UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS

ARS TEXTRINA INTERNATIONAL TEXTILES CONFERENCE JULY 21-22, 2005

FORM, MATERIALS AND PERFORMANCE

A Selection of Papers

Edited by B. G. Thomas

The University of Leeds International Textiles Archive (ULITA), The University of Leeds, United Kingdom

Copyright remains with the authors

Contents

Complex Geometric Patterning of Woven Fabrics by Incident Water Jets S. J. Russell, M. A. Hann and S. Sengupta 1

The Exquisite Linen of Beth Shean N. Ben-Yehuda 7

Affective Textile and Costume Museum Website Design F. S. Lin and T. Cassidy 15

Databank of Ornamental Woven Fabrics – The Lithuanian Experience J. Katunskis, V. Milasius and D. Taylor 22

How well can People Predict Subtractive Mixing? P. M. Henry and S. Westland 26

Southeast Asian Baskets: The Interface of Ethnobotany, Agriculture and Design V. Z. Rivers 32

Fabric Design Criteria for Reducing the Effect of Pilling in High Performance Fabrics M. Brookes, D. Brook and S. J. Russell 44

The History & Development of Bradford Industrial Museum and its Textile Collection E. Nicholson 50

The American Silk Crisis K. Dirks 53

Fleece - A World of Possibilities M. Goddard and D. Brook 64

Power, Pattern and Protection in Japanese Textiles M. Maule 68

Digital Printing – A 21st Century Paintbrush (Painting with Light, Colour and Image) R. Burton 71

Modern Education and Training for Textile Technologists and Managers A. Primentas 77

Conservation of the ‘Vane Tempest’ National Union of Mineworkers’ Banner J. Hyman 82

The Delaware Quilt Documentation Project: Piecing Together Delaware’s Quilting History F. W. Mayhew and J. A. Funderburk 85

i

Development of Ornament Notation for Woven Fabrics - Our Approach V. Milasius, J. Katunskis and D. Taylor 88

The Woollen Beaded Fabrics Woven at the Town of Roubaix in 1886 A. Uhlenbeck 92

Conceptual Developments Associated with Structure, Form and Performance M. A. Hann and B. G. Thomas 100

The Launch of an International Design Archive M. A. Hann, P. W. G. Lawson and J. A. Smith 109

ii

Complex Geometric Patterning of Woven Fabrics by Incident Water Jets

S. J. Russell, M. A. Hann and S. S. Sengupta School of Design, University of Leeds, UK Corresponding author: [email protected]

The introduction of complex Zillij-inspired patterns in dyed woven fabrics is described by impacting the surface with fine, high pressure water jets. The origins of the visual effects are discussed in relation to fabric structure and fibre composition. Patterning of the surfaces and the introduction of relief patterns may be introduced simultaneously on the face and back of the fabric when the incident jets are restricted to one side only.

1. Introduction

Hydroentanglement (or spunlacing) is a nonwoven process in which fibres in a web structure are mechanically entangled by high pressure water jets to produce a coherent fabric. A derivative technique involves directing pressurised water jets at the surface of a preformed woven or knitted fabric to enhance physical properties and this is usually accompanied by certain changes in visual appearance. If the water jet impact is localised to specific regions of the fabric, visual patterns can be produced, which may be controlled by adjusting process parameters. Therefore, it is possible to make late-stage modifications to the appearance and physical properties of textile fabrics intended for use in apparel and upholstery. This paper is concerned with a preliminary exploration of the complex patterning effects that are introduced in dyed woven fabrics as a result of impacting the surface with small diameter water jets. It also considers the physical modifications to fibre, yarn and fabric structures that are associated with these changes in appearance.

2. Patterning of Fabrics by High Pressure Jets

Two basic approaches can be adopted to pattern the surface of fabrics using water jets. The first uses an embossed support screen surface on which the target fabric sits. When the fabric is impacted by jets from above, the pattern produced corresponds to the solid or raised areas of the embossed support surface (Siegal et. al). Further improvements in the base technology have been made as understanding has advanced, for example (Greenway et. al). A second approach utilised in the present research, uses an upper permeable stencil screen placed on top of the fabric beneath the water jet manifold. This may be introduced continuously or discontinuously. A variation is to combine the use of both the upper stencil screen and lower embossed support screen. The basic elements of the process are illustrated in Figure 1.

1

Woven fabric is introduced on to a continuously revolving embossed support screen, which is water permeable to aid drainage and prevent flooding. Optionally, a second embossed stencil screen is introduced above the fabric and below the injector to enable simultaneous geometric patterning of the face and back of the fabric. A curtain of individual water jets extends across the width of the machine and treats the fabric in open width perpendicular to the plane. These jets are produced by pumping pressurised water through a drilled metal jet strip containing about 1000 nozzles/m arranged in a single line or in a twill format. The nozzles have a capillary cone cross-section to maximise energy transfer and jet stability and the stability and break-up length of the jets depends on the geometry of the nozzle and on the nozzle wear amongst other factors. Nozzle wear particularly on the input edge can be significant when operating at very high pressures and this affects the nozzle geometry leading to jet divergence and other faults as the nozzle geometry is changed. The incident water jets produce large impact forces and mechanical energy is transferred from the jet to the fabric and its constituent fibres. The dissipation of the water jet energy within the fabric and on the surface of the support conveyor also influences the visual effects produced in the fabric. The dissipation of energised water droplets reflected by the yarns in the fabric and the support surface are not fully understood, but also appear to influence the visual effects that are introduced.

Injector

Jet strip containing Water jet capillary cone nozzles (10-200 bar, up to 200m/s) Dissipation of jet and high energy water droplets

Woven Permeable and fabric in Drainage, suction of water and air embossed support screen conveyors

Figure 1. Basic Arrangement of a Hydropatterning System

In low sett woven fabrics, yarns can be laterally displaced by incident water jets leading to variations in end and pick spacing and particularly in staple yarns, flattening and shifts in surface hairiness are frequently observed. The structure of both the constituent yarns and the geometric structure of the fabric both influence the visual and physical changes obtained in the fabric. Three-dimensional relief patterns are obtained by increasing the open area of the support screen and allowing the fabric to deform within these unsupported voids. Deep embossed effects can be produced in this way and can be stabilised by subsequent thermal bonding or the application of chemical binders. 2

3. Experimental: Introduction of Complex Geometric Patterns

To understand the potential for complex patterning using water jets, the geometric patterns found in countless examples of Moroccan architecture and ceramics were adopted as designs for experimental work. These complex geometries derive from Zillij built from 360 pieces of different geometric patterns called Furmah. Zillij originated from the Roman art of mosaics which was strongly influenced by Greek civilisation. The geometric designs that are formed not only create a visual effect but are also designed to express the meaning or thoughts of the human mind. In this work, new designs inspired by Moroccan ceramics, plates and domestic-wear were developed and converted in to cut stencils composed of rigid PVC sheet (Figure 2). The cut stencil was placed on top of the woven fabric, which in turn was supported by a permeable, embossed mesh screen. An embossed mesh screen was employed as a lower screen as indicated in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Arrangement of Patterning elements: lower screen (mesh) and upper screen (stencil) placed either side of the woven fabric

Figure 3. Embossed Mesh Structure for Lower Screen

A scoured 60g/m², plain woven 100% cotton fabric was direct dyed according to colour code 8 Pantone 16-4013 in preparation for the experiments. To enable the structural effects in the fabric to be clearly observed one injector was employed operating at a water pressure of 60 bar.

3

a) Upper patterning screen only (no lower screen)

When the water jets were directed on to the fabric from one side only, through the upper screen, both sides of the fabric are patterned simultaneously, see Figure 4.

a) Face b) Back Figure 4. Face and Back of Direct Dyed Woven Fabric (1 injector, 60 bar, upper screen fitted only)

Dye is apparently removed from both faces of the fabric in those regions that are not obscured by the stencil and a pattern is therefore produced. Additionally, within each motif, periodic jet marks became visible producing additional colour contrast and surface interest. Clearly, the periodicity and intensity of these jet marks can be readily adjusted by modifying the nozzle arrangement (across and along the machine when utilising multiple injectors), jet pressure and number of passes. b) Upper and lower patterning screens

The effect of fitting both upper and lower screens on fabric appearance is illustrated in the example given in Figure 5. The fabric was dyed according to colour code 54 Pantone 18-4320. This fabric was produced using two injectors each operating at 80 bar and the lower screen was employed.

a) Face b) Back

Figure 5. Face and Back of Direct Dyed Woven Fabric (2 injectors, 80 bar, introduced from one side, upper and lower patterning screens fitted)

4

The resulting pattern became more pronounced as the jet pressure and number of injectors increased and distinctive differences were observed in the textural effects produced within the motifs on the face and back of the fabric. In addition to the jet marking effects, small circular patterns were visible within each of the large motifs on the face of the fabric. Three-dimensional depressions were observed in these regions, creating additional visual contrast with adjacent (untreated) regions. On the back of the fabric, embossed regions were visible. In this way, textural effects are formed that are symmetrical in respect of geometric position but quite different in terms of relief height. These structural modifications also affect fabric handle. The back of the fabric where raised embossed regions were present gave rise to a softer handle than the face side of the fabric. Another example is illustrated in Figure 6. This fabric was direct dyed (7 Pantone 15-4702) and impacted using one injector at 85 bar using the same lower screen and a different Zillij inspired upper screen.

a) Face b) Back

Figure 6. Face and Back of Direct Dyed Woven Fabric (1 injector, 85 bar introduced from one side, upper and lower patterning screens fitted)

Again, the textural differences within the motifs were clearly evident. Embossed relief patterns were observed within the motifs on the back of the fabric, while jet marks were much more clearly observed on the face of the fabric. The textural and visual effects produced in the face and back of the fabric were therefore non-symmetrical but importantly, were obtained simultaneously.

Fibre Microstructural Changes

In addition to the washing out of direct dye, yarn deformation and changes in the spatial arrangement of yarns, the visual patterning produced in the fabric is also influenced by microstructural changes in the constituent fibres. Such modifications affect the pattern definition and perception of texture within the motif regions. In related work conducted by the authors, longitudinal fibrillation of fibres has been observed to be particularly evident in fabrics composed of cotton, flax, and other natural cellulosic fibres as well as certain man-made fibres, notably Tencel. In the present study, fibrillation 5

was observed in dyed and undyed fabrics composed of cotton and this affects surface reflectance and whiteness values in the jet impact areas. To illustrate the effects, Figure 7a shows microfibrillation of cotton fibres (right) following water jet treatment at 1.5MJ/kg.

a) Unfibrillated b) Fibrillated

Figure 7. Fibre Fibrillation in Jet Impacted Woven Fabrics composed of Cotton

The separation of fibrils from the parent fibres can be observed as well as the formation of sheet structures of the surface of the fabric as the fibrils become entangled. Fibrillation was observed in the regions directly impacted by the water jets and evidence of fibre fibrillation was also observed on the back of the fabric in direct contact with the conveyor.

4. Conclusions

A variety of complex visual effects can be produced in woven fabrics by directing high pressure water jets at partly exposed woven fabric surfaces. Rigid stencil screens are needed to obtain precise pattern definition. The visual effects produced can be attributed to physical changes in the microstructure of constituent cotton fibres, yarns and fabric geometry either alone or in combination as well as the removal of dye. In addition, the combined effect of jet impact and the use of upper and lower patterning screens is to enable relief patterns to be introduced within the motifs. Simultaneous patterning of a fabric is possible when the jets are incident on only one side of the fabric.

References

Greenway J.M., Jackson J., Sternlieb H., Ty F., Malaney F.E., US Patent no. 6,343,410, (2002)

Hedgecoe J., Damuluji S.S., Zillij: The Art of Moroccan Ceramics, (1992), Garnet Publishing Ltd., UK

Siegel J.M., Sternlieb H., Connolly T.J., Greenway J. M, Parker; D. A., Simon; A.T. US Patent no. 4,995,151, (1991)

6 The Exquisite Linen of Beth Shean

N. Ben-Yehuda Dept. of Jewish History, Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel Corresponding author: nahumben@zahav.net.il

The predominate, and almost exclusive, fibers/textiles in use by the Jewish People in the Land of Israel during both the Biblical and post-Biblical eras were (lambs'-) wool and flax-linen. This study will focus on linen. (In the English language, "flax" defines the material from the stages of the growing plant up until the prepared fibers, while "linen" is from spun yarn onward. In Hebrew, "pishtan" is the one word encompassing all stages.)

Our study concentrates on the period of the first five centuries, as reflected in the Rabbinical literature which was compiled at that time. Some parallel Greek and Roman texts will be compared.

The objective of our research is to obtain accurate in-depth understanding of the above information by means of recreating the original processes under the climatic and other conditions indigenous to the relevant areas in Israel.

A central subject is the famous and highly praised linen of Beth Shean (Scythopolis) and attempts will be made to identify its superior characteristics.

1. Introduction

The city of Beth Shean is in the northeastern region of Israel. During the Hellenistic Period the city was called Scythopolis and was an important center of the Decapolis. Under Byzantine rule it was the capital of the northern province Palæstina Secunda, until its decline after the Arab conquest (AD 636).

During the first centuries of the previous millennium, Beth Shean was a textile manufacturing center, famous for its exquisite linen. [Fuks, 1983, P. 119] And perhaps, just as Belfast Northern Ireland, world-famous for its fine linen in the 19th century, was known as "Linenopolis", so could Beth Shean – Scythopolis be considered the "Linenopolis" of antiquity, exporting its goods to remote destinations in the Roman Empire.

2. Linen in Israel in the First Century

Plate 1 illustrates a fragment representative of linen cloths found in caves such as Qumran in the Judean Desert region of southern Israel. This cloth has been dated at ca. AD 70. Textiles such as this have been studied extensively, pioneered by Grace Crowfoot in the 1950's [Crowfoot, 1955] . 7 Although being buried 2000 years has certainly caused deterioration, still it would be safe to say that this, even when new, would not have been described as "fine" or "delicate", but rather "coarse" and "thick". We have furnished this image for contrast – as opposed to the Beth Shean linens, which some 200 years later, received the highest praise.

Plate 1. Linen cloth fragment from caves of Qumran (Judean Desert). ca. 70 AD. By permission of the Israeli Antiquities Authority.

3. Beth Shean Linen in the Bible, as Interpreted in the Rabbinical Literature

"And the Lord God made for Adam and for his wife garments of skins, and clothed them" [Genesis, Chapter 3, Verse 21] Before the sin of eating fruit from the "tree of knowledge", Adam and Eve were naked and not embarrassed. Immediately afterwards, the first garments in the world were furnished by God Himself – "garments of skin". It would seem to be reasonable to interpret those as made of rabbitskin, goatskin or doeskin. 8 A Rabbinical opinion sees otherwise: "Rabbi Yohanan (Tiberias, d. AD 279) says – Like the fine linen garments that come from Beth Shean (and the verse should be understood thus:) "garments of skin" – (garments) that are worn close to the skin (body)" [Midrash Beresheit Rabba Chapter 20]

Rabbi Yohanan was the prominent Rabbinic figure in Israel in his time, and makes the earliest reference on record to and in praise of Beth Shean linen with which he is probably well acquainted. (Plate 2 illustrates the close proximity of Tiberias to Scythopolis - Beth Shean, 38 kilometers)

Plate 2. Land of Israel – North. Illustrating adjacency of Scythopolis (Beth Shean) to Tiberias and Valley of Jizreel. Arbel is near Magdala.

Certainly, the intention is not that God truly clothed Adam and Eve with Beth Shean linen, which did not exist until centuries later. Rather, Rabbi Yohanan uses it as a contemporary metaphor for what 9 the attributes of the ultimate undergarment would be – comfortable, soft, thin, light, and absorbent. We could suggest that they are all present in Beth Shean linen.

4. Beth Shean Linen's Value and its Contrast to Arbel Linen

"Rabbi Yohanan says: The fine linens that come from Beth Shean - if they are singed a bit, they are ruined. As opposed to the coarse linens that come from Arbel, what is their value, what is their price ?!" [Midrash Beresheit Rabbah, Chapter 19]

Here, the same Rabbi Yohanan hones our impression of Beth Shean linen by contrast to the also contemporary and locally produced inferior Arbel linen. Plate 2 illustrates the Tiberias vicinity. Arbel is adjacent to "Magdala" just 5 kilometers outside of Tiberias.

At the marketplace in Tiberias, Beth Shean's linen is "top-of-the-line" while Arbel's is "bottom-of-the- line" merchandise. Perhaps Arbel linen is similar to Qumran linen (Plate 1.).

What might account for the so drastic gap between these two levels of quality? Several hypotheses may be offered:

1) Socio-economic: Beth Shean - Scythopolis is a "Polis" – an urban center. The textile workers there are all highly skilled and well-paid. Whereas Arbel is a small village. The workers there are at a rural cottage-industry level.

2) Agricultural: The raw material for Beth Shean linen grows in the adjacent valley which furnishes the ultimate conditions for producing high quality flax. Arbel flax grew in that vicinity, having vast climate difference and producing an inferior raw material.

3) Textile-industrial: The Beth Shean valley produces a large quantity of high-quality flax. The local skutching and hackling industry produces the desired product – long high quality fibers – "line", and several by-products – i.e. seed, shives and short low-quality fibers – "tow". Accurate statistics for the proportional breakdown from that era do not exist, but in the modern flax industry 12.6% of flaxstraw is converted to hackled line and 7% to hackled tow [data provided by personal correspondence with Mr. Raymond Lebeert, chairman of the Libeco-Lagae Co., Belgium]. It may be assumed that similar proportions existed in antiquity.

Wet spun "line" was used by the local Beth Shean high-quality linen industry and the large quantities of "tow" were sold to Arbel – 45 kilometers away, at a bargain price. Beth Shean would certainly not desire to damage their carefully built-up international reputation by producing at "second line" inferior product. 10 In antiquity, "tow" - which is unsuitable for producing fine and cohesive yarn by wet-spinning – was typically used for coarse fabrics and rope [Singer, 1956, Volume II, Pp. 196-197] Only in latter years is there technological capability to re-hackle "tow" and produce from it high-quality dry spun yarn for weaving and knitting. The William Ross Co. in Belfast recently closed its dry-spinning mill after 157 years of operation.

5. The Edict of Diocletion

Diocletianus was Roman Emperor from AD 284 to 305. Diocletian brought to an end the period known as the "Crisis of the Third Century". He was responsible for laying the groundwork for the second phase of the Roman Empire, which is known variously as the "Later Roman Empire, or the "Byzantine Empire". His reforms ensured the survival of the Roman Empire, in the East, for more than a thousand years. Economically Diocletian made reforms as well. In 301, Diocletian attempted to curb the rampant inflation of the 3rd century, and issued his Edict on Maximum Prices. This Edict fixed prices for over a thousand goods, fixed wages, and threatened the death penalty to merchants who overcharged.

Among the commodities listed in the Edict, are various textile raw materials and finished goods. Fibers and yarns, grades and colors of silk, wool and linen are detailed. Articles of apparel listed under Chapter 26 – Linen include: shirts, dalmatics, wraps, facecloths, hoods, loin cloths, pocket handkerchiefs, head bands and bed linens. [Frank, 1959, Volume V, Pp. 385-405]

Each article appears with its maximum price graded according to quality group and place of manufacture (all within the Eastern Roman Empire). For example:

Dalmatics, man's or short sleeve tunics (colobia) – first quality: From Scythopolis 10,000 dinari From Tarsus 9,000 dinari From Byblus 8,000 dinari From Laodiceia 7,500 dinari From Tarsus, Alexandrian 6,500 dinari

Consistently, Scythopolis (Beth Shean), appears at the top of the lists, receiving the highest price. This reflects the superior quality of Beth Shean linens and their distribution throughout the Roman Empire.

11 6. Beth Shean Flax Today

After a short hiatus of 1500 years, fiber flax was grown for the first time in the Beth Shean Valley last year. In Israel, flax is a winter crop (as opposed to Western Europe where it grows during the summer). Crops were raised both in the Beth Shean Valley and in the Jizreel Valley (see plate 2) – which is 25 kilometers to the northwest. Sowing date was 20 December 2004 and pulling was on 27 April 2005. Plate 3 illustrates the flax in blossom at its full height.

Plate 3. Flax in blossom – Jizreel Valley, April 2005. Average height – 95 cm.

Comparatively, despite the identical sowing and pulling dates, identical cultivars and final plant height – there are significant differences between the fibers obtained in the two different locations. Jizreel Valley flax (not pictured in plate 5) is similar to that grown in Northern Ireland in both color, feel and fiber thickness. Beth Shean fiber is finer, softer and of light blonde color.

12

Plate 4. Fully ripe flax – Beth Shean, April 2005. The plants have self-desiccated.

Perhaps these variations could be attributed to the almost 300 meter altitude difference, and to soil quality, temperature and precipitation differences. As seen in Plate 4, the Beth Shean flax has self- desiccated and perhaps been bleached by sunlight.

Plate 5. Various examples of hackled flax (line). From top to bottom: Northern Ireland – water retted Beth Shean – water retted Belgium – dew retted 13 7. Conclusion

Pausanias (ca. AD 160), in his work Description of Greece, states that the flax of his native Elis in southern Greece is as fine as that of the Hebrews, but not so "yellow". [Pausanias – Description of Greece, Vol. II, P. 403]

Although he does not define exactly where that yellow flax was grown, nor can we ascertain exactly which shade of yellow he is referring to (retted flax is usually described as blue, grey, brown or gold colored) – perhaps his witness corresponds with our findings. And perhaps we are on the path towards recreating the exquisite linen of Beth Shean.

References

Pentateuch, The Five Books of Moses. English translation - The Standard Revised Edition.

Midrash Beresheit Rabbah (In Hebrew), Various editions.

Crowfoot, G.M. (1955). The Linen Textiles. In D. Barthelemy and J.T. Milik Discoveries in the Judean Desert I: Qumran Cave. Oxford. Pp. 18-38.

Fuks, G. (1983). Greece in the Land of Israel: Beth Shean - Scythopolis in the Hellenist and Roman Eras (In Hebrew) Jerusalem. Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi. P. 119.

Frank, T. (1959) Rome and Italy of the Empire. Paterson, New Jersey. Pageant Books. Volume V. Pp. 385-405.

Lebeert, R. (2005) Personal correspondence. Meulebeke, Belgium. N.V. Libeco-Lagae S.A.

Pausanias. English translation by Jones and Ormerod. (1955) Description of Greece. London. Heinemann. Vol. II, P. 403.

Singer, C. (1956) A History of Technology. Oxford. Clarendon Press. Volume II. Pp. 196-197.

14 Affective Textile and Costume Museum Web Site Design

F. S. Lin* and T. Cassidy** * National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Dept of Visual Communication Design, Taiwan ** University of Leeds, School of Design, UK Corresponding author: [email protected]

The aim of this study was to identify and investigate the main factors involved in the affective design of museum Websites. The research was focused on the issues of visual assessment and the reasons why people visit and stay on a museum website. The study was carried out to develop an understanding of the factors that attract people to use the museum website and how the affective use of design may change the visitor’s attitude to and image of a museum. 15 textile and costume museums web pages were presented to 144 respondents (74 UK college students and 70 Taiwanese college students) and a principal component analysis was carried out on the semantic differentiation exercise. The results of this analysis indicated that the respondents’ importance ratings for the design of the museum websites were significantly affected by three factors: emotional, functional and simplicity factors. The results of this research will enable website designers to understand the correct triggers to use in for affective museum textile and costume design and also provides an effective research methodology for further research in affective web design.

1. Introduction

To investigate the users’ perception of websites’ style, the semantic differential method can be used, as it is one of the most frequently used methods to identify the perceptual dimension of users’ preferences. Many researchers have applied this method to study product forms, styles, colours, and other attributes in product design (Chuang et al., 2001). Hsial and Chen (1997) had pointed out that a well-designed product should not only satisfy consumers’ physical requirements but should also satisfy their psychological needs. To interpret an image’s meaning, so that meaning can be agreed on or argued about is not easy. In such visual communication, there may be something that occurs only through perceptual mechanisms (Osgood, 1957).

The objective in this research was to develop and explore the affective, motivational and cognitive factors that influence the perceptions and performance of museum websites particularly in the textiles and costume museums websites.

15 The main purpose of this study was underlined as follows: (1) To find the factors that influenced the impact of textile and costume museums websites on users. (2) To understand the differences between users from different cultures when they observe and use the same museum website.

2. Semantic Differential method

The Semantic Differential questions were based on pairs of opposite words. These pairs were shown to the respondents and they were asked to indicate which of each of the pair of words was closest to the impression of each museum website.

(1) Selecting the pairs of image words 5 experts who included 2 senior designers and 3 scholars participated in the pilot test. Each subject was asked to evaluate 9 textile museums websites and to select 15 adjective pairs out of 24 adjective pairs, which were obtained from the preliminary test, the top 15 adjective pairs were used for the SD test (see table 2).

Table 2 The 15 image word pairs used in the SD test Informative－Confusing Vivid－Dull Readable－Illegible Complicate－Simple Consistent－Chaotic Impressive－Plain Interesting－Bland Traditional－Modern Structured - Scattered Unattractive－Attractive Professional - Amateur Bold - Weak Enjoy - Dislike Belief－Disbelief High quality – Low quality

(2) The semantic differential test to measure users’ preference and image perception 144 respondents included 74 students of the University of Leeds (these students were majoring in fashion design, textile design, graphic design and communication design) and 70 Taiwanese students of the National Yunlin University of Science and Technology (these students were majoring in visual communication design and industrial design).15 textile and costume museum websites were selected from 28 relevant museum websites, which were downloaded on 22nd June 2003 (see table 3). There are two language versions of the questionnaires, one is in English and the other one is in Chinese.

16 Table 3. 15 museum website samples Museum Web site M1. Textile Museum of Canada http://www.museumfortextiles.on.ca M2. The Textile Museum http://www.textilemuseum.org M3.Dutch Textile Museum http://www.textielmuseum.nl/uk M4.KSU Historic Costume and Textile Museum http://www.ksu.edu/humec/atid/historic/ M 5. Mississippi Textile Museum http://www.textilemuseum.mississippimills.co m M 6.Fashion and Textile Museum http://www.flmlondon.org M 7. American Textile History Museum http://www.athm.org M 8.The Clothing & Textiles Hallway Museum http://www.umanitoba.ca/academic/faculties/h uman_ecology/ct_museum/ M 9. Mill Museum Windham Textile & History http://www.millmuseum.org Museum M 10.The black fashion museum http://members.aol.com/money4bfm/BFM/spl ash.html M 11. Museum of Costume http://www.museumofcostume.co.uk M 12. MODE Museum http://www.momu.be M13. Costume museum of Canada http://www.costumemuseum.com/ M 14. The Costume museum http://www.iz2.or.jp/english/ M 15. Cavalcade of Costume museum http://www.cavalcadeofcostume.co.uk

Figure 1. 15 museum Web site homepages

M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7

M8 M9 M10 M11 M12 M13 M14 M15

3. Results and discussion

The data collected from the SD survey was processed by factor analysis (principal component analysis). Through the objective interpretation of dimensions from factor analysis, designers can identify the main factors in the cognitive and affective element of website design. Variance maximizing (varimax) rotation was applied to extract the principal components value. To compare UK respondents and Taiwanese respondents in terms of their image perception, the average evaluation scores of the two subject groups went into a factor analysis. The 15 dimensions of the respondents’ perception of 15 museum web sites can be simplified down to three factors (see table 5). Three factors were extracted with a cumulative contribution rate of 94.75% of variance explained. The first factor, which accounted for 44.88% of the variance, included the adjective pairs: modern-

17 traditional, vivid-dull, interesting-bland, bold-weak, attractive-unattractive, enjoy-dislike, impressive- plain and high quality-low quality. This factor may be interpreted as an emotional (visual impact) factor. The second factor, which accounted for 39.79% of the variance and included the adjective pairs: informative-confusing, structured-scattered, readable-illegible, consistent-chaotic, belief- disbelief and professional-amateur; this factor may be described as a functional (quality of information communication) factor. The third factor, which accounts for10.09% of the variance, was the adjective pair complicated-simple. This factor may be interpreted as a simplicity factor. The first factor axis can be defined as an emotion axis, the second factor can be defined as a function axis and the third factor can be defined as a simplicity axis. These three factor axes contribute the main visual criteria by which subjects commonly judge the impression and value of museum web sites. The eigenvalues of these factors ranged from 1.51to 6.73 and all of the loadings were greater than 0.69, which also indicated a good correlation among the items and the factor on which they impacted.

Table 5 UK and Taiwanese respondents’ Rotated Component Matrix Component Factor Factor 2 Factor 3 1 Modern-Traditional .928 .260 .173 Vivid-dull .852 .444 .181 Interesting-bland .851 .440 .274 Bold-weak .821 .432 .296 Attractive-Unattractive .817 .524 .211 Enjoy-dislike .784 .561 .203 Impressive-plain .780 .509 .275 high quality-low quality .698 .648 .248 Informative-confusing .282 .907 7.810E-02 Structured-scattered .370 .883 .167 Readable-illegible .379 .862 -3.258E-02 Consistent-chaotic .419 .835 -9.091E-02 Belief-disbelief .568 .732 .260 Professional-Amateur .611 .692 .315 Simple-Complicate .367 8.010E-03 .924 % of Variance eigenvalues 44.876 39.791 10.085 Cumulative % 44.876 84.667 94.752 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization1. a Rotation converged in 3 iterations.

These three factors (emotion, function, and simplicity) can be applied to construct a mental space in the interpretation of individuals’ feeling. By mapping these 15 factor-loading points of websites for each group into this space, figure 2,3 and 4 depict the factor scores of UK respondents and Taiwanese respondents for the 15 museum websites in this space with two-dimensional plots. Factor scores run from negative (respectively low emotion, function and simplicity) to positive (respectively high emotion, function and simplicity).

Figure 2 showed that the museum website samples (M3, M7, and M11for both groups; M2 for Taiwanese respondents and M6 for UK respondents) on the upper right plane had high emotion and 18 high function, which also indicated that subjects perceived these websites to have modern, vivid, interesting, informative, structure and readable images. The website samples (M12 for both groups; M4, M6 and M8 for Taiwanese respondents) shown on the lower right plane on figure 2 with high emotion and low function. This indicated that respondents perceived these websites with modern, vivid, interesting, confusing, scattered and illegible images. The museum website samples (M1, M10, M13 and M15 for both groups; M2, M4, and M5 for UK subjects only) shown on the upper left plane were considered to have traditional, dull, bland, informative, structure and readable images. The museum website samples (M9 and M14 for both groups; M8 for UK subjects only; M5 for Taiwanese respondents only) shown on the lower left plane were considered to have traditional, dull, bland, confusing, scattered and illegible images.

Figure 3 showed that the websites samples with low emotional images tended to have more simplicity images for UK respondents. The 15 website samples can be classified into two major groups, one with high emotional images tending to have more simplicity in their images and the other group samples with low emotional images tending to have more complicated images for Taiwanese subjects. Figure 4 shown most of the website samples were considered to have higher functional images tending to have more simple images for UK respondents.

Table 6 the factor loading score of UK subjects and Taiwanese subjects

Museum web sites Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 A B A B A B 1.Textile Museum of Canada -1.10370 -1.28703 .68909 .99475 -1.57900 -.37567 2. The Textile Museum -.21343 .44821 1.4369 1.09318 1.06972 1.88785 3. Dutch Textile Museum 1.27636 .63632 .73456 .36741 -.00911 .40593 4. KSU Historic Costume and Textile Museum -1.08300 .09993 .18432 -.68217 -.04211 .42998 5. Mississippi Textile Museum -.80542 -.54940 .18661 -1.64874 .17628 -.88895 6. Fashion and Textile Museum 1.51643 1.53376 .18906 -.77093 .77022 .25007 7. American Textile History Museum .35750 1.10966 1.13350 1.02937 -1.13246 .68418 8. The Clothing & Textiles Hallway Museum -.40092 .22081 -.73839 -2.16852 1.97983 1.24525 9. Mill Museum Windham Textile & History -.46357 -.17999 -1.06712 -2.71815 .42607 .37082 Museum 10. The black fashion museum -1.29849 -.67850 .82384 .04250 .31605 .05530 11. Museum of Costume .90236 1.20025 1.29083 .28661 -.09791 -.63930 12. MODE Museum 1.71747 1.87748 -.29580 -.67762 -2.06992 -1.25047 13. Costume museum of Canada -1.16716 -.57492 -.05546 .13116 1.09122 -1.01528 14. The Costume museum -1.15394 -.83727 -.16613 -.46817 .85955 -.98971 15. Cavalcade of Costume museum -.41289 -.68692 .44514 .39831 -.85852 1.11460

Group A: UK respondents, Group B: Taiwanese UK respondents

19

Factor 2/High function Factor 3/ simplicity Factor 3/High simp licity ▲8 ◘2

Factor 1/Low emotion 2▲ Factor 1/Low emotion ▲13 ◘ ▲2 Factor 1/High emotion ◘8 ◘1 7▲ ▲11 ▲14 15 ▲10 ◘2 ◘7 Factor 1/High emotion 7 ▲6 ▲1 ◘ 13 15 ▲3 ▲10 ▲9 ◘4 ◘3 ▲15 ▲5 9 6 ◘ ◘ ◘11 ◘ ◘ 4▲▲ 5 ◘3 ▲6 4▲ ◘10 11▲▲ 3 ▲13 ◘1 ▲14 ◘10 ▲12 5 14 ◘ 5 ◘ 14◘ ▲15 ◘ 6 ▲8 ◘ ◘12 13 7▲◘ 11 12 ◘4 ◘ ◘ ▲9 ▲1

▲12

◘8

9◘ Factor 2/Low function Factor 3/ Complicated ▲UK respondents ▲UK respondents ◘ Taiwanese respondents ◘ Taiwanese respondents Fig. 2 Positions of 15 museum websites in Fig. 3 Positions of 15 museum websites in ‘semantic space’, projected on the plane ‘semantic space’, projected on the plane defined by factor 1 and factor 2. defined by factor 1 and factor 3.

Factor 3/ simplicity

▲12

▲1 ◘ 2 Factor 2/Low function ▲13 7 Factor 2/High function 8 15 ▲ ◘ ▲14◘ ◘7 ◘9 ◘4 10◘ ◘3 ◘6 ▲4 ▲3▲ 11 ▲5 ▲9 ▲10 1 ◘11 ◘ 5 14 6▲▲ 15 ▲2 ◘ ◘ ▲UK respondents ◘13 ◘12 ◘ Taiwanese respondents Fig. 4 Positions of 15 museum websites in ▲8 ‘semantic space’, projected on the plane defined by factor 2 and factor 3.

Factor 3/Complicated

20 4. Conclusion The major objective of this study was to investigate factors that affect users’ perception of textile and costume museum websites. Semantic Differential scales have been shown to be very useful in studying how museum websites are perceived. The results of this analysis indicated that the respondents’ important ratings for the design of the museum websites were significantly affected by three factors: visual impact, quality of information communication, and simplicity. This study also investigated the differences between English country groups and Non-English country groups in terms of the website perception, which may be culturally linked and could help determine aspects of web sites design and usage. These findings provide us with valuable information to understand the expectations and perceptions of people from two different cultures regarding museum website design. The results of this research will enable website designers to understand the correct triggers to use in for affective museum and costume design and also provides an effective research methodology for further research in affective web design.

References

【1】Chuang, M. and Ma, Y. (2001).Expressing the expected product images in product design of micro-electronic products, International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, Volume 27, Issue 4, pp.233-245

【2】Hsiao, S. and Chen, C. (1997) A semantic and shape grammar based approach for product design, Design Studies, Vol.18, pp. 275-296

【3】Osgood, C. E., (1957) The measurement of meaning, Urbana: University of Illinois Press

21 Databank of Ornamental Woven Fabrics – The Lithuanian Experience

J. Katunskis, V. Milašius and D. Taylor Department of Textile Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu 56, Kaunas, Lithuania Corresponding author: [email protected]

As the ancients had said “Ars longa, vita brevis” (art is for a long time, life is short). That is to say artworks outlive creators. I should say real artwork, such as folk art items. Research into various areas of folk art is important and significant for every nation. It is an essential part of a community’s national consciousness. The investigation of traditional textiles reveals material and spiritual aspects of human creativity. It helps to understand how cultural information is embedded in a structure of folk art, and describes fundamental principles of living and understanding of the nation itself in the world. Various national Lithuanian textiles can contribute to the interpretation of cultural links between nations, as well.

The ornament is the main element of a patterned fabric design. Patterned woven fabrics took an important place in Lithuanian customs and traditions. Lithuanian traditional textiles contributed to the one of the most important parts of folk art in olden timesand today play a significant role in contemporary life. The analysis of Lithuanian ornaments and patterns is meaningful, because it reveals the originality of their character, traditions, customs and differences between the various ethnic regions of Lithuania. Moreover it enables us to find out more about Lithuanian national textiles features, the roots of weaving traditions and helps to understand the versatile relationship between culture and new technologies.

They often had not only material significance, but symbolic meaning as well. Patterned woven fabrics were an integral and the most decorative part of women’s Sunday clothing. To a Lithuanian girl patterned fabric was more than just an item produced by weaving. It was a traditional and ceremonial symbol. Semantic context reveals the meanings embodied especially in the sashes (Fig.1) and in their ornaments as well. Some observers believe that sashes symbolize spiritual relations both among people and with the world or universe. The sash communicates the idea of love and affection; it is a spiritual protection and brings luck, and therefore it was very often given as a present. Textile fabrics were necessary in all traditional Lithuanian national rituals and in important events of life. People interpreted meanings of ornament according to tradition and custom. Some ornaments were suitable during marriages, some for baptisms, and others in funerals. Swastika and cross symbols of sun or fire, had meanings relating to life and rebirth. Diamonds have many shapes and are associated mainly with four world points or simply the earth. They may also have been symbolic of fertility. Forms of diamond motifs included ‘diamond with shoots’, ‘diamond with crosses’, ‘toothed diamond’, ‘diamond with hooks’ (little horse) and etc. In Lithuanian folk art they can be simply called roses. The symbol of a rose often referred to an arbor, love and luck, and was therefore associated with weddings or birth events.

National fabrics evolved over many years, and specific features were passed from generation to generation. The most valuable ornaments and popular colours in terms of their symbolic significance have survived up to these days. Old traditions using these types of fabrics developed rich ornamentation.

22

Fig. 1 Examples of Lithuanian sashes stored in the presented databank (original samples are property of Lithuanian National Art Museum, Kaunas)

23 A number of investigators have produced interesting studies of symmetry peculiarities of patterns on decorated textiles from specific cultures (D.W. Crowe, D.K. Washburn, M.A. Hann, G.M. Thomson and others). They explore how cultural information is embedded in the symmetrical structure of pattern. Members of a single cultural group tend to produce designs structured by the few types of symmetries. The term cultural setting is a context of interacting individuals who share the same beliefs, values, attitudes, habits and forms of behaviour that are transmitted from one generation to the other. National ornaments evolved over many years. The continuity of preferred specific symmetries through time establishes a tradition. According to Washburn, ‘throughout cultural groups such preferences are adopted and become known as a style’. The pride of Lithuanian weavers, according to various sources, is their hand-woven fabrics, their beauty, coloring and patterns, their original interpretation and perception. National wisdom is coded in the ornamentation of folk art works.

Fig.2 Structure of Lithuanian pick- up fabric

All of the national Lithuanian patterned fabrics can be divided according to their structure into four groups: pick - up, overlaid, overshot and block weave fabrics. This databank of ornamentation contains pick-up sashes and overshot fabrics.

Lithuanian pick-up fabrics have a structure (Fig.2) similar to the structure of an extra warp figured fabric. Ornaments of pick–up sashes are always formed from colour warp threads (ornaments of other Lithuanian national fabrics usually are formed of weft threads). Threads of the ornament are taken out, or are lowered in certain places. The ornament is picked by hand, so the creation and realization of pick-up ornaments is less limited by weaving techniques than the creation of other ornaments. These fabrics are similar to Jacquard fabrics. The background of the fabric is woven in plain weave.

The structure of overshot fabrics (Fig.3) is analogous to the structure of weft-backed fabrics. The background of the fabric is also woven in plain weave and the ornament is formed by the second weft system - pattern wefts. They form long floats either on the face or on the reverse side of the fabric.

Fig.3 Structure of Lithuan ian overshot fabric

24

Fig.4 Photo of the sash woven in XIX century

Unfortunately, most of the showpieces are not exhibited, due to the small area of the museum rooms and to the high sensitivity (Fig.4) of these often antiquated items to external influences. These circumstances prevent the analysis, systematisation, and creative development of these riches of the national cultural inheritance. They must be preserved for future generations, and must also serve to introduce designers, or other visitors of museums, to these collections, especially the youth, who must attain a sense of their national culture’s beauty and aesthetical feeling. The up-to-date computer based databank of Lithuanian ornamental woven fabrics has been created for further progress of national textile ornamentation which forms a part of the national cultural inheritance.

Fig.5 View of printable record set An example from the databank was demonstrated during the presentation and is shown above.

25 How well can People Predict Subtractive Mixing?

P. M. Henry, S. Westland, S. M. Burkinshaw and V. Cheung Centre for Colour Design Technology, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK Corresponding author: [email protected]

This study is a preliminary investigation towards the design of effective colour spaces and colour tools to allow users to quickly and accurately select a given colour in a digital-display environment. It has been shown that many non-expert users find the RGB colour space to be non-intuitive. The choice of colour space on various visual tasks has also been shown to be an important factor and that experts show greater precision in colour-matching experiments than non- expert observers. We propose that non-experts find manipulation and selection in an RGB colour space to be difficult because they do not possess an appropriate internal model for additive colour mixing. On the other hand, observers from a young age may develop a useful internal model of subtractive colour mixing processes as they experiment with inks and paints. The purpose of this work is to determine whether it is indeed the case that observers possess more useful internal models for subtractive colour mixing than for additive colour mixing. The work reported in this study describes only an assessment of subtractive colour mixing. Three experiments are described whereby expert and naïve observers select matches from a library of colours for individual samples or for imagined subtractive mixtures of paint samples. Qualitative and quantitative analyses are presented to measure the ability of observers to make predictions of subtractive mixing processes. When mixing the subtractive primaries (e.g. cyan with magenta) the performance of expert and naïve observers are the same but in general the expert performance far exceeds that of the naïve observer for other colours.

1. Introduction This study is a preliminary investigation into the design of effective colour spaces and colour tools that allow users to quickly and accurately select a given colour in a digital-display environment. We have found that some non-expert users find the RGB colour space to be non-intuitive and this has been confirmed formally elsewhere1. The choice of colour space on various visual tasks has been shown to be an important factor2. It has also been shown that experts show greater precision in colour-matching experiments than non-expert observers1. It is possible that non-experts in particular find manipulation and selection in an RGB colour space to be difficult because they do not possess an appropriate internal model for additive colour mixing. On the other hand, observers from a young age may develop a useful internal model of subtractive colour mixing processes as they experiment with inks and paints. The non-expert, for example, would not be surprised to be informed that yellow and blue inks mixed together make green may find it hard to believe that red and green lights can be added together to make yellow. The purpose of this work is to determine whether it is indeed the case that observers possess more useful internal models for subtractive colour mixing than for additive colour mixing. The work reported in this study describes only an assessment of subtractive colour mixing (if accepted, it is expected that the final paper would also include a comparison with additive colour mixing).

The ability of observers to make predictions about subtractive colour mixing has been evaluated in this study. Although accuracy has been measured, greater emphasis has been placed upon the consistency of predictions by experts or naïve observers. The experimental paradigm chosen to investigate observers’ ability makes use of colour matching. No attempt

26 has been made to distinguish between the performance of males and females since earlier work has indicated that differences between these two groups exist1.

2. Method In this study, a total of 12 observers (6 designated as expert and 6 designated as naïve) were asked to predict the colour that would result from a mixture of physical paint specimens. The expert observers were either academics or students in the fields of textile, fashion or graphic design in the School of Design at Leeds University. The naïve observers had no professional interest in colour. The observers were presented with pairs of painted samples (made from acrylic paint) and asked to select the colour that most closely matched their expectation of an equal (by weight) mixture of the two paints from a library of coloured samples. The library of colour samples was created using a HP8550 laser jet printer and were specified according to the samples of the Ned Graphics Printer Atlas.

In Part 1 of the study the observers were given a single paint sample and asked to locate the sample in the library that most closely matched that sample. Both sample and library were available to view at the same time. The purpose of this part of the study was to define the inherent error in the paradigm and was necessary given that the library and paint samples were not made from the same media and there was not always a perfect match in the library to each paint sample. Six samples were used in this part of the study.

In Part 2 of the study observers were given pairs of paint samples that represented two of the subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) and asked to record the closest sample in the library that would match the imagined mixture of the two samples. This part of the study was analysed separately from the third part of the study because it was thought that observers may have particular knowledge of the way in which the subtractive primaries mix together. There were three paired combinations of the three primaries.

In Part 3 of the study observers were given pairs of paint samples that represented non- primary colours (e.g. green, orange, etc). As in part 2, observers were asked to record the closest sample in the library that would match the imagined mixture of the two samples.

The CIE XYZ values (D65 illuminant; 1964 CIE standard observer) were measured for the selected colours using a Minolta CM2600 reflectance spectrophotometer. The variability between observers was quantified in terms of CIELAB colour-difference values from the average of each observer-set’s measurements. For each trail, the selections from each observer were plotted in a CIELAB a*-b* diagram and ellipses were fitted to the data so that the major and minor axes of the ellipse was equal to the standard deviations along the major and minor directions. The directions of the major and minor directions were determined using singular-value decomposition.

3. Results A crude representation of the results is shown in Figures 1-3. In Figure 1, the six samples that were matched in Part 1 are shown in the left-most column. The matches made by the observers are shown in columns 2-7.

27

Figure 2: Representation of matches in Part 2. Each column shows the match made by an observer (experts in top half; naives in

bottom half) to the imagined mixture of the Figure 1: Representation of matches in Part colours in the two left-most columns. For 1. Each column shows the match made by an comparison, the physical mixture of the two observer (experts in top half; naives in colours is shown in the third column. bottom half) to the left-most colour.

In Figure 2, a similar scheme is used to represent the results of Part 2. The two samples that were shown to the observers and imagined to be mixed are shown in columns 1 and 2. Column 3 shows the actual physical mixture of the two paints (this, of course, was not shown to the observers during the experiment). It can be seem that, although there is variation, it is clear the observers were able to do the task and from this we can infer that they have knowledge of how the subtractive primaries using in Part 2 behave in mixture. Indeed, some variation between observers would be expected since the observers were given a task for which there was no unique solution (two different yellow paints may look visually identical when applied as an opaque layer but then produce quite different results when mixed with the same blue paint). The accuracy of the observers is therefore not as relevant as the variation between their responses.

Figure 3: Ellipses show the variation in observer matches for the six samples in Part 1 of the study. The major and minor axes of the ellipses indicate the standard deviations in responses for expert (red lines) and naive (blue lines) observers.

The variation of the observers’ responses is illustrated in Figure 2 for Part 1 of the study. There seems little evidence of any difference in performance of the expert and naive

28 observers in terms of the simple matching task. In Figure 3 the variation in responses for the three primary mixtures are illustrated.

In Figure 4 the variation of observer responses is far greater as would be expected. There is generally little difference in performance between the expert and naive groups though it is noted that the consistency of the naïve group was slightly better for the mixture of cyan and magenta. The average colours produced by the two groups (indicated by the centre of the ellipses) are very similar.

Figures 5 and 6 show the performance of the observers in Part 3 of the study where mixtures of non-primary colours were considered. In Figure 5 the two colours that were presented to the observers are not shown but the physical mixture (which was not shown to the observers) is shown in the left-most column. There is markedly more variation between the observers’ responses in Figure 5 when compared with Figure 2. This informal observation is also evident in Figure 6 where the ellipses are much larger than in Figure 4 for the naïve observers. The major finding from Part 3 of the study is that the variation in responses for the naïve group is much greater than for the expert group when mixtures of non-primary colours were considered.

Figure 4: Ellipses show the variation in observer matches for the three paired samples in Part 2 of the study. The major and minor axes of the ellipses indicate the standard deviations in responses for expert (red lines) and naive (blue lines) observers.

Table 1 shows a quantitative analysis of the study. For each individual sample (Part 1) and each pair of samples (Parts 2 and 3) the CIELAB colour difference was computed between each observer’s response and the average of either the expert or naïve observers’ responses. The average colour difference was then computed for each sample or pair of samples for expert and naïve observers separately.

29

Figure 5: Representation of matches in Part 3. Each column shows the match made by an Figure 6: Ellipses show the variation in observer matches observer (experts in top half; naives in for the three paired samples in Part 3 of the study. The bottom half) to the left-most colour. major and minor axes of the ellipses indicate the standard deviations in responses for expert (red lines) and naive (blue lines) observers.

A summary of the results is shown in Table 1. They confirm that the performances of expert and naïve observers were very similar for both Part 1 and Part 2 of the study but that experts outperformed naïve observers for Part 3 (see also Figure 6).

Table 1: Mean CIELAB colour differences for Parts 1, 2 and 3 for both expert and naïve observers.

Part 2 Part 3 Part 1 Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Indices Exper Exper Expert Naive Naive Naive t t Mean DE 5.11 17.91 13.30 4.51 17.85 20.87 Min DE 2.94 16.99 8.37 2.88 14.48 13.34 Max DE 8.19 18.64 15.84 6.40 20.46 33.12

4. Conclusions Three experiments are described whereby expert and naïve observers select matches from a library of colours for individual samples or for imagined subtractive mixtures of paint samples. Qualitative and quantitative analyses demonstrate the ability of observers to make predictions of subtractive mixing processes. When mixing the subtractive primaries (e.g. cyan with magenta) the performance of expert and naïve observers were found to be the same but in general, for the other colours, the expert performance far exceeds that of the naïve observer.

30 References 1. H. Zhang and E.D. Montag, “How well can people use different color attributes”, Proceedings of 12th Color Imaging Conference, (2004). 2. H. Yaguchi, “Color categories in various color spaces”, Proceedings of 9th Color Imaging Conference, 6-8, (2001). 3. J.M. Taylor, “Color spaces: Language and framework for color”, Proceedings of 9th Color Imaging Conference, (1993).

31 Southeast Asian Baskets: The Interface of Ethnobotany, Agriculture and Design

V. Z. Rivers Design Program, University of California Davis, CA, USA [email protected]

1. Introduction This paper presents research on the vital functions of baskets in supporting traditional agrarian societies throughout Southeast Asia. The vast Southeast Asian geographical region is full of contrasts: huge urban centers and remote rural areas; concrete and forest; wealth and poverty; globalization and isolation. The author conducted field research and collected data and baskets over a five-year period in parts of Southeast Asia. This paper focuses on baskets from Sarawak, East Malaysia and Kalimantan, Indonesia; Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and the northern Philippine Islands. The baskets of this study are produced by many diverse communities, rather than people of the modern mainstream Asian culture. In many rural Southeast Asian areas, peoples' lifestyles partly embrace those of their ancestors and their urban contemporaries. Among the older generations' long houses and farms the author visited, traditional working baskets were still in daily use alongside "modern conveniences" such as electricity, telephones and television. Typically, around the house can be found several fish traps, scoops for fishing, a basketry rooster cage, winnows, harvest and storage baskets, sieves, baskets for tobacco and betel, to name a few. Some of the people studied are Buddhists who still employ ancient animistic basketry charms called taleo for rice farming. (Penchang) Others have converted from animistic faiths to Christianity but still keep alive ritual charms and offering baskets throughout the home, "just in case". Some of the people visited make new basket products to supplement their income, but also still make and use traditional working baskets to support many aspects of daily life.

In order to fully understand traditional Southeast Asian baskets, not just to admire their beauty, lovely patinas and interesting forms, it is necessary to appreciate how they have and continue to serve all aspects of traditional rural life. Their importance emerges by examining baskets at the intersection of ethnobotany, or the symbiotic relationship of people and plants, and the role of baskets in supporting traditional agriculture and food production. In this way, the humble basket emerges as an elegant expression of the design adage "form follows function".

Many people in Southeast Asia truly live in a "bamboo world", where homes, fences, animal compounds, even water aqueducts, hampers and storage vessels, and many other utilitarian objects are made from bamboo and other local plant materials. (Lewis) Baskets have been made and used by peoples from diverse Southeast Asian terrains and living conditions. Some settlements are accessible only via water, while others are made by people living in shifting settlements spread throughout the rural uplands of highland Southeast Asia. There is a strong link between basket-making communities and the land. Frequently agricultural practices have completely reshaped the land, whether through the creation of elaborate rice terraces as seen in the northern Philippine Luzon area, (Capistrano-Baker, et al) or in places like Bali, where ancient water sharing systems have channeled the land. Swidden or shifting, "slash and burn" agriculture has also dramatically altered the appearance of once forested areas. (see Lewis)

32 2. Basket Making, Materials Both men and women throughout Southeast Asia create numerous and distinctive types of baskets. Each cultural group or community may have specific rules about who makes which type of basket. Among some people like the Iban of Sarawak, women make fine baskets and men make heavy-duty baskets. (Sellato, p. 25) The women will also weave the bases of some baskets, while men join the rims to the bases, (Blehaut, Munan) thereby completing the basket and expressing a metaphoric totality of gendered cooperation.

Simple tools are required to make a basket, such as a machete to harvest the raw material, a small knife for splitting, skinning and refining the individual linear elements, and an awl for lifting the warps and wefts and hole punching. In addition to hand splitting and shaving, some rattan and bamboo elements are made uniform by running them through a draw plate improvised by drilling varying sized holes in an old tin can.

Diverse forms of baskets have evolved over centuries of refinement. Bamboos and rattans are the most prevalent basket making materials found throughout Southeast Asia, because they are pliable and strong. The long, hollow stems called culms of bamboo are split into long uniform strips. Bamboo skin can also be finely cut into strips that create a smooth surface, while the inner part is rougher, but also very useful. Bamboos belong to the large family of tall grasses named Poaceae, subfamily Bambusoideae. With over 1,000 species found primarily in tropical areas, many are useful for basket making. In northern Thailand alone, over 20 species are used. (Anderson, p. 97-100) Many bamboos are useful for housing construction or for making baskets. Some make excellent cooking containers, while other species are good for eating. People have to know the various bamboo species attributes, because some bamboo species crack when used for house posts, while others, when consumed, will give you an itchy mouth. (Piper, Munan)

Another important plant for basket making is rattan. Rattan is a climbing palm covered with thorny stems. Unfortunately it has become something of an endangered species, as people must go further and further into the forest to find it. Its' nickname is the "wait a minute" plant, because people repeatedly have to stop while walking in the jungle to remove rattan thorns from their clothing. Rattans belong to two botanical genera, Calamus and Daemonorops both of which contain many species. (Piper)) Basket makers distinguish between many varieties of rattan, and both the glossy outer stem and rough, inner parts of rattan are used, split or whole. Rattan is also a great binding and lashing material. Rattan seeds also provide a highly esteemed natural rust-reddish dye called "dragon's blood". (Tettoni and Ong)

Reeds and sedges, barks and orchid straws are also used in Southeast Asian baskets, as well as fibers from the lemba plant, palms, banana leaves, and lianas. (Sellato, p. 27) A tall, thick reed called bemban (Donax grandis) is prized only for its outer skin. (Blehaut) With a sharp knife, the skin is peeled into long, narrow strips that are tightly plaited into mats. However, the finest mats are made of rattan. The inner bark of trees from the jackfruit family can be used to make carrying straps, as can the inner bark of Aquilaria aff. Malaccensis. (Blehaut) Another plant, the climbing fern (Dicranopteris sp) produces dark brown to black stems that are ideal rim lashings for small baskets. Pandanus or Screw pine is another well-known material. After removing the thorns, Pandanus leaves are dried and ripped into thin strips.

Woods and vines are also used in basket rims and posts. Some leaves of palms are used for the inner linings of double walled baskets. The stalk and inner bark or pith of wild and domestic sago palms (metroxylon) are also used for linings and sides. (Blehaut) In Borneo, the sago is an important food source. When felled, the inner pith yields a meal that is dried and rolled into pellets. The crushed sago pellets, when mixed with water and seasonings make

33 porridge. Inside the felled sago trunks can usually be found fat, sago grubs. When popped directly into the mouth or grilled over a fire, the grubs add protein to the diet.

Baskets are constructed to meet the demands of their functions. Some baskets are woven to be soft and expanding, while others are made long-lasting and strong to carry tremendous weight. Many baskets are woven with dyed wefts according to complex mathematical calculations. The strongest baskets are made from bamboo, but the most flexible are rattan. (Munan) Baskets made of split rattan are also more water-resistant. Many baskets combine both bamboo and rattan for extra performance. Wood rims may be added to reinforce the strength of the basket. The entire circumference of rattan is typically used to externally reinforce a basket, while lashings can be made from halved, quartered or longitudinally split rattan. Basketry fibers must be made uniform for the basket to emerge symmetrically, and these elements are often shaved paper-thin. There are many variations on basic construction techniques- plaiting, twining and coiling are the most common. Baskets often are made from more than one technique and more than one material. Much basket making information is available, so techniques will not be covered in this paper.

3. The Agricultural Cycle - Baskets in Daily Rural Life The climate of Southeast Asia ranges from tropical to subtropical, depending on the elevation with ample monsoon rainfall,. Within one area, seasonal variations can include a wet monsoon, a hot humid and dry season. By examining the link between baskets, the agricultural cycle and the seasons, we can better understand this timeless cycle for many traditional people of Southeast Asia.

The agricultural cycle in Borneo begins in May, when the lands are cleared then burned. In August the rice is sown and ripens in January. (Sellato p. 31) In contrast, in the Golden Triangle area, where Thailand, Laos and Burma (Myanmar) merge, the cycle starts earlier ion the year. The Golden Triangle is home to over 3400 villages composed of at least 6 main groups of ethnic minority people who migrated from southwestern China and Tibet. (Anderson, p. 19) Many of the people of the Golden Triangle's agricultural practices and plants began in southern China. From earliest times rice, taro, yams and other plants have been cultivated. The diverse groups grow foods appropriate to the altitudes in which they prefer to live. In the higher mountains, people grow hill rice and maize, while in lower areas, people grow wet rice too. Here, the agricultural calendar is tied to the climate and seasons differentiated by a wet, monsoon season and a dry season separated by transitional months.

According to David Anderson, in People and Plants of the Golden Triangle, the northern Thailand cycle is:

January: little agriculture at this time, time to build, weave and celebrate. February: village leaders select fields for cultivation. From late Feb. to March: undergrowth and shrubs are cleared. Cleared wood is stacked and dried for firewood. Chopped vegetation is dried and burned. April: Burning continues. People continue to clear and carry firewood back to their homes prepared fields are planted just before the first rains. May: Rains start and seeds sprout, as do weeds. June, July and August: weeding and maintaining the fields. Everyone in the family spends long hours walking up and down the fields hoeing weeds from the fields. Each field is hoed at least 2- 3 times in a growing season. September: The maize and early varieties of rice crops ripen. Corn is picked, husked and dried. October and November: Later rice crops are harvested.

34 December: Rice is threshed and transported back to the village, sometimes 3-4 miles away. To complete the agricultural year, the rice is dried and stored, whisky is made, fibers for clothing are harvested and weaving begins. And repeat…

4. Baskets in Daily Life Regardless of the season, baskets have assisted with almost every daily task among rural peoples in Southeast Asia where life is intricately linked to agriculture and the natural environment. Around the home, baskets were indispensable. Basketry mats were slept on, are still walked and sat upon and used for drying spread-out foods. Open weave baskets with handles are used as buckets and pails for carrying most anything from ripening fruit to firewood to food for the pigs. Some baskets hold cotton and hemp used in fiber production and weaving. Small side baskets carry roving so women can spin thread on their way to the fields. Throughout Southeast Asia, men enjoy gambling with their prized fighting roosters that are carried to matches in baskets that allow the rooster's head to protrude from one end and its tail feathers at the other. Fighting cocks are frequently cooped under large basket domes placed next to busy roadways in order to toughen their temperaments. Animals are commonly raised for food. Piglets may be contained in basketry pens and transported to market in open-weave hexagonally plaited baskets. Chickens are highly prized for eggs and meat, and they are also important as offerings. In the northern Philippine Islands, at night chickens were protected in coops suspended under the house. These coops had wooden doors that slid up and down. (Capistrano-Baker et al)

Out in the fields, basketry scoops are still used to move wet earth in the rice fields, to haul firewood and move gravel. Most everyone in rural areas carries a knife, commonly sheathed in basketry or bamboo culm holders. Basket baby carriers until recently were the original day-care center, as women took their infants with them to the fields. Sun hats are also important basketry products. When working outdoors, often many miles from home, people have to be prepared for heavy rains or blistering heat. While protecting the wearer, some hats also communicate social identity- a person's community or tribal group, and even more specific information like geographical location or marital status.

Specially designed baskets are also made to carry water and food for the midday meal. Some of these basketry lunch containers or tiffins, consist of multiple compartments to hold several types of food, while others are large, single compartment boxes big enough for the entire family's rice.

5. Food and the Culture of Rice Throughout rural Southeast Asia, people gather many types of forest foods ranging from fern tops, bamboo shoots, seasonal fruits and edible greens. The Iban eat the leaves of the well- known dye plant Morinda citrifolia, and numerous plants unidentified by the researcher but simply called "jungle vegetables" by the preparing hosts. Many fresh foods are also grown in Southeast Asia. The people of northern Thailand, Laos and Burma alone, cultivate up to 90 varieties for vegetables and spices. (Anderson, p. 56) In their gardens or along rice field paths and boundaries can be found foods and medicinal plants: banana, bottle gourd, cabbage, cassava, castor bean, chili, cotton, eggplant, garlic, ginger, green bean, green pea, guava, kidney bean, lemon grass, lettuce, maize, mango, mint, mustard greens, onion, papaya, peanut, pineapple, pumpkin, sorghum, sugar cane, sweet potato, tamarind, taro, tomato, watermelon and yard-long-bean to name some. (Anderson, p. 62) Many people also raise cash crops that are sold or bartered, including pineapples, maize and black pepper.

In spite of the vast variety of foods foraged and cultivated, throughout Southeast Asia, rice is the most important crop. There are more than 70,000 varieties of Asian foraged varieties of

35 Asian rice! (The Rice Page) Rice is not just a food- it is a culture. And baskets belong to this culture of rice. Roy Hamilton, Pacific Asia curator of the Fowler Museum of Cultural History at the University of California Los Angeles, in his exhibition "The Art of Rice" composed a list of generalities about rice, which he found to be true among many Southeast Asian peoples. Among his " 20 tenets of rice", Hamilton states that the word for "food" and the word for "rice" are usually one and the same; that rice is a sacred food, divinely given to humans, that it is considered the one food that nurtures physically and spiritually and all other foods are just considered condiments to rice; that the rice plant has a living spirit or soul comparable to humans; that a family group is defined by those who raise and consume rice together; that rice is a divine gift usually given from the rice maiden… (see Hamilton, 2003)

Briefly, there are many rice cultivation methods ranging from the basic types of terraced wet, lowland, high water, and dry hill rice. There are thousands of rice cultivars, each with different ripening times and flavors. For example, the species that ripen the quickest are frequently the least tasty, but may be very important if a family has run out of last year's rice. (Anderson, p. 67) Often people will grow at least a little of the rice that has been handed down through their generations, because the growing of these rice cultivars provide links with families' ancestors. The author has met many people who, although living and working in large cities, still annually farm the rice they and their families will consume in a year. Rice is an important subtext to this paper, because there are many types of baskets made and used in the cultivation and culture of rice.

6. Sowing and Hip Baskets Rice growing techniques vary greatly. Among some farming dry hill rice, men will use a dibble stick to create series of small holes in the soil, as women follow, dropping seeds into the holes from their special hip or sowing baskets. Other groups cultivate wet rice plants in nurseries and carry the 6" high young plants in special hip baskets for transplanting. As the rains fill the fields, the rice crop grows. As the rains subside and the water dries up, the rice ripens. Sowing baskets features two loops attached to the rim top. (Munan) They are finely woven, so small seeds do not fall through the weave. Some are made with square, reinforced bottoms for stability when the basket is set on the ground. Others are reinforced at the sides for extra strength. Among many people, sowing baskets are associated with fertility, so they are frequently embellished with multi-colored plaited patterns, inset beetle elytra or painted designs. These baskets are tied around the waist with a string, and to the string can be affixed a beautifully carved wooden buckle that fits into one of the two loops at the top of the basket. Small personal-sized baskets allow workers' hands to remain free and facilitate movement.

In addition to planting, hip baskets can be used to carry small hand tools and personal items. Until recently, Akha women of northern Thailand carried their tools in baskets made from bamboo culms and their cotton roving in small pinched bottom baskets tied to the waist. These baskets were embellished with strings of beads, job's tears seeds and sometimes, dyed red chicken feather "chenille" tassels. The women would spin thread from the cotton roving baskets as they walked to the fields. (Campbell, Lewis)

Small and large baskets can also be suspended from a tump-line cord stretched across the forehead and hanging down the upper-back. If a basket has just one strap, it is usually a tump- line. Frequently baskets from Laos will have adjustable straps, so the user can carry the load either at the hip, across the upper forehead and sometimes even backpack style. (Connors) Either way, the user has plenty of hands-free mobility.

36 7. Burden Baskets Since many peoples' fields are miles away from their homes, they frequently carry a large burden basket that may contain farming tools like hoes and adzes, a midday meal, water containers and so forth. These fairly large, multiple task baskets are designed to carry a lot of weight. They can be used to carry seasonal produce like fruits, firewood, animal fodder or other things picked up on the way home. Burden basket designs have evolved over many years in consideration of the weight distribution of the load, reinforcements to strengthen the basket, the tightness or openness of the weave for the materials hauled, and how the basket is carried about the body. These are important design criteria since people often have to walk great distances with their heavy loads. Burden baskets may have multiple strap configurations, for conversion to either backpack or tump-line, depending on the type of load. Many burden baskets have a flat back, so a heavy load won't roll around as a person steps in or out of a boat; or climbs a steep hill; or bends over to pick up an edible morsel. Some of these baskets have a smooth panel to provide comfort against the wearer's body. For stability when being loaded, some burden baskets have wood bases and 4 small legs to provide stability. A tall, narrow basket can carry more volume if a rolled mat is inserted to extend the height of the basket.

8. Backpacks There is tremendous variation in Southeast Asian backpacks. Some are woven in airy, hexagonal weave and have a separate panel that can outwardly expand the volume a person can carry. One type of loosely woven pack is strong enough to carry a heavy, ceremonial bronze gong to a ritual gathering or festival. Tripartate wrap-around backpacks made by Lahu men of Burma and northern Thailand are designed for hunting. (Lewis) The wearer can easily access his cross bow from the center compartment. In the right compartment is kept the arrows and in the left side, a water bottle.

Backpack baskets are carried by strong bark straps or woven bands that go over the wearer's shoulders. Backpacks are used for multiple functions, such as bringing goods to or from the market, hunting and traveling. Backpacks can carry most anything of any size, as long as the person can manage the weight and the basket can expand to handle the load. An Iban man in Sarawak told the author that he used his strongest backpack to carry his ailing mother many miles over land to reach the nearest hospital from their remote longhouse. Backpacks provide balanced, hands-free transport, and many are specially designed for a specific task. Frequently, the shapes, structures, and woven patterns and motifs of many of these backpacks are distinguishing characteristics that identify them as baskets made by a specific group or community of people. Some interesting and unique backpacks come from the northern Philippine Islands. One has two thick external rattan hoops that reinforce the pack, so it can be used as a sitting stool when the traveler becomes tired. Another is covered with palm stalk fringe that directs water off the pack and keeps the wearer dry. (Capistrano- Baker, et al) Another ingeniously waterproof backpack comes from Laos. This pack has a hooded top that rests against the wearer's back, thereby preventing the rain from running inside. (Connors)

9. Harvest The rice harvest is some of the most difficult labor in the agricultural cycle. People harvest the rice differently, depending on their cultural traditions. The ripe plants may be cut with a small finger knife or with a sickle one stalk at a time, in respect for the rice maiden. Some knives are embellished with images believed to promote fertility. At harvest time, a small reaping basket may be tied to the belt to collect the grains, or a larger ones worn tump or backpack style. In some cultures, while still in the field the farmer knocks the ripe rice grains

37 from the stalks into baskets. In other cultures, people use special burden baskets to carry the cut stalks back in the village, where they may then separate the rice grains from the straw. Many harvest baskets have adjustable straps made of woven rattan or jackfruit inner bark. One exception to the backpack or tump-line harvest basket is the northern Philippine gimata, or "twins" basket. Here, a basket is attached to each end of a pole. The pole is supported on one shoulder, with one basket before the carrier and the other basket behind in a balanced load. (Capistrano-Baker, et al)

Among the Tai linguistic groups of northern Thailand, harvest is often accomplished with a huge, 9 to 12 foot diameter basket woven in place, inside a hole in the ground. The ripe rice is threshed inside the basket by banging it against the sides. A person standing inside the enormous basket scoops up the rice grains. (Penchang) The ripe grain is placed into tightly woven baskets so the rice grains do not fall out. That way, no one angers or disrespects the rice maiden.

10. Rice Seed Some of the most beautiful and highly specialized baskets are used to store the living, sacred rice seed. In some communities, senior women select the plants that will yield the best seeds for the next crop. (Hamilton, 2003) Although most of a family's rice crop will be prepared and consumed, a small percentage is always kept intact for next year's seed. These baskets are tightly woven and usually ornamented. One example is woven bamboo formed into the abstract shape of a bird. The bird's head forms the lid of this thickly covered, waterproofed lacquer basket. Another seed basket from the Isaan or northeast area of Thailand is extremely finely plated, raised on a carved wooden base and terminated with a carved chedi- like or Buddhist spire, forming a protective shrine. Seed baskets are typically special in appearance.

11. Winnow Once rice has been harvested, the hull must be separated from the grain by threshing. There are many methods for threshing. Some people simply take stalks of rice and bang them onto a mat on the ground. In threshing and winnowing, the brown hull or inedible husk is loosened and removed from the rice. Winnowing can be done before storing the rice and again when preparing to cook it. In winnowing, people use flat round or rectangular basket trays to remove the husks, pebbles, insects and debris. The technique involves placing the rice on the tray and tossing the grains in the air. A breeze (or a person making a breeze with a fan) blows away the unwanted parts. After threshing and winnowing, the rice grains are spread on mats in the sun to dry.

Throughout Southeast Asia , before rice is eaten it is further pounded or polished. At one time women spent hours a day hand-pounding their hulled rice to remove the outer embryonic layer, thereby creating white rice. Although far less nutritious, people throughout the region prefer the white rice to the brown. One benefit of white rice is that it cooks quickly. (Lewis) Pounding can be accomplished in a number of ways ranging from using the end of a long round log to "hammer" the rice, or by grinding it between two heavy objects. In hand-pounding and grinding, the grains are broken but some of the nutritious coating remains. This rice is put into a strainer basket and rinsed, then the rice is steamed in a cone- shaped basket til tender. However, in many areas today, factory milling has too efficiently replaced the more outdated pounding process, so that milled rice lacks the nutrition of the hand-pounded type.

After pounding the rice, a family's daily ration of rice may be stored for the cooking of the day's meals. It is estimated that the average Southeast Asian person eats one and a half

38 pounds of dry rice before cooking, in a day. (Anderson, p. 76) Some ration baskets were hung above the cooking fire to keep the contents dry and rodent free. Beautiful coiled basket containers made by the Bontoc people of Luzon, northern Philippine Islands, were inspired by the gracefully curving prized heirloom Chinese porcelain "ginger jars". (Capistrano-Baker, et al)

12. Food Preparation and Serving In the tropical and sub tropical climate of Southeast Asia, all foods must either be consumed quickly or stored. Through drying, smoking, salting and fermenting, foods are preserved. (Munan) There are numerous baskets employed for food storage, preparation and serving. Baskets strainers and sieves are used to rinse and drain foods. Open weave baskets can be hung from a loop to hold cooking utensils, small dishes or cups. Some baskets associated with food are highly specialized. For example, rice liquor is important in celebrations and offerings. To get the wine from the ceramic jars where rice and water has been fermenting, long tubular basket strainers are inserted into the jars. The liquid filters into the center of the basket and is retrieved with a long-handled ladle. Another specialized basket is a strainer used to leach toxins out of out damp sago flour. The rinsed flour is placed in the wide topped, soft basket and rolled up to squeeze out the water. There are also special baskets used for the serving of sticky or glutinous rice. These baskets are raised on short wooden bases and have attached tops that slide on strings to keep the rice warm during the meal. Sticky rice is the preferred type of rice in many parts of northern Thailand and Laos.

In rural areas, traditional cooking methods involve cooking over a wood fire by boiling, steaming and grilling. Since earliest days people have used sections of bamboo culms as cooking and steaming "pots". By cutting the plant just below a node, the cross membrane forms the bottom of what becomes the container. Food can be barbequed or grilled by skewering it onto bamboo slivers. Steaming is accomplished by wrapping foods in banana or other large leaves, which keep in moisture and add flavor. Traditionally many people ate with their fingers or with bamboo utensils. The family took their meals from low trays or lidded food boxes piled high with cooked rice and placed on the floor.

13. Storage Whether for rice, preserved foods, clothing or personal possessions, baskets are important containers for keeping items safe. Some baskets are made especially for storing rice or legumes with their tightly worked surfaces and tight fitting lids. Other baskets may be much more specialized, such as a Philippine locust storage basket with a wide, flaring form and tiny opening at the top. When locusts would swarm, people caught them in nets and placed the insects in the jars for later use as a food. There would have been a small plug in the top to keep the insects from flying out. The locusts were cooked, then ground into flour, or skewered, grilled and eaten. (Capistrano-Baker, et al) Some baskets with solid sides made from wood pith or tightly woven, lacquered coated bamboo were used for storing honey.

Other storage baskets are made for personal use. Some have insulated compartments, carved wooden tops and elevated bases with lids raised and lowered on drawstring cords. Many types of personal goods would be kept inside, from jewelry and heirloom textiles to tobacco. The author has observed an insulated wooden based storage basket even used as a fishing creel in Lombok, Indonesia. Clothes are stored in large hampers with lids. Many of these baskets double as suitcases. When a bride or groom moves, or when people who practice shifting agriculture pack up and shift their village for new fields, they carry their possessions in large, hamper-like baskets. These baskets frequently have straps converting the hamper into a backpack.

39 Lacquer coated baskets are very important for water-proof storage. Lacquer adds a depth of beauty to baskets, especially when the weave of the basket textural contrast to the otherwise lustrous lacquered surface. Lacquer ware is frequently colored and painted. The various regions within Burma and northern Thailand where lacquered vessels were made are readily identified by shape, color and surface ornamentation. (Isaacs and Blurton) Lacquer is a natural, waterproofing material derived from tapping certain trees. The earliest use of lacquer is credited to the Chinese who used sap from Rhus vernificifera trees. This tree sap was also used in Japan. However, in Burma, (present-day Myanmar), Vietnam and Thailand, lacquer is obtained by tapping into lacquer trees Melanorrhoea usitata or Gluta usitata, which grows in higher elevations. (Stevens, p. 5) In southeast Sumatra, in Indonesia, baskets are soaked in mango sap to make them waterproof. Before lacquer is used, it is warmed in the sun where it turns glossy black, its natural color. Many lacquer pieces are red, however, which comes from ground cinnabar (mercuric sulphide).(Isaacs and Blurton) Lacquer ware requires many steps. The first layer of lacquer is mixed with ground clay to fill in the spaces. After drying, a second layer is applied which contains fine sawdust or rice straw ash. Subsequent layers of lacquer are applied and smoothed, then dried. The entire process can take up to six months to complete. (see Fraser-Lu, 1994 and 2000)

Lacquer coated baskets hold everything from rice wine to honey, fish paste, relishes and condiments, dried beans and rice, herbal medicines, tobacco, betel, and personal possessions. Lacquered baskets were frequently used as serving pieces for meals and as storage containers to keep goods safe from the negative effects of a hot, humid environment. Some large lacquer containers are used for presentation, such as gifts exchanged at weddings. In the home a lacquer bowl might be used as a fruit bowl, while in a market the vendor could arrange goods for sale inside lacquered baskets. Often, pairs of lidded lacquer bowls were suspended from a pole for the vendor to transport and then display wares. Many lacquer vessels have also been used for religious and ceremonial presentation. Offering and votive containers holding foods for the ritual feeding of monks and priests are frequently lacquer coated. These vessels were also used to transport offerings to the temples.

14. Hunting and Fishing Besides agriculture, baskets compliment foraging, hunting and fishing activities to supplement the diet throughout Southeast Asia. The forests yield game such as wild boars, monkeys, deer, snakes, and some insects. In Borneo, men hunt with dogs and may use simple implements like blow pipes, poison-tipped darts and snares. (Sellato, p. 32) Male hunting parties may be gone several days, carrying their food and water, knives and weapons in backpack baskets. Many hunting baskets are specially woven to accommodate certain types of weapons. A traditional Iban hunting basket is outfitted with outer loops holding carved wooden stake charms (tun tun) believed to assist in luring animals into traps. (Blehaut)

Fishing baskets are often ingeniously engineered to attract and trap aquatic creatures depending upon the environmental conditions and the type of fish to be caught. Some traps are very small and made just for eels or tiny fish, while others are large communal traps shared by several families. Some simply use the water's current to funnel fish directly into a wide-mouthed end where they are held from escaping. Many fish traps are elegant, elongated shapes woven with several inward pointing holes leading to the bait. The inward pointing sharp spikes surround the entrances, so the fish slithers in, but cannot slither out. Some of the simplest and most effective fishing baskets are really scoops. Although often backbreaking work, the strategy is simple. The scoop is dragged along the bottom of the rice fields to catch up the small fish, eels, frogs and snails left after the water retreats. When aquatic creatures have been caught, they may be kept in creel baskets until the hunter returns home. Creels can be attached at the waist, worn like a backpack, or tightly clamped under the arm and held against the body.

40 15. Ceremony, Presentation, Leisure Most cultures are similar in honoring ancestors, holding feasts of thanksgiving, celebrating weddings and marking many other rites of passage in life. Baskets were made for these numerous ceremonial functions, gift presentations, ritual offerings, and the enjoyment and exchange of tobacco and betel or areca nut. Some temporary, pandanus fiber baskets are formed into the shape of birds and filled with puffed rice that is consumed by children at special feasts. Other temporary baskets are offering holders that can be suspended or left on the ground until they deteriorate.

Many social customs dictate ritual exchanges of goods at weddings. Gifts for the bride, groom or family members may be presented in elaborate basket containers. Family unions may be commemorated with challengingly constructed, artistic baskets related to sowing and fertility. There are numerous types of basket containers ranging from multi-tiered and highly elaborate to small and fine for these exchanges. Baskets that are extremely finely woven, or made in very complex patterns, or embellished with purchased trade goods like beads and bells, convey prestige, because of the time, expense and gesture involved.

Many aspects of traditional spiritual life and social customs in Southeast Asia are related to rice, agriculture and the desire for fertility. While rice physically sustains people, it is also of great spiritual importance focused on the relationship of rice, ecology and the environment. Most Southeast Asian people feel that rice is a divine gift, a sacred food given to humans by gods and that rice plants and rice grains contain a spirit. Therefore, many spiritual beliefs surround rice cultivation. At planting and harvest time, farmers may make offerings to the rice goddess. Offerings can include food, betel, cloth, and flowers. Rice offerings may include rice seed, popped rice, cooked rice cakes and rice wine. Many people believe that the spirit of the rice lives in their rice plants, in the rice grains and rice seeds. Therefore, special basket containers are created to respectfully store the rice grains to be planted in the next cycle.

Traditionally, many people have believed in unseen forces that must be controlled or mediated. Balance may be obtained by the creation and display of small ritual baskets containing special substances. Some may be associated with fertility and abundance, while others are intended to guard or protect. Some small delicate basket forms are intended to attract bad spirits to prevent nightmares or misfortunes. The Bidayuh of Borneo made baskets adorned with snail shells, seeds and teeth to hold a baby's umbilicus. These small baskets were suspended in the home to protect the child. (Sellato)

With increased tourism to many regions throughout Southeast Asia, some people have begun making souvenir "ritual containers". Entrepreneurial basket products may be based upon older examples, recycled from older baskets and disparate elements, or even just inventions.

16. Baskets in Transition In Southeast Asia, traditional baskets are in a state of flux. In the most remote areas, baskets are still made and used. But in more urban areas, manufactured plastic and metal items have largely replaced bamboo and rattan baskets. For example, people may still wear large sun hats, but ones with specific shapes and intricate weaves that at one time identified a person within his or her social group and locale have mostly disappeared. Tissue-thin plastic bags have replaced bamboo and lacquered lunch containers, stuffed mattresses have replaced sleeping mats, and so forth.

Basket production is now part of the emerging global handicraft economy, as more people have shifted away from rural, agrarian lifestyles and have taken up the creation of handicrafts for income. Many new basket products and commodified products are in circulation today,

41 made for lifestyles greatly removed from traditional associations. A fish trap may no longer be used for that purpose, but may become a purse with the addition of a cloth lining and drawstring top. Or perhaps the fish trap has been converted into a lampshade. One can pick up mail order catalogs and see Southeast Asian made hampers, room organizers, placemats and coasters, purses, totes, and so forth. In the United States, inexpensive, seemingly ubiquitous baskets are widely available. Many are made in the Philippine Islands, Indonesia or China and cost just a few dollars. These products are so common that people rarely consider baskets in their broader, more essential context that has been addressed in this paper.

Many new baskets no longer use traditional materials, in part due to the increased difficulty acquiring bamboo and rattans. These forest products were once readily available, but with shrinking forests, people must often travel great distances now to find good stands of bamboo. Rattans are also disappearing, and people must go deeper into the jungles to find them. Many natural, traditional basketry materials are being substituted with colorful plastic strapping tape. At one time steel strapping tape was used to bind crates, but today moderate strength strapping tape is made from recycled plastic polyethylene terephthalate, or PET. In the main bazaar in Kuching, Sarawak one shop keeper had purchased numerous rolls and colors of PET strapping. He regularly took the plastic to long houses and hired people to weave totes that he then sold in his shop. In most Southeast Asian markets today, one can readily find recycled PET rice steaming baskets, market shopping bags, strainers, winnowers, and other working baskets. To many, these plastic baskets are more affordable, longer- lasting, colorful and less labor intensive to their natural fiber equivalents.

Today the traditional working basket hangs in the balance of becoming extinct. Baskets are important forms of material culture - working implements that support daily and ritual life. By examining baskets at the intersection of traditional ethnobotany, agriculture and design, hopefully we can better value them and preserve this sustainable knowledge that is too valuable to lose. As baskets carry a valuable link from the past to the present, hopefully we will continue to make, collect and celebrate the humble beauty of the utilitarian basket.

References Anderson, Edward F., Plants and People of the Golden Triangle, Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press, 1993. Jean-Francois Blehaut, Iban Baskets, Kuching: Sarawak Literary Society, 1998 Campbell, Margaret, From the Hands of the Hills, Hong Kong: Media Transasia, 1978. Capistrano-Baker, Florina H, Albert S. Bacdayan, B. Lynne Milgram, and Roy W. Hamilton, Basketry of the Luzon Cordillera, Philippines, Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 1998. Connors, Mary F., "Woven Harmony: Basketry and Textiles in Laos", Arts of Asia, Vol. 33, No. 5, 2000, pp. 129-136. Fraser-Lu, Sylvia, Burmese Crafts Past and Present, Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press, 1994. Fraser-Lu, Sylvia, Burmese Lacquerware, Bangok: Orchid Press, 2000. Hamilton, Roy W., editor, The Art of Rice, Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History, 2003. Isaacs, Ralph and T. Richard Blurton, Burma and the Art of Lacquer, Bangkok: River Books, 2000.

42 Lewis, Paul and Elaine, Peoples of the Golden Triangle, London and New York: Thames and Hudson, 1984. Munan, Heidi, Sarawak Crafts, Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1989. Penchang, Sompong, Basketry of Northern Thailand, Chiang Mai: Chiang Mai University, 2000. (in Thai) Piper, Jacqueline M., Bamboo and Rattan: Traditional Uses and Beliefs, Singapore: Oxford University Press, 1992. Sellato, Bernard, Hornbill and Dragon, Jakarta and Kuala Lumpur: Elf Aquitaine, 1989. Stevens, Alviso B., Contribution to the Knowledge of Japanese Lac-Ki-Urushi, Thesis from the University of MI, Ann Arbor, 1906. Tettoni, Luca Invernizzi and Edric Ong, Sarawak Style, Singapore: Times Edition and Society Atelier Sarawak, 1999. The Rice Page: www.geocities.com/cerealpage/ricepg2.html

43 Fabric Design Criteria for Reducing the Effect of Pilling in High Performance Fabrics

M. Brookes, D. Brook and S. J. Russell School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT Corrsponding author: [email protected]

1. Introduction Pilling is the formation of entangled fibres or filaments into discrete balls on the surface of garments and is usually the result of wear, abrasion, washing or a combination of all three. This phenomenon has plagued apparel for a long time but only came to the fore when synthetic fibres, such as nylon and polyester, were widely commercialised in knit wear. Such fibres were difficult to break and therefore were able to anchor the pills more effectively onto a fabric’s surface than the fibres previously used such as wool, cotton or viscose rayon.

Knitted fabrics and the yarns from which they were composed provided structures that hold fibres less tightly than woven structures allowing more scope for pilling to occur. The propensity to pill of woven fabrics is lower than that of knitted structures but still provides problems for the textile designer. Much work has been published concerning pilling and its alleviation. Pilling could, therefore, be minimised during the initial design stages by appropriate consideration of: the blend; yarn structure; fabric geometry and finishing.

Design is a multi-disciplinary activity that is used to create all types of products. Figure 1 gives a description of the design process as described by Rooney & Steadman [1]. While this description is simplistic it shows the iterative nature of design and how pilling would be “designed out of the product” ideally by the designer at the synthesis of alternative designs stage or at the evaluation stage.

Figure 1. The design process as given by Rooney and Steadman [1]

There are a number of factors that effect the propensity of fabrics to pill, one of the most comprehensive studies comes from work published by Gintis and Mead [2]. These researchers broke down the pilling process into three distinct stages which are: fuzz formation; entanglement and pill wear off.

44 Stage of pilling Fibre properties Fuzz Formation Friction Stiffness Breaking Strength Abrasion Resistance

Entanglement Shape Denier Stiffness Recovery Friction Elongation

Pill Wear Off Breaking Strength Flex Life

Figure 2. Critical Parameters for each stage of the Pilling process taken from Gintis and Mead [2]

Figure 2 shows the fibre properties that the authors found affected the propensity of fabrics to pill. They went further and showed at which step these properties would be important. Ukponmwan et al [3]. in a review of pilling literature cited work including Stryckman and Leclerq [4] and collated parameters that can effect pilling. These have been condensed into tabular form (Table 1):

Yarn parameters Yarn Type Yarn Count Yarn Twist Blends Hairiness Yarn Plying Fabric Characteristics Fabric Type Fabric Compactness (Sett) Fabric Structure Fabric Weight

Table 1. Yarn and fabric properties shown to effect pilling propensity of fabrics

It is not the purpose of this study to describe all these parameters but to illustrate how a study may be developed to observe the fabric properties that may aid the designer.

2. Reasons for New Testing Program The current study being undertaken is concentrating on contemporary continuous filament woven structures which have been designed to increase wearer comfort by increasing capillary liquid transport across the fabric. An example of one of the fabrics being studied with a pill attached is depicted in figure 3. These fabrics have a predominately plain weave base structure with a weft inserted yarn having a float over 4, 5 or 7 warp yarns.

45

Figure 3. 5-float fabric with an example of a pill attached

Float length is important in the design of many woven textiles and differing float lengths can be observed in common textile patterns such as twill, herringbone, hopsack or honeycomb. In one study Baird, Hatfield and Morris [5]found that plain weave structures pilled less than twill structures. Later, another paper on pilling identified that the longer floats have a greater propensity to pilling [4]. This study was based on woollen staple spun yarns and used weft floats of 4,5 and 6 length. Both Ukponmwan et al.[3]and Sridharan[6] argue that a longer float length increases the fabric’s propensity to pilling. Ukponmwan et al.[3]references Sridharan[6] while Sridharan, does not reference a source, nor offer original research. Therefore, previous work on the effect of float length has been confined to woollen fabrics composed of staple fibres rather than filaments. References to the pilling of continuous filament fabrics are limited. Stryckman and Leclerq mention the pilling of continuous filament ski pants while both Ukponmwan et al.[3] and Sridharan[6] state “Long continuous filament fibres do not normally form pills”. Further study of float length in continuous filament woven structures in respect of pilling would aid the understanding of pilling propensity.

3. Preliminary Studies Comparison in this preliminary study was undertaken using filament based structures where the only engineered difference in the woven fabric was a change in float length. Pilling in this study has been produced in the laboratory using the modified Martindale method BS EN ISO 12495-2 [6]. This method uses a Martindale abrasion machine which has a large test head and a reduced length of movement. Samples are abraded against themselves and inspections against standard photographs undertaken after 125, 500, 1000, 2000, 5000 and 7,000 rubs. Samples are graded from 1 to 5 with 5, described as no surface alteration to 1, heavy pilling. Extra inspections took place at 10,000, 15,000, 20,000 25,000 and 30,000 rubs. Samples were also measured for air permeability (BS EN ISO 9237:1995) [7] in addition to pill grading of the samples. Before any testing took place the picks and ends per cm were measured and the length of the floats calculated as described in the

46 standard method, BS EN 1049-2:1994[7]. This was to assess the initial geometry of the different fabric structures.

4. Results and Discussion Table 2 shows that a large float length is associated with a reduced sett. It is shown that the physical length of the 4 float (0.48mm) is half that of the 7 float (1.03mm) therefore by increasing the float length will give an associated physical float length that is proportionally longer.

Threads per Ends per cm Picks per cm unit area Physical length Length of Float (e/cm) (p/cm) (x/cm²) e/cm x of float (mm) p/cm

4 84 46 3,864 0.48

5 70 46 3,220 0.71

7 64 42 2,688 1.03

Table 2. Table showing the difference in the compactness of the fabric and physical length of float

From figure 4 (below) it is clear that the pilling grade of the samples is independent of float length for a 4 float structure. As the float length is increased the pilling grade be comes more sensitive to a change in float length. A greater decrease in pilling grade is observed as the float length is increased. This correlates with previous work and shows that continuous filament yarn fabrics show similar characteristics as staple yarn fabrics.

47 Pilling Grade of Sample Against Number of Rubs - Self Abrasion

5.0

4.0

3.0

4 Float 5 Float 7 Float Pilling GradePilling 2.0

1.0

0.0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Number of Rubs

Figure 4. Describing the change in grade of the samples as the rubbing is increased

Air Permeability of Fabrics Against Rubs with Self Fabric

9.00

8.00

7.00

6.00

5.00 5 Float 7 Float 4.00 4 Float

3.00 Air Permeability (cm³/sec/cm²)

2.00

1.00

0.00 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 Number of Rubs

Figure 5. Effect of number of rubs on the air-permeability of the fabrics during the testing schedule

Figure 5 illustrates that there is a permeability change as the number of rubs increases for the seven float structure. It may be speculated that the increase in permeability is due to a change in yarn spacing caused by the abrasion mechanism. Of course, as maybe observed, in figure 3 when pills form in a filament base structure, there is a displacement of the yarn. The 4 float fabric is a tighter construction than the 7 float fabric shows that when the air permeability of the fabric is plotted against the number of rubs it is clear that each fabric has

48 a very different air permeability at the onset of the testing. This implication is that the fabrics with the lower float length are more tightly constructed and less likely to pill. This data correlates well with the results from table 2 and show that the 4 float fabric is a tighter construction than the 7 float fabric. The air permeability of the 4 and 5 float length fabrics do not markedly change while the 7 float fabric increases by approximately 25%. This implies that the pilling or the process used to produce the pilling opens up the structure for this type of structure.

5. Conclusions The results of this preliminary study illustrate that the longer the float length the greater the propensity for the fabric to pill. When the float length is changed, other structural parameters are affected including the fabric sett, which in turn influences the air permeability. As pilling occurs some yarns maybe subject to local displacement which opens up the base structure permitting higher air flow rates. If the mobility of the yarns is minimised by reducing the float length and increasing the fabric sett, the pilling resistance is maximised and the corresponding changes in air permeability are small.

These results suggest that above a float length of four, pilling will increase markedly for this type of fabric structure over the 30,000 rub range investigated.

References [1] Rooney J., Steadman P. (1997) Principles of Computer-aided Design, UCL Press/ Open University. [2] Gintis D., Mead E.J. (1959) The mechanism of pilling. TRJ. Volume 29. Pages 587-586. [3] IWS ( Stryckman J., and Leclercq) (1972) Methods and finishes for reducing pilling Part 1. Wool Science Review. Volume 42. Pages 32-45 [4] Ukponmwan J.O., Mukhopadhyay A., Chatterjee K.N. (1998) Pilling. Textile Progress. Volume 28. Pages 1-57 [5] Baird M.E., Hatfield P., Morris G.J. (1956) Pilling of fabrics - A study of nylon and nylon blended fabrics. JTI (T). Volume 47. Pages 181-201 [6] Sridharan V.,(1982)Ways to eliminate pilling... , Man-made textiles in India, Volume 25 page 445 [7] British Standards Institute, BS EN ISO 12945-2 :2000 [8] British Standards Institute, BS EN ISO 9237:1995 [9] British Standards Institute, BS EN 1049-2:1994

49 Bradford Industrial Museum History and its Collection

E. Nicholson Bradford Industrial Museum, Moorside Road, Eccleshill, Bradford, West Yorkshire, UK [email protected]

1. A Short History of Bradford Museums The first municipal art gallery and museum to open in Bradford was established in 1879. It was twenty-five years later, in 1904, when it became associated with Cartwright Hall in Lister Park. This had been made possible by a generous donation of Lord Masham, the original owner of Manningham Mills, who gave £47,500 towards its establishment. The museum takes its name from Dr. Edmund Cartwright and his industrious contribution to textiles.

Bolling Hall, on the other hand, is a medieval building which was restored and then opened to the public in 1915. The key feature of this museum is the magnificent mullioned windows constructed in three tiers, each of these tiers is in ten sections.

The last substantial museum to be established in Bradford was the Bradford Industrial Museum. On the 14th of December 1974 Dame Margaret Weston, the first female director of the London Science Museum, declared the building open to the general public. It is also interesting to note that Bradford Municipal Council and now Bradford Metropolitan District Council follow a long tradition of inspirational developments. From 1847 onwards, Bradford is provided a fine catalogue of firsts, including: School Boards, School Doctor, School Clinics, School Dentist, School Baths, Secondary Schools, Deaf and Blind Schools, School meals, Open-Air Schools for delicate children, Nursery School, School for crippled children, Maternity School, Municipal Hospital, Municipal Milk Depot, Tuberculosis Clinic, Electricity Department, Municipal Railway, Tramway Parcel Depot, the Conditioning House for the textile trade and finally the first Industrial Museum in Yorkshire.

1. The Rationale for its Existence It was in the early 1960s when there began a gradual yet continual decline throughout the textile industry in Bradford and its surrounding district. Some of the larger mills were able to adapt to these changes and modernize their production facilities, but many of the smaller chose not to do so. With this economic fluctuation, the Bradford Metropolitan Council ‘fathers’ and many other interested groups felt the need to collect the older domestic and industrial types of worsted combing, spinning, weaving machines and items connected to the industry before it all disappeared.

By 1966, the need to do something had become critical. The Bradford wool trade had altered and many, small specialist firms had been superseded by large companies. Many processes had been automated and in many mills wool was being slowly replaced by man- made fibres.

At the same time an active policy of recording and collecting industrial/technological history was undertaken. It was felt, both from an aesthetic and most practical consideration, that a textile mill would be the most suitable building for a new industrial museum.

The search for suitable premises for an industrial museum proved very difficult and protracted. It was felt that many of the old Bradford mills were incapable of being adapted. Several were inspected to assess their feasibility for museum purposes. It soon became

50 apparent that all the inspected buildings were unsuitable either for structural or fire safety reasons.

In the spring of 1970, the local Bradford firm of W & J Whitehead, worsted spinners, ceased production at Moorside Mills on Moorside Road in Bradford. The company promptly placed the main mill building, two adjacent fields, a barn and a block of 18th century cottages onto the market.

An inspection by museum staff was undertaken and the mill building proved to be ideal. Although it was some distance from the city centre, it was easy to reach by public transport and close to the city’s ring road.

During the summer of 1970, the Art Gallery and Museum’s Executive Group entered into negotiations for the purchase of the mill buildings. By November 1970, Bradford Corporation representatives bought Moorside Mill for under £25,000.

3. The Museum’s Textile Collections The museum’s collection contains the following:

On show, in the museum’s gallery, a unique collection of machinery used in the worsted trade which reflects the processing of raw fibre to finished fabric as well as many examples of ancillary machines in storage. A large collection of textile hand and machine tools complement these machines.

An extensive collection of 10,000 educational glass slides and plates originally used at Bradford Technical College. It reflects the 19th and early 20th century textile educational curriculum which comprised the processing of textiles.

Over 8,000 black and white, sepia and colour photographs showing different aspects of Bradford’s worsted industry. Last year, saw the purchase of the C. H. Woods collection of 100,000+ glass plates which captured the heyday of Bradford and Yorkshire industries.

A large collection of ephemera, ledgers, documents samples books including the two unique 1853 sample books issued at the official opening of the mill which features Salts use of alpaca and cotton and silk and cotton. One other interesting item is the death pall reputedly used at Salt’s funeral.

A vast collection of student notebooks, mounting books, point-paper designs, workbooks and exercise books used at the Bradford Technical College.

Over 30,000 loose samples from Lister’s Manningham Mills dating from c1890 to the 1990s covering different types of manufactured fabrics: pile fabrics, jacquard moquettes, slab/resilitex, Listrakhans, velvets, printed fabrics, coronation velvets and simulated furs.

A growing collection of shade cards which reflects many of the noted names in Bradford textiles: Bulmer & Lumb, Priestman and Whitehead.

A growing collection of 16mm and 35 mm textile films.

An extensive collection of textile machine blueprints, books, patents, magazines and manuals.

51 European and British natural and man-made yarns, fabrics and samples as well as a comprehensive collection of locally-used costumes.

4. The Bradford Industrial Museum’s opening times and contact details: The fabric collection is available for viewing by appointment only.

To view the worsted machinery the opening times are as follows: Tuesday – Saturday (10.00 a.m. to 5.00 p.m.) Sunday (noon to 5.00 p.m.)

Please contact:

Mr Eugene Nicholson, Curator Bradford Industrial Museum Moorside Road Eccleshill Bradford West Yorkshire, UK

E-mail: [email protected] Tel: (+44) (0) 1274 425866 Fax: (+44) (0) 1274 636362

52 The American Silk Crisis

K. Dirks Home & Community Life/ Textiles, National Museum of American History [email protected]

Prior to World War I skirts were long and a woman’s legs were not seen, so stockings did not have to be sheer or attractive. In the 18th and 19th centuries, women wore heavy stockings knitted of cotton, wool, or silk depending upon their income. During the first quarter of the 20th century, skirts began to rise, and a hunt began for an attractive covering for the female leg.

By World War II the covering most favored by American women, were sheer silk stockings. Although silk stockings were worn only by the upper class in other countries, in America they were worn by the general female population. By 1940, the United States was the largest consumer of silk in the world, using 5,000 bales a week. Ninety percent of that silk was used in women’s stockings.i So when the federal government commandeered the nation’s supply of silk at midnight August 2, 1941, it was front-page news.

Attempts had been made to grow silkworms and produce silk in the United States since the 17th century. Each time the young nation tried to start a silk industry, it failed. At the time of WWII, the United States imported 80 percent of its silk stock from Japan, and the rest from China and Italy. In July of 1941, President Roosevelt froze all Japanese assets in the United States and cut off all trade. Henceforth, the United States would not sell the Japanese oil, and they could not sell us silk. At the request of the Chinese government, the United States also stopped importation of silk from that country, as the Japanese had invaded and taken control of several Chinese financial centers.

Silk was needed by the U.S. military for parachutes and cartridge bags. The use of silk in parachutes is well known, but the use of silk for cartridge bags frequently needs explaining. Cartridge bags were used to hold gunpowder for the large guns used by the army and navy. First the projectile was placed in the gun, followed by the powder bag and the igniter bag. The breech was closed and the fuse was lit. The igniter bag burned and set the powder bag on fire. Then the powder got hot. When it exploded, the gas sent the projectile out of the gun.

Before silk was used, wool was the fiber of choice for powder bags. There were occasional accidents when wool was being used. One of the worst was in April of 1904 on the USS Missouri, while it engaged in target practice off the coast of Florida. The ship’s crew fired their large guns twelve times in succession, but on the thirteenth shot the powder bag ignited before the breech was closed, and the ensuing explosions, fire, and hot gas killed nineteen sailors and injured at least thirty others. The powder bag had been set on fire by hot ashes and a piece of fabric smoldering in the gun, while the breech was open.

The military needed to find another fiber to use for powder bags—one that burned quickly and left no ash. That fiber was silk. When wool burns, it self-extinguishes if removed from the flame, and leaves hot ash. Cotton and linen burn quickly, and leave a large amount of ash. When unweighted silk burns it does so quickly, and leaves no ash. (Silk that has been treated with tin salts to add weight and make it stiff are said to be weighted, those not treated with tins salts are said to be unweighted.) To save money the military used silk noil or silk waste. (Short silk fibers found in damaged cocoons are known as silk waste. Silk noil is a type of waste produced during the manufacture of spun silk. Both types of silk are sometimes spun with wool to add softness to the fabric.) During the WWI, some felt that the use of silk in powder bags was a “peacetime luxury” and that improvements in guns had

53 made silk unnecessary. The army and navy ordnance departments strongly disagreed, and silk bags were used.

Eighteen months before the 1941 embargo, the government had been told by congress, to stockpile silk along with other war materials. It appears that this was never done. Memos at the National Archives provide a look into the inner workings of the office charged with making the decision and building the stockpile. It seems that in 1940 the Textile Group of the Advisory Commission to the Council of National Defense had recommended the government stockpile 3 million pounds of silk, 1,800,000 pounds boiled off. ii In June of 1940, the group met with representatives of the army and navy, to discuss the subject further. Captain Liedy, representing the army, stated that he thought the stockpile was unnecessary due to the fact the army could use a substitute fiber: cotton. The memo says nothing about how the army would deal with the fact that cotton leaves an ash when it burns. Nor does it mention if there had been improvements in guns, and the possibility of premature ignition was no longer a problem. As cotton was thought to be in unlimited supply, the captain saw no reason to stockpile it. According to the memo, at the time the Textile Group made their recommendation, they did not know the Ordnance Office would accept cotton for cartridge bags. The memo also notes that since the Group filed its report, both the army and the navy had purchased hundreds of thousands of yards of silk waste cartridge cloth. The Textile Group stated that the new information caused them to change their recommendation, and they concurred with the military that a stockpile of silk was not necessary. Another memo states that the army can stretch the supply of silk by using it only in bags to be used in the largest guns. They thought cotton bags could be used in the small weapons.

In August of 1940, Mr. White wrote Mr. Stevens a memo, the title of which was: “Silk a Strategic Material.” He states he is writing this memo so the Textile Group will have additional information to support their first conclusion, that a stockpile of silk is needed. In his memo he commented that silk is a necessity for war, and that the United States was dependent on other countries for its supply of it. He quoted from a letter received from W. R. Rossmassler, Treasurer, of the Sanquoit Silk Manufacturing Co. Inc. dated June 25, 1940. Mr. Rossmassler had reminded them of the difficulty the country faced locating silk for the First World War. The European countries used silk for the same reason America did, had been at war for several years, and had large contracts with the silk houses of Asia long before the United States entered the conflict. Mr. Rossmassler noted that by the end of the war, the textile industry was turning out 750,000 to 1,000,000 yards of cartridge cloth weekly, consuming 250,000 pounds of silk noil a week doing it. He noted that while excess cartridge cloth was stockpiled after the war, a large amount of it was sold off as well. There were questions as to the condition of the stored cloth—would it, over time, retain its strength? Mr. Rossmassler went on to say that if the government was going to require silk cartridge cloth in large amounts for the coming war, it was “imperative that it lay in as much of a supply of silk waste, as it is possible to procure.” It was estimated in August of 1941 that it took 12.5 pounds of silk to make one parachute.

Clifford D. Cheney, Chairman of the Board of Cheney Brothers, one of the nation’s premier silk companies, had stated in a letter dated January 2, 1940, that the supply in this country of pierced cocoons, and silk waste is “Not great---probably not more than four months.”iii He reminded the government that keeping the supply up depends upon the continuance of shipments from Japan and China that silk could not be secured from Europe.

In a letter dated June 7, 1940, Cheney said, “We hoped you would pass on this information to the Chief of Ordnance, who if he believed our data and conclusions to be accurate, would take steps to either speed up the development of adequate substitutes for silk cartridge bag cloth or would make sure that the government was provided with stocks of silk cartridge bag cloth adequate not only for normal needs of the Army but also for such

54 emergencies as might develop during these tough times.”iv During the First World War, the Cheney Company had volunteered to put its own chemists to work on finding a treatment that would make cotton suitable for use in cartridge bags even though his company produced only silk. In his letter Cheney went on to point out the possibility that the Japanese government might place an embargo upon shipments of raw silk from their own industry as well as China’s.

As to the military’s comment that the Textile Group had suggested too much silk be stockpiled, Mr. White commented that the point was they had to stockpile silk! He noted that the amount suggested by the committee was 10 times the amount currently in the United States, and that it should be built up slowly over the course of a year. He said it didn’t matter if the government stockpiled silk noil or finished cloth as long as it stockpiled it.

What went on between this memo and one dated May 8, 1941, we don’t know, but it appears nothing was stockpiled. In the May 8 memo, Mr. Frank L. Walton, the head of the Textile Committee, is still trying to get the government to stockpile silk. He says it might be possible for nylon to be used in parachutes, but that the military is not yet completely satisfied with the fiber’s performance. (It had been determined that nylon and rayon were not suitable for flare parachutes.) In June 1941 Mr. Walton wrote that the government should lay in a supply of 3,000,000 pounds of silk. He suggested that 1,254,000 pounds of this be set aside for the Lend Lease program. He mentioned that the procurement of this amount would have to be handled carefully, in order not to upset the market, and that silk waste and noils stored under proper conditions for a long period of time retain their strength and can be used. He suggests that the government buy up all the silk waste and noil in the United States and then start accumulating it from abroad. He also mentioned that experiments were on going to see if the silk waste made from garneting silk stockings could be used for powder bags. While the military insisted that silk be used, it did not specify any particular grade of silk noil or waste. The manufacturer appears to have been free to blend the noil and waste with higher grades of silk as they saw fit to come up with an acceptable fabric that would pass the strength and breaking tests required.

On the evening of July 25, 1941, President Franklin Roosevelt froze all Japanese assets in the United States and severed ties with the empire. This meant the beginning of the end of the U.S. silk industry.

On July 26, the defense agencies froze all stocks of raw silk, limited the processing of “thrown silk” [when silk filaments are twisted together they are said to be thrown] to the amount done the week before, asked for a suspension of silk trade on the commodities market, and froze the price of silk at $3.04 a pound. Edward R. Stettinius, Priorities Director, Office of Production Management, issued an order forbidding the delivery or acceptance of raw silk without the permission of the priorities director. This order did not apply to the delivery of silk from the ships to the warehouses, however. The knitting and weaving of silk fabric was restricted to the amount produced the week before.

At this time, American women were consuming about 47,000,000 dozen silk stockings a year, and the Association of Hosiery Manufacturers had been working since May of 1941, to find a way of getting silk, if trade with Japan was cut off.v Earl Constantine, President of the Association of Hosiery Manufacturers, estimated that the nation had a seven-month supply of silk, in various stages of production. He stated that nylon was taking about 20 percent of the stocking market, and when Dupont’s second plant came on line in December, even more nylon would be available for the stocking industry. He also suggested that more rayon be put into the stocking trade, but rayon manufacturers were already getting more orders than they could fill from the defense industries. Nevertheless, the rayon industry was ordered by the government to set aside 10 percent of its production for use in items

55 normally made of silk. The stocking trade would take 70 percent of this yarn. A little-known fact outside the stocking industry was that it took more rayon to make a pair of stockings than silk. The rayon manufacturers were concerned with the industry’s future; would it sink money and time into developing better rayon for stockings, and then watch the market go back to silk when the war ended. Although rayon had replaced silk in women’s clothing, American women preferred stockings made of silk and the new nylon fiber: rayon stockings were considered inferior and were unwanted in the United States.

Some estimated that the nation had only a three-to four-week supply of processed silk, and a four month supply of raw silk on hand when the government issued its orders. The military declared that these were exactly the amounts of silk they would need over the course of the next two years. Unless the government could find another source of silk, the 175,000 people who worked in the silk industry (110,000 of whom made stockings) would soon be unemployed.

The final blow came on August 1, 1941, when the government gave notice that at midnight August 2, it would take control of all the raw silk supplies in the country. Silk that was on the loom or the knitting machine, or in a bale already open, could be used. But the rest had just become government property. Published reports at the time estimated the country had between 25,000 to 80,000 bales of silk, with an unknown amount in various stages of production.

The silk industry blamed the government for the silk crisis. They asked why their advice to stockpile had not been taken and got a variety of answers: it was too expensive; no substitutes were available; and there was no way to stockpile without the Japanese noticing. This quote comes from Business Week, August 9, 1941:

“Silk men also are disgruntled by the government’s failure to build up an adequate silk stockpile for essential military uses. Reports are that the government’s present stockpile amounts to exactly nothing at all, and that this deficiency is what necessitated the commandeering of the entire supply of 80,000 odd bales of raw silk at present in this country. Army and Navy officials estimate that this will supply military needs for approximately 18 months, giving time to perfect and develop a substitute. One of these is a fine highly combustible cotton yarn which is now believed suitable for power bags.”vi

The businessmen were wrong about the stockpile. The army and navy did have some fabric stockpiled, including some from WWI. Although the army had sold off 10 million yards of cartridge fabric after WWI, it had kept some in reserve. The navy had also kept a stockpile from the first war. However it does appear that the government had a difficult time making a decision about adding to the stockpile. The writer has not been able to find any information on the cotton fabric the quote refers to, or to a finish (available at the time) that might make cotton burn thoroughly enough (leaving no ash) for safe use in cartridge bags.

In August 1941 Mrs. William Bacon of Dallas, Texas, and women in other parts of the country proposed drives to collect used silk stockings, and donate them to the war effort primarily for use in parachutes. Their theory was, if the women of America turned in their old stockings, the government would be able to release part of the frozen silk supply to make new ones. The OPA officials declined their offer. The military said it already had a supply of reclaimed silk that the silk found in reused stockings was only suitable for cartridge cloth, and that even in that case, it had to be mixed with new silk to make fabric strong enough for cartridge bags. One newspaper editorial writer suggested that women keep their old stockings and make them into rugs.

56 Meanwhile the files in the National Archives hold letters from businessmen pointing out that silk cocoons could be found in several South American countries. In each case the writers offered to go to the countries in question and negotiate on behalf of the government. This writer has found no information on the importation of silk from South America during the war. It is known that silk stockings could be purchased there in small amounts at that time. There was little in the way of silk production in South America before the war, as the cost of labor was too high to compete with the Japanese, and American mass production could turn out stockings at a low price. With the war, and the lack of silk in the United states Latin businessmen had reason to give sericulture (the raising of silk worms) one more try. For the duration of the war, silk stockings were available in Panama and several other South American countries.

Many Americans across the country tried to grow silkworms at home as a way of helping the war effort. Some states tried to start silk farms in their prisons. How much if any of this silk was actually sold or given to the government for the war effort is unknown.

Meanwhile industry, labor unions, and government wrestled with what to do for the hosiery industry. It was suggested that a small amount of silk left for the stocking industry could be stretched by using silk only in the leg of the stocking. The upper welt, toe, and heel, could be made of rayon, nylon, or cotton. Some even suggested the use of cotton lisle stockings, the yarns for which were spun only in England.

While the industry hunted for sources of silk, American women took things into their own hands and went on a silk stocking shopping spree. Retailers hired extra saleswomen, and some found it necessary to hire security guards to keep everyone in line. Some stores allowed customers to buy as many pairs as they wanted, while other put a cap on the number of pairs that could be purchased at any one time. There are tales of women buying up to $500.00 worth of stockings at a crack. Some retailers held back stock in an effort to make the supply last longer. Miss Harriet Elliott, Director of the Consumer Division of the Office of Price administration and Civilian Supply, asked American women not to hoard stockings, but to buy only what they needed so that women with limited incomes could share in the supply. She also warned women not to pay a higher than normal price for the stockings. If a retailer or wholesaler raised the price to take advantage of the situation she wanted to know about it. “Such price rises are attempts to take unfair advantage of the national emergency,” she is quoted as saying.vii Her comments included instruction for caring for silk stockings:

1. Wash them immediately after taking them off. 2. Use lukewarm soapsuds, don’t rub—press gently to force soap though the fabric. 3. Dry them in the shade; sunlight deteriorates silk. 4. Take care of runs immediately. Carry a bottle of colorless nail polish in your bag and put a drop at the top and bottom of the run as soon as it starts.viii

Sales for stockings alone rose an estimated 30 to 300 percent depending upon the city, with the heaviest sales on the East and West Coasts. The national shopping spree was not limited to stockings.ix Silk thread, yard goods, and clothing were also purchased in large amounts. Retailers who were having sales quickly cancelled them. Although silk stockings were purchased in large amounts in August 1941, the supply of silk stockings did not run out until the spring of 1942.

Wallace Carothers, working at DuPont Corporation, developed nylon in the 1930s. With great fanfare it was introduced to the American public at the World’s Fair in New York City in 1939. DuPont’s first full-sized nylon plant came on line on December 12, 1939, and nylon stocking went on sale to the general public on May 15, 1940. They were an instant success. In 1940, 64 million pairs of nylon stockings were produced. x

57 By 1941, 20 percent of the stockings sold in the United States were made of nylon, and DuPont was building a second plant in Martinsville, Virginia. Hosiery was the only well- defined market for the newly developed fiber, although it began creeping into other products as well. Nylon sewing and darning threads were introduced in 1941. It was also used for wrapping wires, strings on badminton racquets, sutures, and fish lines. DuPont’s chemists and engineers had ideas for its use in other products, but no opportunity to develop them. This changed with World War II, and nylon became known as the “fiber that won the war.” Although the most famous use of nylon during the war was in parachutes (it was estimated that it took 10 pounds of nylon to make a parachute for a pilot, and 20 pounds of nylon to make a parachute for a paratrooper) it was used for other items as well, including glider tow ropes, boot uppers, shoe laces, tents, and netting, and it replaced silk in U. S. currency.xi

DuPont and the military began looking into using nylon for parachutes in 1940. It was thought, that it might make a good replacement for silk because of its strength and light weight. While the army had used dummies, and then military personnel to test nylon parachutes, nonmilitary tests had been confined to dummies alone, as it was difficult to find anyone who would jump with a nylon parachute. On June 6, 1942, Miss Adelide Gray, of Hartford, Connecticut, a twenty-four year old parachute company employee, jumped from a plane before a crowd of hundreds. A reporter commenting on the scene said: “As calmly as though she was going out on the porch to bring in the daily paper, Miss Adalide Gray stepped out of an airplane 2,000 feet above Brainard Field today and floated to the earth under a nylon parachute. It was the world’s first ‘live’ test of a parachute made with this fabric instead of silk.”xii A year later a reporter learned that Miss Gray was not new to jumping. She worked with a group of stunt flyers, and had made thirty-four jumps prior to the one with the nylon parachute. It is questionable whether she was the first human to jump with a nylon parachute, but the publicity generated by her jump helped convince the public that Americans would be safe jumping with parachutes made with the new fiber.

In February, 1942, DuPont announced that none of its civilian orders for nylon would be filled until all of its military orders were done. This in effect took nylon off the market until the end of the war. This action caused one industry executive to comment that if the industry could come up with a way to make stockings out of grass, the government would declare grass necessary war material as well. With silk and nylon gone, the stocking industry was left with rayon and cotton.

Meanwhile, behind the scenes, the Textile Group continued to debate the need for more silk. They had commandeered as much silk as possible, and now they were discussing whether to buy up all the used silk in the hands of junk dealers, and have a salvage drive to get women to turn in their used silk and nylon stockings (just as several women had suggested when the silk crisis began.) On September 24, 1942, Mr. Paul Cabot, deputy Director of the Conservation Division, received a memo from Mr. Frank Walton of the Textile Clothing and Leather Branch, reminding him of a memo he sent in early August suggesting the office prepare for a hosiery drive. Mr. Walton wanted a decision made on the subject, as the staff at the Defense Supplies Corporation would have to prepare to receive the stockings and store them, and the Textile office did not want to wait any longer for the drive to begin. Walton stated that the stockings could be collected in towns across the country and then shipped to the facility in New York. Only clean old stockings of nylon and silk were wanted, but they would be getting stockings made of combinations of silk, nylon, rayon, and cotton. The rayon and cotton yarns would not be used. All stockings would be donated by the public; the Corporation would pay only the freight and storage costs. The buying of discarded stockings from junk dealers was a separate venture, not to be confused with the public drive.

58 On August 28, 1942, Mr. George Piper, Chief of the Allocation and Appeals Section of the Textile Clothing and Leather Branch, sent a memo to the Chairman of the Army-Navy Munitions Board, saying that the Defense Supplies Corporation was leaning favorably on the side of storing the current supply of used nylon and silk stockings in a large warehouse. The Corporation felt that the building could hold as much as 7,000,000 pounds of stockings. Mr. Piper commented, “What measure should be taken to safe-guard these stockpiles? These represent an important munitions “nest-egg” and should any accident befall any major portion of the silk inventory, they become priceless. Could you please advise me regarding the proper safe-guarding of this inventory. For example, should a military guard be placed over it?”xiii

In October of 1942, Mr. Walton wrote Dr W. Y. Elliot chief of the Stockpile and Shipping Branch concerning the used hosiery stockpile. He stated that in June of that year, he had requested that a stockpile of 5,000,000 pounds of stockings be built. He now requested that a stockpile of as many pairs of stockings as possible be built, by purchasing as much as possible from junk dealers and launching a salvage campaign. He said his office really didn’t know the amount of used hosiery out there, but they would give the Corporation a ballpark figure of 5 million pounds of additional hosiery for the stockpile. He said: “In other words, we want all of the available old silk hosiery and nylon hosiery. We feel sure the quantity to be collected will not be in excess of what we should stockpile for the emergency…We doubt whether this will run to more than 10 million pounds but even 5 million pounds will be satisfactory…We must keep in mind that we will get some hosiery under these plans that are not silk or nylon. Accordingly, the total tonnage taken in does not mean that quantity of silk fiber or nylon fiber.” xiv

On November 16, 1942 the government began its salvage drive for used stockings—only silk and nylon were wanted. The stockings were to be dropped off at retail establishments around the country, and then shipped in lots of one hundred pounds (1500 pairs of silk stocking, or 2500 pairs of nylon stockings) to the Defense Supply Corporation in Green Island, New York. In the first month of the effort 85,000 pounds of stockings were delivered to the warehouse. It was estimated that it would take 15 pairs of stocking to make one powder bag. Men’s socks were not wanted. The silk content was so small it was felt not worth the effort it would take to recover it. Women turned in their old stockings in droves. School groups held drives for stockings, women’s clubs required members to bring old stockings with them for admission to meetings, and the Radio City Rockettes in New York City donated two hundred pairs in one day.

By August of 1943, the Government had amassed a large supply of silk stockings and the salvage drive was cancelled. The official statement read:

“The Defense Supplies Corporation has accumulated a stockpile of used silk and nylon hosiery which is considered sufficient by the Textile Requirements Committee. Further more, most of the used silk and nylon hose have been collected through the salvage drive and what remains is mostly rayon. Accordingly, it is desirable to halt the flow into the stockpile which unnecessarily increases the government’s investment and to free the dealers of further restriction respecting the use and disposition of used nylon and silk hosiery.” xv

All totalled, American women donated over 16 million pounds of used stockings for the war effort.xvi

Before being recycled, the stockings had to be separated into two groups: nylon and silk. To do this, the stockings were soaked in a dye bath, which turned nylon, silk, rayon, and cotton each a different color. The cotton and rayon were cut away, and the nylon and silk

59 placed in separate lots. The silk stockings were fed into a garneting machine where they were taken down to the fiber state. The fiber was then bleached, and spun with silk noil, to make yarns for cartridge bag fabric. Nylon was dissolved in a boiling solvent, which caused it to separate into adipic acid and hexa-methylene-diamine again. These two chemicals, when mixed together, make nylon. After a few more steps, the nylon solution was sent through a spinneret and exited as a fine monofilament fiber. It was spun, and then woven into parachute fabric or used in rope. DuPont received and “E” flag for developing the recycling process for nylon. What was really needed was a third nylon plant, but the materials and manpower required to build it were tied up in the war effort until further notice.

Although no nylon was produced for civilian use, there was a black market for nylon stockings. Some of these stockings really were made of nylon—nylon that had been diverted from military uses. Others were made of rayon (which when sold this way was known as Mexican nylon) and sold as real nylon for large amounts of money. The government took the misuse of nylon seriously.

In one instance, nylon was stolen from a railroad yard and knitted into stockings with cotton toe and welt. The makers tried using a story about a warehouse fire to explain away the source of the nylon. The nylons were sold to retailers at $5.00 a pair and to the public for $10.00. The yarn was worth $7,800, and it was made into stockings worth $140,000.00. The three culprits were caught, and convicted. One gentleman received two years in jail and a $2,000 fine; the others received eighteen months probation and fines of $12,000. The court ordered the stockings sold to the general public at the set price of $1.65. The sale took place at the office of the Federal Marshall. Women began lining up at 5 a.m. for the 10 a.m. sale.

In another instance, nylon intended for glider ropes was stolen in small amounts from a Pennsylvania mill by being declared “spoiled.” The culprits even reported the “spoilage” to the WPA. The “spoiled” nylon was sent to three different mills and knitted into stockings. The FBI became suspicious, and looked into the matter. They found over 10,000 pairs of finished nylon stockings and 40,000 pairs of unfinished stockings sitting in a warehouse. All four gentlemen were indicted.

Some dishonest souls advertised nylons for sale in magazines and received hundreds of orders and thousands of dollars through the mail. The senders received no stockings. In other cases, honest persons bought what were supposed to be nylon or silk stockings made in foreign countries. They were actually made of rayon. Some of the makers of false nylon stockings went so far as to put the names of well-known American manufacturers on their products. A few dishonest persons claimed to have developed a compound that would dissolve in water and “nylonize” rayon. One textile executive commented “If any chemist has such a formula, he needn’t bother with the 25 cent trade; I’ll give him $5,000,000 for it in cash.” xvii

One mill bought some nylon yarn that had been intended for parachutes and knitted it into stockings. The yarn had been in a warehouse flood and all the companies making parachute fabric had rejected it, worried that it had been ruined by floodwaters. The company was investigated for the deal, and found not guilty of misuse of defense materials. Although the denier of the yarn was what was needed for parachutes, not stockings, the stocking sold out quickly. Other than cases like this one, the only nylon stockings being made legally were those said to have been made for the military to exchange for war information overseas. Occasionally, a stocking and war bond sale was held. At these events the purchase of war bonds won the purchaser the honor of purchasing one or two pairs of nylon stockings, at a government approved price. The stockings sold at these sales were either made by order of the government or were confiscated from the black market.

60 With silk and nylon out of reach the public, the industry was left with only rayon, cotton and wool for stockings. Wool was needed in large amounts to dress the army for action in Europe, so very little was available for use by the civilian population. That left rayon and cotton. Rayon stockings were nowhere near as good as silk and nylon. The high-strength rayon yarn that had been developed for stockings was diverted for war use as tire cord. So the stockings were made of yarn with low tensile strength. It was found that the life span of rayon stockings could be increased by reinforcing the toe, welt, and heel with cotton. Still they had no memory and sagged all day, once bent out of shape. It was necessary to have several pairs on hand as it took 24 to 36 hours for rayon stockings to dry. Rayon is weaker wet than dry, so one could not put on a pair of damp stockings without running the risk of putting one’s toe or finger through them. In addition, rayon stockings would shrink up when wet and go back to their original size when dry.

Women had to be educated in how to buy rayon stockings. When buying silk stockings, one asked for 2-thread for 3-thread, depending upon the sheerness desired. Rayon stockings were knitted with one monofilament yarn, and the denier determined the sheerness of the stockings. Denier is the weight of a set length of yarn. In rayon, a 50- denier yarn would be smaller than 75- denier yarn. The cotton system works just the opposite: the higher number, the smaller the yarn. The gauge of stockings was the number of knitted stitches per inch. In rayon stockings this worked the same as with the silk ones: the higher the gauge, the finer and more sheer the stockings.

All this made the purchasing of rayon stocking somewhat confusing and it took a while for the public to catch on. Because rayon stockings bagged at the knee, manufacturers went so far as to publish instructions on how to put them on without stretching them out of shape before even leaving the house. This lack of elasticity made it really important to get the right size. Size was determined by the length of the foot in inches, and the length of the leg (short, medium and long.) There was however one problem with rayon stockings that no one cold find an answer for: rayon stocking were not comfortable to wear. The rayon fiber did not have the same stretch as silk and nylon, so movement was restricted.

During the war women and girls found ways to cope with the lack of silk and nylon stockings, as well as the short supply of rayon ones. They went bare-legged, wore cotton socks, and used leg paint to the give illusion of stockings. One newspaper columnists suggested women should have a “seam” tattooed up the back of their legs.

An attempt was made to make cotton stocking fashionable but it appears not to have gone very far. In September 1941 the Christian Science Monitor ran a story reported by the Associated Press that a brand of stockings known as Ersatz Silk would soon be available to American women. The stockings were actually made of cotton and were developed at the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Beltsville, Maryland, research farm. They were said to be “better than the uncomfortable hose Nazi scientists fashioned from wood, or glass or coal.”xviii The American scientists had made the stockings from long Sea Island cotton and long staple Missouri Delta cotton as well. The heavy less expensive stockings would be fashioned from Upland cotton, which was found abundantly in the South. Whether any of this hosiery went into mass production is unknown to the writer. One reads articles about the idea of making cotton stockings fashionable for the duration of the ear, but few ads or articles concerning them are seen after spring of 1942. Nylons were so missed that songs were written about them. One of the best known was titled “When Nylons Bloom Again.” As the nation’s supply of silk dropped, more and more items were made from nylon. By July 1944, the use of nylon had become so widespread, that the government stockpile contained 8,000 bales of silk for which there was no military use. In the fall of 1944 the government announced that silk could once again be imported from China. This gave consumers hope for silk stockings. The writer does not know how much (if any) was actually imported, and how much of it went to the civilian population.

61 In October of 1944 Mr. Hiram T. Nones of the Department of Commerce noted that when nylon returned to the civilian population it would be cheaper than before the war, and of better quality. He noted that improvements in the fiber brought about by wartime needs would be found in postwar stockings. He felt that nylon would replace silk in women’s stocking by taking at least 85 percent of the market. He was right.

When the war ended in August 1945, the U.S. government was left with millions of pounds of silk stockings. None of the stockpiled silk stockings from the salvage drive had been used for cartridge bags or anything else. According to a memo found at the National Archives, other material was available, the yield from the recycled silk stockings averaged only about 35 percent, and the cost of the process was high. The Committee had recommended on January 19, 1943, that the stock pile be cut to 10 million pounds. In 1944 the committee noted that the stockings had not been used since its last recommendation (1943), and suggested that the stockpile be cut to 8 million pounds. However, both the army and the navy objected, stating that a new powder bag program was under consideration, and every ounce of silk in storage would be needed for it. The army noted that it had found cotton bags unsatisfactory, and was considering a return to silk. Since huge amounts would be consumed, the committee agreed to hold off cutting the silk stockpile. On August 22, 1945, the board ordered the entire stock of used stockings released. The war was over, and they were no longer needed.

One week after the war ended, the government dropped the order controlling the production of nylon and rayon. Manufacturers could now produce slips, blouses, and other garments from these fibers. The restriction on the use of nylon in hosiery was kept in place a bit longer. Retailers pulled out boxes of stockings they had taken off the shelf when the war started, and put them up for sale. They sold out in a manner of hours. A pressing consumer question in fall of 1945 was: will we have nylon stockings by Christmas? The answer was no. DuPont had to change the denier of the yarn it was producing, and manufacturers had to retool their factories and retrain their personnel. Some felt the demand for nylon stockings would be so high that none should be sold until the industry had produced enough for each woman to have 12 pairs. The War Production Board was said to believe that the industry should produce 3 million dozen pairs, hold them for one month, and then put them on sale throughout the country all at once. The industry doubted this would work. Nylons went on sale as quickly as they were produced, and women stood in endless lines to buy them. In January 1946, a shoe store in Washington, D.C., announced that it had 1,000 pairs of nylon stockings, and that the first 1,000 people to call the store could buy them. So many buyers called the store that it disrupted Washington telephone service for over an hour. You couldn’t even get a dial tone.

After the war, nylon stockings quickly replaced those made from silk. They were cheaper, tougher, and longer-wearing. This was not good news for those who thought Japan could be rebuilt with the profits made from selling silk to the American hosiery industry. Silk stockings would never again be worn by large numbers of American women. Nylon, and the synthetic fibers that came after it, would bring major changes to lives of people across the globe.

References i Anon.” Stocking Panic” Business Week, August 9, 1941 p.24 ii Letter from Clifford D. Chaney, January 2, 1940, United States National Archives and Records Administration. iii Letter from Clifford D. Chaney, January 2, 1940, United States National Archives and Records Administration.

62 iv Letter from Clifford D. Chaney, June 7, 1940, United States National Archives and Records Administration. v Anon. “Silk Shortage” New Republic, August 11, 1941 Vol. 105, No.6 p. 172 vi Anon. “Silk Shortage,” New Republic, August 11, 1941 Vol. 105 No 6 p. 172 vii Anon. Washington Post “ U. S. Frowns on Hoarders as Hosiery Sales Skyrocket,” August 2, 1941, p. 3 viii Anon. Washington Post “U.S. Frowns on Hoarder as Hosiery Sales Skyrocket” August 2, 1941, p.3 ix Anon. “Stocking Panic”,” Business Week, August 9, 1941 p.24. x Anon. “Nylon-its producers ready for peace as war need takes entire current output” Manufacturers Record , April 1944, .p 42. xi Chemistry, “Nylon,” September 1964, p 22 xii Chemistry, Nylon” September 1964, p 22. xiii Memo from Mr. George E Piper to Mr. G. Ederstaldt, August 28, 1942, United States National Archives and Records Administration. xiv Memo from Frank L. Walton to Dr. W. Y. Elliot, October 16, 1942, United States Archives and Records Administration. xv Revocation of Order N-182-Used Silk Hosiery, August 20, 1943 United States National Archives and Records Administration. xvi Declassified confidential report, September 1, 1945, United States National Archives and Records Administration. xvii Frank Brock “Bootleg Nylons,” Readers Digest, February 1945, p. 66. xviii Max K. Gilstrap, “Cotton: Can it Put Glamour On Milady,” Christian Science Monitor, November 28, 1941, p. 13

63 Fleece - A World of Possibilities

M. Goddard and D. Brook Performance Clothing Research Group School of Design, University of Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK Corresponding author: [email protected]

Fleece materials are individual fabrics in both structure and performance. Popular in the realm of insulation, fleece garments present rather distinguished behaviour that differs from other insulating fabrics. This is mainly due to the ability of air entrapment within the material that provides a high degree of thermal protection whilst being lightweight, which is why these fabrics are so often found in the world of extreme sport clothing systems.

Knitted structures that have been submitted to brushing, such as pile, were first produced for upholstery, but during the 1980’s started being included in garments. The classic fleece is composed of 100% polyester but many combinations are in use, such as acrylic. Previous years have also seen the reintroduction of natural fibres in sportswear fleece.

It is unfortunate that little, if any literature, has been produced on such fabric. It is therefore the aim of this paper to analyse and demonstrate, the elements within the structure of a fleece fabric that contribute to it’s richness in performance as well as to give an insight of current research that could lead to future garment design possibilities incorporating these materials.

1. Introduction Fleeces are fabrics notable in performance due to their individual structure. Their behaviour, distinguishes them in relation to other insulating fabrics. The following paper is a brief insight, into current studies being carried out at the present moment, within this research group. One of the aims of this investigation is to better understand each of the layers that could compose a clothing system, being that up to now, most studies have concentrated on the understanding of the clothing system as a whole. In a clothing system which is composed of three layers of clothing, fleece is most popularly used as the mid layer also described as the insulating layer. The present research being carried on fleeces consists of an effort to investigate further into the insulating properties of these materials by relating their air permeability and porosity with transmission of dry heat and also to demonstrate how these materials could be included in the design of convertible garments (clothing with the ability of being worn on either side) in order to enhance weather protection according to changes in environmental conditions.

2. The Material Much of what is known about fleece fabrics comes from their similarity with pile but it is important to understand the basic distinction between the two which is structural in its nature. Fleece consists of a knitted structure that has been submitted to a raising finish whereas pile, while being composed of a single knit jersey finish, incorporates ‘sliver’ ropes of fibres to produce a fur like finish.

64 The most popular knitted structure for the production of fleece is the terry structure. This is mainly, a plain weft knitted ground structure produced in a sinker top latch needle machine (circular machine): two yarns are fed into the machine and elongated, plush sinker loops that have been formed over a different surface to that of the normal length ground sinker loops with which they have been plated, show as a loop pile on the technical back between the wales. The ground yarn is fed into the sinker throat and the sinker is then advanced so that the plush yarn is Fig. 1 Pile, Single fleece and Double-Face fleece fed at a higher level and is drawn over the sinker nib. The fabric’s technical back (raised face) is then raised brushed and cropped[1].

The raised structure of a fleece is achieved when the fabric is subjected to a number of small rollers covered with card clothing, this rotates quickly against the fabric surface to pluck out the fibre ends and leaves fibres entangled, and through cropping fibre is removed to make the surface level and uniform.

Due to the lack of literature produced on these materials, a classification has been recently produced, to describe non laminated fleece fabrics:

• Single Fleece - a knitted material upon which raising has occurred on one side of the material. • Double Fleece - a knitted material upon which raising has occurred on both sides of the material. • Double-Face Fleece - a knitted material upon which raising has occurred on both sides of the fabric, but on each side an individual brushing has been applied.

Fleeces are popular lightweight insulators. Their structures contain a high number of pores and therefore allow the entrapment of air. Being that air is an extremely successful insulator, fleeces provide required warmth whilst being lightweight.

3. The History Like pile, fleeces were first produced for upholstery, although during the 1980’s they started being included in garments such as dressing gowns[2]. Around this decade, pile was being first used by mountaineers to replace pullovers. Pile never managed to catch the main outdoor clothing market due to its poor appearance so a mountain equipment firm in an attempt to find an alternative, tried to use a double fleece that had been produced at the time, for the manufacture of night gowns. Unfortunately, due to its lightweight it was not thermally sound. The idea was although passed on to someone who was captivated by the whole concept and took it up with a firm called Malden Mills, so Polartec Technology was engineered for the first time.

4. The ‘Convertible’ System This concept is based on the development of fleece’ performance without the use of a membrane, allowing the wearer to protect himself from unpredictable outdoor conditions while wearing the very same garment. The benefits would be financial, as it would cut the cost of lamination, but most important would be the reduction of weight in outdoor garments.

65 The ‘convertible’ system was borne out of the observation of the behaviour of four distinct fabrics, a single, double and double-face fleece, when submitted to a set of controlled cooling experiments in still air and wind conditions. Both faces of the materials were tested (excluding the double fleece material in which only one face was tested).

A pile material was also submitted to the same set of tests in an effort to ‘exaggerate’ the structure of the single fleece and investigate if both obeyed the same cooling pattern. The materials were trialled both with the technical face and technical back upwards, experiments were also carried out in both still air and wind conditions.

The results showed as was expected, that the single fleece material presented exactly the same cooling pattern as did the pile material. In 1.4 m/s wind speed conditions both materials performed best when the piled surface was placed upwards while in still air and 3.5 m/s wind speed conditions both fabrics would achieve best performance if the piled surface was placed inwards. The double-face fabric also demonstrated diverse cooling behaviour according to which surface was placed upwards.

It was therefore concluded that materials perform differently according to which surface is presented to the environment. This performance it is not consistent but it alters according to environmental conditions[3].

5. Discussion Adjacent to every solid there is a layer of air referred to by physicists as the boundary layer. This is a result of the molecular attraction between the air and the solid. This layer decreases in thickness as fluid flow increases[4]. The raised surface of a fleece material is the one with the greatest number of air pockets. Therefore, when turned inwards, in contact with the body, this will create a thicker air layer, between body and material. Air is a great insulator[5] so it does not come at all as a surprise when the material proved to be warmer as the brushed face was turned inwards.

As wind becomes present, the situation reverses. Mild wind will penetrate the boundaries at a slower rate than stronger wind. As the wind penetrates the material it will fill the air pockets with cold air causing the body to cool at a quicker rate. But as the wind becomes stronger and the boundary layer is penetrated at a faster rate it causes the material to compress prior to wind penetration, rearranging the position, number and size of the air gaps. As the brushed face is the one with more percentage of fibre, it will create a ‘thicker’ surface compared to the one offered by the non raised surface. Being that in most fabrics, thickness is almost proportional to heat loss, the body will therefore lose less heat when in contact with this surface.

This study shows that single fleece/piled material operates as two different materials depending on which side they are worn and on the environmental conditions around it.

66 References 1 David J Spencer, “Knitting technology: A comprehensive handbook and practical guide to modern day principles and practices”, Second Edition, Pergamon Press, 1989. 2 David Goodwin, “Making up leisure wear and fleece garments”, World Sports Activewear, Volume 4, No. 2, Summer 1998, pp. 46-47. 3 Monica Goddard, “The Convertible System”, The Proceedings of the Textile Institute 83rd Conference (83rd TIWC), May 23-27th, 2004 Shanghai China, Volume 1, page 263-267. 4 A.T. Olson, K.A. Shelstad, “ Introduction to fluid flow and the transfer of heat and mass”, Prentice- Hall international series, 1987 5 P.J. Martin, “Heat Transfer Through Low Density Fibrous Assemblies”, PhD Thesis, Dept. of Textile Industries, University of Leeds, 1987

67 Power, Pattern and Protection in Japanese Textiles

M. Maule Independent lecturer on Japanese culture, Bedford, UK [email protected]

Why does the burning of a Union Jack provoke such passion? Why did a little fan with a rising sun and a message from General Tojo inspire great loyalty in Japanese troops and utter revulsion in British prisoners-of-war during World War II? The first is only a piece of cloth, the other merely a scrap of paper! Perhaps it is because their surfaces, embellished with symbols, render both of them instantly recognizable and significant.

This lecture, prompted by the prestigious SHOGUN exhibition at the Royal Armouries here in Leeds, seeks to explore the legacy of patterns displayed on the many suits of armour, war fans, banners and other artefacts and what they tell us about the symbols used by the samurai (‘those who serve’) to convey power and attract protection.

In a military context, samurai leaders needed to be visible and distinguishable to those who were often illiterate and whose vision may have been restricted by helmets. As well as wearing increasingly flamboyant armour and helmets, leaders also established their status by appropriating the most auspicious and influential symbols, colours and trimmings. A sixth century clay tomb figurine (haniwa), whose armour is elaborately decorated with bows and knots, is a good example of power dressing. When the austere teachings of Zen Buddhism began to inform the samurai way of life from the mid-fourteenth century onwards, power was perceived to come from a balance of body, mind and sensitivity (kokoro). An aesthetic sense was cultivated both on and off the battlefield and sensitivity was shown in a predilection for repeated small patterns (komon) on garments (frequently made of leather) worn next to the skin. The komon often expressed covert invocations for protection (ray skin, ginger, circles, iris), longevity (chrysanthemum, tortoise shell, lightning, pine), prosperity (fans), and an acceptance of the brevity of life (cherry blossom). Aesthetic sensitivity, coupled with a desire to communicate power, also influenced the choice of brocades and imported woollen fabrics used for the campaign vests (jinbaori) put on over armour. A particularly stunning example in black and yellow wool, with a design of Mount Fuji (symbolizing ‘steadfastness’), was shown in the Kazari exhibition at the British Museum in 2003.

The use of family crests (mon) for identification and decoration became popular during the Kamakura period (1185–1333). Many of these miniature masterpieces were based on plants and animals and are still in use and understood today. Originally their apparent simplicity was a ‘visual’ shorthand for a complex sequence of ideas known to a select few. This shared secrecy and playfulness (often based on puns) greatly enhanced their appeal. Depiction by suggestion is a recurring theme in Japanese art. War fans, bridge posts and halberds on a splendid textile stencil (katagami) in the ULITA collection call to mind the 12th century heroes, Benkei and Yoshitsune. Fans on a suit of armour which belonged to Yoshitsune Minamoto (died 1189) celebrate the battle of Dannoura which changed the course of Japanese history. The red and white caps worn at school sports days these days recall the flags of the opposing Minamoto and Taira families. The three-triangle ‘fish scales’ (uroko) on costumes worn annually at the Gion festival in Kyoto, evoke the powerful Hojo clan who ruled as shogunal regents from 1203 to 1333. Also appearing at the Gion festival is the ‘sliced melon’ flower (mokko) crest of Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582), which apparently symbolized a severed head. Dumplings on a skewer, usually associated with the children’s tale, Momotaro, in Nobunaga’s case represented the skewered heads of his enemies!

68 Successful warriors often appropriated, or were rewarded with, the devices of powerful families. Both the paulownia (kiri) and chrysanthemum (kiku) motifs have been identified with the imperial family since the thirteenth century. The former appeared, together with a phoenix, on the costume worn by the present emperor for his enthronement in 1989. The honour of using the chrysanthemum and paulownia crests was bestowed on Hideyoshi Toyotomi (1536-1598) when he succeeded in re-unifying Japan. By association, the phoenix was believed to presage the coming of just rule and Hideyoshi lost no time in proclaiming his ‘greatness’ by applying this crest to his many building projects, artefacts and banners of all his retainers. At a humbler, but psychologically more endearing, level, Hideyoshi rallied his troops with a personal standard topped with ‘a thousand’ gourds for each of his victories. The gourd, which usually signifies ‘abundance and good fortune’, appears on another ULITA textile stencil in conjunction with auspicious nets (defeating the enemy in one go), waves ‘from the blue ocean’ (seigaiha) implying the adaptability and ingenuity required of warriors, and butterflies which relate to the immortal soul, and, by association with the Heian period (794-1185), to a time when a more refined way of life prevailed.

The military successes of Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1615), the subject of the SHOGUN exhibition, ushered in an era when Japan began nearly 250 years of peace and isolation. Although warfare had ceased, and patterns were no longer needed as images to differentiate foes from allies, serve as rallying points and inspire reckless courage and loyalty, it was a unique system of control brought in by the Tokugawa shogunate which ensured that the patterns, used so effectively by the samurai on the battlefield, continued to be important and in every day use. For 227 years, the practice of ‘alternate attendance’ (sankin kotai) forced feudal lords (daimyo) to leave their families behind as hostages and converge to ‘defend’ the newly-established capital - Tokyo (Edo) – with up to 3000 followers every other year. The daimyo and samurai had to dress in full armour and everyone and everything in the long processions had to be easily identifiable by means of an awe-inspiring explosion of crests and patterns. These patterns, and indeed every sphere of life, were regulated by the 101 sumptuary laws brought in by the Tokugawa regime during the Edo period (1603-1868).

Among the many crests seen in the Royal Armouries exhibition are the three ‘hollyhock’ leaves (mitsuba aoi) of the Tokugawa shoguns, the paulownia and chrysanthemum crests of Hideyoshi, China flowers (karabana), wood sorrel (katabami), war fans (gunsen, gumbai uchiwa), Buddhist wheel (rimbo), 9 stars (hoshi), 2 feathers (takanoha), quadruple lozenges/diamonds (yotsu-bishi) and sandbars (suhama). Another ULITA stencil shows a selection of auspicious patterns derived from some of the above, including chrysanthemums between undulating lines (tatewaku) within tortoise shell grids, flower diamonds (hanabishi), nets and waves ‘from the blue ocean’.

The Japanese have always been justifiably proud of their artistic heritage. Many of the symbols which can still be seen on ordinary household utensils, in the numerous festivals, on ukiyo-e prints and in the theatre have a history that dates back to the early days of the Heian period (794-1185). It was the samurai, however, and, above all the ‘alternate attendance’ system of the Tokugawa shoguns, which ensured their survival for our enjoyment today!

69 References Baird, Merrily (2002) SYMBOLS OF JAPAN, Rizzoli Dower, John (1998) THE ELEMENTS OF JAPANESE DESIGN. New York, John Weatherhill Inc. Turnbull, Stephen (2002) SAMURAI HERALDRY. Oxford Osprey Publishing Ltd Noma, Seiroku (1974) JAPANESE COSTUME AND TEXTILE ARTS. New York John Weatherhill,Inc. DARUMA Japanese Art & Antiques Magazine, No.7, Summer 1995

70 Digital Printing – A 21st Century Paintbrush. (Painting with light, colour and image.)

R. Burton School of Textiles and Design, Scottish Borders Campus, Heriot Watt University, Netherdale, Galashiels, Scotland TD1 3HF [email protected]

1. Introduction The computer as the tool of production of the artist and designer has evolved immensely since becoming a significant part of contemporary culture. Computer arts, computer aided design and computer aided manufacture have become truly integrated into everyday life and all aspects of post modern society. With the development of digital fabric printing technology skills of making are superseded by a production viewed in the non-existant image of the screen realised materially through inkjet technology onto a fabric. This paper investigates how the creativity of the artist and the essential uniqueness of the made object and artwork might be liberated within the face of new and all embracing technologies. This paper will look at the role of the artist, craftsperson, and designer as the maker of products and art objects. A uniqueness and authenticity of the plastic arts and a methodological approach to the making of the object in the modern world of instant reproduction will be established as background to the study.

2. The Spirit of the Work In “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction” Benjamin suggests a difference in value of an original artwork to its reproduction as being its uniqueness, that which he calls “aura” or the original spirit of the work. This authenticity of the work is then inseparable from its being imbedded in the fabric of tradition. Technology has, as Benjamin quotes from Valery, (Benjamin 1999:211i ) transformed “the entire technique of the arts, thereby affecting invention itself and perhaps even bringing about an amazing change in our very notion of art”. Globalisation and commercialisation of the world has brought about new ways of appropriating an image and a new view on global visual culture. With widely accessible technologies everyone now has the potential to reproduce any image with great accuracy.

The key question is how the artwork can possess this idea of “aura” within a contemporary context where visual culture and contexts are constantly flowing; in a state of flux and virtuality. In the current age of digital reproduction most if not all objects and images, before they become materially real are in some form virtual. The problem here lies in the fact that the virtual image has no real presence and, hence, is without “aura” due to its lack of essence and context. An artwork may never have existed within real space and to this end must have its spirit, essence and tradition bestowed upon it through its referential image making and skill in technological production.

Using a study of my own working practice in making textiles the following analysis will describe how methods were explored and critically appraised as to retaining but also to expanding on the aura and spiritual quality inherent in the original works through their qualities of manufacture and cultural references.

71 3. Development of the Creative Process and Technology: Establishing the Uniqueness, “Aura” of the artwork This body of work was formed in 2003 in a series of drawings in graphite and charcoal on paper. The imagery in these was not informed by direct observation but inspired by the unseen and subconscious.

3.1 Earthsong

This drawing produced in mid 2003 shows the development of the method of mark making through layering graphite and charcoal. The work is produced by considering the whole space of the paper with the first layer of mark covering the whole surface then, on reflection, being carved away to reveal subtle qualities of light that demand a layering of subsequent marks. Occasionally images reminiscent of water, hills, pyramids, nature or figures grow from the developing layers. These are not incidental but flow in a form of automatic drawing. At face value this drawing is a composition of mark, tone and shape on paper. The technique of manufacture is a layering of mark in a creating and destroying; of growth and negation. On a third level they are manifestations of the moment, the spirit and the authentic “aura” of the object; the accidental or imagined mark being Figure 1 Earthsong Graphite on Paper 2004. manipulated to have a pattern, beauty and form in time and space.

4. Light and Colour through the Manipulation of Paint Within the first graphite drawn works there was an intriguing use of light through layer inherent in the process of the work. The problem of capturing the same qualities in colour was approached with a very similar methodology. Layers of paint were applied. The aim was not to create an image but to mould and form the painting. Subtleties of light were developed through investigating the depth of mark making with brush and light through strokes and washes of colour. A painting might have a layer that is inspired by the flowing light of clouds and sky. The following layer might clearly develop a geometric theme. Within this body of work the maker is like the sculptor adding to and taking from the work in a flowing process until that time that the work is said to contain that authenticity of “aura” - a spiritual dance of light and colour within the bounded space of the work.

72 4.1 Maitreya: The Coming of the Avatar

This work shows the layering of light and colour. A large circular form hangs as a membrane of painted light bounded by seven orbs of colour that stand neither in front nor behind the dominance of the central circle. There is a suggestion in the first layered process of the painting of sky, light and the essence of natural elements.

Figure 2 Maitreya: The Coming of the Avatar. Acrylic on Canvas 2004

5. Print Techniques and Digitization Printed textiles by their very manufacture and technique are results of a layering. In the design of a printed fabric colour is built up in layers to produce a final image with the sum of the layers bringing depth and interest to the fabric. The designer of printed textiles would work purposefully in his creativity to limit and recognize the number of colours and marks that would make up the required number of screens. The limitation of traditional manufacturing processes controls the development and design process and outcome. In contrast the emergence of digital printing takes a limitless virtual potential image and. within the commercial context of the designer rationalizes it to fit the traditional perceptions of the screen processes and a universally agreed idea of printed textiles.

The painter uses the painted mark as a plastic art manipulating and forming and controlling the medium. The painter and sculptor move the medium around the canvas or form in a decision making process of addition and negation; of subtracting and moulding. This is in total contrast to the involvement in the design of fabric as being layers each being added separately and prejudged before the final process. The question arises as to how to develop that same spirit of mark making, decision making and inherent evolution of the work to the printed fabric outcome. If the previous description of the work is considered what is important is not the painterly approach to mark but the evolution of layers; a layer being an entity in its own right unconnected but related through augmentation to that laid on previously and that above. In this way a methodological approach was considered whereby a layer of colour was applied to the fabric through the digital print process using a previously manipulated Photoshop image file on the Mimaki TX2. A scanned drawing making reference to the original body of drawn work might then be printed over the top of this surface. Hence the process developed echoing the processes of mark making and colour application in both the previous stages of drawing and painting. In this way a wash of yellow might be digitally printed over a manipulated photographic image suggesting clouds and sky in exactly

73 the same way as a painterly suggestion of sky washes would be pushed back and re-coloured by an overall wash of yellow acrylic in the painted works. It has been previously stated that the forming of a work is a process of moulding, changing and negating. It can be metaphorically likened to a building whereby earth is taken away so that strong foundations are built with each new brick adding a new dimension to the whole. It was important that the evolution of the work was inherent in its manufacture as in the relationship of the artwork and the artist and not an outcome of endless reproduction that is designed; a spiral of making rather than linear addition. What was important was authenticity and originality. The accident of a change of colour in one form becomes that incident that suggests a new evolution of the work.

Within the previous drawn and painted works the concept of an evolving forming realization of the inner becoming manifest was realized in the growing of layers of colour and light but also in the extracting of image and colour. Within the textile medium this was facilitated through the process of adding and taking away layers of image through a mediation of print processes. Digital images were printed once; a new layer printed on to the surface which brought greater depth of colour, an image would then be discharged from the fabric using traditional techniques of flat bed printing before a new layer of digital print added. In this way the discussion between digital print and flat bed screen processes becomes a form of painting with layers of light and colour.

5.1 Egyptian Raga An example of this method of layering digital print with other forms of print and colour application can be seen in the image ‘Egyptian Raga’. Initially a digital file is manipulated using the Adobe Photoshop and DP Innovations Studio master programmes. After printing the initial file a contrasting image is digitally printed onto the fabric in a second run through the Mimaki TX2 printer. In this instance the base image was a digital manipulated image of sky and clouds. This was then overprinted with a scanned tonal drawing from the working developmental sketchbook so mixing hand, eye and graphic dexterity with digital technology. The central triangular shape was discharged before a third digital image was printed through the Mimaki Tx2 onto the image. The fabric was then fixed before the addition of three layers of pigment screens with gold pigment and finally a field of blue pigment was printed over top of surface. Visual decisions were ongoing Figure 3 Egyptian Raga Digital Print, Pigment, with reflection and evaluation Discharge on Cotton. 2005 throughout the whole making process – an integration of technology, visual and drawing skills and visual process.

74 6. The Ghost in the Machine In the multiple passes of image through the digital inkjet printer and the building up of print qualities and applications a depth of image and mark developed upon the surface. Often accidents and the offsetting of the image with dye and colour application created a new sense of life in the image. The process of layering images is one that is both intrinsic to the printing of fabric and to the development of images in computer aided design technology. In the production of printed fabrics colour is built up with each new screen. Using the computer to design, images are developed, cut into, merged and created through layers that are integrated and flattened, moved and worked on separately. In the early development of the screen printed works screens would be manipulated manually developing layers of image, colour and light. Working with screens colour was built up and through self analysis and reflection decisions were made through the ongoing process of growth of the artwork. A sense of “aura” was created as the images evolved. A human element was involved in each new screen just as the pen strokes the paper to form a delicate line. Computer aided image manipulation is a comparative medium. Layers of light, colour and form are applied one layer onto another. Decisions can be made as the image evolves and, unlike, real- time screen, paint and colour manipulation can be saved at various stages; layers taken away and imagery stripped.

Figure 4 Shivas Dance Digital Print on Wool Delaine

Fabric 2005

6.1 Shiva’s Dance This image shows the printed artwork, ‘Shiva’s Dance’, a digital print on wool delaine fabric 90mm by 140mm. The artwork was printed once on the Mimaki TX2 using the rear set of reactive dyes. This is one of a series of work that was developed through layering, altering and reassessing the work through Photoshop 7. The imagery builds up layers of colour, light and shapes by assimilating selected imagery in photographic, hand drawn and painted, found imagery and computer generated forms. The under-painting of the piece is built upon a digital photograph. The image taken from landscape and sky suggests ethereal light and created a similar feel to layers of watercolour and thin acrylic washes seen on the earlier paintings. The artwork was then built onto with a digitised version of the earlier drawing “Earthsong”. This retained a quality of painted mark, physical gesture and visual sensitivity. Decisions were then made about composition becoming more particular about placement. A graphic image from religious painting was utilised in a collaged style upon a foundation of digitally drawn shapes that were affected by the layering properties of Adobe Photoshop.

75 7. Conclusion An analysis of a working methodology of the production of a series of artworks from inception as mental ideas and concepts to digital fabric production showed the essence of artistic production to be reflective making practices of this skilful making. This created a firm body of evidence from which to theorise that there are several important aspects that instil the artwork with its essence and aura. These were grounded as being visual sensitivity and awareness translated through the iterative process and the iterative flow and evolution of the process itself that develops from one making to the next.

References i Benjamin, Walter 1999 Illuminations Hannah Arendt (Ed.) Harry Zorn (Tr.) Pimlico: London.

76 Modern Education and Training for Textile Technologists and Managers

A. Primentas Department of Textile Engineering, T.E.I. of Piraeus, 250 Thivon Street & P.Ralli, 122 44 Athens, Greece [email protected]

In the present society, rapid changes, often spurred on by the introduction of new technology, have made it inevitable that continuing education, retraining and adjustment throughout life become the norm.

Among all the aspects of life, the world of work is changing too. Competition is stronger than ever before. More and more employers are shrinking their workforce to a small central cohort who will be expected to reinvent themselves regularly with new skills and capabilities. In a knowledge based society, the education must respond to the demands of the modern workplace. Although education seems to be the key to future wealth creation, professionals and people in general must recognize that continuing learning is a key to survival.

Since different people learn in different ways and at different rates, education systems need reconstruction and adaptation to the diverse needs of learners. Motivation is the crucial link between why people learn and how they do it. It is the task of the educators, especially the academics, to equip everyone, students and professional engineers, technologists and managers, with the confidence and skills to learn using the powerful tool of the information technology. The new challenge is to integrate learning into lives of all people.

The case of today’s global textile industry and current thinking on the role that the information technology can play as an educational and training resource for students and professionals related to textiles are briefly discussed.

1. Introduction Competitiveness has become the driving force in people’s life. Over half the new jobs created in the E.U. states in the recent years have been part-time, no permanent positions. The markets across the world are demanding low price with new, more rigorous competitive standards such as quality, variety, customisation, speed, continuous improvement. Communication technologies are opening up new markets, freeing people from the traditional reliance on the office environment and shortening the time it takes for information to be disseminated, understood and reacted to. Unemployment has shown that it is no respecter of class, intellect, race or sex. The global textile market has changed too. Mass manufactured, “indifferent” goods are stockpiling. Customers are increasingly demanding choice and diversity. Fashion has become fashionable and design is critical. New fabrics made of specialty fibres, microfibres and lately nanofibres, can appear on the world market overnight. Surviving, prospering in these new conditions, understanding and anticipating the customers’ needs, product innovation and developing traditional designs for new markets require new and greater skills and stamina each year, like the Olympics.

77 2. Knowledge-based Society Learning is not just a key to open the door to economic success for individuals or companies. It is perhaps the subscription everyone must pay for the civilised society. It is necessary to encourage and persuade adults, of little experience of formal learning, to embrace their need to acquire the habit of learning, the commitment to lifelong learning. The more the world moves towards a knowledge-based society the more education becomes the key to future wealth creation. Individuals, employees and companies should embrace the concept that education does not take place in a discrete period of time preceding employment. It is a continuous process that lasts through most of the employee’s life. In a company an exclusively internal management training programme will create company clones who will continue to seek the solution to next year’s problems by the use of last year’s company manual. The spirit of corporation and the company itself will die without the constant injection of new ideas, methods and concepts. Training is needed to familiarize young people and older people whose jobs are to become redundant with the new technologies.

3. The Engineering and the Engineer The process of living and survival depends on man’s innate ability to solve problems rather than systematically accumulating knowledge. The essential prerequisite to solving any problem is to define exactly what the problem is, and the engineering approach truly emphasizes this point.

The development engineer invents, designs, develops and uses new and improved machines and processes to serve mankind. The management engineer uses his emotional brain for human encouragement of his team, his intellectual brain for the use of empirical engineering, economic and even psychological working rules, and his physical brain for his know-how of plant operation. Engineers must become more open-minded so that they will have the versatility to adapt themselves to new technologies, some of which will not even be known when they are in college.

4. The Management and the Manager Managing is about implementing, problem-solving and path finding. Implementing is about action, about getting things done, making things happen, e.g., the product delivered, the service performed. Problem-solving is not just about doing, it is also about thinking. It involves reducing complex problems to simpler forms, setting up choices, and deciding among alternative courses of action. Another fuzzier element, incontrovertibly real but difficult to define is path finding. This is about getting the right questions rather than the right answers. It is about selecting the problem, not solving it.

5. Steps Necessary to Change the Status of Engineering, Technology and Management in Greece The bacteria of the disease from which Greek industry has suffered are the apathy towards change until change is forced upon it. When people have done a succession of jobs punctuated with training courses to fit them for the next one, they get quite used to changes and do not fear further ones. The people who are tuned in and comfortable with technology are those most likely to succeed in the flexible job market. If Greek industry is to leapfrog ahead of her competitors who are rapidly leaving her behind it is essential to change the whole national assessment of the status of the forward-looking development engineer, technologist and manager.

78 5.1 Education and training for (future) engineers and technologists The present educational system largely discourages inventiveness. Students do not use the creative part of their mind. The academics have to bring to front new techniques to unlock the students’ ability to design new methods and bear new innovative ideas.

A great part the technological student’s time would be devoted to applied sciences and the rest time to the management. The teaching of pure sciences should be closely related to the way in which the applications are useful to mankind, since he always wants to know why it is worthwhile struggling with a particular problem. “Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas” (Happy is he who is able to learn the causes of things - Virgil). Part of his education and training should be the study and discussion of various case studies related to his broad technological field working out possible solutions. The laboratory time should be spent not on repeating classical experiments but on designing and constructing original experiment and developing his own equipment to solve particular application problems.

A shortage of well-educated technologists is very vivid. The Greek textile industry is still facing the lack of people in its workforce who could look out for opportunities for continuous improvement, people who could see problems and would know how to solve them. Too many of the textile graduates are shying away from the factory floor and have no feeling on what is going on down there. Parents encourage their “brightest” boys and girls away from “soiling their hands” with the problems of industry. This status should be reversed to the point where the engineer and technologist is regarded as being at the top of the tree socially and academically, as this is the case in most of the European Union countries.

5.2 Education and training for (future) managers Education can make the experience more meaningful and enable the manager to understand more complex situations. On the other hand, training is the teaching of skills and techniques used by managers to improve their performance in analyzing the problems they have to deal with and in increasing the objectivity of their decisions.

Education and training for manager means neither “send an individual on a management course to get all that is needed to make him a manager” nor “put a man into the machine and some months later he emerges a fully-equipped manager”. The problem with the Greek industry and commerce is that it is not educated enough to the level appropriate to recognize its own lack of education. The need for postgraduate studies in management is largely a reflection of the fact that school and first-degree activity in Greece has prepared young people to follow specialized professions in society but has done precious little to prepare those young people to win an economic war.

5.3 Technologists and managers: Reinventing themselves with new skills and capabilities People need to be challenged and allowed to build, deliberately, an “interest” in the job, or “enriching” the job, so that they feel a bit of themselves in it. This is a key in the door to participation and innovation. Participation, without involvement or interest in the job creates, eventually, the most traumatic form of alienation; apathy, no life, no opportunities for growth or learning. When people no longer have the opportunity to learn or develop, psychologically they start dying. Creativity has to be encouraged. Academics, technology related, should be in a very close link with industry to deal with interesting development problems.

79 5.4 Continuing learning: a key to survival One of the reasons, why in the past the fullest use of the human resources had not been achieved, is through failure, particularly in education, to recognize the continuity of development of the individual human being from birth to death.

Students must be able to enter the system at moments and at the speed of their own choice, when they extract for themselves the greatest benefit from studying and this will be later than the years immediately after school. On the basis of modular programmes of varying lengths, the system will accord with the rapid expansion and speed of change of technical knowledge. Clearly there must be regular periods of updating, of recyclage. At a time when the bases of power are changing so dramatically, the society should be concerned with the preparation of people to assume, with greater knowledge and sense of responsibility, the roles being thrust upon them. In any case, all people like to be wanted.

6. The Information Technology in the Modern Textile World Colleges and universities around the world are “Interneted”, bringing undergraduates up to date with information technology well before they attempt to climb the career ladder. Newsgroups, that cover many of the textile fields, assist students, research workers and academics in various ways. Many of the well known textile schools could cooperate to set up an on-line, multimedia based, college for the internet textile students, the “studnets” (anagram of “students”). In the Textile Department, T.E.I. of Piraeus in Greece, the replacement of the instructors of some basic laboratory as well theoretical courses with multimedia systems is under development.

Academics and professionals involved with the broad application fields of textiles could be benefited by having access, through the internet, to an on-line virtual textile museum. Its digital gallery could accommodate pictures of textile-related exhibits from the various museums and art galleries around the world. Moreover, videos presenting the techniques used by ancient as well as modern civilisations and nations, would integrate the stuff of this museum. The access to the vast world of information that it is provided by the libraries could be achieved by the establishment of an on-line digital library that would contain the actual text of the most existing textile books, journals, theses, dissertations, conference papers and various research reports.

The applications of the “intranets” in the textile companies will give many chances for their better organisation. Furthermore, the adoption of the “extranets” will enforce the links between suppliers and customers on a business level.

7. Conclusions The future depends vitally on education and training system that is part of the overall strategy to improve the competitiveness of the country’s economy and enhance the living standards of all the citizens. The education offered by the technological institutions needs restructuring to fulfil the present and the future market demands focusing mainly on quality. The launch of a continuing education and training scheme is a pressing need so that, everyone can find a creative field of endeavour that he enjoys much that he will wish to continue it in his leisure time through the remainder of his life.

Education and training for the Textile and Clothing industries needs to take a quantum leap forward if it is to assist their companies to survive and achieve world class performance. The training of textile engineers for industry should be such that will enable them to deal with the technological developments of the future rather than the problems of the past.

80 References C. Cookson, “Quality people: training for survival, growth and world class performance”, 76th TIAWC “Co-operation”, Instabul, Turkey, May 21-24, 1995, 636 Lord Dainton, “Knowledge is our destiny; and education the tool”, JRSA, CXXXV, 5369, 1987,387 M. Frye, “Achieving continuous creativity”, JRSA, CXLV, 5484, 1998,1/4, 12 M. Heron, “How adults will keep up with change”, JRSA, CXLV, 5484, 1998, 1/4, 6 S. Kuenssberg, “We live and learn”, JRSA, 2001, 4/4, 46 A. Primentas, “Internet & Textiles: The present and the future of textile information”, 78th World Conference of the Textile Institute, Thessaloniki, Greece, 23-26 May 1997, Vol. III, 403- 414 D. Puttnam, “Information in the living society”, JRSA, CXLIV, 5472, Aug. - Sept., 1996, 33- 42 L.K. Taylor, “Creating an interest in work through participation”, JRSA, CXXIV, 5239, 1976, 380

81 Conservation of the ‘Vane Tempest’ National Union of Mineworkers’ Banner

J. Hyman The Textile Restoration Studio 2 Talbot Road, Bowdon, Altrincham, Cheshire WA14 3JD [email protected]

This banner was made in 1982 but, unfortunately, had not stood up to the rigours of use and required full conservation treatment to make it safe for display. Vane Tempest was the last pit to be closed in the Durham area in 1992. The pithead was 3 miles under the North Sea. For the close-knit mining community, their pit banner was a major symbol of comradeship and was displayed many times during the Miners’ Strike in 1984, along with being taken to other disputes throughout England.

George Tutill’s firm had been most influential in constructing banners in the 19th century and the Vane Tempest banner was made by the same traditional methods. The miners paid 10p a week from their wages towards its manufacture. A replica has now been made and is used in current parades. Every year the Vane Tempest banner was paraded at the Durham Miners’ Gala, along with other colliery banners. The men, wearing special leather harnesses into which carrying poles are inserted, parade the banners with their colliery band marching in front and then display them at Durham Race Course. Throughout the parade the banners are subjected to all the elements, wind and rain. Plastic covers often result in condensation on the banner! All new banners are blessed by the Bishop of Durham in the Cathedral. Getting the banners through the small entrance door and then hoisted up is a major feat. After the service, they are rolled around their parading pole and manipulated to fit into someone’s car for transport. This constant handling pays a heavy price on the form, materials and ultimately the performance of the banner. Storage of any large textile is a problem, but rolling around the parading pole, adding plastic wrappings tied tightly with string, is far from ideal!

The original construction of the banner had also caused much of its damage. The yellow side borders had been over stretched when machine stitched to the painted centre, resulting in severe stress lines occurring across the banner. These puckered the more rigid painted areas and, eventually, splits and tears occurred. Adhesive tape was applied to hold the banner together. Cotton twill tape loops for threading the banner onto its parading pole had been nailed to the pole. These tapes had pulled away from the nails and torn, so again adhesive tape was applied. Many splits were also disguised within the creases. Overall, the banner was very creased and soiled from its eventful life. It was unable to be used and hanging for display was no longer a possible option.

Unfortunately, the best intentions of the miners, in using adhesive tapes, resulted in unsightly staining on the red ground fabric. The removal of these tapes was a conservation priority. Different tapes overlapped each other, necessitating tests on a variety of removal treatments. Steam helped to soften the adhesive and allowed the paper tape to be pealed away carefully. This method was only successful on the red ground fabric, not on the painted areas. Different solvents were tested - Acetone and a Toluene/ N-Hexane mix being the only solvents that removed the tapes without removing the paint.

Staining was still very visible on the red fabric and the whole banner was soiled and creased, making full wet cleaning necessary. The yellow hanging tapes were removed and the yellow borders unpicked. This enabled the red centre fabric to relax. The fringing was removed from the base edge. This was cleaned by soaking in cool softened water and then sponging with a diluted solution of Dehypon LS45 washing detergent. Thorough rinsing in de-ionised 82 water and then re-stretching to the original length completed the process. The yellow borders were cleaned similarly. To clean the banner, a tank was constructed of the correct dimensions and lined in polythene. The banner was laid flat and then cleaned by gentle sponging with Dehypon LS45 detergent. Both sides were cleaned and the whole banner thoroughly rinsed in de-ionised water. Once clean, the banner was laid flat to dry. Many of the stresses were released and the bottom painted inscription was re-aligned to its correct position. New support materials were required to repair and secure the banner. The original ground fabric was a mix of cotton and rayon, woven with a narrow repp. New fabric was sought and the nearest match was a cotton and viscose mix which was dyed red to match.

The repairs were undertaken by three methods:

1) To infill the torn gap around the lower inscription, a bridging strip was cut to fit the curve along each side of the lower painted inscription. This fabric strip was secured to the original red ground fabric, on the front side, with fine couching stitches, worked in matching 120’s semi translucent, monofilament polyester thread. The raw outer edges for the strip were exposed on the reverse side of the banner. The inner edge, on the front side, overlapped the edge of the painted inscription.

2) Beva 371 adhesive, diluted to a 50:50 solution in Stoddard solvent, was applied to the central painted design and to the lower painted inscription. Two coats were applied, allowing complete drying in-between. The adhesive dried transparent. Nylon, Monofilament Conservation Net, tinted to a pale green colour, was then laid over the central painted area. Beginning in the centre and then moving outwards, using a small spatula iron set on a warm setting, the heat re-activated the adhesive and bonded the net to the banner. This treatment held the splits in the painted area together without using needle and thread. The edges of the net were cut away around the edges of the painted centre and were then tinted with black dye to make the net almost invisible. This process was repeated on the reverse side of the banner, resulting in the centre painted area being sandwiched between two pieces of adhesive coated conservation net. The bottom painted inscription also had conservation net heat sealed to its front side, to secure the splits. The edges were cut to correspond with the black painted edge of the inscription. The inner edge of the bridging strip was then placed over the top of the net and heat sealed to the lower painted inscription, along the black painted edge. Excess fabric was cut away and the edge of the new red fabric was tinted black to blend in with the banner.

3) This method involved a complete net support over the red fabric on the reverse side of the banner. There were many small splits between the painted design and the red fabric. Stitched repairs were impossible. One large piece of conservation net, tinted red, was laid flat onto polyester film. Two coats of Mowilith DM427 conservation PVA adhesive, diluted in de-ionised water to form a 35% solution, were applied to the net. Once dry, the net was peeled from the polyester film and placed with its shiny surface against the reverse side of the banner. Again, using a warm spatula iron, the adhesive was reactivated with heat to bond the red tinted net to the banner. This joined all the tears and splits in the original red fabric, providing a support. The net also bonded to the bridging strip, keeping it flat on the reverse side. This net extended to the edges of the banner and became included into the seams when the yellow borders were re- stitched back into position. The red tinted net was cut away from the previous treated central panel. The edges of the net here were also tinted black to match the edges of the painted design. The same ribbed repair fabric was also dyed yellow to match the borders. Extensions were added to infill where original fabric had been cut too short, enabling the banner to hang flat and smooth without stress.

83 The banner now required packing for transportation. A large diameter roll was covered with barrier foil to prevent any acid migration onto the banner. The banner was rolled into position, with an additional inner layer of silicone release paper to prevent any surfaces becoming adhered during transport. Once rolled, wide width tapes were placed around the banner and secured with Velcro. A final calico cover was wrapped around the banner. The banner is now safe to hang and will be displayed within a new frame for future generations to enjoy.

Throughout the conservation treatment, close contact was kept with the local primary school who visited my studio to see the conservation processes. For them, the banner is the only visible artefact of their mining heritage, specific to Vane Tempest Colliery.

The Textile Restoration Studio 2 Talbot Road, Bowdon, Altrincham Cheshire WA14 3JD

Tel / Fax : +44 (0)161 928 0020 E-mail : [email protected] Website : www.textilerestoration.co.uk

84 The Delaware Quilt Documentation Project: Stitching together Delaware’s Quilt History

F. W. Mayhew University of Delaware, USA [email protected]

1. Project Description The Delaware Quilt Documentation Project is a statewide collaboration of the University of Delaware, the Delaware State University and the Delaware State Museums. The Project purpose is to locate and record the quiltmaking heritage of the state of Delaware. The initial focus is on quilts constructed before World War II. Quilts of this timeframe were functional, and made from available fabric remnants. We seek to capture the subtle emotion, devotion, frugality, community and creativity that quiltmakers revealed through these useful household objects. Delaware is rich in cultural communities, and the Project is pursuing these groups in hopes of recording a representative number of objects for study.

2. The Preparation: Expertise The Delaware Quilt Documentation Project has been planned, developed and modeled through the support of the following Humanities Scholars. Patricia Keller, who completed a Quilt Documentation in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania and is currently conducting one in Chester County, Pennsylvania was an invaluable guide though the initial planning stage. Ann Baker Horsey, Curator of Collections at the Delaware State Museums, contributed the design and implementation of a nine by nine foot collapsible slant board to fully support the antique quilts for photography. She trained the volunteers in the proper handling of antique quilts when positioning and removing them. Jane Funderburk, a scholar of textile history with an emphasis on women’s participation, refined the data gathering tools, especially the one for gathering descriptive physical characteristics

3. The Preparation: Forms and Facilities Four forms were developed. Three for data gathering and one Release form. The data forms were developed from the extensive list provided by The Alliance for American Quilts. Jane Funderburk worked these items into three functional data gathering instruments. By signing the Release Form the participant gives permission to publish photographs and information about the quilts. The first data form gathers Participant Information. The Participants are the people from the community who bring in quilts to be documented. The second data form collects Quilt maker Information: Information about the quilt maker, her family and her motivation to make the quilt. These two forms are administered by volunteers who have been specially trained to interview the participant in a compassionate and sensitive manner. The last data form gathers observable Quilt Information. Through a series of specific sections, characteristics such as dimensions, pattern name, color scheme, number and nature of borders, edge design, manner of construction, etc. are recorded. Our volunteers frequently observe interesting details, when this happens, a bell is sounded so that everyone can gather to see.

The Delaware Quilt Documentation Project has been supported by the Delaware State Museums System. Ann Baker Horsey suggested the use of the Air Mobility Command Museum located on the US Air Base in Dover, Delaware. The museum is an airplane hanger with massive areas of floor space surrounding the displays of military aircraft and other memorabilia. On one wall is an elevated walkway which provides a perfect vantage

85 point for photography of the quilts. The AMC Museum director has provided the full force of his facility, and staff, kitchen facilities, lunch room, photocopier, extension cords, etc.

4. The Preparation: Training, Volunteers and Pilot Study The majority of the volunteers are quilt guild members. Once recruited, these avid quilters attended a series of training sessions. Two “logistics and skills” training sessions were held to teach the volunteers the use of forms and general procedures; and physical handling of antique objects. For interested interviewers, one “sensitivity” session on gathering oral history was held. An Ethics Statement was signed by all participants. The statement affirms the volunteer’s commitment to refrain from soliciting or accepting of any quilts from the participants.

The Pilot Study quickly revealed the glitches in the research design which were soon resolved. By the time the 100-plus quilts of the pilot collection were fully documented, the problems were gone and the process was running smoothly.

5. Promotion The local print news media is informed of the dates of the Quilt Harvest Days for the “calendar of events” column. These sources have also printed feature articles about the Quilt Documentation Project. Fliers and news releases have been developed and distributed at regional quilt symposia and shows. A presentation describing the Project has been developed and used to enhance invited speaking engagements.

6. The Documentation Process One volunteer is stationed at the Registration table. As the participants arrive they are asked to register by providing contact information in our Registration Record Book. This information remains confidential for the use of the Project only, and is never revealed to any source. A registration number is assigned. An example registration number would be DV4-003-02, which would indicate the second object (02) brought by the third participant (003) to the fourth Quilt Harvest Day in Dover (DV4). The folder also bears a label with check-off spaces to indicate that photography and oral history interviews have been completed. Once the participant is registered, she is escorted to the Oral History Area to be interviewed. Once this interview is completed, the quilt and its folder move to the Physical Characteristics Area to be spread on a muslin covered table. Two to three volunteers discuss and document the size, predominant colors, number of borders, pattern name, number of stitches per inch (average of five counts); plus a large number of other observable attributes of each quilt. The final step in the process is the Photographic Documentation. Two to three gloved volunteers will gently spread out the folded object on the slantboard. A GreytagMacbeth color standard and the registration number are positioned so that they will appear in the photograph. Once the components are positioned, the photographer captures the image. If unique details are present, the photographer will record them in close-up shots. Any inscriptions or other text appearing on the quilt is also photographed. Once all these tasks are completed, the quilt is placed with its folder onto a holding table. The participant initials the registration book as they retrieve their quilt and a check is placed in the registration book to indicate the folder has been placed into the records file.

86 7. Dissemination All the information gathered by the Project related to the quilt and its maker will be sent to the Quilt Index, a National Database maintained by the Alliance for American Quilts where it will be accessible to quilt scholars and enthusiasts nationwide. The Quilt Index can be found on the internet at www.quiltindex.org, and the Alliance for American Quilts is accessible at www.quiltalliance.org.

The Delaware Quilt Documentation Project is supported in part by the Delaware Humanities Forum, a local affiliate of the National Foundation for the Humanities.

87 Development of Ornament Notation for Woven Fabrics - Our Approach

V. Milašius, J. Katunskis, and D. Taylor Department of Textile Technology, Kaunas University of Technology, Studentu 56, Kaunas, Lithuania Corresponding author: [email protected]

While analysing textile ornamentation, it was noted that ornaments conform to symmetry concepts, the classification of which was proposed by H. J. Woods and then improved on by M. A. Hann. It is expected that this system can be applied also to study many ornamentation of textiles created using various technologies, including printing, embroidery, weaving (including non-Jacquard).

There is no other area of folk art, which has been influenced as much by technology as woven non-Jacquard textiles. This notwithstanding, woven designs have three main distinctions from the ornaments analysed by M. A. Hann:

Fig. 1 Painted ornament Fig. 2 Woven ornament

• first, these ornaments have continuous lines (Fig.1), whereas (strictly speaking) woven ornament has a stepped line (Fig.2) andconsequently, symmetry axes or centres can be laid both between threads and on the thread (Fig.3).

• second, as woven ornaments are formed from two

perpendicular pattern threads, warp and weft, some Fig. 3 Possible layout of symmetry groups of Woods-Hann’s system can’t be symmetry axes and centres used for woven designs.

• the third distinction comes from the second, and deals with ditranslational symmetry operations: some of them can be carried out by transformation of the segment in two perpendicular directions (say, horizontally and vertically), which make two different ornaments. You get nowhere by turning the ornament at 90° as two different ornaments remain.

From these distinctions we can conclude that:

• some specific limitations come to existence, when axes or centres of symmetry operations are laid on the threads;

• only twelve of the seventeen ditranslational symmetry groups can be used for the description of non-Jacquard woven Fig. 4 Symmetry groups impossible for ornaments (Fig.4); woven ornaments

88 • some of ditranslational symmetry groups can be performed by transformation of the segment horizontally or vertically.

We have analysed 569 woven Lithuanian national ornaments and have found more than 3,000 axes or centres of symmetry operations. The distribution of the layout of axes for various symmetry groups is shown in Figure 5.

Fig. 5 Distribution of the layout of axes for various symmetry groups

This diagram proves the limitations that rise from the possibility of axes or centres layout on the thread is very important for non-Jacquard woven ornaments because we have observed that more than 80% of axes or centres are laid on the thread.

All these distinctions highlight the main aim of this investigation - creation of an improved notation system for non-Jacquard woven ornaments as well as the software for their analysis and synthesis.

All symmetry operations (reflection, glide-reflection, and rotation) used for the creation of definite symmetry group ornament can be divided into two groups: first – symmetry operations, with axes and centres can either on the thread or between threads according to the will of the designer (Fig.6, green lines), second – those, where axes and centres appear in definite positions by themselves either depending on the position of the first group (blue lines marked by 1) or where their position is indispensable for certain symmetry groups (red lines marked by 2). The complete code contains notation of the first group symmetry operations only shown either by green (present position of the axis) or by yellow (possible position of the axis) squares. Straight lines define axes between threads, broken – on the thread. Signs mark reflection, glide-reflection, and rotation symmetry operations.

Fig. 6 Main principles of notation system

89

a b c d

e f

Fig. 7 Extra codes for notation of monotranslational symmetry groups: a – pmm2, b – pma2, c – pm11, d – p1m1, e- p1a1, f – p111

a b c d

e f g h

Fig. 8 Extra codes for notation of ditranslational symmetry groups (direction v): a – c1m1, b – p1m1, c – p1g1, d –p111, e – c2mm, f – p2mg, g – p2gg, h – p211

In Figures 7, 8, 9 and 10 the extra codes for notation of various symmetry groups are presented. Hereinafter the examples of complete code of woven ornament are presented: pmm2-103170, p1a1-70 z3, p1m1-1130v, p1m1-5170h, p111d-vz4, p211-2040vz2, p4gm- 2030.

90

a b c d

e f

g h

Fig. 9 Extra codes for notation of ditranslational symmetry groups (direction h): a – c1m1, b – p1m1, c – p1g1, d –p111, e – c2mm, f – p2mg, g – p2gg, h – p211

a b c

d Fig. 10 Extra codes for notation of ditranslational symmetry groups: a –p2mm, b – p4mm, c – p4gm, d –p411

The possibilities of this programme were demonstrated during the presentation.

91 The Woollen Beaded Fabrics Woven at the Town of Roubaix (FR) in 1886

A. Uhlenbeck 32/34 Rue de Versailles, 78460 Chevreuse. France [email protected]

1. Introduction During the 19th century in the north of France, especially in Tourcoing, Roubaix and the surrounding areas, the textile industry was highly productive, on technical as well as artistic levels. Looms equipped with the jacquard selection mechanism were in operation throughout the North of France. In contrast, in the southern part of France, particularly in and around Lyon, draw-looms were still in used until the end of the nineteenth century (1).

A part of the beaded collection,”La Piscine“. Musée d’art et d’industrie André Diligent, Roubaix Fr.

1.

Beaded fabrics are regularly in fashion. So it was in the year 1886 that “Le Journal de la Mode Illustrée” mentioned » Les plastrons de matinée sont faits en soie molle, en velours, ceux du soir... qui donc pourrait entreprendre de les décrire? ... des perles surtout. «

The main problem is always how to fix them onto the cloth. You can do it by : gluing, special techniques like “sablé”, tambour embroidery (point de Lunéville), sewing, knitting … and weaving with a beaded thread in weft and/or in warp direction.

92 Some techniques:

Edouard Alliot was a great, yet forgotten, textile creator (1898 ?-1980) Saint Quentin (Fr)

2. The Thread Manufacturers located in Lyon and its surroundings used a string of beads in their beaded fabrics. A gauze weave structure was often used. This was already a complicated weave structure, but to put the beads in the right place onto the fabrics a special read had to be used. (2)

Gauze weave beaded thread in the warp Special read atelier Mons.Matelon, 2003 The weaver opened the reed, so that the bead could slip between the dents from the reed

93 onto the cloth. He took care, aided by the small brushes behind the reed, to ensure that the beads were inserted onto the fabric The fabric was woven on a handloom.

The small beaded collection in “La Piscine” (3) was fabricated in another way. In Roubaix the bead was already incorporated in the yarn. Probably no special reed was needed. The beads came usually from: Italy (Murano) Germany and Tsjechie (Bohemia), and were made by unknown manufacturers.

© La Piscine, Roubaix (F)I N° 987.1. 854 Inv. 987.1.877

Perrine Riccotier, one of my weaving students from the ESAAT, Roubaix (4) used a similar beaded thread in 2000 as used 130 years ago in beaded fabrics. Only the colour was different; orange, instead of brown, dark green or black. She discovered the thread had been in the possession of her grandmother who died in the late 1990, and originated from the North-East of France.

It should be noted that many of the samples still have traces of paper glued on the reverse side indicating that they probably originated from a sample book. Fabrics in sample books will not automatically mean that they were made on an industrial level nor that they were actually sold?

94

Reverse side of the sample.

A rare indication of possible origin is given by a small label on one of them with the following: A. Prouvost, Roubaix. It is known that Adolphe Eutrope Prouvost (1821–1884) was the younger brother of Amadée Prouvost. He owned an important spinning mill, which operated from the mid 19th century to the late 20th century. (5)

3. Technical aspects of the Samples All the samples are made from combed 2 plied wool and woven in a twill 2/2 to left or to the right. One has a different ground structure. The warp and weft density is not very high, so the beaded yarn could slip easily between the dents of the read. A woollen twill 2/2 was and is in the Northern part of France still called “casimir”. This word is probably linked to the Kashmiri shawls, many woven in 2/2 interlocking twill.

All the colours are in an “earth gamut”, of green, brown, dark blue, and autumn yellow. Even the fantasy yarns are in this range of colours. If needed, small stripes of bright full colours were used in silk (N° 1324). In the velvet part cotton was used. (N°1328).

95

The most amazing sample is N° 585. There are beaded yarns in warp and beaded yarns making loops in weft and warp directions, facilitated by supplementary beaded thread incorporated by hand and probably a needle. The thread was cut where it met the beaded warp.

Again, with this sample, provenance is difficult to determine. Whether the sample was produced by women at home, in a weaving mill, or by children is not known.

96

Sample N° 1328 is of particularly high quality and contradicts the mistaken belief that in the North of France only inferior quality was woven. (6)

97 fer = rod.

The town of Roubaix in those days was and nowadays is, a twin town of Bradford (UK). In Bradford similar samples have not (yet) been found. In September 2003 the samples were shown during the Cieta congress in Lisbon (Portugal) without any reaction. (7) Adolphe Prouvost is even forgotten by his own family as well as his home town Roubaix.

Please if you do have any information about these amazing samples, or about Adolphe Eutrope or Adolphe Henri Prouvost please contacted me:

Augusta Uhlenbeck E-mail: [email protected] site: htpp://perso.wanadoo.fr/inverness.creation.tissus/ prix: laureate internationale de "textile design" Tokyo 1988 finaliste "international textile fair" Kyoto 1994

References [1] Historique du métier pour la fabrication des étoffes façonnés 1933 C. Rodon Y Font 1934 Adolphe Hullebroeck translated it from Spanish into French. [2] Gianni Lambrugo Cieta bulletin 79 2002. and “Cambridge congress” 1997 [3] La Piscine Musée d’Art et Industrie André Diligent. http://museeroubaix.free.fr Rue de l’Espérance N° 23 , 59100 Roubaix1 [4] ESAAT , Ecole Supérieur des arts appliqués Avenue des Nations Unies, 59100 Roubaix France [5] http://roubaixhistoire.free.fr Website dedicated to the town of Roubaix [6] The showcases for the woven fabrics are changed 4 times a year. One of them is dedicated to the rich textile history of Roubaix and surroundings.

98 [7] “Patrimoine textile de Roubaix,carrefour d’influences” Cieta 2003, Lisbon (Portugal): Norah Mokrani and Augusta Uhlenbeck

Thanks to: Norah Mokrani Head of the tissuthéque La Piscine Perrine Ricottier for the beaded thread. Philippe Delaplace for the photo of the special reed in the workshop of Monsieur Matelon, Lyon 2003, Matelon past away in the end of the same year. Madame F. Sorber,Antwerpen, for « La mode illustrée « And the spinners, Chapurlat, Lienard, N’Guyen Vermeulen.

The technical designs are made with the textile programme Point Carré, Rennes Fr, by the author.

99 Conceptual Developments Associated with Structure, Form and Performance

M. A. Hann and B. G. Thomas School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK Corresponding author: [email protected]

This paper examines a range of geometric concepts underlying our understanding of the structure of patterns, tilings and polyhedra. Attention is focused on certain polygons that exhibit the facility to tile the plane without gap or overlap. Both periodic and aperiodic varieties are considered. Various inter- related concepts, associated with the Fibonacci series and the golden section, are introduced. Recognition is made of the important contribution made by scientific investigators to the understanding of pattern structure. The potential value of reconsidering a range of fundamental (and invariably ancient) geometric concepts, as problem-solving tools of the twenty-first century, is highlighted.

1. Introduction Throughout the twentieth century, the University of Leeds played a pivotal role in the analysis and interpretation of patterns – the three-dimensional patterns which are the basis of crystal structures and the two-dimensional patterns which are the basis of fabric design, tessellations and tilings. This role may be said to have begun with the Nobel Prize-winning work of W. H. Bragg, Cavendish Professor of Physics, and his son W. L. Bragg. Working as a team, using x-ray diffraction techniques, they solved the first crystal structures in 1913. In the 1930s, H.J. Woods of the Department of Textile Industries presented a comprehensive appraisal of symmetries in patterns (1-4). Drawing on concepts which have their origin in the study of crystal structures, Woods was the first to present the complete and explicit enumeration of the two-colour one- and two-dimensional patterns, visionary work which was several years ahead conceptually of the theoretical developments emanating from crystallographers worldwide. Today it is widely acknowledged that Woods helped to lay the foundation for our current thinking on the geometry of regular repeating patterns and tilings (5). Between the 1930s and 1940s W.T. Astbury, building on work initiated by J. B. Speakman, also of the Department of Textile Industries at Leeds, pioneered the use of x-ray diffraction techniques to the elucidation of wool fibre structure, work which (it could be argued) led directly to the discovery of the structure of DNA. The underlying threads throughout all the diverse work charted above are structure and form, the ultimate determinants of both aesthetic effect and physical performance.

The Leeds tradition continues and ideas more commonly associated with the nano structures of polymers continue to stimulate research thinking in the areas of patterns and structures. Contributions have been made at Leeds to furthering the understanding of patterns within a cultural context (6) and to the classification, analysis and synthesis of counter-change patterns (7). Concepts have been developed in the field of layer symmetry, to aid advances in our understanding of the geometry of woven textiles (8). Tilings, tessellations and polyhedra are a research focus currently. One postgraduate project at Leeds is concerned with Platonic (or regular) tilings and Archimedean (or semi-regular) tilings and their application to various forms of nonwoven, fibrous structures. Another is concerned with polyhedra (both the Platonic and the Archimedean solids) and in exploring the application of regular and semi-regular tilings to such structures. In this latter case the objective is to determine the rules governing the tiling of polyhedra surfaces/faces, with various forms of tiling, avoiding gap or overlap and ensuring precise fit at the edges.

100 The objectives of this paper are to consider a selection of geometric concepts associated with tilings and polyhedra, and to present a range of applications where the consideration of these concepts proved to be of value.

2. Simple Figures in the Plane Enclosed figures known collectively as “regular polygons” have a specified number of equal sides and angles. The intersection points of the sides are known as “vertices”, and the inside angle between each side as an “interior angle” or “vertex angle”. An infinite number of regular polygons is possible. A few of the more important are as follows. A regular three- sided figure in the plane is known as an “equilateral triangle”, with equal length sides and equal vertex angles of 60 degrees. A square is, of course, the regular four-sided figure, with equal sides and equal vertex angles of 90 degrees. The pentagon is the equivalent five-sided figure with vertex angles of 108 degrees, and the hexagon the regular six-sided figure with vertex angles of 120 degrees. Examples of regular polygons are provided in Figure 1. Polygrams are related figures, formed by connecting the vertices of a polygon. A hexagram is thus associated with a hexagon, and a pentagram with a pentagon. Simple regular polygons are the building blocks from which various tilings may be created. They also exhibit similar geometric characteristics to various motif types used in pattern construction. Motifs, patterns and tilings are considered below.

Figure 1. Illustration of the regular polygons indicating vertices and interior angles

3. Motifs and Patterns Motifs are the building blocks from which patterns are constructed. Some motifs are considered to be symmetrical and others to be asymmetrical. Symmetrical types are each comprised of two or more equal units of identical size, shape and content. An asymmetrical motif is comprised of a single unit and cannot be divided into two or more equal parts (of identical size, shape and content).The principal feature of regular repeating patterns is the repetition of a motif by a given distance either in one direction only or in more than one direction across the plane. Where repetition is continuous in one direction only, between two imaginary (or real) parallel lines, the pattern thus produced may be referred to as a “border pattern”, a “strip pattern”, a “frieze group” or a “one-dimensional design”. Repetition in two distinct directions across the plane will yield an all-over pattern; synonymous terms include “wallpaper pattern”, “periodic pattern” or “crystallographic pattern”.

Both motifs and patterns may be considered in terms of their symmetry characteristics, and the presence of combinations of up to four geometric actions (or symmetry operations) known as “translation”, “rotation”, “reflection” and “glide-reflection”. Translation is the geometric action by which a motif undergoes repetition vertically, horizontally, or diagonally at regular spatial intervals while retaining the same orientation. Rotation is the geometric

101 action by which a motif undergoes repetition at regular intervals round an imaginary fixed point. Reflection is the action by which a motif undergoes repetition across an imaginary line (known as a reflection axis) thus producing a mirror image. Glide reflection is the geometric action that combines translation and reflection, and is associated with a glide-reflection axis. From the view point of symmetry there are two types of symmetrical motifs, one exhibiting rotation only (cn-type motifs) and the other exhibiting reflection (dn-type motifs). Combinations of the four symmetry operations yield seven possible border pattern types and seventeen possible all-over pattern types. Further elaboration of relevant concepts is given elsewhere (9-11).

4. Tilings and Tessellations The word tiling is best used to refer to a restrictive category of patterns. The symmetry characteristics of patterns are equally applicable to tilings. Tilings cover, or tessellate the plane without gap or overlap. Some tilings do not repeat, and these are known as “aperiodic” or “non-periodic” tilings. Tessellations have been traced back to ancient cultures, but their formal study (in the academic sense) is relatively recent. Johannes Kepler (1571 – 1630) conducted an early study of tessellations in 1619, and produced a notable attempt to tile the plane using figures with five-fold rotational symmetry (12). Major scientific progress came in 1891 when Federov, the Russian crystallographer, proved that every regular tiling of the plane is constructed in accordance with one of seventeen combinations, the same combinations possible with all-over patterns (13). Grunbaum and Shephard in their monumental treatise Tilings and Patterns charted much of what is currently known about the subject of tilings (14). The work completed by Horne, during time spent as a PhD student at the University of Leeds, is also worth a mention (15).

In the relevant literature, the term “regular tiling” is used to refer to a periodic tiling comprised of one type of regular tile only, and the term “semi-regular tiling” when more than one type of regular tile is used (although each vertex has identical properties). Only the equilateral triangle, the square and the hexagon (three of the regular polygons) will tessellate the plane (on their own) without gap or overlap. This is possible because the interior angles in each (60, 90, and 120 degrees respectively) are exactly divisible into 360 degrees. The vertex angle of a tessellating regular polygon must therefore be a sub-multiple of 360 degrees and not greater than 120 degrees (because at least three polygons must meet at each junction). Examples of the regular tilings are provided in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Illustration of the regular tilings

The semi-regular tilings are also comprised of regular polygons with corresponding vertices but permit the use of more than one type of polygon. The sum of the corresponding interior angles at each vertices must equal 360 degrees in order to tile the plane. There are

102 eight possible types of semi-regular tessellation consisting of combinations of triangles, squares, hexagons, octagons and dodecagons, as shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Illustration of the semi-regular tilings

It should be noted that it is not possible to tile the plane, without gap or overlap, using a regular five-sided figure (i.e. a pentagon). This limitation is often referred to as the “crystallographic restriction”. Five-fold rotational symmetry is however relatively common in the natural world (e.g. the five-fold petal arrangement associated with many plants) and has been the subject of much academic research. Hargittai observed that five-fold rotational symmetry has been regarded as the “forbidden symmetry”, at least in the world of crystals (16).

A remarkable scientific discovery has widened the debate on five-fold symmetry. A dramatic development was reported in 1984 by Shechtman et al., following an experiment in which an aluminium alloy was produced from molten state by rapid solidification, and the resultant electron diffraction pattern produced from such a sample showed characteristics of five-fold rotational symmetry (17). This discovery of a quasi crystal caused quite a stir in the world of crystallography and, as noted by Hargittai, “Even the New York Times ran an article about the new matter” (18). A comprehensive review of the subject has been provided by Steinhardt and Ostlund (19).

5. Aperiodic Tilings In 1974 Roger Penrose, the British mathematician produced an aperiodic tessellating design, built from two rhombi (known as kites and darts) derived from a pentagon (20). This aperiodic tiling with five-fold rotation points has been the focus of intensive study by mathematicians and crystallographers. Remarkably a tiling pattern (dating to 1196 – 1197 CE) on the exterior wall of the Blue Tomb at Maragha, in western Iran, bears a close resemblance to a Penrose tiling. Makovicky commented: “The pattern from Maragha…is based on tiles that can readily be obtained by a transformation of the Penrose pattern of pentagons, stars and lozenges” (21). An example of a Penrose-type tiling is given in Figure 4. In the context of Penrose tilings, it is of interest (and probably also of significance) to note that the proportion of one rhombus used in the construction relative to the other is 1.618, a proportion associated with the so-called “golden section” or a numerical series known as the “Fibonacci series”. The nature of the Fibonacci series and the golden section are explained below.

103

Figure 4. Illustration of a Penrose aperiodic tiling

6. A Sense of Proportion In the early thirteenth century (CE) Leonardo Fibonacci discovered (or probably re- discovered) a special series of numbers while investigating the breeding pattern of rabbits. The population growth conformed to the following series: 1, 1, 2, 3,5,8,13,21, 34, 55… etc. It is readily established that each successive number (after 3) approximates to 1.618 of the previous number. The proportion associated with the series is known as “Phi” (φ) and this shows up in relationships throughout the natural, constructed and manufactured worlds. It can be found in architectural contexts, is clearly evident in proportions of the human body, other animals, plants, DNA, the solar system, music, dance, sculpture and other art forms. The proportion was known to the Greeks as the “golden section” and to various Italian Renaissance artists as the “divine proportion”. The term “golden mean” is also used. The Fibonacci series and the golden section are intimately connected. Both the Greeks and the ancient Egyptians are believed to have used the golden section when designing their buildings and monuments. The proportion is evident in the works of various artists; Leonardo da Vinci and George Seurat are contrasting examples. The architect, Charles- Edouard Jeanneret (known as “Le Corbusier”) developed a rule of design known as the “modular”, a measure related to the proportions of the human body (22). A comprehensive discussion of the golden section and Fibonacci numbers is given elsewhere (23).

7. Polyhedra A polyhedron is a solid formed by a finite connected set of plane polygons creating a single closed surface (24). The polygons that join to form polyhedra are called “faces”, these faces meet at “edges”, and edges come together at “vertices”. There are only five possible regular polyhedra, each composed of one specific type of regular polygon with equal vertices and equal solid angles. The abstract concept of a regular solid is attributable to Theætetus of Athens (419-369 BCE), although the solids are usually named after his student and colleague, Plato (25). These are Plato’s “regular polyhedra”, known as the “Platonic solids”, as shown in Figure 5. Not all of the regular polygons are found in the regular solids. The cube is composed of six squares and the dodecahedron of twelve pentagons. The tetrahedron, octahedron and icosahedron comprise of four, eight and twenty equilateral triangles

104 respectively. No regular polyhedron exists with hexagonal faces or with polygons of more than five sides (26).

The Platonic solids are rich in connections to the disciplines of art, architecture and science. They have practical applications in architecture, and occur in nature as crystals and viruses. The tetrahedron, hexahedron and octahedron occur in nature as sodium sulphantimoniate, sodium chloride and chrome alum respectively. The more complex dodecahedron and icosahedron cannot occur as crystals, but may be observed however in the skeletons of various microscopic sea animals. In Plato’s ‘Timaeus’, four of the solids were related to the four elements; earth, fire, water and air, with the dodecahedron representing the cosmos. These mathematical solids served as Kepler’s models for the orbits of planets and also formed the basis of R. Buckminster Fuller’s geodesic domes (27).

Figure 5. Illustration of the Platonic solids

A further set of thirteen polyhedra can be obtained from the Platonic solids by slicing away the corners to produce “truncated polyhedra”. These are known as the “semi-regular” or “Archimedean solids”. Six of the Archimedean solids can be obtained by truncating either the hexahedron or the octahedron, seven of the solids are related to the icosahedron and the dodecahedron, and only one Archimedean solid can be obtained from the tetrahedron (28). The semi-regular solids all comprise of regular polygonal faces and equal vertices but are formed from two or more types of polygon. All edges and solid angles are equal, whilst faces are of two kinds, each face of one kind being entirely surrounded by faces of the other kind (24). Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) was the first to publish a complete list of the thirteen Archimedean solids, giving them the names by which they are still known. The original enumeration of Archimedes is thought to have been lost in the great fire of Alexandria (26).

105

Figure 6. Illustration of the Archimedean solids

A highly significant advance, reported in 1985, was the discovery of a superstable all-carbon C60 molecule, arranged in a truncated icosahedron (similar in shape to a soccer ball) with 30 faces comprised of 20 regular hexagons and 12 regular pentagons. These faces meet at 60 junctions or vertices, with a carbon atom at each vertex. The molecule was appropriately named “buckminsterfullerene” (after the architect Buckminster Fuller whose ideas had stimulated the quest for such structures. C60 Buckminsterfullerene is a form of carbon alongside diamond and graphic (18). It has unique mechanical and electrical properties, attributable to its structural geometry. Hexagons and pentagons of carbon link together to form a geodesic dome, with bonding strains that are equally distributed among 60 carbon atoms.

8. Applicability of Relevant Concepts In the wider context, knowledge of tessellations and polyhedra is potentially of immense value across an amazingly range of subject areas and applications. The concepts associated with the past and current projects at Leeds, although having a primarily aesthetic focus, are applicable in many branches of science and engineering, and are of relevance at the macro-, micro- and nano-scales. Application in the field of architecture (e.g. roof structures), honeycomb engineering materials, stereoisomers, extended aromatic systems, stereopolymers and nano-technology devices (including nano robots) are of major importance in contemporary research and development. In all these cases functionality is dependent on geometrical structure.

106

R. Buckminister Fuller is credited with patenting a geodesic dome structure, which uses an arrangement of self-bracing polygons in a way that gives structural stability. The minimum amount of material is used in the construction and local loads are effectively distributed throughout. Geodesic dome constructions are claimed to become stronger, lighter and cheaper per unit volume as their size increases, a marked contrast to conventional building constructions. The dome construction associated with the Eden project is a notable example.

Form, materials and performance are among the inter-related themes of a design forum to be established at the University of Leeds, and particular attention will be focused on the use of regular and semi-regular tilings and polyhedra, as well as the development of new forms of each. The importance of the inter-related themes to product functionality, form and aesthetics will be considered by the new design forum. Raw materials will include fibrous assemblies, especially non-woven and paper-based fabrics. (It is worth mentioning that world-class research expertise in these areas, together with appropriate facilities, is available at Leeds.) The forum will consider appropriate methods of fabricating 3D structures from these raw materials, based on adapted process technologies associated with the production of such structures. Areas for potential application are vast in number, and include usage in the fields of architecture, horticulture, civil engineering, fashion and product design, corporate and urban sculpture, packing materials and containers, sports and recreation, domestic and industrial. Potential end uses range from storage containers, for domestic or industrial use, to emergency living spaces (a refugee crisis, floods, or similar disasters). Novel applications such as urban bee hives and chicken coops, plant propagation chambers and solar-panelled structures will also be considered. These will be highly functional and aesthetically novel constructions using sustainable materials.

9. In Conclusion A close inter-relationship between structure, and performance can be found throughout nature, science, art, design, engineering and architecture. The search for the secrets of the inter-relationship has preoccupied thinkers for millennia. Plato, Aristotle and Pythagoras took on the challenge, but probably through an avenue of knowledge conveyed from the ancient cultures of ancient Egypt, Mespotamia and India. Structure, form and performance continue to be of paramount importance in the modern world. The necessity to characterise and mathematically define these concepts is of relevance at all levels (nano, micro and macro). An understanding of what nature builds at the nano level can inspire humans to create grand macro-level structures such as geodesic domes. Most importantly it should be realised that certain geometric concepts and ideas, although sourced in ancient times, transcend the boundaries between art, science and mathematics. With insight and vision they offer immense potential as problem-solving tools in the twenty-first century.

References (1) Woods H.J. (1935a) Journal of the Textile Institute, Transactions. 26, T197-T210. (2) Woods H.J. (1935b) Journal of the Textile Institute, Transactions. 26,T293-T308. (3) Woods H.J. (1935c) Journal of the Textile Institute, Transactions. 26, T341-T357. (4) Woods H.J. (1936) Journal of the Textile Institute, Transactions. 27, T305-T320. (5) Washburn D. K., Crowe D. W. (1989) Symmetries of Culture: Theory and Practice of Plane Pattern Analysis, University of Washington Press, Seattle, USA. (6) Hann M. A., Thomson G. M. (1992) The Geometry of Regular Repeating Patterns, The Textile Institute, Manchester, UK. 107 (7) Hann M. A., Lin X. (1995) Symmetry in Regular Repeating Patterns The University Gallery, Leeds, UK. (8) Scivier J. A., Hann M. A. (2000) Ars Textrina. 33, 29. (9) Hann M. A., Thomson G. M. (1992) The Geometry of Regular Repeating Patterns, The Textile Institute, Manchester, UK. (10) Horne C.E. and Hann, M.A. (1998) Journal of the Textile Institute 89, part 2 No 1, 27. (11) Hann M. A. (2003) Journal of the Textile Institute, 94, part 2, nos 1 and 2, 53 - 65. (12) Kepler J. (1619) Harmonices Mundi Libri Quinque (Five books on the harmony of the world) Joannes Plancus, Lincii, Austria. Translated with commentary by Casper, M. (1978) Weltharmonik (Harmony of the World) R. Oldenbourg-Verlag, Munich. (13) Fedorov E. S. (1891) “Symmetry in the Plane” (in Russian) Zapiski Rus. Mineralog Obscestva, Ser.2, cited by Grunbaum B. and Shephard G. C. (1987) Tilings and Patterns, Freeman, New York, USA. (14) Grunbaum B., Shephard G. C. (1987) Tilings and Patterns, Freeman, New York, USA. (15) Horne C.E. and Hann M.A. (1998) Journal of the Textile Institute, 89, part 2 No 1, 27. (16) Hargittai I. (1992) Fivefold Symmetry, World Scientific, Singapore, xiii. (17) Schechtman D., Blech I., Gratias D., Cahn J. W. (1984) Phys. Rev. Lett. 53, 1951. (18) Hargittai I. (1992) Fivefold Symmetry, xv, World Scientific, Singapore, xiv. (19) Steinhardt P. J. Ostlund S. (1987) The Physics of Quasi-Crystals, World Scientific, Singapore. (20) Penrose R. (1974) Bull. Inst. Math. App. 10, 266. (21) Makovicky E. (1992) in Fivefold Symmetry (Hargittai I., ed) 67, World Scientific, Singapore. (22) Le Corbusier (1968) Modulor, MIT Press, Cambridge Mass., USA. (23) Dunlap R. A. (1997) The Golden Ratio and Fibonacci Numbers, World Scientific, Singapore. (24) Coxeter H. S. M. (1948) Regular Polytopes, 5, 18, Methuen, London. (25) Martin G. E. (1982) Transformation Geometry: An Introduction to Symmetry 199, Springer Verlag, New York, USA. (26) Wenninger M. J. (1971) Polyhedron Models 2, 1, Cambridge University Press, London, UK. (27) Kappraff J. (1986) in Symmetry: Unifying Human Understanding (Hargittai I., ed) 917, Pergamon, New York, USA. (28) Critchlow K. (2000) Order In Space: A Design Sourcebook 33, Thames and Hudson, London, UK.

108 The Launch of an International Design Archive

M. A. Hann, P. W. G. Lawson and J. A. Smith The University of Leeds International Textiles Archive (ULITA) Corresponding author: [email protected]

The University of Leeds International Textiles Archive (ULITA) was formally established in May 2004. However the origins of the Archive date back to the late nineteenth century, with the founding of the Yorkshire College, the predecessor of the University of Leeds. Based on substantial collections amassed over the past one hundred years, and financed from a range of private and public sources, the resource is destined to become a valuable aid to textile designers and scholars worldwide. This paper traces the development of the Archive from its humble beginnings in Victorian Yorkshire to the launch of a commercial digital archive on the international design stage in 2005.

1. Introduction The overland routes between east and west were opened up at least two thousand years ago. This brought China, Japan, Central Asia, India, the Middle East and much of Europe into contact. The so-called Silk Route was in reality an extensive network of trading routes through the deserts and mountains of Asia. The possibility of cultural exchange was further enhanced, some centuries later, by improvements in maritime technology and the use of various sea routes. Cultural contact accelerated globally over the course of the twentieth century, in the wake of increased air travel. In the first decade of the twenty-first century, communication networks have reached levels of sophistication undreamed of twenty or even ten years ago. Throughout the past two millennia the process of diffusion has had a catalytic function in the development of cultures. This has depended on the ability of all societies to borrow elements from other cultures and to incorporate them into their own. There is a fascination with differences and a surprise at similarities. It is this fascination and surprise that led to the establishment of museums in Victorian Britain and other parts of Europe. These institutions played a fundamental role in the education of the general public. It was in this climate that a textile museum was established at the Yorkshire College, the predecessor of the University of Leeds.

1. The Origins of ULITA The Yorkshire College buildings, built in the 1870s to house the Department of Textiles, were designed by the eminent Victorian architect Alfred Waterhouse, and financed by the Worshipful Company of Clothworkers of the City of London. With larger cohorts of students entering the department in the late 1870s, John Beaumont, the first professor, began to originate glass-plate slides, and collect pattern books and folios from local textile mills and further afield in continental Europe. The glass-plate slides and pattern books were used as a learning resource by students of woven textile design. In a matter of a few years, the small archive of textile pattern books had grown in size, so much so that in 1892 the Clothworkers’ Company again provided funding to establish a Textile Museum in the Department and appointed a Curator, Clara Benton. John Beaumont was succeeded by his son Roberts who served as head of the Department of Textiles from 1904 -1914. Like his father before him, Roberts was a highly regarded practitioner in the design and colouring of woven fabrics, and published many books on the subject of woven-fabric design and cloth construction. During his tenure as head of department he expanded the content of the textile museum substantially. In 1930 the textile museum at Leeds (from which ULITA developed) was described by Barker (a past Professor of Textile Industries) as “…second only to [that in] the South Kensington Museum.”(1).

109 3. The Establishment of ULITA Shortly after the Second World War the collections went into hibernation, and were dispersed. However, in the 1980s, the present Director (the first author of this paper) started a programme of organising, consolidating, cleaning and storing the collections in appropriate conditions. He also re-started collecting, gathering many outstanding block- printed cottons from North West Frontier Province (Pakistan) and batiks and ikats from South East Asia, particularly Indonesia. The European dimension of the collection was also expanded, with a substantial collection of British knitted fabrics, and an extensive collection of woven and printed fabric swatches designed by the late Tibor Reich (noted designer of furnishing fabrics in the post war period). A programme of exhibitions was started and much research was carried out. Following this expansion and the reorganisation of the Archive, it was necessary to provide the constituent collections with a secure home and also to make them available to a wide public. The chapel of St Wilfred, the former chapel of the Leeds Boys’ Grammar School on the University’s Western campus, was acquired to house the collections and to create an exhibition space. The University of Leeds International Textiles Archive (ULITA) was thus established.

Educational activities and events associated with the Archive play an important role, and cater for a wide variety of users, from school children, to students in further and higher education, and members of community groups. A dedicated learning space is suitably equipped with state-of-the-art audio-visual equipment, and public access workstations, which allow users to view high quality digital photographs, videos and descriptions of some of the constituent collections. Research work focused on investigating the various collections has been ongoing for many years. Research students and visiting research fellows are welcomed, and ULITA recently launched its Visiting Research Fellowship programme.

A programme of three exhibitions per year has been initiated. Each exhibition is refreshed with supplementary/alternative display material on a regular basis, thus allowing the display to evolve in response to the views of visitors. Most of the constituent collections can be viewed by prior appointment – the only restrictions being for conservation reasons. The total number of items in the constituent collections is around 300,000 plus, with around 200,000 of these held in sample book form. The principal constituent collections held today are listed below

4. The Constituent Collections ULITA holds several collections of national and international importance. The most notable are: • Some 1,000 sample books and folios, containing, for example, Jacquard-woven silks, worsted suitings and printed cottons, mainly from the late nineteenth century. • The Barker collection of Chinese textiles, comprised of 200 Qing dynasty embroideries and tapestries. • The Pesel collection of embroideries. The majority of items held are of Turkish and Greek island origin; others emanate from Morocco, Algeria, Turkistan, India, Pakistan, Persia, Syria, China, and continental Europe. This is an important international collection. • A collection of specimens of Egyptian Mummy cloths donated by Margaret Murray. These were augmented by a collection of Egyptian children’s garments and other related textile items dating from the 12th century C.E. and presented to the University by Professor P.E. Newberry, the eminent Egyptologist, in 1933. • The Tibor Reich collection is comprised of several thousand woven and printed textile samples designed by Tibor Reich. His list of clients included Cunard, British Airways, the Lotus Car Company, G-Plan and Ercol furniture.

110 • A collection of around 200 hand-block printed and resist-patterned cottons from the Indian/Pakistan subcontinent. • A collection of Indonesian batiks, principally from central and west Java. • A unique collection of around 20,000 photographic glass plates depicting late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century textile-processing. • A collection of several hundred samples of man-made fibres and yarns donated by ICI. These represent a tangible record of British innovation in fibre science in the twentieth century. • The Woolmark archive, donated by the Woolmark Company (previously the International Wool Secretariat) in the late twentieth century. This collection is of international importance. • The Bretton Hall collection is comprised of around 200 rare textiles (including ikats, batiks, block prints, embroideries, hand-painted items and plangi fabrics). This collection is being developed for use in our education programme with schools and colleges. • A collection of around 10,000 knitted textile samples, representing a comprehensive record of British knitwear design during the latter half of the twentieth century.

5. Digital Developments A digital archive containing several hundred items from the collections has been developed and forms an important part of the ULITA website. The Clothworkers’ Digital Archive allows members of the public remote access to view photographs and descriptions of items in the various collections.

An important commercial development is the creation of a digital database of designs taken from the Archive’s several thousand pattern books of European figured fabrics. The recently launched database is a unique design and trend resource for designers, forecasters, textile, apparel and fashion retailing companies. Delivered through a dedicated website, subscribers have the exclusive opportunity to access and search the database containing high resolution colour images of exquisitely designed textile fabrics which were originally manufactured during the 19th and 20th centuries. These services are offered on a membership basis, and members can purchase designs in the form of high resolution images. Designs can be used for example on theme and conceptual trend boards or, through CAD applications, translated into fabric collections. Clients have a choice of various licensing agreements, all of which will incorporate exclusive use of the designs purchased for up to a maximum of five years. These activities place the Archive firmly on the international textile stage, and represent a radical departure for the long-established centre for textile teaching and research.

6. Summary The University of Leeds International Textiles Archive (ULITA) owes its origins to a museum of textiles founded in 1892, with financial assistance from the Clothworkers’ Company. The collections were intended primarily as a teaching aid. Over the next 113 years, they grew mightily, and now include over 300,000 items, including natural and man- made yarn samples, weaves, embroideries, tapestries and knitted samples, as well as other designed items, and a collection of more than 20,000 glass negatives and slides, depicting designs, and wool-processing machinery. . The Archive was initially European in emphasis, and included material from Britain, France and Italy. Pattern books (which included designs and technical specifications) formed a major component and these stimulated the design ideas of generations of students. The Archive’s international dimension was always implicit, not only in continental Europe, but also in the main Asian, African and American textile producing areas. With the coming of the Second World War the collections went into

111 hibernation, and were dispersed around the expanding Department of Textile Industries. However, in the 1980s, the present Director (the presenter of this paper) started a programme of organising, consolidating, cleaning and storing the collections in appropriate conditions. ULITA was thus established and opened in May 2004. A programme of exhibitions was started and much research was carried out. Probably the most important feature of the development, from the viewpoint of industrial design, is the establishment of a commercial database of digitally recorded designs, taken from the Archive’s extensive collection of European figured fabrics.

Reference (1) Barker A.F. (1930) Ornamentation and Textile Design, vii, Methuen Co. Ltd., London, UK.

112

Organisers Contact Details

Conference Director: Prof. M. A. Hann Conference Coordinator: Ms. B. G. Thomas

School of Design, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT UK tel: +44 (0)113 343 3759 fax: +44 (0)113 343 3704 email: [email protected]

113