to be continuously available – and of the production, storage and dis-tribu- that is the case even without con-sidering tion of electricity remains unclarified as requirements for electric motor vehicles. well as the specific degrees of energy loss Besides the storage facilities, a com-pre- occurring in the course of these processes. hensive expansion of the power grid will The availability of sufficient capacities in be necessary to accommodate the produc- the power grid to accommodate charg- tion possibilities of green power at loca- ing infrastructure is also not automatically tions removed from the place of use. Many available. loca-tions are currently only equipped with power supply connections of insuffi- It is essential that a standardised value for cient capacity. Currently we do not have total CO2 emissions has to be introduced. integrated concepts for ecological electric- An efficiency standard for electric vehicles ity generation, its large-scale and decen- 9 could be the CO2 equivalent value of con- tralised distribution, its storage and the sumed electrical energy in an RDE (real storage-orientated conver-sion (to-liquid / driving emission) test. It would also be to-gas …). an ad-equate orientation value for plug-in hybrid vehicles because it would generally The generation of the total power neces- reflect the disadvantageous additional pet- sary for electric vehicles is in itself a sig- rol consumption resulting from the overall nificant challenge10, if one supposes that higher weight of such vehicles. The CO2 all of the currently used fossil-based fuel values set in EU regulations must reflect is to be re-placed by electric power. None- these real condi-tions. They then will be theless, with the appropriate level of effort more realistic and not set at an illusionary – which how-ever must commence imme- low range. diately – this should be possible, particu- larly because the scenario “Everyone has an electric car” will not in fact be realised so quickly.

10 See the exposition of the physicist Vince Ebert (2017) in “Spektrum der Wissenschaft” which makes reference to the peak loads that can be expected. 9 In accordance with the current energy mix so that This presentation may be questionable regarding in general an impetus is created for the development certain details but in its general thrust it is entirely of eco-logical energy production. correct. World Transport Policy and Practice 81 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 3.2 Disregard of local and time-based peak Because charging current does not simply requirements for energy with e-mobility flow out of the socket, all measures that The current discussion regarding e-mobil- im-pact transport behaviour and make it ity and electric vehicles has mostly been so that automobiles are used less inten- con-ducted by economists and automo- sively than presently will become even bile technicians with little participation more important through the process of from transport engineers. For many years, electrification of ve-hicular transport. The these specialists have directed their atten- ongoing development in demand for mo- tion to the connec-tions between settle- torised means of trans-port, which has not ment patterns and transport needs arising in the least reached its peak in Europe or in response to daily, weekly and annual internationally, can also not be ignored. occurrences and the particular problems of handling spatial and temporal peak loads. 3.3 Electric cars do not require additional If these peak loads did not occur, we would power storage in the grid because they require far fewer roadways and transport themselves serve as power storage units area in total. Managing the spatial and and can be used as such temporal peak loads in transport demand The argument is often made that the bat- represents a special problem – quite with- teries of electric vehicles can themselves out the planned decommis-sioning of all be used as a power storage facility as part coal, gas and nuclear power plants. Fea- of an intelligently managed “smart grid”. sible concepts to handle these challenges For this reason, large vehicles with large with comprehensive operation and devel- batteries will be one aspect of the solu- opment strategies are lacking at the cur- tion rather than a problem. In making this rent time. argument, it is overlooked that the daily time-based need for power with electric The efforts to level out peak hours of vehicles will probably not allow this. In the transport use run up against very strict morning, the electric car should be fully limits – as can be seen in everyday life. charged, therefore it cannot provide pow- Measures such as time-of-day-based fees er at night for light and - particu-larly in for the use of streets or charging of elec- winter - for heating and warm water. If the tric power inevitably have social conse- full battery capacity is not available in the quences. More wealthy persons can drive morning, then it may be that the whole or charge whenever they want, while less daily programme cannot be implemented. prosperous households do not have such options. Equal access to such infrastruc- Today, the peaks of electricity generation ture, however, is part of the public services in certain areas, such as the surpluses of that we aim to provide and a key element wind-generated power in Northern Ger- of social inclusion. Price-based measures many, cannot be effectively transmitted are therefore only acceptable with careful through the grid to other areas such as consideration and balancing of their social Southern Germany. All the computers in a impact. smart grid still cannot send the power of a full battery in a vehicle in Kiel to a house- Extreme peaks (both time and location- hold in Munich if the capacity constraints based) occur in transport volume – not of the grid do not allow this. Therefore a only seasonally on certain days with holi- comprehensive optimiza-tion concept tak- day and leisure travel at certain week- ing time and distance factors into account ends, but also at certain hours with daily to effectively handle the distri-bution of commuting. This will not be simple to han- power generation, energy transport via dle with the demand for electric energy networks and energy storage so as to to power electric vehicles in future. Ideas cover energy demand for transport, heat- are in development that would tend par- ing, industry, etc. needs to be prepared, ticularly to reduce nightly charging (e.g. fi-nanced and ultimately implemented. “charge at work”) and also would make use of well-supplied locations. However, substantial costs are to be expected for such measures and the required infra- structure development. World Transport Policy and Practice 82 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 4. Consequences – including electric propulsion11 – will re- sult in a global burden that is un-sustain- Every form of vehicle propulsion creates able and intolerable. A public debate that problems, and this is no less true for elec- includes issues of alternative settle-ment tric power. Concerted efforts must be un- and transport infrastructure planning, in dertaken as soon as possible within each particular with improved concepts for non- state, on an European level and interna- motorised transport and public transport tionally if electric power is to provide com- as well as the problem of truly represent- petitive as well as ecologically sound and ing the overall economic costs of different socially acceptable mobility and the future transport options is essential for a compre- of electric propul-sion is to be ensured. For hensive view of the challenge facing us, as electric power, these problems on the one is a debate regarding the propulsion sys- hand are caused in particular by the de- tems for vehicles. But these infrastructure mands regarding weight, speed and accel- issues are not popular and thus amount to eration in a new generation of vehicles. On a sort of taboo subject in transport policy. the other hand they derive from the actual energy consumption and transport behav- Viewed as a whole, it is urgently necessary iour that may occur with such vehicles. to include the development of new propul- sion technologies in an integrated ap- The expenditures necessary for the crea- proach to transport policy. This must not tion and maintenance of new infrastruc- simply rest on questions of technical inno- ture as well as the energy consumption vation but also include policies for manag- in the production and disposal of vehicles ing changes in demand and behaviour in and batteries represent further areas of order to achieve defined goals (e.g. in CO2 concern. und NOx reduc-tion). In these efforts, the measures to reduce overall transport vol- A future without CO2 emissions from motor ume (sufficiency) must complement the vehicle use definitely cannot be achieved strategies to improve efficiency and modal if we hold to the current level of motori- shifts (consistency). The electrification of sation and mileage found in developed bicycles, delivery vehicles/lorries as well western countries today, possibly with as public transport that is cur-rently pow- vehicles that are even heavier and have ered with fossil fuels also needs to be in- higher levels of acceleration that those in tegrated into a comprehensive ap-proach. use today. If we transfer only 50 percent of the current level of motorisation found in Germany or similar western countries to the world as a whole, then the number of vehicles on the planet would increase from the recently reached figure of one billion to two billion. With the transfer of the full level of motorisation to the rest of the world, there would be four billion automo- bile, a quantity that torpedoes any notion of en-vironmental compatibility.

The goal of switching over to propulsion systems for motor vehicle transport with- out CO2 emissions is necessary for the 11 Several publications which make the elimination mid-term and long-term protection of the of combustion motors the central issue of discussion global climate and environment. In pur- are there-fore highly questionable. A close reading, for example of the study of the Wuppertal Institute suing this switchover, the current mis- for Greenpeace (Rudolph. F. et al, 2017) which calls conceptions regarding electric propulsion for the elimination of combustion motors reveals that need to be avoided. Without infrastructure the prerequisite for this elimination for 2035 includes a level of motorisation at half the current level, light- planning for settlement and transport that er automobiles, a huge ex-pansion of public transport reduces the overall transport activity, any and a general shortening of distances travelled in conceivable form of automo-tive transport everyday life. But these are pre-cisely the challeng- ing points which are not sufficiently addressed in the study. World Transport Policy and Practice 83 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Author details: References: Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Klaus J. Beckmann Ebert, Vince Was wäre, wenn wir alle ele- KJB.Kom - Prof. Dr. Klaus J. Beckmann ktrisch fahren würden? Spektrum der Wis- Kommunalforschung, Beratung, Modera- sen-schaft, 19.03.2017, in the Internet: tion und Kommunikation Berlin http://www.spektrum.de/kolumne/was- c/o UrbanPlan, Lützowstraße 102-104, waere-wenn-wir-alle-elektrisch-fahren- D-10785 Berlin wuerden/1441400 accessed on 5 Sept. Tel.: +49 30 78 795 795 2017 at 12:05. Mobil: +49 157 770 160 79 E-Mail: [email protected] Friedrich, Axel „Das ist nicht machbar“ In- terview with Joachim Wille in the Frank- Prof. Dr.-Ing. Helmut Holzapfel furter Rundschau 17 Aug. 2015, in the Zentrum für Mobilitätskultur Kassel Internet: http://www.fr.de/wirtschaft/ Dörnbergstraße 12 dieselskandal-das-ist-nicht-machbar- 34119 Kassel a-1332659 accessed on 5 Sept. 2017 at Tel.: +49561 8075859 13:30. E-Mail: [email protected] Rudolph, Frederic et al. Verkehrswende für em. o. Univ.-Prof. Dr. Dr. Gerd Sammer Deutschland - Der Weg zu CO2-freier Mobi- Institut für Verkehrswesen lität bis 2035. Study of the Wuppertal In- Departement für Raum, Landschaft und stitute for Greenpeace, Wuppertal, 2017, Infrastruktur in the Internet: https://www.greenpeace. Universität für Bodenkultur Wien de/presse/publikationen/verkehrswende- Peter Jordanstraße 82, A-1190 Wien fuer-deutschland accessed on 7 Sept. at Tel.: +43 1 47 654 85 600 13:13. Mobil: +43 664 410 8907 E-Mail: [email protected] Santarius, Tilman Der Rebound-Effekt. Über die unerwünschten Folgen der er- Representatives of the group of emeritus wünschten Energieeffzienz; Impulse professors: (Hrsg. Wuppertal Institut für Klima, - Prof. Dr. Gerd-Axel Ahrens (TU Dresden) Umwelt, Energie GmbH) Nr. 5, Wuppertal, - Prof. Dr. Klaus J. Beckmann (RWTH 2012, download from the Internet: http:// Aachen) www.santarius.de/967/wachstum-ener- - Prof. Dr. Werner Brilon (Universität Bo- gieeffizienz-rebound-effekt/ accessed on chum) 5 Sept. 2017 at 14:05. - Prof. Dr. Carmen Hass-Klau (Bergische Universität Wuppertal) Vieweg, Christof Feinstaub - Die Motoren - Prof. Dr. Helmut Holzapfel (Universität sind nicht das Problem, in ZEIT-online, Kassel) 17.02.2017, in the Internet: http://www. zeit.de/mobilitaet/2017-02/feinstaub-mo- - Prof. Dr. Hartmut Keller (TU München) toren-luftverschmutzung-reifen-abrieb- - Prof. Dr. Peter Kirchhoff (TU München) bremsen accessed on 5 Sept. 2017 at - Prof. Dr. Uwe Köhler (Universität Kassel) 13:05. - Prof. Dr. Eckart Kutter ((TU Hamburg- Harburg) - Prof. Dr. Gerd Sammer (Universität für Bodenkultur, Wien) - Prof. Dr. Robert Schnüll (Universität Han- nover) - Prof. Dr. Hartmut Topp (TU Kaiserslau- tern) - Prof. Dr. Manfred Wermuth (TU Braun- schweig) - Prof. Dr. Heinz Zackor (Universität Kas- sel) - Prof. Dr. Dirk Zumkeller (Karlsruher In- stitute of Technology)

World Transport Policy and Practice 84 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Driverless Cars Technology. What computing power continues to double next? every ~2 years. We can now do more 30Million cars on roads now, project- with our smartphones than we could ed growth rates 20/30/2040? dream of 11 years ago (The first iPhone Upsides and downsides. was release only 10 years ago, in the John Mullins days of Nokia…). Google can predict, in real time, what your typing into its Transport, regarded in manufacturing/lean search bar…this is huge computational circles as one of the seven classic forms power, coupled with new ways of teach- of “Waste”, is about to undergo a huge ing. ‘Machine Learning’, rather than pro- upheaval in the coming decade, some of gramming, opens up the ability for an it predictable, some of it unpredictable. algorithm to cope with a complex world: The only certainly is that it’s a period of And predict it. And we can provide the change, opportunity, with winners and los- algorithim with information about its ers, probably not seen since Henry Ford, world through an increasingly sophisti- positioned the Model T as the economic cated array of sensors. winner for his Age. • The rise in battery technology/energy efficiency. Driven by the need for small- Cheap transport is all around us whether er and more portable electronics, the we like it or not; It brings global supply detailed chemical wizardry which allows chains together to make everything from electrical power to be stored and re- satellites to affordable coffee in your cup, trieved from a battery is steadily improv- and allows producers in one part of the ing: Challenges still remain: But we have world to sell to consumers in another part, come a long way from, for example, large be they phones from Korea or fresh-cut chunky batteries in torches: Smaller bat- flowers from Kenya, all on sale here in the teries, with much more efficient use of UK. Whole sections of our economy are that energy, is now the norm. based on transport, moving people and • Social environmental awareness. The ‘stuff’ around, either directly or indirectly: pressure to address CO2 emissions has, Everything from truck and taxi-drivers, like the emission rates, been climbing. parcel delivery systems, cars and all the While the US may be officially wavering associated supporting industries: Not only in its belief in scientific fact, other coun- assembly and physical component manu- tries and individuals are acting. Within facture, but services, vehicle insurance, the West, we have characters such as driver employment, traffic police, councils Elon Musk pointing to the rise in CO2 funding needed services through car-parks and saying “I’m going to make electric and parking fines, the list goes on: It all is cars mainstream”, and in the East, we based on the way our society has devel- have China making simple, clear rules oped with the car over the last century. which move the world. Unless you make an electric version of your car, down the The downside, is that all this movement same assembly line (that’s the really, re- takes energy and time and costs money ally clever part of the law), you can’t sell to the end user: Hence its classification as your car in China from ~2020. The re- a form of waste, something to be elimi- sult is a stampede of auto-manufacturers nated wherever possible in a Lean (read designing and building and kick-starting ‘Efficient’) system. the electric car industry on a global, in- dustrial scale. The change that is coming to the world of the car (And by extension, trucks/busses The convergence of these three strands and all similar vehicles) has not been seen has opened the way to the dawning re- since they were invented, and is the re- ality that battery storage allows sufficient sult of the convergence of three different energy to be stored to viably propel a ve- strands in society: hicle, the rising environmental pressures makes this a change necessary on an in- • The rise in computing power and ma- dustrial scale, and the rise in computing chine learning/Sensing: With Moors law power makes it possible to have a com- still holding sway after nearly 60 years, puter manage the calculations required World Transport Policy and Practice 85 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 to be aware of its surroundings, make ac- lions each, with well-paid crews to drive curate predictions and control the car. If them round the clock, are steadily giving the ‘waste’ of moving stuff around can’t be way to autonomous trucks. These are op- removed, then the cost of the driver could erating in a controlled mining environment, be removed…and this is where there is a with engineers overseeing operations from huge pool of opportunity attracting inves- cities thousands of miles away. This is not tors around the globe. Avatar: This is West Australia today, with significantly increased safety, higher pro- An electric car is much, much simpler to ductivity, lower costs clearly demonstrat- design and build than a car with an in- ed. But this is in a booming employment ternal combustion engine. Carrying a environment and changed roles for ex- highly flammable liquid around, detonat- truck drivers are relatively easy to come ing it in the cylinders and having pistons by within the industry. The loss of a truck and crank shafts whizzing around to turn driving job means very different things in chemical energy into rotary kinetic energy other parts of the world. while making the car drive ‘responsively’, ‘smoothly’, and ‘efficiently’ is a huge, high- Making a fully autonomous car is not a ‘big ly technical engineering challenge. It’s one bang’ change: There has been an evolu- of the greatest barriers to new entrants tion, which has been happening around us into the automotive industry. for years, which is recognised as having 6 defined steps: If you know where to get good electric motors from (Think Dyson with very clever Level 0: No automation. This would apply motors in their vacuum cleaners etc), and to most cars on the road today and to all you can get batteries (An electric car bat- the cars of the 20th Century. tery is just a big box containing hundreds of little batteries, each the size of a spice- Level 1: Driver assistance. Many newer pot, nearly all the big name electronics cars today have systems on board which brands can make batteries, Tesla on its can do limited activities, such as self- own is changing global battery supply with parking, lane departure warning, adaptive its GigaFactory(s)…the key consideration cruise control etc. But the driver always becomes “who has forward-bought the has to remain vigilant and in control. materials to make the batteries” ), then a car can be put together comparatively Level 2: Partial Assistance. Under certain, easily. We then bring in the third tech- defined conditions, the car will take over nology strand: Computing power. If it’s throttle, steering, braking. Some cars, relatively easy to make an electric car, and such as Tesla’s Autopilot, allow an alert there is huge opportunity in removing part driver to watch as the car self-drives: But of the transport cost, then those with the driver intervention at any time may be re- capability of bringing sophisticated com- quired, hands stay on the steering wheel. putational solutions can, like Henry Ford, make a mark on history. New market en- Level 3: Conditional Assistance. Here the trants, such as the technology giants of car, under certain conditions, will fully today as well as well-funded Silicon Valley manage all driving actions. Audi have this and Asian start-ups, are all looking to en- on its new A8, active in certain conditions, ter this space, and have money to spend for example up to 60km/h on a dual car- (Think Apple, Microsoft…and their Chinese riageway. Hands off the steering wheel, equivalents), meanwhile the existing car read a book in traffic. Coming from multi- companies are hiring software engineers ple manufacturers over the next few years. as fast as they can and may soon have more software engineers than ‘vehicle’ en- Level 4: High Automation: Self driving un- gineers. der most conditions, with a driver in the vehicle, the car will still handle emergen- The lure of opportunity for smaller scale cy situations if control is not taken over. experiments in autonomous driving is al- Google’s ‘Waymo’ Cars have been oper- ready real in the high-cost Australian min- ating at this for several years now in the ing world. 400-Tonne trucks costing mil- USA. World Transport Policy and Practice 86 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Level 5: Full automation: Self driving, but ing its machine learning capabilities with a human driver is not required. More fun- the Chinese game “Go” by being given damentally, the need for the ability for a the rules and objective and then being left human to take over is removed. This re- alone. Within days, it had self-taught the moves the need for all the driver equip- game, developed its own strategies (Re- ment (Steering wheels, instrument clus- garded by human players as ‘creative and ters, pedals, forward facing front seats intriguing’) and was emphatically beating etc). The vehicle handles all situations, the previous software champion (Which in any weather, on and off-road. Several had already beaten the worlds human concept cars from different manufacturers champions). The importance is not the fact are now operating at this level, although that it can beat a human at a board-game: under test conditions. Suddenly the camp- The importance is that the algorithm can ervan takes on a whole new dimension….. learn, and fast.

We as drivers essentially use our eyes to What information does the car receive to see the world in which we drive: As a re- learn from? Cameras (Some cars have 10, sult, we find fog a challenge to drive in. binocular vison to give depth perception, As for our other senses, we are largely in- LIDAR and RADAR systems (Using lasers sulated from the noise around us, all we and radio waves to sense the world around feel is via the seat and the steering wheel, the vehicle), infra-red cameras, feedback and the smells are best avoided. Car sens- from the wheels and motors, all of these ing technology today ranges from parking generate huge amounts of data. So ‘learn- sensors, rain-sensors, cameras detecting ing’ is not just about knowing the rules of speed-signs and lane markings, forward signal-brake-turn. It’s about having a tor- facing radar to gauge speed and distance rent of data, from all these systems, all to traffic in front, blind spot monitoring, being processed, analysed and assessed: infra-red cameras linked to head-up dis- And generating rules to make predictions plays on the windscreen to see further in on, and controlling the car accordingly. the dark….all these sensors are to help a human driver ( or overwhelm them with With a car able to sense the world around beeps and warning lights) yet they pro- it, predict it, respond to it reliably, the vide a computer system able to process other key piece of the puzzle then drops the data with a comprehensive view of into place: It’s not just one autonomous the world, in all weathers and light condi- car on the road. Its lots. And they con- tions. Headlamps, for a level 4 car, are not nect and communicate with each other. required to be able to see in the dark, if Connected, autonomous cars could share all other cars are autonomous, you don’t data with eachother/the world around the need the taillights… In fact, that big sheet car, giving advance warning of hazards, of glass in front could be used as a movie road conditions and whether the pub two screen…..the car does not need it to see miles ahead on the left has a rapid-charg- out. ing point available now, and no other cars in the area plan on using it for the next 30 The car algorithim needs to be taught to minutes. And it has your favourite beer recognise objects: A whole, dedicated field and welcomes dogs…time for a stop. of computer research, but one which has progressed from trying to tell a computer With this step in machine learning, the what a cat is (Very hard, and not very suc- ability to teach an algorithm to learn: and cessful over many years), to working out then give it literally millions of miles of driv- how to teach a computer to learn: then ing experience (The system does not learn showing it millions of pictures of cats, and from the miles driven by the car in which letting it work out what a cat is. Times to it is in: It has all the data from the entire teach a computer something new are now fleet: Waymo’s fleet has just passed the down to hours…not years. four million miles driven mark) as ‘learn- ing experience’ produces a system which The science of machine learning is pro- is robust, capable, self-improving….but gressing fast, with Google’s Deepmind “Al- which can still make mistakes, the world is phaGo Zero” project recently demonstrat- bigger than a games-board. A Volvo self- World Transport Policy and Practice 87 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 driving car tested in Australia was most What do roads look like? With Level 5 cars, confused when it saw its first kangaroo… the roads can start to look very different. nothing moves like it, it was unpredictable The width of the road allows for our driv- and that’s not a good experience for an ing variation as humans: We try and keep autonomous car: Time to give back control inside wide lanes. Level 5 cars would to the human driver. not need lanes, and they would not need as much space between vehicles, either So what does this world look like? front / rear or side to side. Traffic density The first challenge is regulatory: What (driven by the space between cars) can are the rules? What happens when an go right up, without traffic slowing down: unmanned car crashes into something/ Since all the cars know what eachother is someone. Who is at fault? We have a liti- experiencing, they could conceivably be gious society where “accidents happen” is centimetres apart: Gone are the days of not an acceptable excuse, even for freak traffic ‘pulsing’ down motorways, or roads accidents. Where an autonomous system being widened to squeeze an extra lane is proven to be safer than a human driv- in: For a while at least, the traffic density er, will we as society allow it on the road can go up, average speed can go up, and if there could be ‘no-one to blame’. The the focus would shift to road maintenance manufacturer will be reluctant to allow it rather than expansion. on the road if they may be held legally li- able with the punitive penalties as are Do connected, autonomous cars need seen in the US today. This is where the speed signs? Traffic lights? Speed camer- Chinese may be able to step ahead, with as? Traffic Police? Conceptually, with the legislation seen as benefitting society as a new European Galileo GPS system, vehicle whole, accelerating their adoption of such positon will be known to centimetres, the technology. vehicles know where each other are, and we could have multi- lane intersections Trust. People are comfortable with what with vehicles crossing, at speed, separat- they have, even if it is harmful. Vested ed by whatever the laws of physics and interests will always oppose eachother human comfort allow, with no road-signs, where there is change and emotion will lane markings or traffic lights. In such a be used to sway opinion, in as fact-free a world, a human would no longer be able public debate as Brexit. Think of the oppo- to drive a traditional, less-enabled vehicle, sition to smoking bans, and the resistance not because of the risk of collision with an to mandatory car seat-belt usage. With autonomous car….but the risk of meeting autonomous cars, the challenges will be another human-driven car in that environ- even greater, especially since the future ment. We become more dependent on the is not certain, this is a loss of control, of system, even as it delivers us benefits. employment, of a way of life. The statis- tical evidence of fewer (Think teenagers) What of the burgeoning car insurance in- deaths, greater efficiency, more free time, dustry and car accident repair/recovery cheaper transport will be set against ‘what industry? Accidents are wasteful to socie- we are used to’, loss of control and todays ty, no one wants them: And accident rates job market. should go down, significantly, with benefits both to road users and A&E departments. Security. There is always and cat and This is not just because autonomous cars mouse game between vehicle manufactur- are safer than a human (Even when com- ers and those who wish to steal/hack the pared to an experienced driver they are vehicle systems either for gain or intellec- safer, with the majority of autonomous tual challenge. What happens when a con- accidents so far being down to the other, nected system is hacked…and all cars are human, party) but the influence they will sent to park on the M1/M25 interchange? have as a group on our roads. This does Or accelerate and turn left immediately? not require all cars to be autonomous: Assurance and thinking through the im- Just enough to act as a moderating force possible / preparing for the inevitable is on overall traffic flow. required.

World Transport Policy and Practice 88 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Lifesyle not all will survive. On the plus side, all I’m a commuter. I have an unfortunate the money put into having a car parked at Carbon Footprint, much of it on the M6, the side of the road can go into something and it’s a near total waste of my time which else, and our streets suddenly open up I have acclimatised to. On the M6, and go- with space. On the downside, if you were ing past schools and shops, there are an a parking attendant, you may need to get awful lot of people moving stuff around. a new source of income. What could the future look like? One of the more interesting thought ex- • Driving the kids to school/acting as taxi ercises with autonomous cars is how our on the weekends? Let the car take them current rules of the road work. We teach (Unless I want to stand on the touchline our children to be careful, even the dog on Saturday morning, in which case we has to sit before crossing. Why? Because all go) human drivers are not safe, they react • Dedicated driver at the Christmas Par- slowly, they get distracted: They may drive ty…….why? over you. What if an autonomous car was • Driving around the car-park looking for completely safe? Would all roads become a space? Let the car find one… pedestrian walkways? Would the chicken/ • Now where did I park my car….well it hedgehog safely cross the road, since this knows where my phone is…and its com- car can drive, with millimetre precision, ing to me. around/over it? The laws of physics still • “Mum, we will come and pick you up remain, a car cannot stop instantly: But bring you for Sunday lunch then drive they can be much, much safer to those you back”…..or rather, the car will. around them: Which will drive changed • Late drive home? Sleep, watch a movie behaviours in those around them? Chil- on you way….. dren may be able to once again play in the street…just as screens drag them back to For anyone living in/driving through a their bedrooms. town, one has become used to seeing cars parked along the sides of the road. This So when is this happening? is where they are kept when not being Level Three autonomy is already with us, used, also in car-parks in towns, shop- Tesla and other companies start getting ping centres, at work. Average price per production Level three cars on the road car? Keep the numbers easy, £10k. That’s this year, 2018, with the current main- only 100 second-hand cars to pass a mil- stream manufacturers coming to market lion pounds of value, parked, doing noth- starting in 2020/2021 Given the lead time ing. The biggest cost of using a taxi is to produce a car, these are cars with full the driver, and his value is both the con- engineering teams working on them now, versation, knowing the way and driving today. The real jump to Level 4 cars being safely. Unless you need help getting in/ on the road is dependant less on technol- out of the car, an autonomous taxi will be- ogy in ~2025 and more on society and the come so cheap….why buy your own car? legal framework in which these cars will be Uber and other similar companies are in- operating. vesting heavily in self-driving technology. If we loose all the parked cars on the side Current global car sales are around of the road, then we also loose all the ef- ~90million units per year, with China be- fort of maintaining so many cars ageing: ing the single largest market at 24 million, We dont need to buy so many cars: If you then the US at 17 million, and Europe at look at the auto-industry of the 1930s, the 15 million. Electric vehicles currently only vast majority of the nameplates no longer account for a tiny percentage of these, exist: This will probably happen now if the less than 500 thousand this year. Howev- marketplace for cars becomes smaller and er the growth rates are exponential, China the key purchase (Or rental) factors for a has more brands, more electric vehicles new car become the cost and quality of sold than any other country and many of the software and its body. New entrants the brands on sale were not available a will have software, existing manufactur- year ago. Forward predictions vary wildly, ers know how to build traditional cars….. however 30% of the global market being World Transport Policy and Practice 89 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 electric by 2030 (Meaning Europe will be owner may well replace the current owner/ near 100% electric in some form, with driver arrangement of so many taxis to- combustion engines banned by 2040) is day. Truck fleets already exist today, with a conservative expectation. Growth rates distinctive livery on our motorways: The going from 500k/units per year to ~35mil- expansion of driverless truck fleets will lion units in 12 years has not been seen again be initially driven by competition be- since the birth of the auto industry. In- tween companies able to fund change on a creasing social awareness of CO2 impacts large scale. There may still be a role for a may drive faster legislative changes and driven taxi: But it will be more expensive, accelerate the standardisation of charging and the driver’s role will need to be much points/plug/adaptors, while also requir- more than just driving the car. ing a fundamental shift in government tax systems as fuel sales begin to decline. The If anything is easier or cheaper, then more initial murmurings of a changed tax sys- people will tend to use it. Air travel was tem are already present in the UK, “pay revolutionised by the emergence of the per mile driven”, or similar: Anything to low cost airlines: Prices went down, pas- change the revenue stream options. While senger trips and total fuel-burn went up. all new cars will be electric, the existing Transport will get much easier with auton- stock of fossil-fuelled vehicles will remain omous technology: So we may see more on the roads for up to 20 years+ (New trips, more travel, because the time can cars replace only ~5% of the vehicle fleet also be used to do other things, the barri- per year), unless the cost of running them ers to the young and the old are removed, (Through taxation and the economics of and we make more, not less, use of the supply) becomes prohibitive, accelerating car, in a very different world. their departure. The limits to the growth in electric cars is the accessibility of charging John Mullins infrastructure on a global scale, so will re- main a market for combustion engine ve- hicles in some parts of the world/market sectors. Applying the same growth pro- jections to autonomous vehicles, where we are at the very start of the exponen- tial curve, depends very much on legisla- tion and social acceptance. The take-up of autonomous vehicles is not driven di- rectly by the environmental debate, but a commercial one: Truck haulage and taxis rides and car ownership-on-demand be- comes cheaper, those able to offer effec- tive low-cost services will succeed: But this does have social consequences. Look at the way Uber has been received in cit- ies around the world: It is simplifying the process of getting transport, and reducing prices. It has ordered a fleet of 24,000 Volvos to convert to autonomous vehicles during 2019-2021, where the technology will be in place to have “Driverless Ubers”: And there will be a societal reaction, from those who gain by having cheaper deliv- eries, cheaper, more convenient transport and those who lose jobs as vehicle drivers.

Initially, fully autonomous cars will be ex- pensive: The target market is not just the wealthy private owner, rather the fleet owner, taxi fleets with a single corporate World Transport Policy and Practice 90 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 Driverless Cars: On a road to no- cle are marginalised even more than ever where and in receipt of peanuts. In the UK we Christian Wolmar have had a decade of cuts in bus funding London Publishing Partnership, 2018, 120 but I have not noticed any cuts in road pages building or car park closures because of ISBN: 978-907994-75-3 budget pressures. We close libraries and Paperback £9.99 terminate bus services because of budget pressures but cars inhabit a parallel uni- We very much needed this book. It is very verse where fiscal generosity rules and obvious indeed to all observers of trans- DCs bring the promise of yet more funding port, sustainability, architecture, urban for motorised transport and more profit for planning, public health and quality of life the huge corporations that make cars. that we are all under extreme pressure to buy into a new utopia that will be delivered None of this should be surprising. We on the back of driverless vehicles (DVs) or know from the work of Wolfgang Sachs as they sometimes described Autonomous in his book “For the love of the Automo- Cars (ACs) or “connected and autonomous bile” how deeply the ownership use and vehicles” (CAVs) promotion of private motorised transport has penetrated every corner of thinking This pressure is a sustained ideological and spending in all countries and socie- and corporate effort to change the world ties globally. Interestingly in the context in which we all live and the change is far of DCs and AVs we know from the writings more dramatic, deeper and wider than al- of Sachs that people really enjoy driving most any observer has noticed. Luckily and the feelings that go with the driving Christian Wolmar (CW) has noticed and experience. The possibility that AVs and this book should be read and discussed by DCs might fail because people like to be in anyone with any involvement in shaping control and are pleased with their prow- mobility or the way cities work or the way ess as excellent drivers has not occurred tax payer’s hard-pressed cash is spent. If to the AV optimists and might well be the any of our readers are involved in deliv- key factor that kills the idea. ering high quality walking and cycling fa- cilities they should read this. If anyone is We know that any discussion in the UK involved in arguing for high quality public with any group of politicians about non- transport to deliver safe, secure, acces- road building options that deal with con- sible transport choices they should read gestion, pollution, noise, greenhouse this. If anyone is involved with fiscal is- gases and road safety are doomed to sues and the way in which we effortlessly go nowhere. UK politicians discussing a spend billions of dollars on servicing the new bypass in Hereford or a new road in wishes and desires of car owners and users Shrewsbury or a tunnel under Stonehenge they should read this. If anyone is even or the truly dreadful M4 relief road around remotely interested in social justice, the Newport in South Wales (a snip at £1.6 plight of children, women and the disabled billion for 14 miles) have already adopted they should read this. If anyone is inter- an over-arching ideology shaped around ested in fundamental change to improve the car and its promotion. It is the same road safety they should read this and note in Melbourne, Sydney and many US cit- that the whole DC rhetoric and ideology ies and is an ideology that is energetically very deliberately ignores the world of Vi- exported and adopted in India and China sion Zero and the ways that streets can even though the c2.5 billion citizens in become safe, enjoyable, child friendly so- these two countries are still deprived of cial spaces if we exclude cars. totally safe, secure, segregated pedestri- ans and cycling infrastructure. The shift to We are now in the midst of rapid social DCs and AVs for politicians and technology change that is intended to reward the optimists is very attractive indeed and will wealthy and ignore the poor and shunt be welcomed and embraced and will be in- even more tax dollars into the choices fa- credibly difficult to challenge but CW does voured by the relatively affluent as bus challenge that shift. users or those that choose to walk and cy- World Transport Policy and Practice 91 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 The author provides us with some splen- are taken into account the car is a very did examples of hype around DCs and AVs bad deal. e.g. CW takes us through the hype around safe- “Our vision for the future is free from ty and benefits for the disabled claimed by petroleum, free from emissions, free supporters of DCs. This reviewer finds it from accidents, free from congestion, amazing that motor vehicle manufactures and at the same time fun and fashiona- have suddenly discovered an ethical con- ble…it is a vision that will transform the cern in their overall drive to make millions lives [sic] around the world, bringing from making and selling cars regardless of people and cultures closer together, a the consequences. We have known since future in which people, motor vehicles October 1997 when the Swedish Parlia- and roads coexist in harmony and a ment adopted Vision Zero that there is a future where motor vehicles no longer fundamental solution to death and inju- have a direct impact on the natural en- ries in the road traffic environment (Note vironment” 3). We can and must attach no signifi- cance whatsoever to the claim that DCs Kevin Wale, General Motors, page 14 will improve road safety. We are still com- ing to terms with VWs treatment of eth- It is a pity Kevin did not appear at the ics and social responsibility in “cheating” Public Inquiry into the M4 relief road in on the emissions performance of 11 mil- South Wales to listen to detailed scien- lion vehicles by using specific and deliber- tific evidence around the damage caused ate “defeat” technology to fool European to nature, biodiversity and important na- regulations on the emission charcateristics ture reserves by a new road justified by of vehicles. This is well documented else- the increase in numbers of vehicles on the where and we will not go into it here but corridor from Bristol to Cardiff (Note 1). the deeply significant implication is that The destruction that is planned by the La- we cannot trust a motor vehicle manufac- bour controlled Welsh Government is not turer to tell the truth. Making and selling changed in any way at all by the presence vehicles is the single top priority and if we or absence of a driver or by the use of fos- are happy to bathe our children in health sil fuels or electricity from wind power. damaging polluting emissions in cities the absence of ethics and social responsibility The hype is oblivious to the kind of phys- does not stop there. AVs and DCs will pose ics that I was taught as an 11 year old threats to road safety and public health. school boy in Manchester. Cars, no matter how they are powered and no matter what Currently on a global scale we kill 3,200 amount of clever kit they have on board people every day on our roads. This is by way of GPS, radar, cameras, software a scandal of enormous proportions and etc still take up space and are designed to flourishes because of deeply unethical, go at speeds that are totally unacceptable ideological agreements between govern- in any urban area. Space and time still ments, motor vehicle manufacturers, glo- determine outcomes. The DC is not zero bal finance, politicians and apologists of all space and still moves at speeds that kill kinds. The mantra in all UK council cham- children. Even at 30mph 5 out of 10 chil- bers is very clear: motor vehicles are good dren hit by a car will die and it can never and we must avoid even looking like we equal the superb performance of a bike in are “waging a war on the motorist”. This terms of the amount of space it needs to same ideological assertion underpins DCs deal with the mass of mobility and speeds and AVs. that are socially responsible and nurture community life and public health. Ivan Il- The case for DCs is strengthened by the lich got this right in 1972 when he made untested, evidence-free belief system that calculations about “social speed” and the they will produce safer roads. The author time that has to be devoted to earn the gives examples of this untested belief sys- income to pay for the vehicle and all mo- tem in a quote from Google on page 17 and toring costs (Note 2). When all the time once again we have a splendid example of implications and demands of the vehicle the opposite strategy to that promoted by World Transport Policy and Practice 92 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 former New York Mayor, Giuliani. Mayor of freedom, excitement and speed that is Giuliani made a huge amount of progress so lucidly revealed in “For the love of the with urban crime, nature and green space automobile” and in Stephen Bailey’s book and public transport by putting into prac- “Sex, Drink and Fast Cars” (note 4). tice his mantra “always under promise and over deliver”. DC/AV world is dripping with DV promoters use the disabled in the same the exact opposite. The debate is char- way they use road safety. After all who acterised by exaggerated over promise would argue against improving road safety of the many things it will do to make life and making absolutely sure that our trans- wonderful and there is no delivery and no port systems deliver best possible condi- independent, robust examination of what tions for the disabled? We now know we can be delivered and not even a basic can have world beating road safety im- SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, provements through Vision Zero and do Opportunities and Threats). not need DCs to achieve superb outcomes and we can at the same time avoid the On road safety CW draws our attention technological and ethical problems associ- to the well documented links between ated with vehicles making decisions about “failsafe” automated systems in nuclear avoiding the chances of death and injury power, aviation and maritime transport even those vehicles are designed to go at (pp40-47). All the hype and wishful think- speeds that are associated with the cer- ing require human intelligence and judge- tainty of death and injury in a collision. ment in situations where DVs encounter CW discusses in some details a number children, cyclists or other vehicles and in of other problems related to the techni- situations where all the possibilities can be cal performance of AVs under different found in one street in one very short time circumstances e.g. snow, the visibility and interval. clarity of signage, the possibility of hack- ing and the likelihood of “pranks”. All of CW’s discussion of a fatality on page 39 these technical issues are not yet solved involving a Tesla vehicle in Florida in 2016 but this lack of clarity does not make a is relevant. The Tesla driver had set the dent in the strong ideological commitment cruise control at 74 mph in a 65mph area. to a major “refresh” in car manufacturing His vehicle collided with a truck and was and the production of a few more million killed. DC promoters frequently rely on (billion?) cars on the world’s roads. the fallibility of human beings in the road traffic environment and the role of “human On disability it is first of all important to error” in death and injury on the roads. note that we have had several decades This is exactly the emphasis in Vision Zero of awareness of the need not to discrimi- except in Vison Zero the key measure is nate against the disabled and to make all speed reduction and high quality infra- our transport systems thoroughly disabled structure to deliver totally safe walking friendly and accessible and we have failed and cycling possibilities and this is on offer to do so. We do not care very much about now and does not require billions of dol- the disabled when they have to use buses lars to support motor vehicle manufactur- and trains. Why does my local train sta- ing and IT, so why do we not have it now? tion in Church Stretton, Shropshire have steep steps and a pedestrian footbridge to If we really wanted a world dominated by get from platform to another platform or DCs with all its damaging consequences to get to the town centre? There are no for social life, nature, urban space and passenger lifts. Why do the trains have a extermination of walk, cycle and public high step entrance so that it is very diffi- transport we could design a system based cult indeed for a disabled person to get on on total speed limitation at 30kph/20mph or off the train? Why are all the pedestrian on every road and street where there is a pavements in urban areas in the UK blight- chance of any interaction at all with pedes- ed with cars parked on pavements or just trians, cyclists, buses or passengers get- too narrow for a wheelchair user to use? ting on and off buses. This is not on of- We appear to have discovered a concern fer because DCs and AVs are still cars and for the blind and partially sighted which still plug into the ideology and mythology was totally absent during the many years World Transport Policy and Practice 93 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 that these groups had to navigate grossly CW talks about the total transformation of inadequate pavements and obstacles. We the ways we move around. On page 20 he do not care about the disabled but sud- goes to the heart of the matter: denly when we realise we can make and sell millions of extra cars and return large “The more one digs into the future en- profits to high net wealth individuals and visaged by this new world of autonomy, shareholders we do care? the more it becomes clear that driver- less cars are seen as a replacement for On 8th February 2018 I received a letter not just cars but other forms of trans- from the UK Department for Transport re- port too!” plying to my question about facilities for the disabled at UK train stations. The of- This simple extension of Henry Ford’s basic ficial replying confirmed that 460 of our model will be the culmination of over 100 2500 stations have “step free access” and years of “love of the automobile”. Henry there are no plans to make all our stations Ford cracked the basic problem of pro- accessible to disabled groups. ducing, marketing and selling the dream of individual car ownership but in spite CW gives us some very clear quotes from of several decades of successful trashing disabled groups in support of DCs (pages (certainly in the UK and USA) of buses, 17-20) and these views are very impor- trolley buses, trams and urban rail these tant indeed but they are not sufficient to pesky things are still around and still at- justify a whole transport system transfor- tract support and take up valuable funds mation in the ways that car manufacturers that could be allocated to new roads, new have chosen for us. In addition there is car parks and new kinds of vehicles. They no discussion of options and how we can deprive global corporations of future car transform the current system in a way that sales. They also represent a kind of so- is genuinely attentive to the needs of dis- cialism or even worse, communism, so abled people. This conversation has not just as we got rid of the Soviet Union, the yet taken place and certainly not in the DDR and a number of other communist re- context of liveable streets, child-friendly gimes we can now get rid of collectivised streets, totally safe systems and car free transport. streets. It cannot be assumed that the “disabled”, however defined, are support- CW alerts us to one very clear example ive of the total transformation of mobility of the need to exterminate alternatives and space as preferable to all the other to the car when he talks about cyclists on things we can do to deliver on disability. page 79-80:

There are some very large elephants in “Take cyclists, Carlos Ghosn, Nissan’s the DV room that are not being explored CEO, is no fan of people on bikes. In- by promoters of this technology. The first deed he hates them. In a speech in is the recognition that what is under dis- January 2017 to introduce a prototype cussion in this book and more generally DC he told CBNC that the arrival of the in society as a whole is a total transfor- technology could be delayed by cyclists mation of the ways we move around and who he said, don’t respect any rules spend huge amount of money and wheth- usually.” er or not that is regressive. Does it reward the rich and neglect the poor? The second Ghosn said: is what changes will have to be made in the way we organise, streets, roads and “One of the biggest problems is peo- cities to make them DV friendly and stop ple with bicycles. The car is confused people getting in the way and the third is by [cyclists] because from time to time the rather inconvenient truth identified by they behave like pedestrians and from the Wold Health Organisation that sitting time to time they behave like cars” on bottoms and moving around by car is bad for health.

World Transport Policy and Practice 94 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 CW comments (page 80): physical activity. This identifies an urgent need for higher levels of physical activ- “The implication was that he would ity which means much more walking and like to see cyclists banned from roads cycling and this public health concern is where autonomous cars are travel- very clearly undermined and contradicted ling…there is a strong line of thought by the ambitions of AV/DC world to get amongst promoters of autonomous as many of us as possible sitting in cars technology that other road users will as much as possible and so reducing lev- simply have to make way for their ve- els of physical activity and increasing the hicles”. number of deaths directly linked to seden- tary lifestyles (Note 5). CW does not go We cannot say with any certainty that the into the public health dimension though he widespread adoption of AVs will produce a does draw attention (page 95) to the fact ban on pedestrians and/or cyclists but nei- that the “fittest and healthiest older peo- ther can the promoters of this social trans- ple are those who use public transport and formation say it won’t. The history of how walk…autonomous technology will merely we deal with pedestrians and cyclists in encourage them to continue to use cars”. cities help to identify this as a very serious Sadly the global epidemic of obesity ap- risk (or threat in the SWOT framework). plies to children and the extermination of Historically we have peppered our streets walking and cycling for children has huge and roads with metal railings, forced pe- implications for health and the costs of destrians and cyclists to go underground dealing with the obesity epidemic. and experience urine-soaked, graffiti rid- den subways and tunnels with an increased Another problem with AVs and DCs is chance of being mugged and made them the enormous cost of the transformation. wait for very long periods of time at sig- We know already that manufacturers are nalised junctions that are clearly rigged to spending a great deal of money on the prioritise the person in a car sitting in the new technology. On page 56 CW states warm, dry personal space and punish the that the top 5 manufacturers in 2015 pedestrian waiting in the rain with the ad- spent $46 billion on R&D (which they can ditional experience of being soaked as the offset against tax liabilities and so reduce cars go through the many puddles. The tax take). What we really need to know system is already rigged to prioritise cars is how much public cash is going into sup- and if we now proceed and spend billions porting this technology both from national on the AV/DC technology are we really go- governments and from the European Un- ing to allow annoying pedestrians and cy- ion. At both national and EU levels there clist to obstruct the march of progress? I are multiple sources of cash ranging from think not! grants and low interest loans to support regional development and job creation The likelihood is that our streets and roads and these are in turn supported by cash- will be re-engineered to prevent pedestri- strapped councils who still find money to ans and cyclists getting in the way. This support business parks and industrial es- will be both a regulatory, legalistic proc- tates and in the UK “Local Enterprise Part- ess and a metal railing process and AV/DC nerships” (LEPS) that have no democratic world has not yet made a commitment to control and find ways to spend hundreds prioritise walking and cycling in the brave of millions to support businesses. None of new world on offer. In AV/DC world does this cash goes to walking, cycling or public anyone realistically think we will get to transport. This in turn is supported by re- the best practice level seen in Freiburg in search councils and universities that pro- Southern Germany where 28% of all trips vide millions to academics and research- every day are by bike and <30% by car? ers to work on projects directly linked to AV/DC technology and control systems. AV/DC world has also ignored public health and the epidemic of Non-Commu- Even bigger sums of money will be required nicable Diseases (NCDs) including obesity, to deal with street re-design, signage and cardio-vascular disease and diabetes type communication technologies that will be 2. The World Health Organisation has pro- needed to feed the AV/DC transformation duced a strategy for increasing levels of and all this will be required at the same World Transport Policy and Practice 95 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018 time as central government in the Uk is Notes: cutting council budgets by hundreds of millions and councils are reacting by cut- Note 1: This evidence is presented in de- ting staff, bus services, libraries, child pro- tail in volume 23.4 of this journal available tection and care for the elderly. on our web site

CW gives us a very useful summary of the Note 2: Ivan Illich, Energy and Equity, exaggerated promises made for the ben- 1974 efits of DCs/AVs (pages 94-96). The new http://debate.uvm.edu/asnider/Ivan_Il- technology will not reduce congestion, lich/Ivan%20Illich_Energy%20and%20 improve road safety, make our streets Equity.pdf greener, make the elderly more active, make property cheaper and it stands a Note 3: John Whitelegg “Mobility. A new very good chance of undermining public urban design and transport planning phi- transport. losophy for a sustainable future”, 2017 http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/ It is very clear indeed that the new tech- cemore/?publications=mobility-a-new- nology on offer is a very simple extension urban-design-and-transport-planning-phi- of a very old technology and a deepening losophy-for-a-sustainable-future of a very old ideology. It is all about mak- ing us all even more car dependent, trans- Note 4: Stephen Bailey “Sex, Drink and forming cities so that they give top priority Fast Cars” https://www.amazon.com/Drink-Fast- to cars and eliminate any obstacles to that Cars-Stephen-Bayley/dp/0394750462 prioritisation which will include making ab- solutely sure that pedestrians and cyclists Note 5: WHO Global Strategy on Physical are not allowed to get in the way. It is a Activity rejection of several decades of intelligent http://www.who.int/ncds/governance/ and ethical thinking that has been going gappa_version_4August2017.pdf on to make our cities and regions safe, se- cure, clean, green, healthy, child-friendly places. It is a rejection of Copenhagen’s success in getting 50% of all trips every day for work and education accomplished by bike, a rejection of Freiburg’s achieve- ments on modal split (<30% of all trips every day by car), a rejection of Oslo’s car free strategy, a rejection of wide-area congestion charging. It is a very logical and clever next stage in creating hyper consumption of technology, grabbing bil- lions of dollars of public money to achieve its objectives and even more deeply en- trenching what Wolfgang Sachs called “the love of the automobile”.

John Whitelegg

World Transport Policy and Practice 96 Volume 24.1 Mar 2018