Il Nobel Mancato Dell'italiano Gorio Anticipò Lo Studio Dei Due Vincitori

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Il Nobel Mancato Dell'italiano Gorio Anticipò Lo Studio Dei Due Vincitori Corriere della Sera Martedì 27 Ottobre 2015 CRONACHE 23 # La storia Il Nobel mancato di Adriana Bazzi dell’italiano Gorio Anticipò lo studio dei due vincitori La cerimonia si terrà alla (e con molte altre cariche na- sico e non arriva al cervello. Po- pubblicazioni nella letteratura Pioniere Konserthuset, la Sala dei con- zionali e internazionali) —. Vo- tete usarlo in medicina veteri- scientifica: il primo rapporto Alfredo Gorio, Gli altri casi celebri certi di Stoccolma, alla presen- 20 levano capire se si potevano ri- naria per uccidere i vermi che dei suoi studi sull’avermectina oggi za dei Reali di Svezia, il dieci di- cavare psicofarmaci capaci di infestano gli animali». si può ritrovare sulla rivista farmacologo cembre prossimo. Fra gli ospiti, vincitori del curare nell’uomo, disturbi del La ricerca è continuata. Cam- Pnas nel 1979, in anticipo su all’ospedale Satoshi Omura, microbiologo premio Nobel sistema nervoso come l’epiles- pbell, uomo della Merck, ha tutti gli altri. San Paolo di giapponese, e William Camp- italiani. sia e le convulsioni». studiato gli effetti della mole- Gorio non è il primo caso Milano: le sue bell, chimico americano: rice- L’ultimo, nel Gorio studiava le interazioni cola sui topi e così il farmaco, «dimenticato» dall’Accademia prime veranno il Nobel per la Medici- 2007, è stato fra nervi, cervello e muscoli e utilizzato sugli animali per ri- svedese: ci sono altri Nobel pubblicazioni na per aver scoperto un farma- Mario l’effetto di certe sostanze, utiliz- pulirli dai vermi intestinali, pri- mancati in medicina. Viktor sulla co, l’avermectina, capace di Capecchi, che zando anche gambe di arago- ma della macellazione, è diven- Hamburger per esempio, che avermectina L’elica del Dna combattere malattie infettive lo ha vinto per sta: la ricerca allora funzionava tato una cura anche per gli uo- aveva fatto ricerche con Rita Le- risalgono al ‘79 Rosalind Franklin - Le sue foto del gravi, come la cecità dei fiumi, la Medicina così, su materiale vivente e non mini, colpiti appunto da cecità vi Montalcini nel 1986 sul fatto- ma Stoccolma Dna fecero ipotizzare la doppia provocate da vermi e diffuse so- su simulazioni al computer. dei fiumi, ma anche da elefan- re di crescita nervoso ed è rima- ha riconosciuto elica. Il Nobel lo vinsero Watson e prattutto fra le popolazioni po- Gorio nei «brodi» aveva indivi- tiasi (un’infezione da microrga- sto escluso. Oppure Albert il merito della Crick nel 1962. Lei, già morta, non vere. duato un composto, l’avermec- nismi che provoca un ingrossa- Schatz, che aveva contribuito scoperta a un fu neppure menzionata Non ci sarà, invece, Alfredo tina appunto, e ne aveva valuta- mento abnorme delle gambe). allo sviluppo della streptomici- giapponese e a Gorio, farmacologo italiano. to le attività. Campbell e Omura, per questo, na per la cura della tubercolosi: un americano Dimenticato. Escluso. Neppure Scrisse poi nei suoi rapporti: hanno vinto il Nobel. Gorio no. il Nobel andò al suo maestro, menzionato. Eppure è stato lui «Il composto non può funzio- Ma chi certifica il contributo Selman Waksman. a studiare e a caratterizzare per nare come psicofarmaco: è tos- di Gorio a queste ricerche? Le © RIPRODUZIONE RISERVATA primo la molecola di avermec- tina, quando era un giovane ri- cercatore alla Rockefeller Uni- versity di New York. Ritorniamo agli anni Settan- La risonanza magnetica ta. Satoshi Omura lavorava al Ki- Raymond Damadian - Aveva taso Institute di Tokyo e cercava, fornito contributi alla risonanza nel terreno, microrganismi ca- magnetica, ma il riconoscimento, paci di produrre antibiotici: ne del 2003, è andato a Paul aveva trovati alcuni, vicino a un Lauterbur e Peter Mansfield. campo da golf sul mare, fra l’er- ba e la sabbia. Allora (come og- gi) la preoccupazione degli scienziati era quella di indivi- duare nuovi antibiotici per combattere le resistenze dei germi ai farmaci in uso: anche alla penicillina, apparsa duran- te la Seconda guerra mondiale. Il fattore di crescita Allora non c’erano le biotecno- Viktor Hamburger - Lavorò con logie e gli strumenti della gene- Rita Levi Montalcini ma solo la tica di oggi e Satoshi Omura ricercatrice italiana vinse il Nobel non era in grado di studiare per il fattore di crescita nervoso questi composti. Li mandò ne- nel 1986 con Stanley Cohen. gli Usa, ai laboratori dell’indu- stria farmaceutica Merck Sharp and Dohme, che avevano il background tecnico e le risorse. Qui entra in scena Alfredo Gorio, nel ’77 ricercatore alla Rockefeller University di New York: nonostante fosse giova- nissimo, era uno dei massimi esperti del veleno della vedova La streptomicina nera, una sostanza capace di Albert Shatz - Scoprì la agire sul sistema nervoso e di streptomicina, primo antibiotico provocare paralisi. Niente a che anti tubercolosi, con il suo maestro fare con gli antibiotici. E allora? Selman Waksman, ma il Nobel del «I ricercatori della Merck si 1952 andò soltanto a Waksman. erano accorti che quei “brodi” di coltura contenevano sostan- ze con effetto paralizzante sui vermi, simile a quello del vele- no della vedova nera — raccon- ta Gorio, oggi farmacologo al- l’Ospedale San Paolo di Milano.
Recommended publications
  • Milestones and Personalities in Science and Technology
    History of Science Stories and anecdotes about famous – and not-so-famous – milestones and personalities in science and technology BUILDING BETTER SCIENCE AGILENT AND YOU For teaching purpose only December 19, 2016 © Agilent Technologies, Inc. 2016 1 Agilent Technologies is committed to the educational community and is willing to provide access to company-owned material contained herein. This slide set is created by Agilent Technologies. The usage of the slides is limited to teaching purpose only. These materials and the information contained herein are accepted “as is” and Agilent makes no representations or warranties of any kind with respect to the materials and disclaims any responsibility for them as may be used or reproduced by you. Agilent will not be liable for any damages resulting from or in connection with your use, copying or disclosure of the materials contained herein. You agree to indemnify and hold Agilent harmless for any claims incurred by Agilent as a result of your use or reproduction of these materials. In case pictures, sketches or drawings should be used for any other purpose please contact Agilent Technologies a priori. For teaching purpose only December 19, 2016 © Agilent Technologies, Inc. 2016 2 Table of Contents The Father of Modern Chemistry The Man Who Discovered Vitamin C Tags: Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier, chemical nomenclature Tags: Albert Szent-Györgyi, L-ascorbic acid He Discovered an Entire Area of the Periodic Table The Discovery of Insulin Tags: Sir William Ramsay, noble gas Tags: Frederick Banting,
    [Show full text]
  • History of Microbiology Milton Wainwright University of Sheffield Joshua Lederbergl the Rockefeller University
    History of Microbiology Milton Wainwright University of Sheffield Joshua Lederbergl The Rockefeller University I. Observations without Application ness of the nature and etiology of disease, with the II. The Spontaneous Generation Controversy result that the majority of the traditional killer dis- III. Tools of the Trade eases have now been conquered. Similar strides IV. Microorganisms as Causal Agents of have been made in the use of microorganisms in Disease industry. and more recently attempts are being made V. Chemotherapy and Antibiosis to apply our knowledge of microbial ecology and VI. Microbial Metabolism and Applied physiology to help solve environmental problems. A Microbiology dramatic development and broadening of the subject VII. Nutrition, Comparative Biochemistry, and of microbiology has taken place since World War II. Other Aspects of Metabolism Microbial genetics, molecular biology, and bio- VIII. Microbial Genetics technology in particular have blossomed. It is to be IX. Viruses and Lysogeny: The Plasmid hoped that these developments are sufficiently op- Concept portune to enable us to conquer the latest specter of X. Virology disease facing us, namely AIDS. Any account of the XI. Mycology and Protozoology, history of a discipline is. by its very nature, a per- Microbiology’s Cinderellas sonal view: hopefully, what follows includes all the XII. Modern Period major highlights in the development of our science. The period approximating 1930-1950 was a ‘vi- cennium” of extraordinary transformation of micro- Glossary biology, just prior to the landmark publication on the structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953. Antibiotics Antimicrobial agents produced b) We have important milestones for the vicennium: living organisms Jordan and Falk (1928) and “System of Bacteriol- Bacterial genetics Study of genetic elements and ogy” (1930) at its start are magisterial reviews of hereditary in bacteria prior knowledge and thought.
    [Show full text]
  • June 2021 Issue
    SIMB News News Magazine of the Society for Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology April/May/June 2021 V.71 N.2 • www.simbhq.org The Microbiology of Sheer Fun A Memorial to Douglas E. Eveleigh RAFT® returns to the Hyatt 2021 RAFT® Chairs: Regency Coconut Point Mark Berge, AstraZeneca November 7–10, 2021 Kat Allikian, Mythic Hyatt Regency Coconut Mushrooms Point, Bonita Springs, FL www.simbhq.org/raft contents 34 CORPORATE MEMBERS SIMB News 35 LETTER FROM THE EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Melanie Mormile | Editor-in-Chief 36 SIMB STRATEGIC PLAN Elisabeth Elder | Associate Editor Kristien Mortelmans | Associate Editor 38 NEWSWORTHY Vanessa Nepomuceno | Associate Editor 44 FEATURE: DESIGN & PRODUCTION Katherine Devins | Production Manager THE MICROBIOLOGY OF SHEER FUN: A MEMORIAL TO DOUGLAS E. EVELEIGH (1933–2019) BOARD OF DIRECTORS President Steve Decker 60 SBFC 2021 RECAP President-elect Noel Fong 61 SIMB ANNUAL MEETING 2021 Past President Jan Westpheling 62 RAFT® 14 2021 Secretary Elisabeth Elder SIMB WORKSHOPS Treasurer Laura Jarboe 64 Directors Rob Donofrio 65 INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY MEETS THE MICROBIOME (IMMM) 2021 Katy Kao Priti Pharkya 68 BOOK REVIEW: Tiffany Rau CLIMATE CHANGE AND MICROBIAL ECOLOGY: CURRENT RESEARCH HEADQUARTERS STAFF AND FUTURE TRENDS (SECOND EDITION) Christine Lowe | Executive Director Jennifer Johnson | Director of Member Services 71 CALENDAR OF EVENTS Tina Hockaday | Meeting Coordinator Suzannah Citrenbaum | Web Manager 73 SIMB COMMITTEE LIST SIMB CORPORATE MEMBERSHIP APPLICATION EDITORIAL CORRESPONDENCE 75 Melanie R. Mormile Email: [email protected] ADVERTISING For information regarding rates, contact SIMB News 3929 Old Lee Highway, Suite 92A Fairfax, VA 22030-2421 P: 703-691-3357 ext 30 F:703-691-7991 On the cover Email: [email protected] Doug Eveleigh wearing his father’s www.simbhq.org bowler hat while examining lichens SIMB News (ISSN 1043-4976), is published quarterly, one volume per year, by the on a tombstone.
    [Show full text]
  • Selman Waksman and Antibiotics Selman Waksman and Antibiotics
    You are here: » American Chemical Society » Education » Explore Chemistry » Chemical Landmarks » Selman Waksman and Antibiotics Selman Waksman and Antibiotics National Historic Chemical Landmark Dedicated May 24, 2005, at Rutgers The State University of New Jersey. Commemorative Booklet (PDF) Waksman and his students, in their laboratory at Rutgers University, established the first screening protocols to detect antimicrobial agents produced by microorganisms. This deliberate search for chemotherapeutic agents contrasts with the discovery of penicillin, which came through a chance observation by Alexander Fleming, who noted that a mold contaminant on a Petri dish culture had inhibited the growth of a bacterial pathogen. During the 1940s, Waksman and his students isolated more than fifteen antibiotics, the most famous of which was streptomycin, the first effective treatment for tuberculosis. Contents Selman Waksman’s Early Years Waksman Moves to America Waksman’s Research on Actinomycetes, and the Search for Antibiotics The Trials of Streptomycin Bringing Streptomycin to Market Controversy over the Discovery of Streptomycin Selman Waksman’s Later Years Research Notes and Further Reading Landmark Designation and Acknowledgments Cite this Page “Selman Waksman and Antibiotics” commemorative booklet produced by the National Historic Chemical Landmarks program of the American Chemical Society in 2005 (PDF). "The Lord hath created medicines out of the earth; and he that is wise will not abhor them." — Ecclesiasticus, xxxviii, 41 Selman Waksman’s Early Life Selman Waksman called his autobiography My Life with the Microbes. That is also the title of the first chapter of the book, which begins "I have devoted my life to the study of microbes, those infinitesimal forms of life which play such important roles in the life of man, animals, and plants.
    [Show full text]
  • Aplicaciones Biotecnológicas De La Recombinación Homóloga: “Gene Targeting” “Gene Knock Out”
    Aplicaciones biotecnológicas de la recombinación homóloga: “gene targeting” “gene knock out” 1 Aplicaciones de la recombinación homóloga: “gene targeting” Figure 21.4. Gene targeting by homologous recombination can inactivate a predetermined chromosomal gene within an intact cell. (A) Insertion vector method. The introduced vector DNA (blue) is cut at a unique site within a sequence which is identical or closely related to part of a chromosomal gene (black). Homologous recombination (X) can occur, leading to integration of the entire vector sequence including the marker gene (M). Note that the letters do not represent exons but are simply meant to indicate linear order within the gene. (B) Replacement vector method. In this case, the marker gene is contained within the sequence homologous to the endogenous gene, and the vector is cut at a unique location outside the homologous sequence. A double recombination or gene conversion event (X X) can result in replacement of internal sequences within the chromosomal gene by homologous sequences from the vector, including the marker gene. 2 Figure 21.5. Double replacement gene targeting can Doble reemplazo be used to introduce subtle mutations. Both the methods in Figure 21.4 result in introduction of a substantial amount of exogenous sequence within the endogenous gene. To introduce a subtle mutation without leaving residual exogenous sequence, a double replacement method with positive and negative selection can be used (Melton, 1994). Exons in the endogenous gene are represented as numbered large boxes, and introns as long thin boxes. In order to introduce a subtle mutation, such as a single nucleotide substitution in exon 8, a replacement knock-out vector is used with a marker gene (e.g.
    [Show full text]
  • Science -- Lederberg 288 (5464): 287
    Science -- Lederberg 288 (5464): 287 Institution: COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY | Sign In as Individual | FAQ | Access Rights | Join AAAS Summary of this Article Infectious History dEbates: Submit a response to this article Joshua Lederberg* Related commentary and In 1530, to express his ideas on the origin of syphilis, the Italian articles in Science physician Girolamo Fracastoro penned Syphilis, sive morbus products Gallicus (Syphilis, or the French disease) in verse. In it he taught that this sexually transmitted disease was spread by "seeds" Download to Citation distributed by intimate contact. In later writings, he expanded this Manager early "contagionist" theory. Besides contagion by personal contact, he described contagion by indirect contact, such as the handling or Alert me when: wearing of clothes, and even contagion at a distance, that is, the new articles cite this article spread of disease by something in the air. Search for similar articles in: Fracastoro was anticipating, by nearly 350 years, one of the most Science Online important turning points in biological and medical history--the ISI Web of Science consolidation of the germ theory of disease by Louis Pasteur and PubMed Robert Koch in the late 1870s. As we enter the 21st century, Search Medline for articles infectious disease is fated to remain a crucial research challenge, by: one of conceptual intricacy and of global consequence. Lederberg, J. Search for citing articles in: The Incubation of a Scientific Discipline ISI Web of Science (15) Many people laid the groundwork for the germ theory. Even the HighWire Press Journals terrified masses touched by the Black Death (bubonic plague) in Europe after 1346 had some intimation of a contagion at work.
    [Show full text]
  • The Lipman Log Newsletter, 2014
    The Lipman Log 2014 Anil Goyal and. Doug Eveleigh Arleen Nebel, Matt and Sheer Fun! Dennis Fenton & Doug Eveleigh Zuelay Rosario-Cruz Brianna News from the Chair, Max Häggblom and laboratory courses in biochemistry and microbiology. We also welcome our new Secretarial Assistant, Nalini Kual, and Summer Greetings from congratulate Jessie Maguire on her promotion to Business Lipman Hall! This issue of the Assistant. Arleen Nebel retired in November 2013, after many Lipman Log includes some of years of dedicated service to our department and to Rutgers the highlights from the 2013- University. 2014 academic year. We hope that you will enjoy reading Our scholarly undergraduate and graduate programs in about the various activities biochemistry and microbiology are flourishing, and it is always a and accomplishments of our delight to follow the achievements of our students. Our graduate students and faculty, and the and undergraduate students are engaged in many exciting awards and recognition that research projects with our faculty members (see pages 8-11). they have received. Rutgers Day-AgField Day continues to be a fun event and an opportunity to meet alumni and friends. “Boisterous Biochemistry In February, our annual Microbiology Symposium honored our and Marvelous Microbiology” is our program theme. As in very special Prof. Douglas Eveleigh (see p. 2). Sheer Fun!!! It was a previous years, the undergraduate and graduate students of our wonderful event and delight to have such a gathering of Doug's department coached budding scientists in the wonders of students, postdocs and colleagues pay tribute to his career. Truly biochemistry and microbiology.
    [Show full text]
  • Streptomycin: Discovery and Resultant Controversy Author(S): Milton Wainwright Source: History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, Vol
    Streptomycin: Discovery and Resultant Controversy Author(s): Milton Wainwright Source: History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, Vol. 13, No. 1 (1991), pp. 97-124 Published by: Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn - Napoli Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23330620 Accessed: 17-06-2015 13:54 UTC REFERENCES Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article: http://www.jstor.org/stable/23330620?seq=1&cid=pdf-reference#references_tab_contents You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references. Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/ info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn - Napoli is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences. http://www.jstor.org This content downloaded from 143.167.67.179 on Wed, 17 Jun 2015 13:54:00 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Hist. Phil. Life Sei., 13 (1991), 97-124 Streptomycin: Discovery and Resultant Controversy Milton Wainwright Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, S10 2TN, England - Abstract The antibiotic streptomycin was discovered soon after penicillin was introduced into medicine. Selman Waksman, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery, has since generally been credited as streptomycin's sole discoverer.
    [Show full text]
  • Antibiotic Resistance in the Microbial World
    Mechanisms of Antibiotic Resistance in the Microbial World Ying Zhang, MD, PhD Department of Molecular Microbiology & Immunology Bloomberg School of Public Health Johns Hopkins University Email: [email protected] HistoryHistory Paul Ehrlich: Methylene blue to fight malaria (1891), trypan red against trypanosomes (1904), Compound 606 (Salvarsan) (yellow), the first antibiotic (1910) against syphilis. Coined terms "magic bullet”, "chemotherapy” Alexander Fleming: 1928, penicillin (Penicillium notatum) Gerhard Domagk: 1935, sulfa drugs, prontosil, sulfanilamide, isoniazid Rene Dubos: 1939, tyrothricin (gramicidin/tyrocidin) from B. brevis (topical use against G+ bacteria) Selman Waksman and Albert Schatz: 1943, streptomycin– first aminoglycoside (Streptomyces) against TB, coined the term “antibiotics” Chloramphenicol, 1947, from Streptomyces venezuelae Tetracycline: 1948, from Streptomyces History-continuedHistory-continued Clinical Use - Early 1940s Today - 3800 Compounds with Antibiotic Properties Why do we use antibiotics? – Treat Infections – Prevent Infections (Prophylaxis) – Growth Promotion (Food Animals) AntibioticsAntibiotics Antibiotics are derived primarily from three major sources: -molds or fungi -bacteria: Streptomyces, Bacillus -synthetic or semisynthetic used internally or topically, inhibit or kill pathogens work best on actively growing organisms, but not on non-growing persisters or spores BBaacctteerriioossttaattiicc vveerrssuuss BBaacctteerriicciiddaall Static: inhibit growth Cidal: kill Cidal or static
    [Show full text]
  • 1 This Is an Oral History with Dr. Louis Howard Miller on January 13Th And
    This is an oral history with Dr. Louis Howard Miller on January 13th and February 10, 2020, at the National Institutes of Health, about his career in the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). The interviewer is Victoria A. Harden, Founding Director, Emerita, Office of NIH History and Stetten Museum, National Institutes of Health (NIH). Harden: Dr. Miller, would you please state your full name and that you know we are recording this interview and that you give permission for the recording. Miller: My name is Louis Howard Miller. I'm in the NIAID Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research. And I give permission to do anything you want with this. I don't even have to see it. Harden: Thank you. You were born February 4th, 1935, in Baltimore, Maryland, and you grew up in Baltimore. Would you tell me about your family, your early life through high school, especially about anyone who might have inspired or nudged you towards a career in medicine or science? Miller: There was none. My mother was one of the first to go to school beyond high school, and she did art at the Art Institute in Baltimore. She wanted me to go there and work, but she did not influence me. My influences came later. Harden: Nothing in high school, then, teachers. 1 Miller: No, I was sent away to school because my mother was worried I'd get in trouble, and so she sent me away to a private school. It was Mercersburg Academy, a place where I was put away for four years.
    [Show full text]
  • M.Sc Ist Yr MICROBIOLOGY a Bottle of Wine Contains More Philosophy Than All the Books in the World
    M.Sc Ist yr MICROBIOLOGY A bottle of wine contains more philosophy than all the books in the world. -Louis Pasteur JANUARY 2022 M T W T F S S Ferdinand Cohn (Founder of 31 1 2 Bacteriology and Microbiology) Global Family Day 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Richard Rebecca Har Michael Craighill Gobind Krause Lancefield Khorana Rebecca Craighill Lancefield (well known for serological classification of β- hemolytic streptococcal bacteria) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 National Indian Youth Day Army Day 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Bacillus cereus Bacillus cereus is a facultatively anaerobic, toxin producing, gram- positive bacteria that canm be found in siol vegetation anf even food. This may cause two types of intestinal illness, one diarrheal, and 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 one causing nausea and vomiting.It Ferdinand National Heinrich World can quickly multiply at room Kohn Tourism Anton de Leprosy temperature. B.cereus has also been National Girl Day Bary Day Child Day Republic implicated in infections of the eye, respiratory tracts , and in wounds. International Day B.cereus and other members of Day of Education bacillus are not easily killed by alcohol,they have been known to World Leprosy Day – 30th JAUNARY: World Leprosy colonize distilled liquors and Day is observed internationally every year on the last Sunday of alcohol soaked swabs and pads in January to increase the public awareness of leprosy or Hansen's numbers sufficient to cause Disease. This date was chosen by French humanitarian Raoul infection. Follereau as a tribute to the life of Mahatma Gandhi who had compassion for people afflicted with leprosy.
    [Show full text]
  • List of Nobel Laureates 1
    List of Nobel laureates 1 List of Nobel laureates The Nobel Prizes (Swedish: Nobelpriset, Norwegian: Nobelprisen) are awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Swedish Academy, the Karolinska Institute, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee to individuals and organizations who make outstanding contributions in the fields of chemistry, physics, literature, peace, and physiology or medicine.[1] They were established by the 1895 will of Alfred Nobel, which dictates that the awards should be administered by the Nobel Foundation. Another prize, the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, was established in 1968 by the Sveriges Riksbank, the central bank of Sweden, for contributors to the field of economics.[2] Each prize is awarded by a separate committee; the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences awards the Prizes in Physics, Chemistry, and Economics, the Karolinska Institute awards the Prize in Physiology or Medicine, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee awards the Prize in Peace.[3] Each recipient receives a medal, a diploma and a monetary award that has varied throughout the years.[2] In 1901, the recipients of the first Nobel Prizes were given 150,782 SEK, which is equal to 7,731,004 SEK in December 2007. In 2008, the winners were awarded a prize amount of 10,000,000 SEK.[4] The awards are presented in Stockholm in an annual ceremony on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death.[5] As of 2011, 826 individuals and 20 organizations have been awarded a Nobel Prize, including 69 winners of the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.[6] Four Nobel laureates were not permitted by their governments to accept the Nobel Prize.
    [Show full text]