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Copyright Undertaking Copyright Undertaking This thesis is protected by copyright, with all rights reserved. By reading and using the thesis, the reader understands and agrees to the following terms: 1. The reader will abide by the rules and legal ordinances governing copyright regarding the use of the thesis. 2. The reader will use the thesis for the purpose of research or private study only and not for distribution or further reproduction or any other purpose. 3. The reader agrees to indemnify and hold the University harmless from and against any loss, damage, cost, liability or expenses arising from copyright infringement or unauthorized usage. IMPORTANT If you have reasons to believe that any materials in this thesis are deemed not suitable to be distributed in this form, or a copyright owner having difficulty with the material being included in our database, please contact [email protected] providing details. The Library will look into your claim and consider taking remedial action upon receipt of the written requests. Pao Yue-kong Library, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong http://www.lib.polyu.edu.hk Developing Ghana’s Slave Route Project for cultural tourism: Planning and marketing implications Aaron Kofi Badu Yankholmes Ph.D The Hong Kong Polytechnic University 2013 ! The Hong Kong Polytechnic University School of Hotel and Tourism Management Developing Ghana’s Slave Route Project for cultural tourism: Planning and marketing implications Aaron Kofi Badu Yankholmes A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy June 2013 ! ! CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that to the best of my knowledge and belief, it reproduces no material previously published or written, nor material that has been accepted for award of any other degree or diploma, except where due acknowledgment has been made in the text. Aaron Kofi Badu Yankholmes ii ! DEDICATION To the memory of Wilmot Stanley Yankholmes (1944−2012) ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! iii ! ABSTRACT This study investigates whether a single unified collective memory can be imposed on different social groups of multiple collective memories. While tourism research has problematised the Slave Routes as a dissonant form of heritage, a strong body of evidence from a collective memory perspective suggests that multiple stakeholders with power imbalances attend to it. However, the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation’s intervention through the creation of Slave Route Project (SRP) has for sometime now promoted the idea of a single global collective memory on the Slave Routes. As result, the central theme outlined by the SRP homogenises and commodifies some memories while de-emphasising others. The study, therefore, draws on Halbwachs’ (1980, 1992) thesis on collective memory, and Tunbridge and Ashworth’s (1996) concept of dissonant heritage in an effort to identify some verticals as well as parallels in multiple stakeholder articulation of collective slave memories across space and time. To address the study objectives, a descriptive research design was adopted. This provided the basis for employing a multi-strategy approach to integrate multiple data sources and methods. The study, therefore, draws on elements of both positivist and interpretivist techniques in data collection. The quantitative research employed a questionnaire survey involving 1,028 local residents in five former Transatlantic Slave Trade (TAST) communities in Ghana, West Africa and 566 international visitors. The qualitative research used purposive and snowballing sampling methods, which resulted in 95 interviews involving descendants of ‘slaves’, descendants of enslavers, traditional iv ! authorities and expatriate diasporan Africans. The primary data collection was undertaken between January and June 2012. The findings suggest that promoting the idea of a single unified collective memory on the Slave Routes is heavily contested given the subtle uses of collective slave memory within and between the different communities and social groups. Within each community, articulation of collective slave memories implicitly and explicitly reflect the power and social structures which, in turn, influences the uses and terms of meaning attending TAST heritage by the different social groups. Between communities, memory narratives were spatially constructed with different communities having different collective slave memory based on their historic roles during the TAST and local identity that tends to stress the unique attributes of tangible heritage attractions. The results further indicated that visitors to TAST memory sites had different motives and experiences. Some were closely tied to collective slave memory while many were tied to the recognition of some TAST cultural assets as Wold Heritage Sites and consequent interpretation as well as the presentation of global collective memory there. The findings underline the point that tourism planning and marketing efforts on the Slave Routes should take cognisance of the complexities of multiple stakeholders and their contemporary use of TAST cultural assets, especially given the changing character of cultural heritage assets due to international tourism promotion. This is epitomised by the development of a conceptual framework that recognised the dominant stakeholders to the remembrance of collective slave memories and the multiple collective heritage created and shared by them. v !! ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Firstly, I owe more than I can ever say to the mentorship, inspiration and advice, at all times and on all points of my supervisor, Professor Bob McKercher. His encyclopaedic knowledge was only equalled but his willingness to impart the same most ungrudgingly. I am so thankful to Professor Michael Hitchcock and Professor Richard Sharpley for their insightful feedback and commitment to rigorous and collegial dissertation process. I am also deeply indebted to Professor Dallen Timothy, Dr. Oheneba Akyeampong, Dr. John Ap, Dr. Akua Anokye Duku, Professor Emmanuel Blankson, Dr. Kwaku Boakye, Dr. Barima Antwi, Professor Awusabo Asare, Professor Albert Abane, Professor Henry Nii Adziri Wellington and Dr. Simon Mariwah for their constructive criticisms and suggestions. Then again I received much willing help from the chiefs and people of Assin Manso, Elmina, Cape Coast, Bono Manso and Salaga, officials at the Ghana Tourism Authority, Ghana Museum and Monuments Board, Cape Coast Metropolitan Assembly, Komenda Edina Eguafo Municipal Assembly, East Gonja District Assembly and Assin North District Assembly. I would also like to express thank you to the faculty and staff of the School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University and Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of Cape Coast, Ghana. Finally, to the Yankholmes family, Wendy Ahiayibor, Robert Morgan Mensah, Kwesi Blankson, Elizaberth Agyeiwah, Jafaru Yahaya, Foster Frimpong, Dr. Iris Sheungting Lo, Dr. Julian Ayeh and Ibrahim Mohammed my indebtedness for your support is very enormous and is now gladly acknowledged. vi ! TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ....................................................................................................... iii! ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................ iv! TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................... vii! LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................ xvi! LIST OF PLATES .................................................................................................. xx! ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................ xxi! CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1! 1.0 Study background ............................................................................................... 1! 1.1 Ghana with emphasis on the TAST ................................................................... 6! 1.2 Statement of the problem ................................................................................. 12! 1.3 Research questions ........................................................................................... 14! 1.4 Research objectives .......................................................................................... 15! 1.5 Significance of the study .................................................................................. 15! 1.6 Organization of the study ................................................................................. 19! CHAPTER 2: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................................... 21! 2.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 21! 2.1 Conceptualising memory ................................................................................. 21! 2.2 Halbwachs on collective memory .................................................................... 24! 2.2.1 Criticisms of the theory ................................................................................. 29! 2.3 Collective memory: The state of knowledge ................................................... 32! 2.4 Dissonant heritage and contested spaces .........................................................
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