Ntegrated Pest Management of Longan (Sapindales: Sapindaceae) in Vietnam

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2019 ntegrated Pest Management of Longan (Sapindales: Sapindaceae) in Vietnam

Hanh Tran

Hoa Nguyen Van

Rangaswamy Muniappan

James Amrine

Rayapati Naidu

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Part of the Plant Sciences Commons Authors Hanh Tran, Hoa Nguyen Van, Rangaswamy Muniappan, James Amrine, Rayapati Naidu, Robert Cilbertson, and Jaspreet Sidhu Journal of Integrated Pest Management, (2019) 10(1): 18; 1–10 doi: 10.1093/jipm/pmz016 Recommendations

Integrated Pest Management of Longan (Sapindales: Sapindaceae) in Vietnam

Hanh Tr a n ,1 Hoa Nguyen Van,1 Rangaswamy Muniappan,2,7 James Amrine,3 Rayapati Naidu,4 Robert Gilbertson,5 and Jaspreet Sidhu6

1 2

Plant Protection Division, Southern Horticultural Research Institute, Box 203, My Tho city, Tien Giang, Vietnam, Integrated Pest Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article-abstract/10/1/18/5510771 by guest on 28 April 2020 Management Innovation Lab, Virginia Tech, 526 Prices Fork Road, Blacksburg, VA 24061, 3Division of Plant and Soil Sciences, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, 4Department of Plant Pathology, Irrigated Agriculture Research & Extension Center, Washington State University, Prosser, WA 99350, 5Department of Plant Pathology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, 6Uni- versity of California Cooperative Extension, 1031 S Mount Vernon Ave, Bakersfield, CA 93307, and7 Corresponding author, e-mail: [email protected]

Subject Editor: Tom Royer

Received 17 January 2019; Editorial decision 29 April 2019

Abstract This paper describes the current state of pests and diseases of longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour.) and their management in Vietnam. Longan is the third most cultivated fruit crop and second major fruit crop exported from Vietnam. Brief descriptions of arthropod pests Eriophyes dimocarpi Kuang (Acari: Eriophyidae), Conogethes punctiferalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae), Conopomorpha litchiella Bradley (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae), Tessaratoma papillosa Drury (Hemiptera: Tessaratomidae), Eudocima phalonia L. comb. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), oriental fruit flyBactrocera dorsalis Hendel (Diptera: Tephretidae), Planococcus lilacinus Cockerell (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Drepanococcus chiton Green (Hemiptera: Coccidae), and Cornegenapsylla sinica Yang & Li (Hemiptera: Psyllidae) and fungal diseases Phytophthora palmivora Butler (Peronosporales: Peronosporaceae), Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. (Incertaesedis: Glomerellaceae), and Ceratocystis fimbriata Ellis & Halsted (Microascales: Ceratocystidaceae) affecting longan are given. The longan witches’ broom syndrome is a major factor causing 50–86% annual crop loss in Vietnam and it has been considered the primary constraint in production. The causative agent of this syndrome has been identified as the eriophyid miteE. dimocarpi. Deployment of Integrated Pest Management strategies for longan production in Vietnam is outlined.

Key words: longan IPM, witches’ broom, Vietnam

Tropical fruits make a significant contribution to the economy of yr after planting. Normal flower initiation occurs in late winter Vietnam and nearly half of them are produced in the Mekong Delta and flowers open in early spring (Waite and Hwang 2002) (Fig. 2). region. This region is an important economic center supporting over However, many farmers in Vietnam induce flowers at different times 15 million people and contributing over 27% of Vietnam’s national of the year by ringing the stems and applying potassium chlorate to GDP. The longan [(Dimocarpus longan Lour. (Sapindaceae)] is a per- the soil, which enables them to harvest fruits throughout the year. ennial fruit tree (Waite and Hwang 2002) (Fig. 1). China, Thailand, Pruning is done every year after harvest to maintain suitable height and Vietnam are major producers of longan. It is cultivated mostly in and for pest and disease management. Vinh Long, Tien Giang, and Ba Ria-Vung Tau provinces of southern Vietnam. In 2016, longan was planted over an area of 73,600 ha in Vietnam and it is the third most cultivated fruit crop after mango Pests and Diseases and banana, and the second most exported crop behind dragon fruit Pests of longan are known to cause 50 to 100% crop losses un- (Department of Crop Production 2017). less timely interventions are implemented (Department of Plant The export value of longan in Vietnam was $62.13 million in Protection 2015). Arthropod pests that attack longan and their 2017. Fresh longan has been exported to the U.S. and European natural enemies in different countries have been reviewed by Waite Union markets with an increasing volume in the last 4 yr, with ex- and Hwang (2002). The major pests of longan in Vietnam are port potential still to increase. The trees begin production 2 to 3 Eriophyes dimocarpi (Kuang) (Acari: Eriophyidae), Conogethes

© The Author(s) 2019. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Entomological Society of America. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/ 1 licenses/by-nc/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. For commercial re-use, please contact [email protected] 2 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article-abstract/10/1/18/5510771 by guest on 28 April 2020

Fig. 1. Longan tree with fruits.

Fig. 3. Eriophyes dimocarpi (Kuang).

Fig. 2. Inflorescence of longan. punctiferalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), Conopomorpha Fig. 4. Longan tree with witches’ broom syndrome affected shoots. sinensis Bradley (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae), Conopomorpha litchiella Bradley (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae), Eudocima phalonia (L.) comb. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae), Tessaratoma papillosa (Drury) (Hemiptera: Tessaratomidae), oriental fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel (Diptera: Tephretidae), Planococcus lilacinus (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), Drepanococcus chiton (Green) (Hemiptera: Coccidae) and Cornegenapsylla sinica Yang & Li (Hemiptera: Psyllidae). Major diseases include fruit rot Phytophthora palmivora, anthracnose Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, and Ceratocystis blight Ceratocystis fimbriata (Common wealth of Australia 2004, Waterhouse 1993, Waite and Hwang 2002, H.T., unpublished data).

Eriophyes dimocarpi (Kuang) (Acari: Eriophyidae) It occurs in China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam (So and Zee 1972, Menzel et al. 1989, Tri 2004). Females lay white colored spherical eggs on developing buds and hatch in about 5.10 ± Fig. 5. Witches’ broom syndrome affected shoot. 1.37 d. The mite has two nymphal instars lasting 6.4 ± 0.79 d. First- instar nymphs are white, 0.06 ± 0.006 mm long, while second-instar Witches’ broom on longan was first reported in China in 1941 nymphs are white, 0.09 ± 0.01 mm long, and both have two pairs and later in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan (So and Zee 1972, of legs. Adults are white, 0.12 ± 0.008 mm long and live 2.2 ± 0.52 Menzel et al. 1989) and Cambodia (R. Muniappan, personal ob- d (Fig. 3). Average life cycle is completed in 13.70 ± 2.16 d. The servation, 2018). In Vietnam, it appeared in the north in 1999 with mites are abundant from November to May, coinciding with the dry an apparent introduction from China, and in the south in 2001 (Tri season. It has been reported to be associated with longan witches’ 2004). It is considered as one of the important constraints of longan broom syndrome (LgWB) (He et al. 2001, Hanh et al. 2012a, Hoat and rambutan production in Vietnam. Trees affected by LgWB have et al. 2017). short vegetative shoots with small leaves showing curling of leaf Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 3 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article-abstract/10/1/18/5510771 by guest on 28 April 2020

Fig. 6. Leaf with witches’ broom syndrome.

margins, shortened inflorescence with malformed flowers, and panicles poorly filled with small fruits (So and Zee 1972, Kuang 1997, Zhang and Zhang 1999) (Figs. 4–6). The crop losses caused by LgWB vary from 50 to 86% in the fields (Zhang and Zhang 1999, Chen and Xu 2001, Hoat et al. 2017). Studies conducted to identify the causative organism of LgWB in China, Thailand, and Vietnam have attributed it to virus (So and Zee 1972, Ye et al. 1990, Chen et al. 1996, Chen and Xu 2001), phytoplasma (Visitpanich et al. Fig. 7. Larva of Conogothes punctiferalis Guenee. 1996, Hoa et al. 2012), and association of E. dimocarpi (He et al. 2001, Hoat et al. 2017). One of the objectives of the USAID-funded IPM Innovation Lab project instituted at the Southern Horticultural Research Institute (SOFRI) in Vietnam in 2015 was to identify the causative organism of LgWB of longan. To verify the presence of phytoplasma or virus, samples of affected longan shoots from Southern Vietnam were sent to the laboratory of Dr. Robert Gilbertson, University of California-Davis, and to Dr. Rayapati Naidu, Washington State University, Prosser. The diagnostic efforts at these two institu- tions to find phytoplasma or virus in the samples proved nega- tive. Studies carried out by SOFRI in collaboration with Molecular Biology Divisions of the Can Tho University, Molecular Biology Division of the Nong Lam University, Electron Microscope Department of Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology in Hanoi, and Central Analysis Laboratory of National Science University at Ho Chi Minh City also failed to identify phytoplasma, bacteria, fungi, or virus in LgWB samples from Southern Vietnam (Hanh et al. 2012a,b). It is known that eriophyid mites cause necrosis, enations, fascia- tion, various galls, and witches’ broom on several plants (Jeppson et al. 1975, Westphal and Manson 1996). Recent findings of Dr. Hanh Tran’s work at SOFRI has confirmed that E. dimocarpi is the causative agent of LgWB and it is not a vector of viruses or phytoplasma that were speculated to be causative agents of the syndrome (H.T., unpublished data).

For management of longan witches’ broom infected shoots and Fig. 8. Conogothes punctiferalis damaged fruits. inflorescences on longan trees should be removed and destroyed. The alternate host of the longan gall mite, rambutan, should not be grown in longan orchards (Hanh et al. 2014). Flower inducement found feeding on E. dimocarpi at the Mekong Delta fields (Hanh from April to June should be avoided as this coincides with the peak et al. 2014). In addition, entomopathogenic fungus, Paecilomyes period for E. dimocarpi (Hanh et al. 2012b). Prophylactic applica- sp. was found infecting E. dimocarpi in the field. Reducing use tion of sulfur compounds, neem oil or petroleum oil spray reduces of toxic pesticides will lead to adoption of conservation bio- incidence of LgWB. The predatory mite, Amblyseius sp. (Acari: logical control, which will enhance the population of local natural Phytosiidae) and Arthrocnodax sp. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) were enemies. 4 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1

Conogethes punctiferalis Guenée (Lepidoptera: (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) and Chelonus blackburni Crambidae) Cameron (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is used for control of this pest It is widely distributed in South and East Asia, Australia, and Papua (Chakravarthy et al. 2015). New Guinea (CABI 2011). It is a polyphagous pest with broad host range (Sekiguchi 1974, Waterhouse 1993, Li et al. 2015). The adults Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley (Lepidoptera: are medium-sized moths with wingspans of 20–23 mm, the fore- Gracillariidae) wings are peach-yellow in color with scattered black spots and it It is a major pest of litchi and longan in China, Taiwan, Thailand lives 8–11 d (Fig. 7) (Ganesha et al. 2013). The moths lay yellowish (Waite and Hwang 2002), and Vietnam (APHIS/USDA 2011). The white eggs that hatch in 2–4 d (Ganesha et al. 2013). The first instar moths lay cream-colored, scale-like eggs on the shoots or fruits larvae are light pinkish brown in color with pale black spots. The (Waite 2005). The eggs hatch in 3–5 d and the neonate larvae im- older larvae are light brown in color with dark brown heads and mediately bore into the shoots or fruits (Schulte et al. 2007). One or dark spots on the body. Larvae bore into the fruits and presence of more eggs may be laid on a shoot or a fruit, but generally only one frass on the fruit surface is one of the characteristics of this insect larva survives on each shoot or fruit. Mature larvae are brownish or Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article-abstract/10/1/18/5510771 by guest on 28 April 2020 infestation (Fig. 8). It pupates in soil and sometimes on fallen leaves, green in color, and 6–10 mm in length. The larval duration is 10–12 and pupal duration is 7–9 d (Ganesha et al. 2013). d. Pupation takes place within the cream-colored, oval cocoon under Pheromone and/or light traps could be set up to monitor the mature leaves and the adults emerge after 5–7 d (Waite and Hwang adult moth population in the field. Bagging fruit clusters at 15 d 2002). The adults are straw-colored moths with long filiform an- after fruit set reduces damage by this pest (Fig. 9). Collecting tennae, fringed forewings, and it lives 5–8 d. In absence of fruits, and destroying infested fruits is recommended in small orchards. the larvae survive by feeding on young leaves or shoots (Waite and Application of neem formulations repels moths laying eggs on Hwang 2002). the fruits. In India augmentative release of Trichogramma sp. When the egg laid on the fruit surface hatches, the larva bores into the fruit, feeds on the seed, (Fig. 10a and b) causing the fruit to be prone to infection by various microorganisms and fruit drop (Huang et al. 1994, Wang et al. 2008). Huang et al. (1994) found 96.1–100% of fallen fruits and 41.5–96.7% of fruits remaining on the trees were damaged by this pest in unsprayed orchards. Bagging of fruits and application of neem formulations recommended for C. punctiferalis are effective in management of this pest (Fig. 9). Pheromone and/or light traps could be used for monitoring the population. In Taiwan, the larval parasitoids Tetrastichus sp. and Elasmus sp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) and pupal parasitoids Phanerotoma sp. and Apanteles sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) were reported. In Thailand, Apanteles briaeus Nixon, Chelonus chailini Walker and Huddleston, Colastes sp., Phanerotoma sp., Pholestesor sp. (Hymenoptera: Braconidae), and Goryphus sp. (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) were found parasitizing larvae (Waite and Hwang 2002, Schulte et al. 2007).

Fig. 9. Longan fruit clusters covered with bags.

Fig. 10. (a,b) Conophomorpha sinensis Bradley damaged fruits. Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 5

Conopomorpha litchiella Bradley (Lepidoptera: larval period is about 10–14 d (Waite and Hwang 2002). Pupae are Gracillariidae). light green when formed and later change to golden brown. Pupation The adult females lay small, light-yellow eggs on new shoots and they takes place on mature leaves covered by a thin silken web and the hatch in 3–5 d. The newly hatched larvae are pale green and mine in pupal stage lasts 7–10 d. The life cycle is completed in 25–30 d. the leaf blades. The mature larvae prefer to feed on the mid-rib and All development stages of this leafminer are similar to those of veins of young leaves (Fig. 11). There are five larval instars and the litchi fruit borer. Larvae bore into the midribs, causing distortion and twisting of young leaves. The density of C. litchiella infestation is high during the rainy season from June to September in Vietnam. In severe infestations, affected shoots should be pruned and disposed of. The same species of parasitoids attack both C. sinensis and C. litchiella.

Tessaratoma papillosa Drury (Hemiptera:

Tessaratomidae) Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article-abstract/10/1/18/5510771 by guest on 28 April 2020 It occurs in China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam (CABI 2002). It is known to feed on 21 species of plants, but the favored ones are lychee and longan. Adults (Fig. 12) are golden brown and measure 25–30 mm long and 15–17 mm wide (Quynh 2016). Eggs are round and light green when laid and gradually become yellowish brown (Commonwealth of Australia 2004). The newly hatched nymphs are elliptical, at first reddish, and later turn dark-blue. Second-instar nymphs are rectangular and are orange-red with a dark-gray margin. There are five nymphal instars and the total lifecycle duration is about 60–80 d. Fig. 11. Conophomorpha litchiella Bradley damaged leaves. Tessaratoma papillosa has one generation per year, and over- winters as adults. In spring, the overwintering adults do not mate immediately, as their reproductive organs are not mature. Females mate multiple times and lay up to 14 egg masses, each containing about 14 eggs on the lower surface of leaves (Waite and Hwang 2002). Both nymphs and adults feed on tender plant parts like shoots, inflorescence, and fruits (Boopathi et al. 2015). The feeding causes necrosis of young twigs, withering of flowers, fruit rot, and eventually fruit drop (Quynh 2016). Although the pest infestation can be seen year around, damage is more prevalent in summer and low in the rainy season (Boopathi et al. 2011). It typically causes 20–30% yield loss and if the infestation is heavy it may reach 80–90% (CABI 2002). Augmentative biological control of T. papillosa should be considered. Egg parasitoids Encyrtus sp., and. Anastatus sp., are key mortality factors in the field. Augmentative release of Anastatus japonicus (Ashmed) has been practiced in China since 1960s (Li

Fig. 12. Adults of Tessaratoma papillosa Drury. et al. 2014). In China, the egg parasitoids, Encyrtus (Ooencyrtus) sp., (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) Anastatus sp. (Hymenoptera: Eupelmidae), and Blastophaga sp. (Hymenopera: Agaonidae) were reported to parasitize 70 to 90% of eggs laid late in the season (Waite and Hwang 2002). Similar late season results were achieved in Thailand by mass releasing A. japonicas (Ashmead) and Ooencyrtus phongi (Nanta 1988). Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces sp., and Metarhizium sp. are effective in controlling stink bug populations, particularly during the wet season.

Eudocima phalonia (L.) comb. (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) Fruit piercing moths occur along the tropical belt, except in the Americas (Waterhouse and Norris 1987). Eudocima phalonia (Fig. 13) is one of the common species whose larvae (Fig. 14a and b) on vines of the family Menispermaceae in most parts of the world (Cochereau 1977), and in addition Erythrina spp. (Fabaceae) in the Pacific Islands and Leea indica (Leeaceae) in Thailand and Malaysia

Fig. 13. Adult Eudocima phalonia (L.) Comb. (Muniappan et al. 1994/1995, Reddy et al. 2005, Leong and Kueh 6 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1

Fig. 14. (a,b) Larvae of Eudocima phalonia. Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article-abstract/10/1/18/5510771 by guest on 28 April 2020

Fig. 15. Adult Eudocima phalonia feeding on an orange fruit.

2011). The moths drill holes in the fruits and suck the juice at night (Fig. 15). Microbial contamination from the probosces of these moths results in rotting of the pierced fruits. Bagging of fruits effectively prevents damage by this moth. Waterhouse (1993) reported it to be a pest of longan in Vietnam but additional information is lacking from this country. Egg parasitoids Trichogramma sp., Telenomus sp. (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae), and Ooencyrtus sp. (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), and larval parasitoids Euplectrus Fig. 16. Oriental fruit fly,Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel. spp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), and Winthemia sp. (Diptera: Tachinidae) have been reported from Asia and the Pacific islands fruit fly. However, for export of fruits, either hot vapor or irradiation (Waterhouse and Norris 1987). treatments are required.

Oriental Fruit Fly Bactrocera dorsalis Hendel Planococcus lilacinus Cockerell (Hemiptera: (Diptera: Tephritidae) Pseudococcidae) Oriental fruit fly is a polyphagous pest with a wide host range of It is distributed throughout the tropics in the world. The female over 200 host plants in 40 families (Prokopy et al. 1990) and it has adults lay 55–152 eggs per mass. Eggs hatch within 24 h. The been reported from Vietnam (Drew and Hancock 1994, Vargas et nymphal period lasts 20–25 d (Loganathan and Suresh 2001). al. 2015). Oriental fruit fly (Fig. 16) lays pale yellow eggs under the This mealybug population increases during the dry season skin of ripened or ripening fruits. The physical damage caused by from February to May in Vietnam (H.T., personal observation) ovipositional punctures as well as feeding damage by maggots leads (Fig. 17). Pruning and destroying infected shoots can reduce to rotting of fruits (De Villiers 1992). Bagging fruits effectively pre- mealybug populations. SOFRI-ant bait controls ants and that vents damage by this pest. A locally developed protein bait called helps to reduce mealybug population as ants interfere with para- SOFRI-PROTEIN, made from beer waste and an insecticide, attracts sitoids and predators attacking mealybugs. The ladybird beetles both male and female flies and kills them. Additionally, setting up Menochilus sexmaculatus (Fabricius), Coccinella transversalis methyl eugenol traps attracts and kills male flies. These techniques in Fabricius, and Cryptolaemus montrouzieri Mulsant (Coleoptera: combination with orchard sanitation are effective in managing the Coccinellidae) and Lacewing Suarius sp. (Neuroptera: Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 7 Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article-abstract/10/1/18/5510771 by guest on 28 April 2020

Fig. 17. Planococcus lilacinus Cockerell.

Fig. 19. Adult Cornegenapsylla sinica Yang & Li.

Fig. 18. Drepanococcus chiton (Green) infesting papaya fruit.

Chrysopidae) are effective natural enemies of mealybugs. Paecilomyces sp., and Metarhizium sp. are effective in controlling Fig. 20. Leaves with Cornegenapsylla sinica galls. mealybug populations in the wet season (H.T., unpublished data). Mani (1995a) reported the parasitoids, Tetracnemoidea indica Ayyar (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae), and Aprostocetus purpureus sp. (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) in Malaysia (Ibrahim 1994), and (Hymenooptera: Eulophidae), and the predators Spalgis epius Anicetus ceylonensis How., Metaphycus sp. nr helvolus (Howard), Westwood (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae), Brumus sp., Scymnus and Philosindia sp. nr longicornis Noyes and Hayat (Hymenoptera: coccivora Ayyar, C. montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Encyrtidae), Cephaleta brunniventris Motschulsky (Hymenoptera: Triommata coccidivora Felt (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae), and Pteromalidae), Chilocorus nigrita (Fabricius), C. montrouzieri, M. Cacoxenus perspicax Knab (Diptera: Drosophilidae) on P. sexmaculata, and Scymnus sp. (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in India lilacinus in India. Further, he reported T. indica was very effective (Mani 1995b). in suppressing this mealybug population. Cornegenapsylla sinica Yang & Li (Hemiptera: Drepanococcus chiton (Green) (Hemiptera: Psyllidae). Coccidae). The female adults are small with an average size of 1.7 × 0.36 mm It occurs in south and southeast Asia. Ibrahim (1994) reported it to (Fig. 19), and the male adults are 1.4 × 0.33 mm long. Eggs are pale complete its life cycle in 50 d at 29°C and each female to produce yellow in color and are laid singly into the veins on the under surface about 1,200 eggs (Fig. 18). of the leaves (Fig. 20). There are four nymph instars and they remain This soft scale sucks the sap from host plants and excretes a large inside the galls. The psyllid completes its life cycle in about 53 d. amount of honeydew on fruits and leaves, leading to growth of sooty There are 3–5 generations per year. The psyllid is most abundant mold (Smith et al. 1997). In severe infestations, fruits are underdevel- from April to June (H.T., unpublished data). Pruning and disposal of oped and drop off. Shipments of longan and lychee with D. chiton the severely affected shoots is recommended. from Vietnam have been intercepted in the U.S. ports (Miller et al. 2014). Setting up ant baits to control ants in the trees enhances para- Fruit Rot Phytophthora palmivora Butler sitism and predation and reduces this soft scale population. Natural (Peronosporales: Peronosporaceae) enemies recorded were Coccophagus thanhoaensis Sugonyev The disease attacks the longan trees from flowering stage to fruit har- (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) in Vietnam (Sugonyaev 2011), Eunotus vest. Phytophthora palmivora can survive in the soil and it spreads 8 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1

Ceratocystis Blight C. fimbriata Ellis & Halsted (Microascales: Ceratocystidaceae) Initially infected branches start wilting and eventually the whole tree succumbs (Fig. 22). The same fungus, C. fimbriata causes ‘seca’, ‘murcha’, or ‘mango blight’ on mango. Abiotic factors such as water stress, extreme high or low temperatures, and micro-nutrient de- ficiency enhance the damage caused by this fungus (Ploetz 2003). Scolytid beetles, wounds caused by contaminated tools used for pruning, and ringing transmit this disease to healthy plants. The variety Tieu Da Bo is more susceptible to this disease in Vietnam. Pruning and disposal of the affected branches is recommended.

IPM Program for Longan Downloaded from https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article-abstract/10/1/18/5510771 by guest on 28 April 2020 Components

1. Fertilize the trees with compost inoculated with the antagonistic fungus, Trichoderma sp. 2. Do not induce flowering during November to May. Fig. 21. Anthracnose infected leaflets. 3. Immediately after the final harvest, prune the trees and safely dispose of the material either by burying or burning. 4. Prune and destroy shoots infected by LgWB syndrome. 5. Set up light and/or pheromone traps to monitor fruit borer, litchi shoot borer, leafminer, and other pests. 6. Set up methyl eugenol traps and protein bait for controlling fruit flies. 7. Set up SOFRI-ant baits for controlling ants, mealybugs, and soft scale. 8. Apply Beauveria bassiana, Paecilomyces sp., or Metarhizium sp. for controlling stink bug. 9. Spray sulfur, neem oil, petroleum oil, or Paecilomyces sp. to control longan eriophyid mite. 10. Bag the fruit cluster 15 d after fruit set.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by USAID funded by the Cooperative Agreement No. AID-OAA-L-15-00001 for the Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Inte- grated Pest Management at Virginia Tech. Fig. 22. Trees killed by ceratocystis blight. through irrigation water. In addition, humans and ants also contribute References Cited to its spread. It affects young shoots, panicles, and fruits. Symptoms Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service/U.S. Department of Agriculture are necrosis of young shoots, flower drop, irregular lesions on fruits, (APHIS/USDA). 2011. Importation of litchi and longan fruit from Vietnam and premature fruit drop (Coates et al. 2003, 2005). The disease into the continental United States. Federal Register. 76: 65985–65988. causes severe damage during the rainy season, and all longan varieties Boopathi, T., K. A. Pathak, Y. Ramakrishna, and A. K. Verma. 2011. Effect in Vietnam are susceptible to fruit rot. Proper aeration and reducing of weather factors on the population dynamics of litchi stink bug, humidity by pruning, removing, and destroying infected fruits decrease Tessaratoma papillosa (Drury). Pest Manag. Hort. Ecosyst. 17: 69–74. disease incidence. Fungicides are effective in controlling fruit rot. Boopathi, T., S. B. Singh, T. Manju, Y. Ramakrihna, R. S. Akoijam, S. Chowdhury, N. H. Singh, and S. V. Ngachan. 2015. Development of tem- Anthracnose Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) poral modeling for forecasting and prediction of the incidence of lychee, Tessaratoma papillosa (Hemiptera: Tessaratomidae), using time-series Penz. & Sacc. (Incertaesedis: Glomerellaceae) (ARIMA) analysis. J. Insect Sci. 15: 1–5. It is an important disease of litchi but is of minor importance on CABI. 2002. Crop protection compendium. CABI International, Wallingford, longan. It can attack both leaves and fruits. Symptoms on older UK. leaves that appear as small spots in the margins coalesce to form CABI. 2011. Conogethes punctiferalis datasheet. Crop protection compen- large patches with brown borders (Fig. 21). On young leaves, water- dium. CABI International, Wallingford, UK. soaked lesions appear first and later turn dark brown and dry up. Chakravarthy, A. K., V. Kammar, D. Lokeshwari, A. T. Rani, T. Nagaraj, On fruits, dark brown lesions appear on the surface. Under wet con- and V. V. Rajan. 2015. The black-spotted yellow shoot-and-fruit borer, ditions, white mycelial growth and fungal fruiting bodies may also Conogethes spp. (Crambidae: Lepidoptera) - a global perspective. Current Sci. 109: 1016–1018. cover the lesions (McMillan 1994). Control method recommended Chen, J. Y., and X. D. Xu. 2001. Advances in the research of longan witches’ for fruit rot also applies for anthracnose. broom disease. In H. B. Huang and C. Menzel (eds.), Proceedings of the Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 1 9

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