Investigations Typologiques En Assam Et Au Nagaland

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Investigations Typologiques En Assam Et Au Nagaland LANGUES TIBETO-BIRMANES DU NORD-EST DE L'INDE: INVESTIGATIONS TYPOLOGIQUES EN ASSAM ET AU NAGALAND PAR FRANÇOIS JACQUESSON * RÉSUMÉ Une brève mission en Assam et au Nagaland (Nord-est de l'Inde) pendant l'hiver 1994/95 a permis des investigations systématiques sur la morphologie et la syntaxe de onze langues ou dialectes tibéto-birmans, certains jusqu'alors non décrits (dialecte anal du groupe kuki) ou inconnus (langue zaiwa, distinct du tsaiwa du groupe jingpho). Après la présentation des systèmes de pronoms per- sonnels, sont étudiés sur un plan homogène la morphologie contrastée de «l'ad- jectif» déterminatif et prédicatif, puis les schémas de relativation. Les trois langues pronominalisantes (nocte, anal, zaiwa) font ensuite l'objet d'une des- cription moins sommaire. L'article se termine par des remarques sur l'histoire des populations et le groupement des langues de cette zone. ABSTRACT During a short trip in Assam and Nagaland (North-eastern India) in winter 1994/95, I could develop a systematic survey of the main morphosyntactic features in eleven Tibeto-Burman languages or dialects, some of them until now left undescribed (anal, a kuki dialect) or unknown (zaiwa, a language quite different from the tsaiwa of the jingpho branch). The personal pronouns are studied first, and then the contrast between the determinative and predicative «adjectives», after which come some indications on the relativization patterns. * Enseignant détaché au CNRS, LACITO, 44 av.de l'Amiral-Mouchez, Paris XIVe.Mes remerciements vont d'abord au Professeur Claude Hagège et au Collège de France, sans qui cette mission eût été impossible; à mesdames Denise Bernot et Annie Montaut, et à monsieur Boyd Michailovsky, qui m'ont prêté des documents et aidé de leurs conseils. Je remercie également le Consulat de France de Calcutta, ainsi que le Gouvernement de l'Inde et celui de l'Assam pour leur aide et leur compréhension. Journal Asiatique 284.1 (1996): 159-212. 160 F. JACQUESSON The three pronominalizing languages (nocte, anal, zaiwa) are examined more closely. I conclude with several remarks on the history of these populations and the grouping of their languages. I. Rappels géographiques et historiques II. Les pronoms personnels: langues no et langues nang III. Prédication et détermination IV. Relativation V. Pronominalisation VI. Remarques sur la classification Bibliographie I. RAPPELS GÉOGRAPHIQUES ET HISTORIQUES Les lignes qui suivent ne sont pas un historique, même rapide, du Nord-Est indien, pour quoi on consultera le vieux mais remarquable livre de Gait1, et celui, plus moderne et plus complet, de Madame S.L. Baruah2. Il s'agit d'une perspective sélective, à peu près unique- ment préoccupée des populations de langues non indo-aryennes. Les régions occidentales de l'actuel Assam sont fréquemment men- tionnées dans le Mâhabhârata (mis au point entre les IIe et VIIe siècles, mais reposant sur des éléments souvent antérieurs) et dans une partie de la littérature puranique et tantrique3; l’Arthaçâstra, un traité sur l'art de gouverner attribué à ce Kautilya qui mit Chandragupta au pouvoir (IVe siècle av. J.C.), cite des produits commerciaux pro- venant de cette région4; d'autre part, certains chefs indo-aryens qui 1 Gait 1926. 2 Swarna Lata Baruah 1985. 3 Le Kamrup (le Kâmarûpa des textes sanscrits), qui correspond aujourd'hui à la par- tie occidentale de la province d'Assam stricto sensu, et qui désignait autrefois une aire plus large, est l'un des lieux majeurs du bouddhisme tantrique; le temple de Kâmâkhyâ, sur un piton rocheux près de Gauhati, est particulièrement important. Le nom du Kâma- rûpa a été autrefois commenté par Sylvain Lévi 1933: 46-47. 4 Arthaçâstra, édition de R.P. Kangle 1960-1965. Les passages en question sont 2.11.43-55 (le santal), 57-59 (l'aloès), 61-65 (l'encens), et citent des localités que les commentaires s'accordent généralement à situer en Assam. Il faut cependant signaler les controverses sur la date de cet important ouvrage, cf. Kangle, vol. 3, ch. 4. Journal Asiatique 284.1 (1996): 159-212. LANGUES TIBETO-BIRMANES DU NORD-EST DE L'INDE 161 ont opéré en Birmanie aux IIe et IIIe siècles ont dû traverser l'Assam5. La présence indo-aryenne est donc assez ancienne dans l'Assam au sens large, même si l'hindouisme ne s'y est installé que lentement6. Cette pré- sence a pour témoin essentiel la langue assamaise qui, même si elle est fortement influencée par les langues locales, forme avec le bengali et l'oriya le rameau oriental des langues indo-européennes de l'Inde. Le prestige croissant de l'assamais, qui se marque également par la forma- tion d'intéressants pidgins7, et que promeut l'importance déterminante de la vallée du Brahmapoutre où il règne à peu près en maître, n'a cependant pas gagné la majorité du pays: toutes les régions de collines et de montagnes qui entourent la grande vallée, sans être tout à fait sous- traites à l'influence de l'assamais, conservent jusqu'à nos jours leurs langues locales par dizaines. Administrativement, l'Assam n'est de nos jours que l'État de la vallée. Toute la circonférence, tant au nord vers le Tibet qu'à l'est vers la Bir- manie, est divisée en états ou régions autonomes qui tantôt manifestent leur volonté d'indépendance, et tantôt réclament du gouvernement de l'Inde une aide accrue. Au nord et à l'est de la grande vallée s'étend l'Arunachal, vaste région relativement peu peuplée et mal connue8. Au sud, c'est-à-dire entre Bangladesh (séparé depuis 1971 seulement, en raison surtout du caractère musulman de la population) et Birmanie, on trouve une série d'états et de régions dont les plus individualisés sont les plus montagneux: au contact de la Birmanie s'échelonnent, du nord au sud, le Nagaland, le Manipur et le Mizoram; au contact du Bengale on trouve le Meghalaya et le Tripura. Linguistiquement, hormis l'assamais dominant et le bengali (dont l'immigration récente a accru l'importance) qui sont indo-aryens, s'op- posent trois groupes d'importance inégale. Le principal est le groupe tibéto-birman, très largement majoritaire, mais très divisé en sous-groupes sur quoi je reviendrai. Le second est le groupe mon-khmer-munda, 5 La question des routes qui relient l'Assam à la Birmanie puis la Chine est évidem- ment importante. Pelliot 1904: 177-182 l'a abordée autrefois en commentant des géo- graphes chinois. 6 Cf. aussi pour le bouddhisme: S. Sasanananda 1986. 7 Sreedhar 1985, Boruah 1993. 8 Itanagar, capitale de l'Arunachal Pradesh, n'en est pas moins un centre actif de publications. Journal Asiatique 284.1 (1996): 159-212. 162 F. JACQUESSON principalement représenté par le khasi (Meghalaya). Le troisième est le groupe tai, historiquement très important à cause des souverains ahom à qui le pays doit en partie son unité politique; mais les Ahom n'ont pas maintenu leur langue (malgré l'importance des chroniques historiques rédigées dans cette langue, les buranji), et les populations actuelles de langues tai sont formées d'immigrants assez récents, venus comme les Ahom du pays Shan (Birmanie orientale), dont les plus nombreux sont les Khamti, arrivés dans le nord-est de l'Assam au milieu du XVIIIe siècle. Les premiers princes des Ahom, arrivés par ce même nord-est en 1228, n'ont longtemps «régné» que sur une petite région de la rive sud du haut Brahmapoutre, avec diverses capitales dans la région de Sib- sagar. Ils se trouvaient confrontés à deux royaumes, celui des Chutiya au nord du fleuve, et dont la capitale était Sadiya (qui sera plus tard le poste le plus avancé du pouvoir britannique), puis à l'ouest celui des Kachari, dont la capitale fut longtemps Dimapur. Dans ces deux royaumes, la langue était de type bodo-garo, et la caste religieuse des Chutiyas a pré- servé sa langue jusqu'à nos jours: c'est celle des actuels Deori9. Comme l'actuelle diffusion des langues bodo-garo est bien antérieure aux revers du royaume des Kachari, il est très probable que ce sous-groupe du tibéto-birman était dominant au moins dans l'actuel Assam avant l'ex- pansion ahom. Les Ahom commencent leur expansion au début du XVIe siècle, à la fois en prenant le contrôle des deux royaumes cités (ce qui n'ira pas sans révoltes, pratiquement jusqu'au XIXe siècle), et en repoussant les premières tentatives sérieuses d'invasion musulmanes (1527 et 1532-3), qui introduisent l'usage des armes à feu. On n'avait jusqu'alors combattu qu'avec des arcs et des flèches. Rappelons en outre que le che- val était virtuellement inconnu dans ces régions. L'extension de la souveraineté ahom à l'ensemble de l'Assam se fait, non sans fréquents revers, au cours des guerres contre les incursions musulmanes, qui ne cesseront qu'à la fin du XVIIe siècle. Comme celles-ci venaient de l'ouest, le royaume ahom s'étendit peu à peu dans cette direction, et Gauhati fut tantôt d'un côté, tantôt de l'autre de la 9 U. Goswami 1994. Journal Asiatique 284.1 (1996): 159-212. LANGUES TIBETO-BIRMANES DU NORD-EST DE L'INDE 163 frontière. C'est aussi pendant cette période que les autres groupes tibéto- birmans apparaissent sur la scène politique, surtout les Naga (le terme a alors un sens très large) à l'est, et au nord, menaçant le fleuve, les tribus des contreforts de l'Arunachal. Le plus important des souverains ahom, Rudra Singh, meurt en 1714, après avoir pratiquement annexé les royaumes kachari au sud (le centre du pouvoir kachari s'était déplacé sous la pression des Ahom) et jaintia à l'ouest, dans le Meghalaya.
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