Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 36 ISSN 1898-8784

ISSN 1898-8784

1898 8784 2015 Agriculture (Agricultural and Forest Engineering) Animal Science Forestry and Wood Technology Horticulture and Landscape Architecture Land Reclamation

Editorial Board Bogdan Brzeziecki Ewa Dobrowolska Włodzimierz Kluciński Anna Kołłajtis-Dołowy Andrzej Lenart Małgorzata Łobocka Józef Mosiej Jan Niemiec Arkadiusz Orłowski Maria Parlińska Aurelia Radzik-Rant Stanisław Stępka Marek Szyndel Czesław Waszkiewicz

WARSAW UNIVERSITY Distribution OF LIFE SCIENCES PRESS Annals are distributed by the Bookshop 166 Nowoursynowska St., 02-787 Warsaw of Warsaw University of Life Sciences Poland, tel. (48 22) 593 55 20 Press, 166 Nowoursynowska St., Warsaw, e-mail: [email protected] Poland. www.wydawnictwosggw.pl Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 36 Warsaw 2015

Contents ILCZUK A., JAGIEŁŁO-KUBIEC K. GAJEWSKI M. Sensory characteristics The effect of plant growth regulators and of two parsley (Petroselinum sativum ssp. sucrose on the micropropagation of com- crispum L.) cultivars depending on stor- mon lilac (Syringa vulgaris L.) 3 age conditions 33 NOWAKOWSKA K., PACHOL- SKRYPCHENKO N. Fruit characteris- CZAK A. The effect of auxins on the root- tics of Actinidia cultivars obtained at the ing of cuttings in several species of Fa- M. Grishko National Botanical Garden baceae 13 of the Ukrainian NAS in Kyiv 47 ROSŁON W., GONTAR Ł., KOSA- DOMANOWSKA M. Social initiatives KOWSKA O., OSIŃSKA E. Yield and as a means of participation in the trans- quality of plantain (Plantago major L.) formation of city space 57 herb in the second year of cultivation KACZYŃSKA M., SIKORA D. The 21 church garden as an element shaping SITAREK M., RADZANOWSKA J., the quality of city life – a case study in WTULICH J., DOBRZYŃSKI J., southern Warsaw 71 REVIEWERS 2015

Mária Bihuňová Sandra Costa Honorata Danilćenko Oksana Dzjuba Ellen Fetzer Monika Grzeszczuk Elvyra Jariene Agnieszka Jaszczak Nilgül Karadeniz Agnieszka Kępkowicz Piotr Latocha Bożena Matysiak Bogusz Modrzewski Piotr Muras Peter Seemann Anna Staniewska Roberta Štěpánková Paweł Szot Daniel Załuski

Paper version of Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW, Horticulture and Landscape Architecture is a primary version of the journal.

EDITOR IN CHIEF WARSAW UNIVERSITY Renata Giedych OF LIFE SCIENCES PRESS THEME EDITORS e-mail: [email protected] Barbara Łata, Katarzyna Michalska – Horticulture Małgorzata Kaczyńska – Landscape Architecture

STATISTICAL EDITOR Wojciech Hyb

LANGUAGE EDITOR ISSN 1898-8784 John Catlow

EDITOR STAFF Dominika Cichocka Anna Dołomisiewicz Druk: POLIMAX s.c., ul. Nowoursynowska 161 L, Laura Szczepańska 02-787 Warszawa Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 36, 2015: 3–12 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 36, 2015)

The effect of plant growth regulators and sucrose on the micropropagation of common lilac (Syringa vulgaris L.) AGNIESZKA ILCZUK*, KATARZYNA JAGIEŁŁO-KUBIEC Department of Ornamental Plants, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: The effect of plant growth regula- Eastern Europe. The most common spe- tors and sucrose on the micropropagation of cies widely planted in parks and gardens common lilac (Syringa vulgaris L.). Common is the common lilac (Syringa vulgaris L.) lilac (Syringa vulgaris L.) is an attractive plant with colourful and fragrant fl owers, often used – a shrub or small tree which can grow in urban areas. Although the main method of up to 7 m high and 3–4 m wide. Lilacs propagation of the shrub is budding or grafting, are suitable for formed hedges since it is also propagated by tissue culture. The aim they tolerate pruning. Due to the numer- of the study was to determine the effect of the ous root suckers (secondary shoots) the presence and concentration of IBA or NAA on rhizogenesis in ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ and ‘Sen- shrub expands rapidly, and hence it can sation’ lilac microcuttings. Shoot proliferation be successfully used for the reforesta- was dependent on the type and concentration of tion of slopes, roadsides and banks of cytokinin in the medium. For both cultivars the reservoirs. Lilacs are also cultivated for highest shoot numbers were obtained on medium cut fl owers, because they can easily be –3 supplemented with meta-topolin: 5.0 mg·dm forced [Latocha 2006]. for ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ and 2.5–7.5 mg·dm–3 for ‘Sensation’. The addition of 30 g·dm–3of su- Lilac cultivars are generally propa- crose to the medium improved regeneration and gated vegetatively to maintain genetic stimulated shoot growth in the cultivar ‘Kath- stability. In practice, nurserymen repro- erine Havemeyer’. The largest number of roots duce the common lilac only by budding was obtained on medium supplemented with or grafting. However, the production of 1.0 mg·dm–3 IBA for ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ and with 0.5–2.0 mg·dm–3 IBA for ‘Sensation’. The large quantities of grafts is limited by use of NAA resulted in dieback of microcuttings. the season and the long period needed for rootstock production, and success of Key words: cytokinins, IBA, NAA, microcut- propagation depends on the method of tings, rhizogenesis, shoot regeneration grafting. Therefore, in vitro propagation is highly useful for rapid multiplication INTRODUCTION of this species. In recent years, tissue The genus Syringa, belonging to the ol- cultures have been used for the propaga- ive family (Oleaceae), includes about 30 tion of lilac [Concioiu et al. 2012, 2013, species originating from Asia and South Lyubomirova and Iliev 2013]. The regeneration rate of shoots is a crucial step * e-mail: [email protected] for the micropropagation of lilac in com- 4 A. Ilczuk, K. Jagiełło-Kubiec mercial production. In lilac micropropa- positive impact of 30 g·dm–3 sucrose gation, axillary branchings [Gabrysze- on the plant culture, as it induces the wska 1989, Cui et al. 2009] and/or maximum number of shoots as well as single-node explants [Welander 1987, being benefi cial for shoot elongation Gabryszewska and Warabieda 1992, in S. vulgaris [Refouvelet et al. 1998, Charlebois and Richter 2004] might be Gabryszewska 2011]. used. Axillary buds are activated by cy- Factors affecting adventitious root tokinins, which play an important role in formation include the type and concen- both methods [Charlebois and Richter tration of natural or synthetic auxin in 2004, Nesterowicz et al. 2006]. 6-ben- the rooting medium [De Klerk 2002]. zylaminopurine (BA) and 6-(γ,γ-dime Use of auxin is one of the most common thylallylamino)purine (2iP) have been and effective ways to enhance rooting the most frequently used cytokinins in of plants. For the rooting of lilac, vari- lilac regeneration by axillary branching. ous auxins have been used, in particular They increase the multiplication rate, indole-3-butric acid (IBA) [Gabrysze- but also reduce the rooting potential of wska and Warabieda 1992, Nesterowicz microcuttings [Gabryszewska 1989]. The et al. 2006, Oprea and Concioiu 2012, use of BA analogues, such as [6-(3-hyd Lyubomirova and Iliev 2013, Parvanova roxybenzylamino)purine] (meta-topolin, et al. 2015], 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) [Oprea and Concioiu 2012] and mT), could be an alternative way to avoid indoleacetic acid (IAA) [Charlebois and such side effects. Richter 2004], although the type and Sucrose is the main source of carbon concentration requirements of each of for in vitro cultures of many plants, in- these varied between cultivars. cluding lilacs. Plant cells and tissues in The aim of the present experiment a culture medium lack autotrophic abil- was to investigate the infl uence of vari- ity and therefore need an external car- ous types and levels of cytokinins and bon source for energy. The addition of sucrose concentrations on the prolif- an external sucrose dosage to the me- eration rate and growth of shoots in dium enhances cell proliferation and S. vulgaris, in vitro. The rooting po- shoot regeneration. The optimal sucrose tential of regenerated microshoots was concentration in a medium should be also evaluated. suffi cient to satisfy the basic energy requirements for cell differentiation without imposing any negative osmotic ef- MATERIAL AND METHODS fects on shoot formation. This indicates Plant material and culture conditions that sucrose acts not only as a carbon energy source in a medium, but also as The source plants of common lilac (Sy- an osmoticum [Nowak et al. 2004] and ringa vulgaris L.) ‘Katherine Have- that different sucrose concentrations are meyer’ and ‘Sensation’ for tissue culture one of the factors controlling the regen- were originally collected in February/ eration and growth of shoots [Gibson /March from three-year-old shrubs grow- 2000]. A number of studies indicate the ing in a nursery. For establishment of The effect of plant growth regulators and sucrose... 5 a culture, young vegetative shoots of Effect of type and concentration of 30 cm length were collected and washed cytokinins on shoot regeneration under running tap water for 5 min to re- To promote axillary and adventitious move any surface dirt. Then the stems were inserted into beakers with dis- shoot regeneration, nodal explants tilled water and placed in a phytotron. 0.5 cm long were cultured on a medium After four weeks the shoots (2–3 cm supplemented with the following growth –3 long) grown from buds were collected regulators: 0.02 mg·dm NAA in com- as a source of primary explants. Next, bination with 6-benzylaminopurine the leaves were removed and the stems (BA), kinetin (KIN) 6-(γ,γ-dimethylall were cut into nodal segments approx. ylamino)purine (2iP) (Sigma-Aldrich) 0.5 cm long. They were surface-disin- in concentrations of 1.25, 2.50 and fected with 70% ethanol for 1 min, and 5.0 mg·dm–3, or [6-(3-hydroxybenzylam further disinfected with 1.5% solution ino)purine] (meta-topolin, mT) (Duch- of sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). After efa) in concentrations of 1.25, 2.5, 5.0 disinfection the explants were placed on and 10.0 mg·dm–3. The control medium basal MS [Murashige and Skoog 1962] did not contain plant growth regulators. medium supplemented with 5.0 mg·dm–3 After eight weeks the following data 6-benzyladenine (BA) (Sigma-Aldrich), were recorded: percentage of regenerated 0.02 mg·dm–3 1-naphthaleneacetic acid plants, total number of regenerated shoots (NAA) (Sigma-Aldrich) and 20 g·dm–3 per explant, and shoot length (cm). sucrose, and solidifi ed with 8.0 g·dm–3 BactoTM Agar (Becton, Dickinson and Effect of sucrose concentration on Company, USA). The pH was adjusted shoot regeneration to 5.8 with 1 N NaOH and 1 N HCl before autoclaving at 121°C at 110 kPa One of the aims of the experiment was to for 20 min. This medium has been used determine the effect of sucrose concen- for the micropropagation of other lilac tration on shoot regeneration. Single- genotypes [Nesterowicz et al. 2006]. node shoot fragments 0.5 cm long were For ‘Sensation’ the concentration of placed on MS medium supplemented MgSO4 in the MS medium was doubled with sucrose at concentrations of 0, 5, –3 (740 mg·dm ) due to chlorosis appear- 10, 20, 30, 40 g·dm–3. For all treatments ing on the leaf blades (own research 0.02 mg·dm–3 NAA and 5.0 mg·dm–3 – unpublished data). BA were added. After eight weeks the The cultures were incubated in percentage of regenerated plants, total a growth chamber at 23 ±1°C with a 16 h number of regenerated shoots per ex- light/8 h dark photoperiod. The light plant and shoot length (cm) were re- intensity was 35 μmol·m–2·s–1 from cool corded. white fl uorescent tubes. 6 A. Ilczuk, K. Jagiełło-Kubiec

Effect of auxin on rooting of The type and concentration of this cy- microcuttings tokinin affected the number of shoots per explant and their length (Table 1). In both One of the aims of the experiment was cultivars the greatest number of shoots to determine the optimal concentration per explant was obtained on the medium and type of auxin in the rooting medium. with mT (four–fi ve shoots). For the best Apical shoot fragments 1.5 cm long were proliferation of both tested varieties the placed on MS medium supplemented optimal concentration of cytokinin in the with NAA or IBA in concentrations of medium was 5 mg·dm–3 (more than fi ve –3 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg dm . The control me- shoots per explant). Increasing the con- dium did not contain any growth regula- centration of mT in the medium resulted tors. After eight weeks the rooting rate, in the formation of a smaller number of number of roots, root length and length short shoots. The longest shoots were of shoots (cm) were recorded. recorded for ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ on medium supplemented with 2.5 mg·dm–3 Experimental design and statistics 2iP, and for ‘Sensation’ on medium sup- –3 Experiments were conducted in a com- plemented with 1.25 mg·dm mT. In pletely randomized design. Each treat- ‘Sensation’ explants placed on the medi- ment consisted of 60 explants/microcut- um supplemented with BA, 2iP or KIN, tings (three replications, each containing from 0.8 to 1.2 shoots per explant were 20 objects). The arcsin transformation of obtained. For ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ regeneration rate percentages was per- the lowest number of small shoots (from formed [Wójcik and Laudański 1989]. 1.3 to 1.6 cm in length) were obtained The data were subjected to one factorial on the medium supplemented with KIN, analysis of variance using SPSS. Mul- regardless of its concentration. tiple comparisons among means were made using Duncan’s test at p ≤0.05. Effect of sucrose concentration on shoot regeneration RESULTS The effect of sucrose concentration on Effect of type and concentration of the percentage of regenerated explants cytokinin on shoot regeneration was signifi cant (Table 2). Shoots placed on a medium without sucrose regener- The infl uence of the type and concen- ated at a much lower rate than in the tration of cytokinin on the percentage other treatments. A signifi cantly higher of regenerating explants was signifi cant degree of regeneration in both culti- (Table 1). On all media, single-node ex- vars of common lilac (over 90%) was plants of the cultivar ‘Katherine Have- obtained on the medium supplemented meyer’ regenerated at a rate between 75 with 20.0–40.0 g·dm–3 sucrose. In the and 100%. Single-node shoot fragments –3 of the cultivar ‘Sensation’ regenerated at presence of 40.0 g·dm sucrose leaf a rate of 75–95%. chlorosis was observed. The effect of plant growth regulators and sucrose... 7

TABLE 1. Effect of type and concentration of cytokinin on proliferation rate of Syringa vulgaris shoots Cultivar ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ ‘Sensation’ Plant growth regulators (mg·dm–3) shoots shoots Length of Length of Number of Number of rate (%) ** rate (%) ** shoots (cm) shoots (cm) Regeneration BA 2iP KIN mT NAA Regeneration 1.1 1.8 78.3 0.9 1.5 0 0 0 0 0 98.3 b* ab bc ab a ab 85 1.2 1.7 95.0 1.1 2.8 1.25 0 0 0 0.02 ab ab ab b a e 100 1.6 2.8 75.0 0.9 1.9 2.50 0 0 0 0.02 b bc f a a b-e 2.1 1.5 80.0 1.0 2.2 5.00 0 0 0 0.02 93.3 ab cd ab ab a c-e 100 1.7 2.5 78.3 0.9 2.4 0 1.25 0 0 0.02 b bc d-f ab a c-e 100 2.3 3.2 85.0 1.0 2.7 0 2.50 0 0 0.02 b d g ab a de 78.3 2.0 2.3 81.7 0.9 2.6 0 5.00 0 0 0.02 a cd de ab a de 0.9 1.6 75.0 0.8 2.1 0 0 1.25 0 0.02 93.3 ab a ab a a b-e 85.0 0.9 1.3 93.3 1.2 1.8 0 0 2.50 0 0.02 ab a a ab a a-c 75.0 1.0 1.5 88.3 0.9 2.4 0 0 5.00 0 0.02 a a ab ab a c-e 100 4.3 2.2 88.3 3.6 4.6 0 0 0 1.25 0.02 b e c-e ab b g 100 4.4 2.6 93.3 5.3 3.7 0 0 0 2.50 0.02 b e ef ab cd f 100 5.3 2.4 90.0 5.8 2.3 0 0 0 5.00 0.02 b f d-f ab d c-e 100 4.6 2.4 93.3 5.3 2.1 0 0 0 7.50 0.02 b e d-f ab cd b-e 100 4.1 2.1 95.0 4.6 1.9 0 0 0 10.00 0.02 b e cd b c a-d * Means followed by the same letter are not signiﬁ cantly different at p ≤0.05. ** 100% was 60 explants. 8 A. Ilczuk, K. Jagiełło-Kubiec

TABLE 2. Effect of sucrose concentration in medium on shoot proliferation Cultivar ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ ‘Sensation’ Sucrose Regen- Regen- (g·dm–3) Number of Length of Number of Length of eration rate eration rate shoots shoots (cm) shoots shoots (cm) %** %** 0 48.3 a* 0.6 a 0.5 a 23.3 a 0.2 a 0.3 a 5 76.7 b 2.4 b 1.5 b 55.0 b 0.6 b 0.8 b 10 93.3 b 2.2 b 1.7 b 68.3 b 1.2 c 1.3 c 20 96.7 b 2.1 b 1.5 b 95.0 c 1.0 c 2.6 e 30 98.3 b 3.3 c 2.7 c 91.7 c 1.0 c 4.1 f 40 91.7 b 2.0 b 1.7 b 90.0 c 1.2 c 2.1 d * Means followed by the same letter are not signifi cantly different at p ≤0.05. ** 100% was 60 explants. The effect of sucrose concentration on served (Table 3). Microcuttings placed on the number and length of shoots was also the medium supplemented with IBA root- signifi cant (Table 2). The highest multi- ed at a rate of almost 100% in the case of plication rate and the longest shoots in ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ and 75–88% in both cultivars were obtained on the me- the case of ‘Sensation’. dium supplemented with 30.0 g·dm–3 su- For both cultivars the effect of IBA crose. For ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ three on the number of roots and their aver- shoots per explant, 2.7 cm long, were age length was signifi cant. The greatest formed, while for ‘Sensation’ there was number of roots was obtained on medi- one shoot 4.1 cm long. um supplemented with 1.0 mg·dm–3 IBA for ‘Katherine Havemeyer’. However, Effect of auxin on rooting of their length did not differ signifi cantly microcuttings from the plants rooted on medium with –3 A signifi cant effect of auxin on the per- 2.0 mg·dm IBA. With the presence of –3 centage of rooted microcuttings was ob- auxin in the medium (0.5–2.0 mg·dm )

TABLE 3. Effect of the auxin IBA on rooting in two lilac cultivars Cultivar ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ ‘Sensation’ IBA Rooting Length Length Rooting Length Length (mg·dm–3) Number Number rate (%) of roots of shoots rate (%) of roots of shoots of roots of roots ** (cm) (cm) ** (cm) (cm)

0 78.3 a* 0.6 a 1.1 a 1.6 a 61.7 a 0.4 a 0.7 a 1.5 a 0.5 100 b 2.1 b 1.2 a 2.3 b 81.7 b 2.6 b 1.5 b 1.5 a 1.0 100 b 3.0 c 2.1 b 2.2 b 88.3 b 2.7 b 2.5 c 1.8 a 2.0 98.3 b 2.4 b 2.1 b 2.9 b 75.0 b 2.5 b 2.1 b 1.8 a * Means followed by the same letter are not signifi cantly different at p ≤0.05. ** 100% was 60 explants. The effect of plant growth regulators and sucrose... 9 the ‘Sensation’ microshoots formed sig- BA in combination with 0.1 mg·dm–3 nifi cantly more roots than those placed IAA. Charlebois and Richter [2004] on a medium lacking growth regulators. pointed to the lower sensitivity of ‘Kath- The longest roots were produced by mi- erine Havemayer’ explants to the type of croshoots placed on the medium supple- cytokinins, compared with the cultivars mented with 1.0 mg·dm–3 IBA. ‘Charles Joly’ or ‘Madame Florent Step- Microshoots of both cultivars rooted mann’ [Dragt et al. 1992], for which the on the medium containing NAA pro- presence of 2iP riboside in the medium duced a large amount of callus at the rather than 2iP was more effective. shoot bases, regardless of the auxin con- In this study the activity of meta-topo- centration. After three weeks of culture lin (mT) isolated from poplar (Populus the plant material died. ×canadensis Moench cv. Robusta) was examined [Strnad et al. 1997]. Meta- DISCUSSION topolin is a hydroxylated analogue of BA with a hydroxyl group attached to its Microshoot proliferation is a decisive N6 side chain, which results in the for- step for the in vitro culture of lilacs, since mation of O-glucoside metabolites that it directly determines the feasibility of can be reversibly sequestrated in planta mass micropropagation. Proliferation to produce active cytokinin forms when may be achieved through axillary shoot needed. Results indicate that mT and inducement, where cytokinins play an its derivatives are superior to BA in im- important role. In a wide range of lilac proving shoot production and reducing cultivars, BA and 2iP are the cytokinins tissue culture-induced abnormalities in used to initiate shoot organogenesis. plant species [Bairu et al. 2007]. Both They are used either individually or in ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ and ‘Sensation’ combination with NAA. Lyobumirova explants proliferated more profusely and Iliev [2013] for S. vulgaris used the MS medium with 5.0 mg·dm–3 BA on a medium enriched with mT than in and 0.1 mg·dm–3 IBA. Nesterowicz et other treatments. Kaminek et al. [1987] al. [2006] lowered the BA concentra- demonstrated that mT is translocated tion to 1.0 mg·dm–3, replacing the IBA faster than BA in plant tissue. Previous with 0.02 mg·dm–3 NAA. Tomsone et studies suggested that response to cyto- al. [2007] obtained the best results in kinin was mediated by family-specifi c the presence of 1.0–3.0 mg·dm–3 2iP in receptors, which regulate a signal-trans- combination with 0.05 mg·dm–3 NAA. duction pathway [Heyl and Schmülling Variable sensitivity to the type and con- 2003]. Mok et al. [2005] published centration of growth regulators is also a study showing that BA and mT have characteristic for lilac cultivars. For different affi nity in receptor recognition. ‘Katherine Havemayer’ Refouvelet et al. The authors found that mT and trans-zea- [1998] applied a medium supplemented tin interact with the Arabidopsis AHK4 with 5.0 mg·dm–3 BA and 0.01 mg·dm–3 receptor, while BA and thidiazuron (TDZ) NAA, while Tomsone et al. [2007] used interact with the maize ZmHK1 receptor. 10 A. Ilczuk, K. Jagiełło-Kubiec

Sucrose as a carbon source sup- It is well known that the type and con- ports the growth of plant cells in a cul- centration of auxin play a central role in ture [Nowak et al. 2004]. Sucrose in the induction of adventitious roots [De concentrations from 10 to 50 mg·dm–3 Klerk 2002]. These factors could lead to is generally used for in vitro cultures. variation in the percentage of rooting in The optimum sucrose concentration common lilac microcuttings. For rooting as an effi cient carbon source has been lilac microcuttings, the most commonly examined in tissue cultures of some used auxin is IBA. Lyobumirova and Iliev species of lilac, such as Syringa ×hya- [2013] obtained the best results on the MS cinthifl ora [Cui et al. 2009] and S. jo- medium enriched with 1.0–5.0 mg·dm–3 sickaea [Catana et al. 1998], in which IBA, while Nesterowicz et al. [2006] 30 mg·dm–3 sucrose enhanced shoot de- considered a higher concentration of that velopment, while for S. chinensis Will. growth regulator to be appropriate. In cv. Saugeana mannitol at a concentration turn, Parvanova et al. [2015] obtained 75– of 16 mg·dm–3 was also suitable [We- –100% of rooted microcuttings by raising lander et al. 1987]. In our experiment, the concentration of IBA to 7.5 mg·dm–3. a gradual increase in sucrose concentra- In our experiment the appropriate IBA tion resulted in an increase in shoot ini- concentration was 1.0 mg·dm–3, since in tiation only in ‘Katherine Havemayer’, the case of both cultivars those micro- while ‘Sensation’ produced the same cuttings produced the largest number of number of shoots in the presence of roots. Also Oprea and Concioiu [2012] 10–40 g·dm–3 sucrose. However, at a observed better responses of microcut- concentration of 30 g·dm–3 the shoots tings to lower concentrations of auxin: were signifi cantly longer than at other ‘Madame Lemoine’ produced roots in concentrations. Ahmad et al. [2007] indi- the presence of 0.5 mg·dm–3 of NAA, cated that sugars are perceived by cells as and ‘Sensation’ did so in the presence of chemical signals in vitro, with very high 0.6 mg·dm–3 IBA. The results obtained concentrations acting as stressing agents. in this study do not confi rm those re- Perata et al. [2003] reported that high sults, since on the medium enriched with sugar concentrations could inhibit gib- NAA, microshoots of both lilac cultivars berellin signalling and suppress cell divi- produced a signifi cant amount of callus sion and growth in several different plant tissue at the bases and then died. NAA systems. Gibberellin is thought to play an produced toxic effects when used in all important role in the control of cell divi- tested concentrations. sion and elongation, and in the control of apical dominance (paradormancy) [Hor- CONCLUSIONS vath et al. 2003]. In turn, Gabryszewska [2011] reported that increased sucrose The presence of meta-topolin in the me- concentrations (5–30 mg·dm–3) reduced dium and 30 mg·dm–3 of sucrose con- axillary shoot formation in S. vulgaris, tributed to better regeneration of shoots, but a supply of nitrogen salts could over- regardless of the cultivar. In both ‘Kath- come the inhibitory effect of sucrose. erine Havemayer’ and ‘Sensation’, IBA The effect of plant growth regulators and sucrose... 11 was found to have a positive impact on GABRYSZEWSKA E. (1989). A preliminary root formation. The presence of NAA in study on in vitro propagation of Syringa vul- the medium resulted in callusing of mi- garis L. Acta Hort. 251: 205–208. GABRYSZEWSKA E. (2011). Effect of various crocuttings and their dieback. levels of sucrose, nitrogen salts and temperature on the growth and development of Syrin- REFERENCES ga vulgaris L. shoots in vitro. J. Fruit Ornam. Plant Res. 19 (2): 133–148. AHMAD T., ABBASI N.A., HAFIZ I.A., ALI A. GABRYSZEWSKA E., WARABIEDA D. (2007). Comparison of sucrose and sorbitol (1992). Ukorzenianie mikrosadzonek lilaka as main carbon energy source in morphogen- zwyczajnego (Syringa vulgaris L.) cv. Mad- esis of peach rootstock GF-677. Pak. J. Bot. ame Florent Stepman in vitro i in vivo. Pr. 39 (4): 1264–1275. Inst. Sad. i Kwiac. B, 17: 189–202. BAIRU M.W., STIRK W.A., DOLEŽAL K., GIBSON I.S. (2000). Plant sugar-response path- VAN STANDEN J. (2007). Optimizing the ways. Part of a complex regulatory web. Plant micropropagation protocol for the endagered Physiol. 124: 1532–1539. Aloe polyphylla: can meta-topolin and its de- HEYL A., SCHMÜLLING T. (2003). Cytokinin rivatives serve as replacement for benzylad- signal perception and transduction. Current enine and zeatin? Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. Opin. Plant Biol. 6: 480–488. 90: 15–23. HORVATH D.P., ANDERSON J.V., CHAO CATANA C., FLORINCESCU A., SUCIU C., W.S., FOLEY M.F. (2003). Knowing when BELE C., MOCUTA G. (1998). In vitro prop- to grow: signals regulating bud dormancy. agation in Syringa josickaea Jacq. Not. Bot. Trends Plant Sci. 8: 534–540. Hort. Agrobot. Cluj. 27–28: 71–77. KAMINEK M., VANEK T., MOTYKA V. CHARLEBOIS D., RICHTER C. (2004). Multi- (1987). Cytokinin activities of N6-benzylad- plication in vitro de Syringa vulgaris ‘Kath- enosine derivatives hydroxylated on the side- erine Havemeyer’ et ‘Charles Joly’. Can. J. chain phenyl ring. J. Plant Growth. Regul. Plant. Sci. 84: 279–289. 6: 113–120. CONCIOIU M.E., OPREA M.I., DUTA M. LATOCHA P. (2006). Rośliny ozdobne w ar- (2012). In vitro micropropagation biotech- chitekturze krajobrazu. Część IV: Drzewa nology improvement of Syringa vulgaris L. i krzewy liściaste. Hortpress, Warszawa. species. Scientifi c Papers “Current Trends LYUBOMIROVA T., ILIEV I. (2013). In vitro in Natural Sciences”, University of Pitesti propagation of Syringa vulgaris L. Forestry 1: 136–141. Ideas 19: 173–185. CUI H., GU X., SHI L. (2009). In vitro prolif- MOK M.C., MARTIN R.C., DOBREV P.I., eration from axillary buds and ex vitro pro- VANKOVÁ R., SHING HO P., YONEKU- tocol for effective propagation of Syringa RA-SAKAKIBARA K., SAKAKIBARA H., ×hyacinthifl ora ‘Luo Lan Zi’. Sci. Hort. 121: MOK D.W.S. (2005). Topolins and hydroxy- 186–191. lated thidiazuron derivatives are substrates of De KLERK G.J. (2002). Rooting of microcut- cytokinin o-glucosyltransferase with position tings: Theory and practice. In Vitro Cell & specifi city related to receptor recognition. Develop Biol – Plant 38: 415–422. Plant Physiol. 137: 1057–1066. DRAGT J.W., PIERIK R.L.M., VERHEIJ F.A. MURASHIGE T., SKOOG F. (1962). A revised (1992). Cytokinin induced shoot elongation medium for rapid growth and bioassays in Syringa vulgaris L. in vitro. In: C.M. Kars- with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol. Plant sen, L.C. Van Loon, D. Vrengdenhil (Eds) 15: 473–497. Progress in Plant Growth Regulation. Kulwer NESTEROWICZ S., KULPA D., MODER K., Academic Publishers: 624–627. KUREK J. (2006). Micropropagation of an 12 A. Ilczuk, K. Jagiełło-Kubiec

old specimen of common lilac (Syringa vul- TOMSONE S., GALEMECE A., AKERE A., garis L.) from the dendrological garden at PRIEDE G., ZIRA L. (2007). In vitro propa- Przelewice. Acta Sci. Pol., Hortorum Cultus gation of Syringa vulgaris L. cultivars. Bi- 5 (1): 27–35. ologija 53 (2): 28–31. NOWAK B., MICZYŃSKI K., HUDY L. (2004). WELANDER N.T. (1987). Propagation of Syrin- Sugar uptake and utilization during adven- ga chinensis cv. Saugeana by in vitro culture titious bud differentiation on in vitro leaf of nodal explants. J. Hortic. Sci. 62: 89–96. explants of Wegierka Zwykla plum (Pru- WÓJCIK A.R., LAUDAŃSKI Z. (1989). Pla- nus domestica). Plant Cell Tiss. Org. Cult. nowanie i wnioskowanie statystyczne w do- 76: 255–260. świadczalnictwie. PWN, Warszawa. OPREA M.I., CONCIOIU M.E. (2012). Observa- tions regarding in vitro and in vivo rooting of Streszczenie: Wpływ regulatorów wzrostu i sa- ‘Mme. Lemoine’, ‘Charles Joly’ and ‘Sensa- charozy na mikrorozmnażanie lilaka pospolitego tion’ lilac cultivars. Lucrări Ştiinţiﬁ ce, Seria (Syringa vulgaris L.). Lilak pospolity (Syringa Agronomie 55: 59–63. vulgaris L.) jest atrakcyjną rośliną, o barwnych PARVANOVA P., LYUBOMIROVA T., i przyjemnie pachnących kwiatach, często wy- TZVETKOVA N., ILINKIN V. (2015). Effect korzystywaną w przestrzeni miejskiej. Główną of auxin on protein content during in vitro metodą rozmnażania tego krzewu jest okulizacja rhizogenesis of Syringa vulgaris L. Annuaire lub szczepienie. Często rozmnażany jest również de l’Université de Soﬁ a “St. Kliment Ohrid- w kulturach tkankowych. Celem badań było ski” Faculte de Biologie 100 (4): 208–215. określenie wpływu obecności w pożywce MS PERATA P., MATSUKURA C., VERNIERI P., różnego stężenia cytokininy w połączeniu z NAA HORVATH D.P., ANDERSON J.V., CHAO oraz sacharozy na regenerację pędów oraz stęże- W.S., FOLEY M.E. (2003). Knowing when nia IBA lub NAA na ryzogenezę mikrosadzonek to grow: signals regulating bud dormancy. lilaka ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ i ‘Sensation’. Pro- Trends Plant Sci. 8: 534–541. liferacja pędów uzależniona była od rodzaju oraz REFOUVELET E., LE NOURS S., TALLON stężenia zastosowanej w pożywce cytokininy. C., DAGUIN F. (1998). A new method for in W przypadku obu odmian najwięcej pędów uzy- vitro propagation of lilac (Syringa vulgaris skano na pożywce wzbogaconej w meta-topolinę –3 L.): regrowth and storage conditions buds w stężeniu 5,0 mg·dm dla odmiany ‘Katherine –3 encapsulated in alginate beads, development Havemeyer’ i 2,5–7,5 mg·dm dla ‘Sensation’. –3 of a pre-acclimatization stage. Sci. Hort. Zastosowanie 30 mg·dm sacharozy w pożyw- 74: 233–241. ce skutkowało lepszą regeneracją pędów oraz STRNAD M., HANUŠ J., VANĚK T., KAMÍNEK stymulowało ich wzrost u odmiany ‘Katherine M., BALLANTINE J.A., FUSSELL B., Havemeyer’. Najwększą liczbę korzeni uzyskano –3 HANKE D.E. (1997). Meta-topolin, a highly na pożywce z dodatkiem 1,0 mg·dm IBA w przy- active aromatic cytokinin from poplar leaves padku odmiany ‘Katherine Havemeyer’ i 0,5–2,0 –3 (Populus ×canadensis Moench. cv. Robusta). IBA mg·dm dla ‘Sensation’. Zastosowanie NAA Phytochem 45 (2): 213–218. powodowało zamieranie mikrosadzonek. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 36, 2015: 13–20 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 36, 2015)

The effect of auxins on the rooting of cuttings in several species of Fabaceae KAROLINA NOWAKOWSKA*, ANDRZEJ PACHOLCZAK Department of Ornamental Plants, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW)

Abstract: The effect of auxins on the rooting of nurseries. Non-commercial methods in- cuttings in several species of Fabaceae. In view of clude layering, used for the genera Cara- their diversity, plants of the family Fabaceae are gana and Wisteria. Most leguminous very popular among gardeners and landscape architects. They are used as solitary plants, ground plants are propagated by semi-lignifi ed covers or climbers, as well as for mass planting cuttings harvested in July–August, or in in green urban areas. The aim of this trial was to June in the case of bean-tree. In dyer’s evaluate the effect of commercial rooting powders broom the rooting of such cuttings lasts containing respectively 0.4% IBA (indolilo-3-bu- longer than in other Fabaceae species tyric acid), 0.2% NAA with 0.1% IBA, and 1% IBA, and a water solution of IBA (200 mg·dm–3), [Hrynkiewicz-Sudnik et al. 2001, Hart- on the rooting of three Fabaceae species: Cytisus mann et al. 2011]. decumbens, Genista tinctoria ‘Royal Gold’ and Root formation is induced and con- Wisteria fl oribunda ‘Ludwik Lawin’. The tested trolled by endogenous and exogenous preparations signifi cantly improved the degree factors, such as temperature, light, plant and percentage of rooting in cuttings of all taxa. hormones and organic compounds. Phy- For W. fl oribunda and G. tinctoria the best results were obtained from the application of the prepa- tohormones directly affect plant regen- rations containing 1% IBA and 0.2% NAA with erative abilities. Auxins are especially 0.1% IBA, while in the case of C. decumbens the important for the control of growth and rooting powder with 0.4% IBA was equally effec- development, including formation of ad- tive. Foliar application of the water IBA solution ventitious roots [Šebánek 2008]. Nowa- gave results comparable to the rooting powders in dyer’s broom, while in wisteria its effi ciency was days, foliar application of rooting stimu- lower than that of the commercial preparations. lators is broadly used in the production of leafy ornamental shrubs. For over Key words: IBA, ornamental shrubs, propagation, a century it has been known that sub- rooting powders stances produced in the leaves control the growth of other plant parts. Auxins INTRODUCTION from water solutions may be applied on Vegetative propagation is the most pop- leaves, as they penetrate the inner tissues ular method used to propagate plants through the stomata and pass to the plant of the Fabaceae family in commercial conductive system, where they move basipetally affecting rhizogenesis in cut- * e-mail: [email protected] tings [Kroin 2014]. Since the discovery 14 K. Nowakowska, A. Pacholczak of natural plant hormones [Thimann and Prażmowska near Warsaw. Two nodal Went 1934] and production of synthetic cuttings approx. 5 cm long were made in growth regulators, auxins have been sys- on July 1, 2014, from shoots harvested tematically used to stimulate rooting of from four-year-old stock plants grow- cuttings. Indolilo-3-butyric acid (IBA) ing outdoors. In each species there were is the most frequently used auxin, being three replicates, each including 20 cut- a more effective hormone than indolilo- tings. The cuttings were rooted in styro- -3-acetic acid (IAA) [Pop et al. 2011]. foam fl ats fi lled with a peat substrate of Water IBA solutions are now widely pH 4.9–5.1. The fl ats with cuttings were used by producers of annual, perennial placed under a tunnel covered with dou- and woody plants. The high effi cacy of ble milky foil and equipped with an ir- water auxin solutions was proved by rigation/mist system. On the fi rst day the Davies [1980, 1982a, b]. The commer- cuttings were treated with the fungicide cial method of foliar auxin application Topsin (0.1%), and later every 10 days developed by Kees Eigenraam in 1985 with Bravo (0.2%), Teldor (0.1%) or was fi rst used by Dutch chrysanthemum Previcur (0.1%). Substances applied to growers [Kroin 2014]. Later, studies stimulate rooting were commercial pow- carried out by nurserymen led to the ex- ders containing auxins: 0.4% IBA, 1% tension of this method to woody plants IBA, and 0.2% NAA with 0.1% IBA. [Drahn 2007]. A water solution of IBA (200 mg·dm–3) The aim of this work was to evaluate was applied on leaves, and untreated the effect of several commercial rooting cuttings formed the control treatment powders on the degree and percentage of (Table 1). Conditions under the tunnel rooting in cuttings of Wisteria fl oribun- where the cuttings for measurements da ‘Ludwik Lawin’, Genista tinctoria were grown and sampled were 24–28°C, ‘Royal Gold’ and Cytisus decumbens. RH 90–100%. The development of an effi cient method of rooting will allow to lower the pro- TABLE 1. The experimental treatments Treatments and active duction costs of leguminous plants and Application method substances their market prices. This will further Control – increase the popularity of leguminous Water solution spraying of cuttings plants and result in their more frequent 200 mg·dm–3 IBA planting in urban green areas and in pri- powder applied on Powder 0.4% IBA vate gardens. base of cutting powder applied on Powder 1% IBA MATERIAL AND METHODS base of cutting Powder 0.2% NAA, powder applied on The experiment was carried out on three 0.1% IBA base of cutting taxa of woody shrubs: C. decumbens, G. tinctoria ‘Royal Gold’ and W. fl o- On August 7 the experiment was ribunda ‘Ludwik Lawin’ at the M.M. ended, the rooted cuttings counted and Kryt commercial nursery in Wola the root ball development evaluated on The effect of auxins on the rooting of cuttings... 15 a fi ve-point evaluation scale, where one RESULTS represented an unrooted cutting and fi ve In C. decumbens the rooting percentage represented a cutting with the best de- was 90% for the control cuttings, and veloped root system (Table 2). 100% for those treated with auxin – ei- TABLE 2. Evaluation scale of root development ther in powder form or as a foliar applica- Characteristic of the degree of rooting Score tion (Fig. 1). The least developed root ball Cutting without visible roots 1 was observed in the untreated control cut- A few (1–3) short roots 2 tings, which attained a score of 3.3, while 4–5 roots, some of them branched, no in cuttings treated with any of the three 3 root ball formed powders the score was improved by more Medium-sized root system composed than one unit. There was no statistical dif- of 6–10 branched roots forming a root 4 ference in root ball development between ball the two powders containing only IBA Well-developed, branched root system 5 (0.4% IBA and 1% IBA) and the foliar forming a root ball (over 10 roots) IBA application, but the powder containing IBA and NAA was signifi cantly bet- To compare the means, percentages of ter than the water solution of IBA alone. rooted cuttings were transformed accord- In G. tinctoria ‘Royal Gold’, appli- ing to Bliss [Wójcik and Laudański 1989], cation of any of the three rooting pow- while the degree of rooting was subject ders resulted in 100% rooting, while to root transformation: y = x2 + (x + 1)2. the untreated control cuttings and those All of the data underwent one-factorial sprayed with the water IBA solution had ANOVA followed by Duncan’s test at a rooting percentage of 90% (Fig. 2). p = 0.05. The Statgraphics 4.1 program The root ball in the control treatment was poorly developed (1.75). Applica- was used.

FIGURE 1. The effect of the treatments on rooting degree and percentage of rooted cuttings in Cytisus decumbens (means marked with the same litter are not signiﬁ cantly different at p = 0.05) 16 K. Nowakowska, A. Pacholczak

FIGURE 2. The effect of the treatments on rooting degree and percentage of rooted cuttings in Genista tinctoria ‘Royal Gold’ (means marked with the same litter are not signifi cantly different at p = 0.05) tion of the powder with 0.4% IBA or application did not improve the percent- spraying of cuttings with the water IBA age, while the powder with 0.4% IBA solution doubled the score (3.5), while produced a small but signifi cant increase use of the powder with 1% IBA and that (to 79%). For cuttings treated with the containing 0.2% NAA plus 0.1% IBA powders containing 1% IBA and 0.2% further improved the degree of rooting, NAA with 0.1% IBA the percentage to 4.3 and 4.0 respectively. was 90%. Root ball development in the The rooting percentage for con- control cuttings was poor, with a score trol cuttings of W. fl oribunda ‘Ludwik of 2.2. Spraying cuttings with the water Lawin’ was 70% (Fig. 3). Foliar IBA IBA solution gave a slight but signifi cant

FIGURE 3. The effect of the treatments on rooting degree and percentage of rooted cuttings in Wis- teria fl oribunda ‘Ludwik Lawin’ (means marked with the same litter are not signifcantly different at p ≤0.05) The effect of auxins on the rooting of cuttings... 17 rise in the degree of rooting (2.8), while IBA gave only 30% rooted cuttings. in cuttings treated with each of the three Bąbelewski and Strzelecka [2006] ob- powders the score was over 3.5. tained an increase in the percentage of rooting in boxwood cuttings using the DISCUSSION powder preparation Ukorzeniacz AB, which proved better than foliar applica- To obtain plants with well-developed tion of IBA. Also, according to Czekalski root systems and vigorous above-ground [1998], boxwood cuttings treated with parts, nurserymen use growth stimula- the powder Ukorzeniacz A rooted twice tors. Rooting powders containing auxins as well as the untreated controls. Bla- are used to increase the percentage of zich [1988] is of the opinion that IBA is rooted cuttings, to improve root ball de- more effective than NAA. The opposite velopment and to shorten the production was shown by Czekalski [2003], who cycle, as the auxins enhance the initia- tested the effect of three root stimulators tion of roots and increase their number on rhizogenesis in Aphelandra squar- [Jankiewicz 1997]. IBA and NAA are rosa. He showed that Ukorzeniacz AB, acids commonly used in commercial which apart from IBA also contains plant production because of their effects NAA, improved rooting, although it did on root development [Parađiković et al. not signifi cantly affect the percentage of 2013]. Rooting powder containing 1% rooted cuttings. In the present trial, pow- IBA signifi cantly improved the rooting der with 0.2% NAA and 0.1% IBA gave of cuttings in all three species included good results in all three species, similarly in this study. The positive effects of as in the experiment of Kapczyńska and Rhizopon AA on the rooting of stem cut- Kubińska (2007) on rooting of gentian tings in ninebark ‘Dart’s Gold’ and ‘Red cuttings, where the preparation improved Baron’, dogwood ‘Aurea’ and ‘Elegan- the rooting degree. According to Bhat- tissima’ and smoke tree ‘Royal Purple’ tacharjee and Balakrishna [1983], NAA were reported by Jacygrad and Pachol- (4,000 mg·dm–3) increased the percentage czak [2010] and Pacholczak et al. [2012, 2013b, 2015]. To stimulate rhizogenesis of rooted bougainvillea cuttings to 80%. in smoke tree ‘Royal Purple’, which is Also, Bąbelewski and Szajsner [2014] diffi cult to root, Rhizopon AA contain- reported that juniper cuttings treated ing 2% IBA was used [Pacholczak et with Ukorzeniacz AB (0.2% NAA and al. 2013a]. According to Aminah et al. 0.1% IBA) had better developed root (2006) IBA in the lower concentration of balls than the control cuttings. 0.8% gives a satisfactory percentage of In this work the effi ciency of foliar rooted cuttings in Shorea parvifolia and auxin application was compared with Sh. macroptera. By contrast, Badji et al. that of the powders applied to the bas- [1991] showed that cuttings of Acacia es of cuttings. The results of the foliar senegal treated with the much higher IBA were comparable to those resulting IBA concentration of 8% achieved 70% from the use of the powders only for rooting over two months, while 2% C. decumbens, while in the other two 18 K. Nowakowska, A. Pacholczak taxa the results were inferior. Similarly, BADJI S., NDIAYE I., DANTHU P., COLONNA Szydło and Maksim [1997] showed that J.P. (1991). Vegetative propagation studies spraying cuttings of Juniperus chinensis of gum arabic trees. Propagation of Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. using lignifi ed cuttings ‘Stricta’ and J. scopulorum ‘Skyrocket’ of small diameter with eight nodes. Agrofor- and ‘Blue Heaven’ with water IBA solu- estry Sys. 14: 183–191. tion was less effective than using a root- BĄBELEWSKI P., STRZELECKA K. (2006). ing powder. Rozmnażanie bukszpanu wieczniezielonego The above results show that auxins (Buxus sempervirens L.) odmian ‘Angusti- improved the rooting of the tested taxa of folia’ i ‘Suffruticosa’ z sadzonek zielnych. the family Fabaceae. Our observations ZPPNR 510: 65–69. may be useful for further investigations BĄBELEWSKI P., SZAJSNER H. (2014). At- temption of applying laser photostimulation into improvement of propagation meth- to the rooting of shoot cuttings of juniper spe- ods for ornamental woody plants. Such cies. Acta Sci. Pol., Hortorum Cultus 13 (4): investigations are necessary, as each 135–144. taxon even within a given family may BHATTACHARJEE S.K., BALAKRISHNA M. differ in its response to an auxin and the (1983). Propagation of Bougainvillea from form of its application. stem cuttings. Effects of growth regulators, rooting media, leaf number, length and woodiness of cuttings. Haryana J. Horticul. CONCLUSIONS Sci. 12: 7–12. BLAZICH F.A. (1988). Chemicals and formula- 1. Rooting powder containing 1% IBA tions used to promote adventitious rooting. In: and a powder with 0.2% NAA and T.D. Davis, B.E. Haissig, N. Sankhla (Eds). 0.1% IBA were the most suitable Adventitious root formation in cuttings. Dis- auxin-containing preparations for the cordies Press, Portland: 132–149. rooting of cuttings in W. fl oribunda CZEKALSKI M. (1998). Rozmnażanie bukszpa- ‘Ludwik Lawin’ and G. tinctoria nu wieczniezielonego (Buxus sempervirens ‘Royal Gold’, while in C. decumbens L.) za pomocą sadzonek pędowych w 24 ter- minach. Rocznik Dendrologiczny 46: 45–56. the powder with 0.4% IBA was equal- CZEKALSKI M. (2003). Rozmnażanie afelandry ly effective. czworokątnej (Aphelandra squarrosa Nees) 2. Foliar application of the IBA water ‘Dania’ za pomocą sadzonek pędowych. solution gave results comparable to ZPNR 491: 21–27. the rooting powders in dyer’s broom, DAVIES F. (1980). Growth regulator effects on while in wisteria its effi ciency was adventitious root formation in leaf bud cut- lower than that of the powders. tings of juvenile and mature Ficus pumila. Am. Soc. Horticult. Sci. 105 (1): 91–95. DAVIES F. (1982a). Initiation and development of roots in juvenile and mature leaf bud cut- REFERENCES tings of Ficus pumila L. Am. J. Bot. 69 (5): AMINAH H., NOR HASNITA R.M.N., HAM- 804–811. ZAH M. (2006). Effects of indolebutyric acid DAVIES F. (1982b). Shoot RNA, cambrial activ- concentrations and media on rooting of leafy ity and indolebutyric acid effectivity in sea- cuttings of Shorea parvifolia and Shorea sonal rooting of juvenile and mature Ficus macroptera. J. Trop. For. Sci. 18 (1): 1–7. pumila cuttings. Physiol. Plant. 62: 571–575. The effect of auxins on the rooting of cuttings... 19

DRAHN S. (2007). Auxin application via foliar on Woody Ornamentals of the Temperate sprays. Combined Proceedings, International Zone. 1–4. 07.2012, Ghent, Belgium. Acta Plant Propagator’s Society 57: 44–48. Hortic. 990: 383–389. HARTMANN H.T., KESTER D.E., DAVIES PACHOLCZAK A., SZYDŁO W., PETELE- F.T., GENEVE R.L. (2011). Hartmann and WICZ P., SZULCZYK K. (2013b). The effect Kester’s Plant Propagation: Principles and of AlgaminoPlant on rhizogenesis in stem Practices. 8th edn. Prentice Hall, Upper Sad- cuttings of Physocarpus opulifolius ‘Dart’s dle River, New Jersey. Gold’ and ‘Red Baron’. Acta Sci. Pol., Hor- HRYNKIEWICZ-SUDNIK J., SĘKOWSKI B., torum Cultus 12 (3): 105–116. WILCZKIEWICZ M. (2001). Rozmnażanie PARAĐIKOVIĆ N., ZELJKOVIĆ S., TKALEC drzew i krzewów liściastych. PWN, Warsz- M., VINKOVIĆ T., DERVIĆ I., MARIĆ M. wa: 356–376. (2013). Infl uence of rooting powder on propa- JACYGRAD E., PACHOLCZAK A. (2010). Ef- gation of sage (Salvia offi cinalis L.) and rose- fect of biopreparations Amino Total and Bio- mary (Rosmarinus offi cinalis L.) with green chikol 020 PC on rhizogenesis in stem cuttings cuttings. Poljoprivreda 19 (2): 10–15. of Physocarpus opulifolius ‘Dart’s Gold’ and POP T., PAMFIL D., BELLINI C. (2011). Auxin ‘Diabolo’. Ann. of Warsaw Agricult. Univ., control in the formation of adventitious roots. Hort. Landsc. Architect. 31: 19–28. Not. Bot. Horti Agrobo. Cluj-Napoca 39 (1): JANKIEWICZ L.S. (1997). Regulatory wzrostu 307–316. i rozwoju roślin. Właściwości i działanie. ŠEBÁNEK J. (2008). Fyziologie vegetativního PWN, Warszawa: 17–72. množení dřevin. 1st edn. Mendelova země- KAPCZYŃSKA A., KUBIŃSKA A. (2007). dělská a lesnická univerzita v Brně. Brno. Wpływ terminów ukorzeniania i stymula- SZYDŁO W., MAKSIM P. (1997). Wpływ au- torów ukorzeniania na regenerację korzeni ksyn dostarczanych dolistnie na ukorzenianie u sadzonek goryczki bezłodygowej (Gentia- sadzonek pędowych wybranych gatunków na acaulis L.). Rocz. AR w Poznaniu 382: z rodzaju Juniperus L. Materiały z Konfe- Ogrodnictwo 41: 51–55. rencji „Rozmnażanie roślin ogrodniczych”. KROIN J. (2014). Development and application ISiK, Skierniewice: 58–61. of foliar applied rooting solutions. Combined THIMANN K., WENT F. (1934). On the chemi- Proceedings, International Plant Propagator’s cal nature of root forming hormone. Proceed- Society 64: 431–436. ings of the Royal Academy of Sciences at PACHOLCZAK A., PETELEWICZ P., JAGIEŁ- Amsterdam 38: 456–459. ŁO-KUBIEC K., ILCZUK A. (2015). Physi- WÓJCIK A.R., LAUDAŃSKI Z. (1989). Pla- ological aspects in propagation of smoke tree nowanie i wnioskowanie statystyczne w do- (Cotinus coggygria Scop. ‘Royal Purple’) by świadczalnictwie. PWN, Warszawa. stem cuttings. Acta Scientiarum Polonorum, Hortorum Cultus 14 (5): 145–157. Streszczenie: Wpływ auksyn na ukorzenianie PACHOLCZAK A., SZYDŁO W., JACYGRAD sadzonek wybranych gatunków z rodziny Faba- E., FEDEROWICZ M. (2012). Effect of aux- ceae. Rośliny z rodziny Fabaceae, dzięki swej ins and the biostimulator AlgaminoPlant on różnorodności, cieszą się dużym zainteresowa- rhizogenesis in stem cuttings of two dogwood niem wśród ogrodników oraz architektów krajo- cultivars (Cornus alba ‘Aurea’ and ‘Elegan- brazu. Są stosowane zarówno jako rośliny soli- tissima’). Acta Sci. Pol., Hortorum Cultus 11 terowe, okrywowe, pnące, jak i wykorzystywane (2): 93–103. do masowych nasadzeń w przestrzeni miejskiej. PACHOLCZAK A., ILCZUK A., JACYGRAD Celem pracy było sprawdzenie wpływu wybra- E., JAGIEŁŁO-KUBIEC E. (2013a). Effect nych preparatów auksynowych zawierających of IBA and biopreparations on rooting per- odpowiednio: 0.4% IBA, 0.2% NAA i 0.1% IBA, formance of Cotinus coggygria Scop. Pro- 1% IBA oraz wodnego roztworu kwasu indolilo- ceedings of the 2nd International Symposium -3-masłowego (IBA 200 mg·dm–3), na ukorzenia- 20 K. Nowakowska, A. Pacholczak nie trzech gatunków z rodziny Fabaceae: Cytisus gi mający w swym składzie 0.2 % NAA i 0.1% decumbens, Genista tinctoria ‘Royal Gold’ oraz IBA, zaś u żarnowca położonego równie dobrze Wisteria fl oribunda ‘Ludwik Lawin’. Wykaza- zadziałał ukorzeniacz zawierający 0.4% IBA. no, że zastosowane preparaty istotnie poprawiły Dolistna aplikacja wodnego roztworu IBA dała stopień oraz procent ukorzenionych sadzonek. porównywalne wyniki do ukorzeniaczy w formie W przypadku ukorzeniania sadzonek glicynii pudrów dla sadzonek żarnowca, a w przypadku kwiecistej i janowca barwierskiego najlepsze glicynii jej wydajność była mniejsza w stosunku wyniki uzyskano po zastosowaniu dwóch pre- paratów: jeden zawierający 1% IBA oraz dru- do preparatów handlowych. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 36, 2015: 21–32 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 36, 2015)

Yield and quality of plantain (Plantago major L.) herb in the second year of cultivation WIESŁAWA ROSŁON*, ŁUKASZ GONTAR, OLGA KOSAKOWSKA, EWA OSIŃSKA Department of Vegetable and Medicinal Plants, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: Yield and quality of plantain (Plantago a characteristic element of cosmopoli- major L.) herb in the second year of cultivation. tan, synanthropic and semi-synanthropic The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of habitats. In Poland plantain occurs in time of plantation establishment and time of harvesting on the quality of plantain herb in the sec- gardens, on boundaries, meadows and ond year of cultivation. Seeds for the establishment pastures, overgrown roads, roadsides, of a plantation were collected in 2011 from natural dumps etc. It is also found among crops, habitats located in Mazowsze, Lublin and Podlasie where it is treated as an onerous weed. provinces. The seeds were sown in 2012 and 2013 The main raw material of plantain con- in spring (April) and in late spring (June). The herb was harvested in 2013 and 2014, both when the sists of leaves harvested from natural plants were in the vegetative phase and during their sites during the fl owering stage of the fl owering. Dry mass of herb per 1 m2, as well as plant’s development. The active sub- content of mucilages, iridoid glycosides, phenolic stances are mucilages, iridoid glycosides acids and fl avonoids, were determined. A signifi - (aucubin, catalpol, asperuloside etc.) cantly higher mass of herb was obtained from plots [Ravn and Brimer 1988, Rřnsteda et al. where the seeds were sown in late spring than from those sown in mid spring. Plants collected in the 2000, Zubair et al. 2011], bitterness, tan- fl owering stage yielded a higher mass of herb than nins, organic and phenolic acids [Ma- those collected in the vegetative phase. The high- khudov et al. 2011], saponins, minerals est content of iridoid glycosides (the main chemi- and fi ber [Grandi et al. 1982, Samuelsen cal compounds) was recorded on plots established 2000, Andrzejewska-Golec 2010]. An in late spring. The herb from the population from Podlasie province contained signifi cantly more of important component of the herb is fl a- these compounds than those from Mazowsze and vonoids: plantagin, quercetin, isorham- Lublin provinces. netin, hyperoside, rutin, scutellarin [Lebedev-Kosov et al. 1976, Pourmorad Key words: plantain, cultivation, mucilages, iri- et al. 2006, Kobeasy et al. 2011, Makhu- doid glycosides, phenolic acids, fl avonoids dov et al. 2011], luteolin, baicalein and baicalin, which affect the stimulation of INTRODUCTION mononuclear cells of peripheral blood, Plantain is a popular medicinal plant as well as apigenin and hispidulin, which growing wild all over the world. It is have a protective action. Plantain has expectorant, anti-infl ammatory, protec- * e-mail: [email protected] tive, diuretic and astringent effects. It is 22 W. Rosłon et al. used internally for treatment of the gas- therefore meets the requirements of the trointestinal tract, diarrhea, and the up- pharmaceutical industry. per respiratory tract, and externally for In the present study the effect of cer- stomatitis, burns, wounds, pimples and tain agronomic factors on the yield and boils (it has shielding properties and ac- quality of plantain herb harvested from celerates the healing process) [Ringbom a two-year-old plantation was evaluated. et al. 1998, Noor et al. 2000, Samuelsen 2000]. Nowadays plantain is a species of MATERIAL AND METHODS less importance than ribwort plantain (in Poland both species provide equivalent Experiment location raw material). Nevertheless, it is still an The experiment was carried out at the important medicinal plant and subject experimental fi eld of the Department of research, especially in relation to its of Vegetable and Medicinal Plants of pharmacological activity. Research car- the Warsaw University of Life Sciences ried out around the world has revealed – SGGW. The study involved three pop- a number of new properties of this spe- ulations of plantain (Plantago major L.) cies. In studies on mice, for example, it originating from natural sites in Poland was found to have a prophylactic effect (P1 – Mazowsze province, Elsnerów, against breast cancer [Samuelsen 2000]. N 52°16.766′ E 21°04.980′; P2 – Lub- Noor et al. [2000] found a positive effect lin province, Krzywda, N 51°50.156′ of plantain extracts on fertility in men. It E 22°07.232′; P3 – Podlasie province, has also been shown that the terpenoids Antonowo, N 52°44.736′ E 21°57.280′). present in plantain inhibit the growth of tumors, as well as having hepatoprotec- tive and hypolipernic properties [Ring- Experiment procedure bom et al. 1998]. Seeds for the establishment of a planta- Observations at natural sites show tion were collected from the above sites numbers of populations to be decreas- in autumn 2011. Until sowing the seeds ing, largely due to human activity. For were stored in airtight seals in a cool, dark this reason an increasing number of room. In 2012 and 2013 the seeds were wild species are being introduced into sown at two times: spring (last 10 days cultivation. Plantain is one of those spe- of April) and late spring (fi rst 10 days of cies. Research relating to its cultivation June). The sowing rate was 3 kg·ha–1, and has been carried out for several years. the row distance was 30 cm. The individ- Plantain is a perennial plant, and so its ual plot area was 5 m2. The experiment cultivation can be carried out on a multi- was established in a randomized block annual basis. Control of the process of design in three replications. growth and development of plants under Cultivation was continued for two cultivation means that the raw material years. In both years a dose of mineral obtained is controlled in terms of both fertilizers was applied per 1 ha: 30 kg N, morphological and chemical traits, and 20 kg P and 40 kg K. Nitrogen fertilizers Yield and quality of plantain (Plantago major L.)... 23 were applied in early spring, and phos- Premed). The extract was concentrated phorus and potassium fertilizers in the to 10 ml and fi ltered. Then 40 ml of 1% autumn, of the year preceding the ex- acetic acid in ethanol was added, and periment, and in the second year in early the sample was left for 6 h. The pre- spring. In the fi rst year only, nurturing cipitated mucilages were transferred to work was carried out. a weighed paper fi lter, washed with eth- The raw material (above-ground parts anol and ethyl ether, dried, and weighed of the plants) was harvested in 2013 (for on an analytical balance (PS 2100/C/2 the plantation established in 2012) and RADWAG). in 2014 (for the plantation established in 2013). Each plot was divided into two Determination of iridoid glycoside parts. From one part of the plot the raw content material was collected at the vegetative stage of plant development (last 10 days The powdered plant material (0.5 g) of April), while on the other it was col- was extracted under refl ux with 100 ml lected when the plants were at the stage of distilled water and 0.3 g of calcium of full blooming (last 10 days of May). carbonate for 30 min. After cooling, the Both parts of plot regrowth were also har- crude extract was fi ltered through 1.2 g vested (plants at harvesting were in the of aluminum oxide. The content of iri- vegetative stage – fi rst 10 days of July). doid glycosides, calculated as aucubin, The yield of air-dry above-ground organs was determined by measuring the ab- was determined. The plant material was sorbance of the color reaction product dried in a drying chamber at 45°C. of these compounds with 1% solution of 4-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde in etha- Chemical analyses nol and concentrated hydrochloric acid. The absorbance was measured at 590 nm. In the air-dry raw material, the content The reference sample was a water solu- of mucilages was determined accord- tion of aucubin (0.015 g·ml–1) with the ing to Klimek [1991], and the contents above-mentioned reagents added. of iridoid glycosides, phenolic acids and fl avonoids were determined according Determination of phenolic acid to the methods described in the Polish content Pharmacopoeia (Farmakopea Polska VIII 2008). All analyses were made in The air-dry raw material (1g) was ex- three replications. tracted twice with 25 ml of distilled water for 30 min. The combined extracts Determination of mucilage content were supplemented with distilled water to 50 ml. The absorbance of a solution The air-dry raw material (1 g) was ex- containing 1 ml of this extract, 1 ml of tracted with 20 ml of distilled water for NaOH (40 g·l–1), 1 ml of HCl (18 g·l–1), 1 h in a laboratory shaker (WU-4 type, 1 ml of Arnov’s reagent and 6 ml of dis- 24 W. Rosłon et al. tilled water was measured at 490 nm. the wide possibilities of using plantain The phenolic acid content was calcu- herb, interest in the species is increas- lated for caffeic acid. ing. Research relating to its introduction into cultivation is also being conducted. Determination of fl avonoid content In this study the effect of the time of establishment of the plantation and time The raw material (1g) was extracted with of harvesting on the yield and quality 20 ml of acetone, 2 ml of 25% HCl (for of plantain herb was investigated. The hydrolysis of fl avonoid glycosides) and study involved three populations of 1 ml of 0.5% methenamine under refl ux plantain (Plantago major L.) in the sec- for 30 min. The extraction was repeated ond year of cultivation. twice with 10 ml of acetone. The com- Because research on the introduction bined extracts were supplemented to of plantain into cultivation has been car- 100 ml. Amount of 20 ml of this extract ried out only for a few years, there is still was exhaustively extracted with ethyl an absence in the available literature of acetate by shaking. The content of fl a- information about the cultivation of that vonoids, calculated for quercetin, was species. More information can be found determined spectrophotometrically after about another plant of the genus Plan- the reaction with 2% AlCl3. The absorb- tago – ribwort plantain (P. lanceolata) ance was measured at 425 nm. [Volák and Stodola 1983, Kołodziej 2006]. Assessment of yields of ribwort Statistical evaluation of the results plantain has shown that between 0.8 and 2 t of leaves can be collected from 1 ha. The results were subjected to statistical Results obtained in this work for plan- evaluation using ANOVA 3 programs tain are similar, especially in the case and Tukey’s test at the signifi cance level of material collected in the third and α = 0.05. fourth harvesting stages (regrowth). For The statistical analysis showed no example, for the third harvesting stage signifi cant differences between 2013 the air-dry mass of herb was 170.7 g·m–2 and 2014, hence the results presented (i.e. 1.7 t·ha–1). The air-dry mass of raw are the mean values from the two-year material depended on experimental fac- experiment. tors. Higher air-dry mass was obtained from a plantation established in late RESULTS AND DISCUSSION spring (average 109.9·m–2) compared Plantain (Plantago major L.) is a popu- with that established in mid spring (av- lar medicinal plant, naturally occurring erage 90.7 g·m–2), and from the second in the temperate climatic zone. Accord- harvest (plants in the fl owering stage – ing to Wysocki and Sikorski [2002], average 69 g·m–2) compared with the fi rst in Poland this species can be found on harvest (plants in the vegetative phase farmland and in places that are heavily – average 48.6 g·m–2) – Table 1. The re- trampled and rich in nutrients. Due to sults confi rm the observations of other Yield and quality of plantain (Plantago major L.)... 25

TABLE 1. Mass of air-dry herb (g·m–2) Time of Second Third Fourth Mean for Speciﬁ cation First harvest sowing harvest harvest harvest population spring 45.0 66.0 187.0 88.0 96.4 late spring 17.7 60.7 126.0 113.0 79.4 P1 mean × 31.3 63.3 156.0 101.0 87.9 spring 93.3 49.3 225.0 105.0 118.0 late spring 37.0 76.0 160.0 93.3 91.6 P2 mean × 65.2 62.7 193.0 99.0 105.0 spring 35.3 22.7 115.0 59.0 58.2 late spring 63.0 139.0 211.0 211.0 156.0 P3 mean × 49.2 81.0 163.0 156.0 107.0 Mean for time of harvest 48.6 69.0 170.7 111.7 – Mean for spring sowing – – 90.7 – – Mean for late spring sowing – – 109.0 – – P1 – population at Elsnerów, P2 – population at Krzywda, P3 – population at Antonowo; A – population, B – time of sowing, C – time of harvest; NIR0.05A = 3.19; NIR0.05B = 2.17; NIR0.05C = 4.06;

NIR0.05A/B = 4.42; NIR0.05B/A = 3.76; NIR0.05B/C = 4.34; NIR0.05C/B = 5.75; NIR0.05A/C = 6.39;

NIR0.05C/A = 7.04; NIR0.05 A/BC = 9.04; NIR0.05 B/A C= 7.51; NIR0.05C/AB = 9.95. authors regarding the yields of other me- harvesting) was clearly higher than the dicinal plants. Jadczak [2007] and Jad- mass of herb collected in the fi rst and czak and Grzeszczuk [2008] report that second stages. For plots where the fi rst a higher yield of herb is usually obtained harvest was made when the plants were at a later sowing, as well as at later col- in the vegetative phase (fi rst stage), air- lection of the raw material. Different re- dry mass was three times lower than the sults in studies of ribwort plantain were mass of herb collected at the third stage, reported by Kołodziej [2006], who ob- and when the plants were collected for tained a higher yield of herb when plants the fi rst time in the fl owering phase (sec- were collected in the vegetative phase. ond stage) the mass of regrowth (fourth Cultivation of plantain may be contin- stage) was about 1.5 times higher. The ued for two or more years. In the sec- total mass of herb (sum for harvest I + ond and subsequent years the herb may + III and harvest II + IV) ranged from be collected twice or three times dur- + 161.5 to 216.0 g·m–2. Population P3 ing the growing season. In the reported gave the highest air-dry mass of herb experiment, in both years material was (average 214.3 g·m–2); a lower (but sta- collected only twice, because from the tistically insignifi cantly) mass was ob- end of July the plants were strongly attained for population P2; and a signifi - tacked by powdery mildew. The mass of cantly lower mass of herb was obtained the regrowth (third and fourth stage of for population P1 (176.0 g·m–2) – Table 2. 26 W. Rosłon et al.

TABLE 2. Infl uence of fi rst cut on the total mass vated population and agronomic factors of air-dry herb (g·m–2) such as time of sowing and time of har- First Second Specifi ca- Mean for vest. The highest content of mucilages harvest + harvest + tion population + regrowth + regrowth was recorded in the herb from popula- –1 Popula- tion P3 (average 7185 mg·100 g ), and 188.0 c* 164.0 d 176.0 B tion P1 the lowest in population P1 (average Popula- 6812.5 mg·100 g–1). Signifi cantly great- 258.0 a 161.5 d 209.8 A tion P2 er quantities of mucilages were detected Popula- 212.5 b 216.0 b 214.3 A in the raw material from spring-sown tion P3 plots compared with those sown in late Mean for 219.3 A 180.5 B – harvest spring, and in the herb collected at the * Means marked with the same letter do not differ fi rst harvesting stage compared with the signifi cantly at α = 0.05. third (regrowth from the fi rst harvest) Other symbols – see Table 1. and fourth (regrowth from the second harvest) – Table 3. Observations that the Studies of the chemical composition of mucilage content in plants is modifi ed by the plantain herb show that these parts many factors have been made by various of the plant contain many groups of ac- authors. Kaewmanee et al. [2014], for tive compounds. The most important are example, reported great variation in the mucilages and phenolic compounds (iri- mucilage content of fl axseed between doid glycosides, polyphenolic acids, fl a- seven different populations. Similar ob- vonoids etc.). Both polysaccharides and servations were made by Klimek [1991] polyphenols have been suggested to act in studies of six species of the genus Ver- as bioactive compounds in this species. bascum. The infl uence of agronomic fac- Mucilages are the most commonly avail- tors on the content of these compounds able plant ingredients with a wide range in the roots of marshmallow was studied of applications in the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Literature data by Andruszczyk and Wiśniewski [2006], suggest that in the case of plantain, mu- who showed that this parameter is favo- cilages occur primarily in the seeds (up rably affected by the establishment of to 13%) [Andrzejewska-Golec 2010], the plantation from seedlings, compared but are also present in the herb. In the with sowing and cultivation of the plant literature there is no information about under cover of yarn. the content of these compounds in the Among the phenolic compounds in aforementioned raw materials, although plantain, an important group is the iridoid the qualitative composition of this frac- glycosides. The presence of these com- tion of polysaccharides is well known pounds in the aerial parts of this species [Gorin 1965]. The results obtained in is confi rmed by numerous authors [Røn- this study show that the content of mu- steda et al. 2000, Taskova et al. 2002, cilages ranges from 3,630 (3.63%) to Jurišić et al. 2004, Jurišić-Grubesic et al. 9,690 mg·100 g–1 (9.69%), and depends 2005; Stanisavljevic et al. 2008]. Studies on many factors, including the culti- on iridoid glycoside content in the spe- Yield and quality of plantain (Plantago major L.)... 27

TABLE 3. Content of mucilages in air-dry herb (mg·100 g–1) Time of First Second Third Fourth Mean for Speciﬁ cation sowing harvest harvest harvest harvest population spring 9 050.0 9 460.0 3 630.0 4 090.0 6 557.5 late spring 8 660.0 8 650.0 4 950.0 6 010.0 7 067.5 P1 mean × 8 855.0 9 055.0 4 290.0 5 050.0 6 812.5 spring 9 820.0 9 110.0 6 210.0 5 400.0 7 635.0 late spring 8 070.0 8 060.0 4 340.0 5 620.0 6 522.5 P2 mean × 8 945.0 8 585.0 5 275.0 5 510.0 7 078.8 spring 9 690.0 7 760.0 8 930.0 7 210.0 8 397.5 late spring 7 170.0 8 770.0 5 830.0 5 950.0 6 930.0 P3 mean × 8 430.0 8 265.0 7 380.0 6 580.0 7 663.8 Mean for time of harvest 8 743.3 8 635.0 5 648.3 5 713.3 7185.0 Mean for spring sowing – – 7 529.8 – – Mean for late spring sowing – – 6 840.0 – – P1 – population at Elsnerów, P2 – population at Krzywda, P3 – population at Antonowo; A – population, B – time of sowing, C – time of harvest; NIR0.05A = 422.81; NIR0.05B = 287.02; NIR0.05C = 537.90; NIR0.05A/B = 597.95;

NIR0.05B/A = 497.13; NIR0.05B/C = 574.04; NIR0.05C/B = 760.70; NIR0.05A/C = 845.63; NIR0.05C/A = 931.67;

NIR0.05 A/BC = 1195.80; NIR0.05 B/AC = 994.27; NIR0.05C/AB = 1317.58. cies have shown that the most important plant’s stage of development. The great- compound of this group is aucubin; there- est amount of these compounds (mainly fore in this work the content of iridoid aucubin) in the aerial parts of plantain glycosides is expressed in terms of that is found in June and July (over 1.3%). compound. Andrzejewska-Golec [2010] A similar pattern was observed by Rosłon reports that the content of iridoid glyco- et al. [2014] in research on plantain cul- sides in the leaves of plantain ranges from tivation in the fi rst year of vegetation. 0.3 to 2.5% (300 to 2,500 mg·100 g–1). In Results obtained in this work for biennial the raw material analyzed in the present plants confi rm the observations of those study the content of iridoid glycosides authors. A distinctly greater quantity of ranged from 1,37 to 2,01 mg·100 g–1. The iridoid glycosides was found in the raw results are comparable to the content of material collected in June (third and fourth iridoid glycosides in other species of the harvesting stage) compared with that col- genus of Plantago. For P. lanceolata, for lected in April and May (fi rst and second example, it amounts to 1,224 mg·100 g–1, stage). The content of iridoid glycosides for P. holosetum 1,452 mg·100 g–1, and also signifi cantly depends on when the for P. atrata 1,252 mg·100 g–1 [Janko- plantation was established. A higher vic et al. 2012]. According to Samulsen content of these compounds was deter- [2000] and Andrzejewska-Golec [2010], mined in raw material harvested from iridoid glycoside content depends on the plots established by late spring sowing 28 W. Rosłon et al.

(1,725 mg·100 g–1) compared with those (P. lanceolata). Pourmorad et al. [2006] sown in mid spring (1,645 mg·100 g–1). in turn report that in the case of plantain The highest content of iridoid gly- the content of phenolic acids is about cosides was found in population P1 600 mg·100 g–1. In the present study the (2,010 mg·100 g–1), in the case of raw results were two to three times higher. material from plots established in the late The content of these compounds was spring and at the fourth stage of harvest- from 1,290 to 2,260 mg·100 g–1 and ing, while the lowest was also obtained was comparable to the content of phe- from population P1, from spring-sown nolic acids in P. atrata, P. coronopus and plots and for material harvested at the P. reniformis [Jankovic et al. 2012]. The ﬁ rst stage (1,440 mg·100 g–1) – Table 4. content of phenolic acids also depended Another group of phenolic compounds on experimental factors. Population P2 present in the above-ground organs of had the highest average content of phe- plantain is phenolic acids. They are also nolic acids, while the lowest was found very important compounds in most of the in population P1, and in the herb har- plants of the genus Plantago. Jankovic et vested from plots established in spring al. [2012], in studies of seven species of as opposed to late spring. As regards the Plantago, demonstrated that the content time of harvesting, a distinctly greater of phenolic acids in this genus is from quantity of phenolic acids was found in 1,670 (P. atrata) to 8,160 mg·100 g–1 the raw material collected in the ﬂ ow-

TABLE 4. Content of iridoid glycosides in air-dry herb (mg·100g–1) Time of First Second Third Fourth Mean for Speciﬁ cation sowing harvest harvest harvest harvest population spring 1 540.0 1 590.0 1 800.0 1 860.0 1 697.5 late spring 1 370.0 1 660.0 1 570.0 2 010.0 1 652.5 P1 mean × 1 455.0 1 625.0 1 685.0 1 935.0 1 675.0 spring 1 640.0 1 520.0 1 790.0 1 690.0 1 660.0 late spring 1 650.0 1 690.0 1 980.0 1 790.0 1 777.5 P2 mean × 1 645.0 1 605.0 1 885.0 1 740.0 1 718.8 spring 1 440.0 1 490.0 1 690.0 1 690.0 1 577.5 late spring 1 450.0 1 710.0 1 930.0 1 890.0 1 745.0 P3 mean × 1 445.0 1 600.0 1 810.0 1 790.0 1 661.3 Mean for harvest time 1 515.0 1 610.0 1 793.3 1 821.7 1 685.0 Mean for spring sowing 1 645.0 Mean for late spring sowing 1 725.0 P1 – population at Elsnerów, P2 – population at Krzywda, P3 – population at Antonowo; A – population, B – time of sowing, C – time of harvest; NIR0.05A = 12.91; NIR0.05B = 8.76; NIR0.05C = 16.42; NIR0.05A/B = 18.26; NIR0.05B/A =

= 15.18; NIR0.05B/C = 17.53; NIR0.05C/B = 23.23, NIR0.05A/C = 25.82; NIR0.05C/A = 28.45; NIR0.05 A/BC = 36.51;

NIR0.05 B/AC = 30.36; NIR0.05C/AB = 40.29. Yield and quality of plantain (Plantago major L.)... 29 ering phase (second harvesting stage) report that, in the case of plantain, the compared with plants in the vegetative content of fl avonoids in the leaves is phase (fi rst stage). The lowest quantity higher, at 2,500 mg·100 g–1, whereas of these compounds was found in the according to Zubair et al. [2011] and herb from the fourth harvesting stage Makhudov et al. [2011] it is about (Table 5). Comparing the results with 641 mg·100 g–1. The results obtained those obtained by Rosłon et al. [2014] in this study showed the content of fl a- for one-year-old plants, it was observed vonoids to range from 350 to 530 mg· that the content of phenolic acids in two- ·100 g–1. These results are lower than -year-old plants was several times high- those reported by Paramount et al. er. Another group of polyphenols present [2006], but similar to those of Makhu- in species of the genus Plantago, includ- dov et al. [2011] and Zubair et al. [2011]. ing plantain, is fl avonoids [Pourmorad Experimental factors modifi ed the fl avo- et al. 2006, Andrzejewska-Golec 2010, noid content in the tested raw material. Makhudov et al. 2011]. Jurišić-Grubesic A distinctly higher content of these et al. [2007] report that in the Plantago compounds was found in the herb from genus fl avonoid content depends on the a plantation established in late spring species, ranging from 65 (P. holosteum than in plants sown in mid spring. In the subsp. holosteum) to 131 mg·100 g–1 case of late spring sowing, the content (P. maritima). Pourmorad et al. [2006] of fl avonoids was the highest for popu-

TABLE 5. Content of phenolic acids in air-dry herb (mg·100 g–1) Time of First Second Third Fourth Mean for Speciﬁ cation sowing harvest harvest harvest harvest population spring 1 780.0 1 960.0 1 590.0 1 500.0 1 707.5 late spring 1 530.0 2 260.0 1 580.0 1 290.0 1 665.0 P1 mean × 1 655.0 2 110.0 1 585.0 1 395.0 1 686.3 spring 1 750.0 2 180.0 1 960.0 1 710.0 1 900.0 late spring 1 620.0 2 280.0 1 610.0 1 980.0 1 872.5 P2 mean × 1 685.0 2 230.0 1 785.0 1 845.0 1 886.3 spring 1 450.0 2 380.0 1 910.0 1 400.0 1 785.0 late spring 1 300.0 2 080.0 1 700.0 1 460.0 1 635.0 P3 mean × 1 375.0 2 230.0 1 805.0 1 430.0 1 710.0 Mean for time of harvest 1 571.7 2 190.0 1 725.0 1 556.7 1 760.8 Mean for spring sowing – – 1 797.5 – – Mean for late spring sowing – – 1 724.2 – – P1 – population at Elsnerów, P2 – population at Krzywda, P3 – population at Antonowo; A – population, B – time of sowing, C – time of harvest; NIR0.05A = 8.84; NIR0.05B = 6.00; NIR0.05C = 11.25; NIR0.05A/B = 12.51; NIR0.05B/A =

= 10.40; NIR0.05B/C = 12.01; NIR0.05C/B = 15.91; NIR0.05A/C = 17.68; NIR0.05C/A = 19.49; NIR0.05 A/BC = 25.01;

NIR0.05 B/AC = 20.80; NIR0.05C/AB = 27.56. 30 W. Rosłon et al. lation P3, and the lowest for popula- spring and when harvesting takes place tion P1 (respectively 522.5 and 450.0 during the fl owering stage, but given mg·100 g–1). The time of harvesting does the opportunity to harvest the raw ma- not signifi cantly affect this parameter, terial twice during the season, a higher but the highest content of fl avonoids was total mass of herb is obtained when recorded at the fi rst harvesting stage, and the fi rst harvest takes place in the veg- the lowest at the fourth stage (Table 6). etative phase. The time of plantation

TABLE 6. Content of ﬂ avonoids in air-dry herb (mg·100 g–1) First Second Third Fourth Mean for Speciﬁ cation Time of sowing harvest harvest harvest harvest population spring 480.0 400.0 410.0 350.0 410.0 late spring 510.0 450.0 480.0 400.0 460.0 P1 mean × 495.0 425.0 445.0 375.0 435.0 spring 440.0 390.0 500.0 370.0 425.0 late spring 470.0 440.0 460.0 430.0 450.0 P2 mean × 455.0 415.0 480.0 400.0 437.5 spring 450.0 480.0 440.0 500.0 467.5 late spring 500.0 550.0 530.0 510.0 522.5 P3 mean × 475.0 515.0 485.0 505.0 495.0 Mean for time of harvest 475.0 451.7 470.0 426.7 455.8 Mean for spring sowing – – 434.2 – – Mean for late spring sowing – – 477.5 – – P1 – population at Elsnerów, P2 – population at Krzywda, P3 – population at Antonowo; A – population, B – time of sowing, C – time of harvest; NIR0.05A = 35.87; NIR0.05B = 24.35; NIR0.05A/C = 71.73; NIR0.05C/A = 79.03.

CONCLUSIONS establishment and time of harvesting In this study the effect of the time of affect the content of active compounds establishment of the plantation and the in the herb. The herb harvested from time of harvesting on the yield and qual- a plantation established in mid-spring ity of plantain herb was investigated. The has a higher content of mucilages and results indicate that the cultivation of phenolic acids, but a lower content of plantain can be carried out on a multian- iridoid glycosides and fl avonoids, than nual basis. In the second and subsequent the material from the plantation sown in years of cultivation, harvesting may be late spring. performed twice. A third harvest was not The highest content of iridoid glyco- possible due to attack by powdery mil- sides and phenolic acids was recorded dew. A higher mass of herb is obtained for the herb harvested for the fi rst time when the plantation is established in late at the fl owering stage. The herb collect- Yield and quality of plantain (Plantago major L.)... 31 ed at the vegetative stage has the high- JADCZAK D., GRZESZCZUK M. (2008). Effect est content of fl avonoids and mucilages. of a sowing date on the quantity and quality When introducing wild plants to culti- of the yield of tarragon (Artemisia dracun- culus L.) grown for a bunch harvest. J. Elem. vation, it is possible to select a popula- 13 (2): 221–226. tion with optimal traits (yield, content of JANKOVIĆ T., ZDUNIĆ G., BEARA I., BA- biologically active compounds). In this LOG K., PLJEVLJAKUŠIĆ D., STEŠEVIĆ experiment the highest mass of herb was D., ŚIAVIKIN K. (2012). Comparative study obtained from population P3, and the of some polyphenols in Plantago species. lowest from population P1. Population Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 42: 69–74. P3 had the highest content of mucilages JURIŠIĆ R., DEBELJAK Ž., VLADIMIR- KNEŽEVIĆ S., VUKOVIĆ J. (2004). Deter- and fl avonoids, but the lowest content of mination of aucubin and catalpol in Plantago iridoid glycosides, although still within species by micellar electrokinetic chromatog- the limits laid down in Polish standards raphy. Z. Naturforsch. C 59: 27–31. (the content of iridoids should be not JURIŠIĆ-GRUBESIĆ R., VUKOVIĆ J., KREM- less than 1.5%). ER D., VLADIMIR-KNEZEVIĆ S. (2005). Spectrophotometric method for polyphenols analysis: Prevalidation and application Acknowledgment on Plantago L. species. J. Pharm. Biomed. The research was fi nancially supported by Anal. 39: 837–842. the Ministry of Science and Higher Edu- JURIŠIĆ-GRUBESIĆ R., VUKOVIĆ J., KREM- ER D., VLADIMIR-KNEZEVIĆ S. (2007). cation, Project 7204/B/P01/2011/40. Flavonoid Content Assay: Prevalidation and Application on Plantago L. Species. Acta REFERENCES Cim. Slov. 54: 397–406. KAEWMANEE T., BAGNASCO L., BENI- ANDRUSZCZYK S., WIŚNIEWSKI J. (2006). AKUL S., LANTERI S., MORELLI C.F., Wpływ sposobu zakładania plantacji na SPERANZA G., COSULICH M.E. (2014). wielkość i jakość plonu korzeni prawoślazu lekarskiego (Althaea offi cinalis L.). Acta Characterisation of mucilages extracted from Agroph. 8 (2): 291–298. seven Italian cultivars of fl ax. Food Chem. ANDRZEJEWSKA-GOLEC E. (2010). Babka 1 (148): 60–69. zwyczajna – pospolity chwast i roślina lec- KLIMEK B. (1991). Porównanie zawartości wę- znicza. Panacea 31 (2): 14–17. glowodanów, saponin i fl awonoidów w sze- Farmakopea Polska (2008). Vol. VIII. PWF, ściu gatunkach z rodzaju Vebascum. Farm. Warszawa. Pol. 47 (10): 571–576. GRANDI A., LUPATTELL M., PAOLA G. KOBEASY M.I., ABDEL-FATAH O.M., Abd el (1982). Compositione chimica di alcune es- SALAM S.M., ZAHRAD el-OLA M. (2011). senze destinate all’alimentazione della chioc- Biochemical studies on Plantago major L. ciola. Ann. Fac. Agrar. Univ. Studi Perugia and Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L. Int. J. Bio- 36: 9–24. divers. Conserv. 3 (3): 88–91. GORIN A.C. (1965). Chemical investigation of KOŁODZIEJ B. (2006). Wpływ nawożenia min- the polysaccharides of the leaves of Plantago eralnego na plonowanie babki lancetowatej major L. Chem. Nat. Comp. 1 (5): 232–235. (Plantago lanceolata L.). Acta Agroph. 8 (3): JADCZAK D. (2007). The infl uence of sowing 637–647. time and row distance on the yield of basil LEBEDEV-KOSOV V.I., BYKOV V.I., GLYZIN (Ocimum basilicum L.). Rocz. AR w Pozna- V.I. (1976). Flavonoids of Plantago major. niu, Ogrodnictwo 4: 505–509. Chem. Nat. Compd. 12 (6): 730. 32 W. Rosłon et al.

MAKHUDOV R.R., ABDULLADZHANOVA TASKOVA R., EVSTATIEVA L., HANDJIEVA N.G., KAMAEV F.G. (2011). Phenolic N., POPOV S. 2002: Iridoid Patterns of Ge- Compounds from Plantago major and Plan- nus Plantago L. and Their Systematic Signifi - tago lanceolata. Chem. Nat. Compd. 47 (2): cance. Z. Naturforsch 57c: 42–50. 288–289. VOLÁK J., STODOLA J. (1987). Rośliny leczni- NOOR H., JUING M., CHEE B J., KUEH B.L., cze. PWRiL, Warszawa. ZOLKEPLI O. (2000). Medicinal Properties WYSOCKI C., SIKORSKI P. (2002). Fitosocjo- of Plantago major: Hypoglycaemic and Male logia stosowana. Wydawnictwo SGGW, War- Fertility Studies. Pertanika J. Trop. Agric. szawa. Sci. 23 (1): 29–35. ZUBAIR M., NYBOM H., LINDHOLM C., POURMORAD F., HOSSEINIMEHR S.J., SHA- RUMPUNEN K. (2011). Major polyphenols HABIMAJD N. (2006). Antioxidant activity, in aerial organs of greater plantain (Plantago phenol and fl avonoid contents of some se- major L.) and effects of drying temperature lected Iranian medicinal plants. Afr. J. of Bio- on polyphenol contents in the leaves. Sci. tech. 5 (11): 1142–1145. Horticult. 128: 523–529. RAVN H., BRIMER L. (1988). Structure and an- tibacterial activity of plantamajoside, a caffeic Streszczenie: Plonowanie i jakość surowca babki acid sugar ester from Plantago major subsp. większej (Plantago major L.) w drugim roku upra- major. Phytochem. 27 (11): 3433–3437. wy. W pracy oceniono wpływ terminu zakłada- RINGBOM T., SEGURA L., NORREN Y., PER- nia plantacji oraz zbioru surowca na jakość ziela ERA P., BOHLIN L. (1998). Ursolic acid babki większej w drugim roku uprawy. Nasiona do from Plantago major, a selective inhibitor of założenia plantacji zebrano w 2011 roku na natu- cyclooxygenase-2 catalyzed prostaglandin bi- ralnych stanowiskach tego gatunku położonych osynthesis. J. Nat. Prod. 61 (10): 1212–1215. w województwach mazowieckim, lubelskim i pod- RØNSTEDA N., GÖBEL E., FRANZYK H., laskim. Nasiona te wysiano w latach 2012 i 2013 JENSEN S.R., OLSEN E.C. (2000). Chemo- wiosną (w kwietniu) i późną wiosną (w czerw- taxonomy of Plantago. Iridoid glucosides cu). Surowiec zebrano w latach 2013 i 2014, gdy and caffeoyl phenylethanoid glycosides. Phy- rośliny znajdowały się w fazie wegetatywnej tochem. 55 (4): 337–348. i w fazie kwitnienia. Określono powietrznie su- ROSŁON W., OSIŃSKA E., GESZPRYCH A., chą masę ziela z 1 m2 oraz zawartość śluzów, gli- TOKARSKA J., ORLIŃSKI P. 2014: Effect kozydów irydoidowych, kwasów polifenolowych of chosen agronomic factors on the yield and i fl awonoidów w powietrznie suchym surowcu. raw material quality of three populations of Wyraźnie większą masę ziela uzyskano z poletek, greater plantain (Plantago major L.). J. Inter. na których wysiano nasiona późną wiosną w po- Sci. Publ. Agricul. Food 2: 257–266. równaniu z siewem wiosennym oraz z roślin ze- SAMUELSEN A.B. (2000). The traditional uses, branych w fazie kwitnienia w porównaniu z rośli- chemical constituents and biological activi- nami zebranymi w fazie wegetatywnej. Większą ties of Plantago major L. A review. J. Eth- zawartością glikozydów irydoidowych (głównej nopharmacol. 71: 1–21. grupy związków czynnych) charakteryzował STANISAVLJEVIC I.T., STOJICEVIC S.S., VELICKOVIC D.T., LAZIC M.L., VELJK- się surowiec zebrany z poletek założonych póź- OVIC V.B. (2008). Screening the antioxidant ną wiosną. Ziele populacji z Podlasia zawierało and antimicrobial properties of the extracts wyraźnie więcej tych związków w porównaniu from plantain (Plantago major L.) leaves. z populacjami z województw mazowieckiego i lu- Sep. Sci. Technol. 43: 3652–3662. belskiego. Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 36, 2015: 33–45 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 36, 2015)

Sensory characteristics of two parsley (Petroselinum sativum ssp. crispum L.) cultivars depending on storage conditions MONIKA SITAREK1, JADWIGA RADZANOWSKA1, JOLANTA WTULICH1, JAKUB DOBRZYŃSKI2, MAREK GAJEWSKI1 1Department of Vegetable and Medicinal Plants, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW 2Department of Microbial Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: Sensory characteristics of two parsley INTRODUCTION (Petroselinum sativum ssp. crispum L.) cultivars depending on storage conditions. A study was Parsley (Petroselinum sativum ssp. made of the sensory quality (odour and fl avour) of crispum L.) is an important vegeta- two cultivars of leafy type parsley (Petroselinum ble plant and spice. Its fresh and dried sativum ssp. crispum L.) before and after storage. leaves are commonly used in cooking. The experimental factors were: storage period The characteristic aroma and taste of (7 and 14 days), storage temperature (0°C and parsley leaves is mainly due to volatile 10°C) and type of packaging (bunches placed in water and two types of modifi ed atmosphere compounds (located in the oil ducts), packaging – retail- and bulk-type). Two pars- which are released during mechanical ley cultivars (‘Rialto’ and ‘Petra’) with differ- damage to the tissue (e.g. cutting, chew- ent morphology were investigated. The plants ing). Due to the high respiration and were harvested in autumn (September). The sen- transpiration rates, fresh parsley leaves sory quality of the parsley leaves was evaluated have low storage ability. They can be with Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA). To describe the sensory quality, 26 attributes stored at temperatures of 18–20°C, at (13 for odour and 13 for fl avour) were selected by 85–90% relative humidity (RH), for a panel of experts. The results of the experiment about 3 days. Parsley leaves keep well at showed that the tested cultivars differed in sen- 0°C if high humidity is applied. As with sory attributes depending on storage conditions. all leafy vegetables, the temperature of The lower storage temperature helped maintain parsley leaves after harvesting must be the freshness of both cultivars. Leaves stored for lowered rapidly to reduce respiration and 14 days had less intensive odour and fl avour. An increase in “foreign” odour and “earthy” fl avour spoilage. It has been shown that storage intensity with prolonged storage was observed for at 0°C and 84% RH doubled the shelf both cultivars. More differences were recorded in life of parsley compared with storage at relation to odour than fl avour descriptors. room temperature [Azeez and Parthasar- athy 2008]. Parsley is usually handled Key words: leafy vegetables, modifi ed atmos- in small lots and shipped in mixed loads phere, packaging, odour, fl avour, Quantitative with other commodities. The period be- Descriptive Analysis tween harvesting and reaching the fi nal consumer can last from a few days to * e-mail: [email protected] 34 M. Sitarek et al. more than a week. Consumer demand niques identify, describe and quantify for quality and ease of use of vegetables the visual, tactile, auditory, olfactory is increasing. This creates a need to seek and taste characteristics of the product. better postharvest treatment, including In the evaluation of the storage ability washing, packaging and ensuring ap- of vegetables it is impossible to main- propriate conditions for storage, so that tain an unchanged control, and so the the product reaching the consumer is not descriptive technique is particularly only visually appealing and free of dis- useful. Quantitative Descriptive Analy- eases, but also offers the appropriate fl a- sis (QDA) characterizes the sensory vour and aroma. After harvesting, pars- quality of the product as a complex of ley is usually hydro- or vacuum-cooled, many particular characteristics (traits), and top- or package-icing is applied be- individually evaluated for their intensity. fore shipment to maintain its crispness The examination involves obtaining rep- [Hunt Ashby 2008]. Moreover, in order resentative samples and providing them to prevent moisture loss, yellowing and for initial assessment, then storing at decay, Modifi ed Atmosphere Packaging specifi ed conditions, which are continu- (MAP) may be used. MAP reduces loss ously controlled. At certain intervals, of moisture and decreases the respiration samples are re-evaluated and the results process because of selective permeabil- are compared. This allows the quantita- ity to gases. Natural respiration of veg- tive and qualitative characterization of etables lowers the internal oxygen con- potential changes occurring in a sample centration, which results in an increase after storage [Murray et al. 2001]. in the carbon dioxide concentration. As The aim of the study was to inves- the oxygen concentration declines, the tigate the effect of temperature, storage vegetable’s respiration rate decreases period and packaging type on the sen- until equilibrium is reached, at which sory quality of leaves of two cultivars of point the rate of oxygen uptake and car- leafy parsley, to fi nd the best method for bon dioxide production by the produce storing the plant material. in the bag equals the oxygen and carbon dioxide permeability of the bag. How- MATERIAL AND METHODS ever, under certain gas compositions, The experiment was carried out during anaerobic respiration gives rise to ‘off the 2014 vegetation season. Seeds of fl avours’ [Aharoni et al. 1989, Tudela et two leafy type parsley cultivars (‘Rialto’ al. 2013]. Storage period and tempera- and ‘Petra’) were sown in the experi- ture also affect the sensory quality with mental fi eld of the Department of Veg- variable intensity. etable and Medicinal Plants in Wilanów, Several types of analyses are avail- Warsaw, in heavy alluvial soil in mid- able for sensory assessment of vegeta- March. The parsley cultivars differed ble products. In order to identify quality in the morphology of their usable parts degradation due to storage, sensory de- (‘Rialto’ with fl at lamina, and ‘Petra’ scriptive analyses are used. These tech- with triple curled lamina). Seeds were Sensory characteristics of two parsley... 35 sown by hand on a fl at surface, with a For odour evaluation, an equal part of spacing of 15 × 40 cm. Fertilizers were chopped leaves was put into coded plas- applied in standard doses, according to tic boxes covered with lids. For fl avour soil analysis results. During vegetation, evaluation, 6 g of chopped parsley was manual weeding was performed several evenly mixed with 100 g of standardized times, as well as constant watering. The potato puree and divided into small por- research material was collected at the tions in coded Petri dishes. The evalua- beginning of September, 50 days after tion was performed in separate booths, the fi rst harvest, at the maturity optimal equipped with computers for data ac- for the fresh market. Leaves were im- quisition. The intensity of each attribute mediately transported to the laboratory, washed in cold tap water, air-dried and TABLE 1. Defi nitions of odour attributes used in stored for 7 or 14 days, using three types the quantitative descriptive analysis of packaging: bunch (200 g ±10 g each) Odour Defi nition immersed in water, retail MAP packag- attribute Total ing (200 g ±10 g each), and bulk MAP a complex of odours perceptible odour packaging (900 g ±10 g each). Samples after the repeal of the lid were stored at temperatures of 0°C and intensity odour giving irritating sensation Spicy- 10°C, in a cold room with 80% RH. after the repeal of the lid, the smell -irritant Sensory evaluation was carried out of terpene at the laboratory of the Department of Parsley characteristic odour of fresh, Vegetable and Medicinal Plants of the leaves chopped parsley leaves Warsaw University of Life Sciences Celery characteristic smell of celeriac – SGGW equipped according to the odour of freshly mown grass and Grassy ISO standard [PN-ISO-8589:1998]. wet plants slightly sour smell typical of fer- Quantitative Descriptive Analysis was Sour used for sensory quality analysis [PN- mented products, e.g. yogurt -ISO-6564:1999]. A panel of 10 experts, Seasoning associated with lovage, aromatic (bouillon) broth previously trained according to the ISO olfactory sensation felt while standard [PN-ISO-8586-2:1996], car- Herbal smelling herbs containing large ried out the analysis. The day before the (bitter) amounts of tannins, alkaloids, evaluation, the experts received sam- “styptic” fragrance refreshing, characteristic citrus ples of parsley leaves and individually Citrus generated a set of descriptors for odour odour and fl avour. Following discussion, Sweet associated with sweet fruit odour 26 descriptors were chosen for the as- fresh ground odour associated sessment (Tables 1 and 2). During the Earthy with raw beetroot or unwashed QDA evaluation, every assessor was potatoes odour characteristic for brassica given a set of randomized samples of Sulphuric vegetables the parsley leaves taken from each com- Foreign bination, in two independent sessions. atypical for parsley leaves 36 M. Sitarek et al.

TABLE 2. Defi nitions of fl avour attributes used plied. Analysis was performed separate- in the quantitative descriptive analysis ly for each cultivar. In order to compare Flavour Defi nition storage variants (e.g. storage in bunches attribute at 0°C for 7 days) one-way analysis of characteristic for fresh, Parsley leaves chopped parsley leaves, ter- variance was used. To examine the effect pene fl avour of storage factors, three-way analysis of Celery celeriac, parsley root fl avour variance for odour and two-way analysis scratching (astringency) sensa- of variance for fl avour was performed. Pungent tion, such as when tasting a The effect of temperature on fl avour was “styptic” strong tart tea determined on the basis of data obtained the impression of tasting green Grassy from 7-day storage. The effect of storage parts of plants period on fl avour was determined using Sour basic fl avour data obtained from storage at 0°C. the impression of tasting mixed Herbal- herbs such as lovage, herbes de -seasoning Provence, thyme, marjoram RESULTS AND DISCUSSION taste sensation felt in the Spicy-burning There is little literature data concern- mouth when trying a sample Bitter basic fl avour ing the sensory quality of fresh parsley Salty basic fl avour leaves. Research often concerns the sen- Sweet basic fl avour sory attributes of parsley after various aroma/taste sensation associ- drying and freezing processes [Duden Saponaceous ated with unfl avoured soap, 1984, Mangkoltriluk et al. 2005, Lech- “bland” sample tenberg et al. 2007]. aroma/taste sensation associ- Signifi cant differences in odour at- Earthy ated with soil and tasting of unwashed root vegetables tributes for both parsley cultivars were Foreign atypical for parsley leaves observed. Leaves of the ‘Rialto’ cultivar stored in bunches at 0°C for 7 and was determined on a non-structural 14 days had signifi cantly more sensi- graphical scale showing the anchoring ble “total odour intensity” and “parsley points (described as “undetectable” and leaves odour”. In the case of “total odour “very intensive”). Results were convert- intensity” they obtained scores of 6.72 ed into numerical values in a range of and 6.73 respectively. In the case of “pars- 0 to 10 units. Evaluation of fl avour after ley leaves odour” they obtained scores of 14 days of storage at 10°C was not per- 5.93 and 6.34 respectively (Fig. 1a, c). formed due to the poor quality of certain The lowest scores for these descriptors storage combinations. STATISTICA 12 were recorded for the leaves stored in software (Statsoft) was used for statisti- retail MAP for 14 days at 10°C (“total cal analysis of the results with ANOVA. odour intensity” 5.07, “parsley leaves Tukey’s HSD (Honestly Signifi cant Dif- odour” 3.62) (Fig. 2d). Other combi- ference) test at the signifi cance level nations for the ‘Rialto’ cultivar did not α = 0.05 for comparison of means was ap- differ signifi cantly (6.26–5.19) in the FIGURE 1. Odour attributes of ‘Rialto’ and ‘Petra’ cultivars before and after storage in bunches:

• • • • before storage (‘Rialto’), – – – after storage (‘Rialto’), — before storage (‘Petra’), – – – after storage (‘Petra’)

FIGURE 2. Odour attributes of ‘Rialto’ and ‘Petra’ cultivars before and after storage in retail MAP:

• • • • before storage (‘Rialto’), – – – after storage (‘Rialto’), — before storage (‘Petra’), – – – after storage (‘Petra’) 38 M. Sitarek et al. case of “total odour intensity” and were odour was signifi cantly higher at 0°C various in the case of “parsley leaves than at 10°C. The intensity of this at- odour” (4.04–5.40) (Figs 1b, d, 2a–c, 3). tribute was lower in the case of a longer Moreover, the temperature and storage storage period, amounting to 2.52 units period were factors which signifi cantly after 7 days of storage and 2.09 units infl uenced the scores for “total odour after 14 days. Storage of ‘Petra’ in bulk intensity” and “parsley leaves odour” of MAP resulted in maintenance of the ‘Rialto’ (Table 3). The intensity of these odour of “seasoning (bouillon)” close two odour attributes was the same for to the baseline, while storing in bunches ‘Petra’ in all combinations (Figs 1–3). proved to be the least effective method. They were not signifi cantly affected by The “seasoning (bouillon)” odour was the storage time or temperature (Table 4). maintained best for ‘Petra’ leaves stored The change in the intensity of “season- in bulk MAP for 14 days at 10°C (4.12) ing (bouillon)”, “sulphuric”, “celery” (Fig. 3d), while other storage variants and “herbal (bitter)” odours under dif- resulted in much lower scores – from ferent storage conditions was a common 2.75 (bulk MAP packaging at 0°C for feature of both cultivars. For ‘Rialto’, 7 days) to 1.59 (bunch at 0°C for 7 days) the intensity of “seasoning (bouillon)” (Figs 1, 2, 3a–c).

FIGURE. 3. Odour attributes of ‘Rialto’ and ‘Petra’ cultivars before and after storage in bulk MAP:

• • • • before storage (‘Rialto’), – – – after storage (‘Rialto’), — before storage (‘Petra’), – – – after storage (‘Petra’) Sensory characteristics of two parsley... 39

The best storage condition variants differed. ‘Rialto’ was characterized by for samples of ‘Petra’ as regards “sea- more intensive “total odour intensity”, soning (bouillon)” aroma were the worst as well as odour of “parsley leaves” and for ‘Rialto’. This phenomenon may be “citrus”. ‘Petra’ was described as more due to cultivar differences. Differences “earthy” than ‘Rialto’ shortly after har- between parsley cultivars were reported vesting. The infl uence of storage fac- by Urlich et al. [2011], who investigated tors on individual sensory traits of pars- sixteen different genotypes of parsley, ley should be further examined, since including two cultivars, six populations the effects of storage may be modifi ed and eight inbred lines, regarding their due to the interaction of such factors as sensory characteristics in relation to volatile patterns and resistance to Septo- temperature, storage period and type of ria petroselini. They found that more re- packaging. The effect of the interaction sistant genotypes were characterized by of all experimental factors was signifi - such sensory traits as “bitter”, “grassy”, cant in the case of ‘Petra’ for “seasoning “herbaceous”, “pungent”, “chemical”, (bouillon)”, “parsley leaves” and “cel- and “harsh” tastes. The odour profi le ery” odours (Table 4). For ‘Rialto’ such of both tested cultivars before storage relationships did not occur (Table 3).

TABLE 3. The inﬂ uence of experimental factors on odour attributes of ‘Rialto’ Experimental factor type of type of storage packaging type of packag- time × storage packaging ing Odour attribute type of storage × storage tempera- × × packaging time storage time ture storage storage tempera- × time temperature storage ture temperature Total odour ns ** *** ns * * ns intensity Spicy-irritant ns ns ns ns * ns Parsley leaves ns ** *** ns * ** ns Celery ns ** ns * ns ns Grassy ns ns ns ns ns ns ns Sour ns ns ns ns * ns Seasoning ns ** *** ns ns ns ns (bouillon) Herbal (bitter) ns * ns ns ns ns ns Citrus ns ns ns ns ns ns ns Sweet * ns ns ns ns ns ns Earthy ns ns ns ns ns ns ns Sulphuric ns ** ns ns ns ns ns Foreign *** *** ns *** ns ns ns Note: ns – not signiﬁ cant, * 0.1 ≥ p > 0.05, ** 0.05 ≥ p > 0.01 ***, 0.01 ≥ p > 0.000. 40 M. Sitarek et al.

TABLE 4. The inﬂ uence of experimental factors on odour attributes of ‘Petra’ Experimental factor type of type of storage type of packag- packaging time storage packaging ing × Odour attribute type of storage × tempera- × × storage time packaging time storage ture storage storage × tempera- time tempera- storage ture ture temperature Total odour ns ns Ns ns * ns ns intensity Spicy-irritant ns * Ns ns ns * ns Parsley leaves ns ns Ns ns ns ns * Celery ns ns Ns ns ns ns ** Grassy ns ns ns ns ns ns ns Sour ns * ns ns ns ns ns Seasoning *** ns ns ** ns *** *** (bouillon) Herbal (bitter) ns *** *** ns ns ns ns Citrus ns ns ns ns ns ns ns Sweet ns ns ns ns ns ns ns Earthy ns *** ns ns ns ns ns Sulphuric ns *** * ns * ns ns Foreign ns *** *nsns** ns Note: For explanation of symbols see Table 3.

Higher temperature and extended smell (0.52) compared with the other storage period infl uenced negatively the objects. For both cultivars an increase in “celery” odour of ‘Rialto’ leaves. ‘Petra’ “foreign” odour intensity was observed leaves stored in bulk MAP at 10°C for with prolonged storage duration. More- 14 days were assessed as the best (4.12) over, it was signifi cantly higher as a (Fig. 3d). Other objects obtained scores result of interaction of the time factor ranging from 3.5 to 2.5 in this category. (14 days) with the type of packaging The intensity of odour referred to as (‘Rialto’, retail MAP) and storage tem- “sulphuric” increased with the length of perature (‘Petra’, 10°C). Despite the storage time for both cultivars. The in- presence of a “foreign” odour for eight tensity for ‘Rialto’ increased from 0.47 ‘Rialto’ storage variants, its value was after 7 days of storage to a score of 0.78 at an insignifi cant level in the case of after 14 days. Similarly, the scores for bunches stored at 10°C and for leaves ‘Petra’ increased from 0.062 to 1.070. stored in bulk MAP (0°C for 14 days and The appearance of a “foreign” odour 10°C for 7 days) (Figs 1b, d, 3b, c). In (“off odour”) was identifi ed for both another study a “fi sh-like” foreign odour cultivars. ‘Rialto’ leaves stored in retail was reported for stored frozen parsley MAP showed the highest intensity of this [Duden and Hubner 1981]. Sensory characteristics of two parsley... 41

For ‘Petra’, an increase in the in- –18°C and below, with a reduction only tensity of “herbal (bitter)” odour was at –12°C. observed for extended storage period In our experiment, decreased stor- (from 1.54 to 1.96) and increased storage temperature signifi cantly infl uenced age temperature (from 1.54 to 1.97). the intensity of the “herbal-seasoning” Leaves of this cultivar were also char- fl avour for both cultivars (Tables 5, 6). acterized by a signifi cantly more in- Leaves of ‘Rialto’ kept at the lower tense “earthy” odour after 14-day stor- temperature obtained an average score age. Duden [1984] reported a decrease of 2.71 (Figs 4a, c, 5a, c, 6a, c), while in “freshness” and “grassy” aromas, as those stored at 10°C scored 1.64 (Figs well as the predominance of “hay-like” 4b, 5b, 6b). Similarly, ‘Petra’ leaves aroma due to a prolonged storage peri- scored respectively 2.89 (Figs 4a, c, 5a, od in an experiment where “curly” and c, 6a, c) and 1.93 (Figs 4b, 5b, 6b). It is “fl at” parsley leaves were stored from known that the decrease in “freshness” 0 to 8 months at different temperatures of parsley leaves correlates with the (from –50 to –12°C). The effect of freez- degradation of monoterpenes. Myrcene ing temperatures after 8 months’ storage (“herbal”, “metallic”) and menthatriene on the “grassy” and “hay-like” attributes (“parsley-like”) are two important com- showed the “hay-like” scores to increase pounds within this category which have consistently with temperature, while the been identifi ed as signifi cant in fresh “grassy” attribute remained unchanged at parsley, based on their “fl avour dilution”

TABLE 5. The inﬂ uence of experimental factors on ﬂ avour attributes of ‘Rialto’ Experimental factor type of type of packaging Flavour attribute type of storage packaging storage time × packaging temperature × storage storage time temperature Parsley leaves ns ns ns ns ns Celery ns ns ns ns ns Pungent “styptic” ns ns ns ns ns Grassy ns ns ns ns ns Sour ns * ns ns ns Herbal-seasoning ns ns *** ns ns Spicy-burning ns ns * ns ns Bitter ns ns ns ns ns Salty ns ns ns ns ns Sweet ns ns ns ns ns Saponaceous ns ns ns ns ns Earthy ns ** ns ns ns Foreign ns ns ns ns ns Note: For explanation of symbols see Table 3. 42 M. Sitarek et al.

TABLE 6. The infl uence of experimental factors on fl avour attributes of ‘Petra’ Experimental factor type of type of packaging Flavour attribute type of storage packaging storage time × packaging temperature × storage storage time temperature Parsley leaves ns * ns ns ns Celery ns ** ns ns ns Pungent “styptic” ns ns ns ns ns Grassy ns ns ns ns ns Sour ns ns ** ns ns Herbal-seasoning ns * *** ns ns Spicy-burning ns ns ns ns ns Bitter ns ns ns ns ns Salty ns ns ns ns ns Sweet ns ns ns ns ns Saponaceous ns ns ns ns ns Earthy ns ns ns ns ns Foreign ns ns ns ns ns Note: For explanation of symbols see Table 3. factor using aroma extraction dilution 7 days). ‘Rialto’ was described as more analysis (AEDA) [Jung et al. 1992]. “spicy-burning” when stored at 0°C. The intensity of “herbal-seasoning” For both cultivars, “foreign” fl avour fl avour was perceived differently de- was not found in all storage variants. pending on the storage combination of Duden [1984] observed the occurrence both cultivars. ‘Petra’ stored in a bunch of “foreign” fl avour in frozen parsley. for 7 days at 0°C obtained the highest The fl avour was described as “hay-like” scores (3.28), while stored in retail MAP and “grassy”. “Grassy” fl avour was for the same period at 10 °C it obtained found only in frozen unblanched leaves the lowest scores (1.55) (Figs 4a, 5b). and “hay-like” fl avour was found in Other combinations received moderate blanched and unblanched material. evaluations (2.93–1.98) (Figs 4b–c; 5a, Mangkoltriluk et al. [2005] found c, 6a–c). Moreover, the extended stor- no fl avour differences in parsley leaves age period infl uenced negatively the depending on the processing method. “herbal-seasoning”, “parsley leaves” In their survey, 70% of assessors were and “celery” fl avours. not able to identify the odd sample cor- “Earthy” taste was detected to a great- rectly out of samples of curled parsley er degree in ‘Rialto’ leaves stored for leaves dried in two different conditions 14 days (1.3) compared with 7-day stor- (samples were assessed using the trian- age (0.78), as was “sour” taste in ‘Pet- gle method – the odd coded sample is ra’ leaves (1.72 for 14 days, 1.18 for compared with two identical coded ref- Sensory characteristics of two parsley... 43

FIGURE 4. Flavour attributes of ‘Rialto’ and ‘Petra’ cultivars before and after storage in bunches:

• • • • before storage (‘Rialto’), – – – after storage (‘Rialto’), — before storage (‘Petra’), – – – after storage (‘Petra’)

FIGURE 5. Flavour attributes of ‘Rialto’ and ‘Petra’ cultivars before and after storage in retail MAP:

• • • • before storage (‘Rialto’), – – – after storage (‘Rialto’), — before storage (‘Petra’), – – – after storage (‘Petra’) 44 M. Sitarek et al.

FIGURE 6. Flavour attributes of ‘Rialto’ and ‘Petra’ cultivars before and after storage in bulk MAP:

• • • • before storage (‘Rialto’), – – – after storage (‘Rialto’), — before storage (‘Petra’), – – – after storage (‘Petra’) erence samples), although chemical dif- may be more susceptible to loss of these ferences in volatiles concentration were sensory values. found in the samples. Lechtenberg et al. Storage in retail MAP results in [2007] examined the sensory attributes lower “total odour” intensity and “pars- of parsley leaves after different drying ley leaves” odour intensity, whereas methods. They found that freeze-dried leaves stored in bunches can be kept material had a more intense green colour up to 14 days at 0°C without large deg- and had more “fresh” aroma, whereas radation of these attributes. the oven-dried material gave the optical The intensity of “sulphuric” and “for- impression of a slightly greyish colour eign” odours increases during the storage and had a non-intense sensory impact. period for both cultivars tested. Storage of more aromatic cultivars, such as ‘Rial- to’, in retail MAP conditions stimulates CONCLUSIONS the occurrence of ‘foreign’ odour. Lower initial intensity of “total odour” The intensity of “herbal-seasoning” and “parsley leaves” odour of parsley fl avour decreases during the storage pe- results in smaller changes in the sensory riod, while “earthy” fl avour (‘Rialto’) traits of the plant material during stor- and “sour” fl avour (‘Petra’) increase in age, while more aromatic parsley leaves intensity. Sensory characteristics of two parsley... 45

Packaging type is important with re- Past, present and future. Food Res. Int. 34: gard to the possibility of occurrence of 461–471. “foreign” odour. It can be stated that the PN-ISO-6564:1999. Sensory Analysis. Method- ology. Flavour profi ling method. storage of more aromatic cultivars in re- PN-ISO-8586-2:1996. Sensory analysis. General tail MAP for 14 days at 10°C cannot be guidelines for selection, training and assessor applied for that reason. monitoring. Experts. PN-ISO-8589:1998. Sensory Analysis. General guidelines for designing sensory analysis lab. REFERENCES TUDELA J.A., MARÍN A., GARRIDO Y., AHARONI N., REUVENI A., DVIR O. (1989). CANTWELL M., MEDINA-MARTÍNEZA Modifi ed atmospheres in fi lm packages delay M.S., GIL M.I. (2013). Off-odour develop- senescence and decay of fresh herbs. Acta ment in modifi ed atmosphere packaged baby Hortic. 258: 255–262. spinach is an unresolved problem. Posthar- AZEEZ S., PARTHASARATHY V.A. (2008). vest Biol. Tec. 75: 75–85. Parsley. In: Chemistry of Spices. V.A. Parthasarathy, B. Chempakam, T.J. Zachariah Streszczenie: Ocena sensoryczna liści dwóch od- (Eds). CABI: 376–400. mian pietruszki naciowej (Petroselinum sativum DUDEN R. (1984). Sensory changes in parsley ssp. crispum L.) w zależności od warunków prze- during freezing and frozen storage. Lebens- chowywania. Badano jakość sensoryczną (smak mitteltechnik 16 (4): 169–171. i zapach) dwóch odmian pietruszki naciowej DUDEN R., HUBNER G. (1981). Enzymatic przed przechowywaniem i po przechowywaniu. oxidation reactions in deep frozen parsley. Czynnikami doświadczenia były czas przechowy- Zeitschrift fur Ernahrungswissenschaft 20 (4): wania (7 i 14 dni), temperatura przechowywania 270–274. (0°C i 10°C) oraz typ opakowania (pęczki zanu- HUNT ASHBY B. (2008). Individual Commod- ity Requirements. Fresh Fruits and Vegeta- rzone ogonkami w wodzie, opakowania jednost- bles. Parsley. In: Protecting Perishable Foods kowe i opakowania zbiorcze modyfi kujące atmos- During Transport by Truck. United States De- ferę). Doświadczeniem objęto odmiany ‘Rialto’ partment of Agriculture: 46. i ‘Petra’ o zróżnicowanej morfologii. Zbiór roślin JUNG H., SEN A., GROSCH W. (1992). Evalua- przeprowadzono w terminie jesiennym (wrze- tion of potent odorants in Parsley leaves [Pet- sień). Jakość sensoryczną liści pietruszki nacio- roselinum crispum (Mill.) Nym. ssp. crispum] wej oceniano metodą ilościowej analizy opisowej by aroma extract dilution analysis. Lebensm. (QDA). Do opisania sensorycznych cech jako- Wiss. Technol. 25: 55–60. ściowych zastosowano łącznie 26 wyróżników LECHTENBERG M., ZUMDICK S., GER- (13 dla zapachu i 13 dla smaku) wytypowanych HARDS C., SCHMIDT T.J., HENSEL A. przez zespół ekspertów. Wyniki doświadczenia (2007). Evaluation of analytical markers char- wykazały, że badane odmiany różniły się pod acterising different drying methods of parsley względem badanych wyróżników sensorycznych leaves (Petroselinum crispum L.). Pharmazie w zależności od warunków przechowywania. 62: 949–954. doi: 10.1691/ph.2007.12.7543. Obniżona temperatura przechowywania sprzyjała MANGKOLTRILUK W., SRZEDNICKI G., zachowaniu świeżości naci obu odmian. Liście CRASKE J. (2005). Preservation of fl a- przechowywane przez okres 14 dni charakteryzo- vour components in parsley (Petroselinum wały się mniejszym nasileniem aromatu i smaku. crispum) by heat pump and cabinet drying. Wraz z wydłużeniem okresu przechowywania Pol. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 14/55 (1): 63–66. odnotowano zwiększone odczuwanie zapachu MURRAY J.M., DELAHUNTY C.M., BAXTER „obcego” i smaku „ziemistego”. Więcej różnic I.A. (2001). Descriptive sensory analysis: zaobserwowano dla wyróżników zapachu naci.

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 36, 2015: 47–55 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 36, 2015)

Fruit characteristics of Actinidia cultivars obtained at the M. Grishko National Botanical Garden of the Ukrainian NAS in Kyiv NADIIA SKRYPCHENKO* Department of Fruit Plants Acclimatization M. Grishko National Botanical Garden of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine

Abstract: Fruit characteristics of Actinidia culti- ment of phytocenoses. The continuing vars obtained at the M. Grishko National Botani- deterioration of the environment makes cal Garden of the Ukrainian NAS in Kyiv. This paper summarizes the results of introduction and it necessary to ﬁ nd and mobilize plants selection of Actinidia arguta (Siebold et Zucc.) with increased resistance and vitality, Planch. ex Miq and its hybrids at the M. Grishko which include woody vines of the genus National Botanical Garden of the National Acad- Actinidia Lindl. According to the latest emy of Sciences of Ukraine in Kyiv. The main goal of the breeding program was to improve fruit revision the Actinidia genus includes quality, plant productivity, and winter hardiness. 75 taxa [Ferguson and Huang 2007] and Pomological and biochemical analysis of the covers a closed area in Asia (China, Ja- fruit of new cultivars was conducted in the years pan, Nepal, Sakhalin island, far eastern 2013–2015. The fruits of the best cultivars accu- Russia). The vast majority of species of mulated large amounts of vitamin C, sugars, organic acids and carotenoids, and have a high level Actinidia are decorative vines, but some of dry soluble substances. The yields of the culti- of them are very important fruit plants. vars described here were between 9 and 35 kg per These include primarily Actinidia delici- plant. The tested cultivars were divided into four osa (A.Chev.) C.F. Liang et A.R. Fergu- groups according to fruit maturation time. The best cultivars expressed good fruit characteristics son, which currently provides one of the and yield, and hence can be successfully culti- most valuable fruit exports (“kiwifruit”). vated on commercial plantations and in private In regions with temperate climates and gardens. They are also a good material for further cold winter the main attention is focused breeding programs. on frost-resistant actinidia species char- Key words: kiwiberry, selection, introduction, vi- acterized by high adaptive possibility tamin C, carotenoids, yield and productivity – A. kolomikta (Rupr. et Maxim.) Maxim., A. arguta (Siebold et INTRODUCTION Zucc.) Planch. ex Miq. Lately A. arguta (called hardy kiwifruit or kiwiberry) Expanding the range of fruit and orna- has come to be seen as a promising com- mental plants through new types and mercial culture in many countries, in- forms is essential for the cultural enrich- cluding New Zealand, the USA, Japan, Poland, Belgium, Germany and others * e-mail: [email protected] 48 N. Skrypchenko

[Latocha 2010]. Unfortunately, there are Dnieper Elevation. The main type of soil no commercial plantations of A. arguta is dark gray ash. The soil surface is very in Ukraine, but many promising varie- blurred and has low humus content. The ties of Actinidia for commercial cultiva- climate of the area in which Kyiv is lo- tion have been selected. cated is moderately continental with av- In Ukraine, the investigation of cold- erage annual temperature 9.4°C. Studies resistant species of Actinidia was initi- were conducted in the years 2013–2015. ated by academician M. Kaschenko in Analysis was performed on 15-years-old 1914, and systematic research concern- plants. As material for pomological in- ing the formation of a collection of Ac- vestigation, actinidia fruit in the state of tinidia for further selection work was consumer maturity were chosen (based started at the M. Grishko National Bo- on fruit softness). The weight, length tanical Garden (NBG) of the National and width of the fruit were measured Academy of Sciences of Ukraine in on 100 randomly chosen fruits of each 1958. Today, that institution has the larg- cultivar. The mass fraction of dry solu- est collection of actinidia in Ukraine, ble substances was determined by a re- which is constantly replenished by ex- fractometric method [GOST 28562-90, change with various botanical institu- 1990]; acidity in terms of citric acid was tions and through breeding work, which determined by titration with 0.1M NaOH is aimed at creating high-performance [GOST 23555.0-82, 1984]; ascorbic varieties adapted to the conditions of the acid content by an iodometric method Ukrainian forest steppe. The collection comprises 6 species and over 300 differ- [Pleshkov 1976]; total sugars by the ferent taxa of actinidia. It includes A. ar- ricyanide method [GOST 8756.13-87, guta, A. kolomikta, A. arguta var. purpu- 1988]; and total carotenoids spectropho- rea (Rehder) C.F. Liang ex Q.Q. Chang, tometrically [GOST 8756.22-80, 1981]. A. polygama (Siebold et Zucc.) Maxim., The chemical analyses were performed A. deliciosa, A. macrosperma C.F. Liang each year on 50 randomly chosen fruits and A. callosa Lindl. The 15 cultivars of of each cultivar. “hardy” actinidia appear in the Register of Plant Cultivars of Ukraine. Therefore, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the aim of this study was to determine The introduction of actinidia at NBG was some external and internal fruit quality initiated by sowing free pollination seeds, traits of new Actinidia cultivars obtained obtained from the botanical gardens of at M. Grishko NBG. Beijing (China), Lviv (Ukraine), Batumi (Georgia) and Michurinsk (Russia). As MATERIAL AND METHODS a result of selection of the most promis- National Botanical Garden (NBG) is lo- ing forms, new frost-resistant cultivars cated in the southern part of Kyiv, on the of actinidia named ‘Sentiabrskaya’ and Kyiv Elevation, and its area is geomor- ‘Purpurnaya Sadovaya’ were obtained. phologically associated with the large Next, they were used in a breeding pro- Fruit characteristics of Actinidia cultivars... 49 gram to obtain new cultivars, which are cultivars were divided into (a) very early characterized by stable annual crop, di- ripening – ‘Perlyna Sadu’ (fruits ripen in verse biochemical fruit properties and late August); (b) early ripening – ‘Fig- frost resistance. For this purpose the urnaya’ and ‘Lasunka’ (fruits ripen in hybridization of A. arguta and A. arguta early September); (c) medium ripening var. purpurea was conducted, and then – ‘Kievskaya Krupnoplodnaya’, ‘Sen- among the hybrid material the cultivars tiabrskaya’, ‘Kievskaya Gibridnaya’, ‘Figurnaya’, ‘Kievskaya Krupnoplod- ‘Originalnaya’, ‘Zagadkova’, ‘Rima’, naya’ and ‘Kievskaya Gibridnaya’ were ‘Originalnaya’ and ‘Rubinovaya’ (in selected [Shajtan et al. 1983]. Due to the Ukrainian forest steppe fruit ripen- this stage of the selection process, high- ing lasts from September 15 to 25); and ly winter-hardy cultivars with high fruit (d) the latest cultivars – ‘Purpurnaya quality, i.e. ‘Nadiya’, ‘Originalnaya’, Sadovaya’ and ‘Karavaievskaya Uro- ‘Lasunka’, ‘Perlyna Sadu’, ‘Krasunia’, zhainaya’ (fruits ripen from late Septem- ‘Smaragdova’ and ‘Juvileyna’, were ber to early October). released. The following fruit selection The fruit chemical composition was criteria were used: fruit size and taste, mostly determined by the cultivar. How- time of maturation, and yield. Finally, ever, differences between successive 15 cultivars of A. arguta were obtained years indicate that fruit internal quality and ofﬁ cially registered [Klimenko and could also be affected by weather and Skrypchenko 2013]. For the pollination soil conditions, as well as fruit ripeness of all Ukrainian cultivars of A. arguta at harvesting. Titratable acidity and sugar the pollinator cultivar ‘Don-Juan’ was content of the analyzed fruit are shown selected. ‘Don-Juan’ is characterized by in Table 2, and dry matter, vitamin C and a long ﬂ owering period and high level of carotenoid contents are presented in Fig- pollen fertility. ures 2–4. Large variations in the studied The average fruit weight depended parameters were recorded. Depending on on cultivar and ranged from 5.55 to cultivar, dry matter (DM) content varied 18.5 g (Table 1). Fruit weight remained from 13.7 to 17.5%. The highest DM val- at a similar level in successive harvest ues were obtained for ‘Lasunka’, ‘Fig- years. The fruit differ in shape and urnaya’ and ‘Perlyna Sadu’. The titrat- color (Fig. 1). The ‘Kievskaya Krup- able acidity ranged from 0.37 to 0.76%; noplodnaya’, ‘Originalnaya’, ‘Nadiya’, ‘Krasunia’ and ‘Figurnaya’ had the low- ‘Zagadkova’, ‘Juvileyna’ and ‘Sma- est acidity and ‘Kievskaya Gibridnaya’ ragdova’ cultivars produced the largest and ‘Karavaievskaya Urozhainaya’ the fruits. The average kiwiberry yield per highest. The sugar content varied be- plant ranged from 9 to 35 kg. The culti- tween 4.27% (‘Zagadkova’) and 11.97% vars with the highest yields were ‘Pur- (‘Purpurna Sadova’). The highest vita- purnaya Sadovaya’, ‘Kievskaya Krup- min C content, above 100 mg·100 g–1 noplodnaya’, ‘Zagadkova’ and ‘Rima’. FW, was recorded for ‘Kievskaya Gi- Depending on the fruit ripening time, the bridnaya’ and ‘Originalnaya’. For the TABLE 1. Morphological characteristics of Actinidia cultivars from NBG selection in successive years of the study. The values are means (±SD, n = 100) Fruit weight (g) Fruit length (cm) Fruit width (cm) Average yield Cultivar (parents) 2013 2014 2015 2013 2014 2015 2013 2014 2015 (kg·plant–1) ‘Purpurnaya Sadovaya’ 11.31 ±1.54 10.63 ±0.96 11.66 ±1.43 3.47 ±0.15 3.75 ±0.27 3.29 ±0.14 2.27 ±0.14 2.22 ±0.12 2.32 ±0.09 20–35 (А. arguta var. purpurea) ‘Sentiabrskaya’ (A. arguta) 9.02 ±0.99 8.84 ±0.91 10.34 ±1.78 2.88 ±0.09 2.93 ±0.12 2.38 ±0.11 2.45 ±0.12 2.24 ±0.09 2.57 ±0.15 9–12 ‘Krasunia’(A. arguta) 12.95 ±1.03 13.04 ±0.85 13.31 ±1.22 2.62 ±0.12 2.51 ±0.13 2.58 ±0.18 3.21 ±0.18 2.84 ±0.14 2.77 ±0.15 9–12 ‘Kievskaya Gibridnaya’ (А. arguta × 9.75 ±1.32 9.05 ±1.17 10.61 ±1.84 2.77 ±0.18 2.80 ±0.25 2.92 ±0.19 2.48 ±0.11 2.39 ±0.16 2.45 ±0.18 10–18 × A. arguta var. purpurea) ‘Kievskaya Krupnoplodnaya’ 16.65 ±2.03 17.95 ±1.01 18.50 ±2.42 3.48 ±0.10 3.71 ±0.12 3.37 ±0.19 3.12 ±0.23 3.07 ±0.13 2.87 ±0.14 20–25 (А. arguta × A. arguta var. purpurea’) ‘Figurnaya’ (А. arguta × 7.84 ±1.19 6.95 ±0.82 8.61 ±1.44 2.55 ±0.10 2.35 ±0.12 2.9 ±0.15 2.15 ±0.19 2.31 ±0.13 2.08 ±0.20 15–20 × A. arguta var. purpurea) ‘Rima’ (‘Sentiabrskaya’ × 6.87 ±0.54 7.21 ±0.84 6.83 ±1.51 2.59 ±0.14 2.60 ±0.20 2.61 ±0.15 2.11 ±0.09 2.12 ±0.06 2.13 ±0.06 15–20 × A. arguta var. purpurea) ‘Zagadkova’ (‘Sentiabrskaya’ × 10.72 ±1.21 12.04 ±1.11 9.34 ±1.58 2.71 ±0.14 2.53 ±0.09 2.86 ±0.23 2.61 ±0.16 2.74 ±1.85 2.60 ±0.14 15–20 × A. arguta var. purpurea) ‘Originalnaya’ (‘Sentiabrskaya’× 10.34 ±2.41 10.11 ±1.46 10.45 ±1.95 3.26 ±0.29 3.33 ±0.20 3.01 ±0.19 2.20 ±0.23 2.34 ±0.15 2.24 ±0.17 15–20 × A. arguta var. purpurea) ‘Lasunka’ (‘Sentiabrskaya’ × 8.73 ±0.86 8.05 ±0.95 9.32 ±1.32 3.19 ±0.14 3.29 ±0.11 2.29 ±20.1 2.08 ±0.12 2.15 ±0.09 2.22 ±0.14 10–11 × A. arguta var. purpurea) ‘Karavaievskaya Urozhainaya’ (‘Purpurnaya Sadovaya’ × 5.55 ±0.84 6.12 ±0.86 6.63 ±1.09 2.54 ±0.09 2.64 ±0.14 2.32 ±0.13 1.82 ±0.18 1.75 ±0.14 1.86 ±0.12 10–12 × A. arguta) ‘Nadiya’(‘Purpurnaya Sadovaya’× 9.48 ±1.77 10.05 ±1.66 8.97 ±1.37 3.44 ±0.25 3.58 ±0.21 3.18 ±0.14 2.19 ±0.18 2.25 ±0.17 2.17 ±0.14 15–20 × A. arguta) ‘Rubinovaya’(‘Purpurnaya Sado- 6.43 ±0.73 7.01 ±0.97 6.06 ±1.03 2.99 ±0.14 2.85 ±0.10 3.16 ±0.15 1.89 ±0.11 1.74 ±0.15 1.95 ±0.13 10–13 vaya’× A. arguta) ‘Perlyna Sadu’(‘Purpurnaya Sado- 6.45 ±0.86 8.74 ±0.63 8.21 ±1.11 2.54 ±0.10 2.43 ±0.08 2.53 ±0.15 2.16 ±0.11 2.44 ±0.09 2.12 ±0.13 12–15 vaya’× A. arguta) ‘Juvileyna’(‘Kievskaya Krupnoplod- naya’× ‘Purpurnaya Sadovaya’× 14.52 ±2.04 13.25 ±0.58 14.83 ±2.13 3.63 ±0.21 3.47 ±0.08 3.73 ±0.15 2.61 ±0.14 2.33 ±0.06 2.56 ±0.11 12–15 × A. arguta) ‘Smaragdova’(‘Sentiabrskaya’ × 11.52 ±1.63 9.78 ±1.07 10.20 ±1.84 3.28 ±0.14 3.40 ±0.26 2.92 ±0.17 1.85 ±0.15 2.13 ±0.08 1.72 ±0.10 12–15 × ‘Don-Juan’) Fruit characteristics of Actinidia cultivars... 51

FIGURE 1. Actinidia cultivars obtained in Kyiv Botanical Garden: 1 – ‘Juvileyna’; 2 – ‘Purpurna- ya Sadovaya’; 3 – ‘Smaragdova’; 4 – ‘Rima’; 5 – ‘Kievskaya Krupnoplodnaya’; 6 – ‘Rubinovaya’; 7 – ‘Nadya’; 8 – ‘Oryginalnaya’ (photo: N. Skrypchenko) other cultivars, ascorbate concentration The current stage of Actinidia selec- varied between 48.7 and 91.9 mg·100 g–1 tion work at NBG is directed towards ob- FW. Some of these cultivars have also taining new cultivars bearing fruit with been tested in Polish climatic conditions, greater pro-health potential, i.e. higher giving comparable values of most of the content of biologically active substances. above-mentioned traits [Bieniek 2012]. These properties should be accompanied Compared with Ukrainian kiwiberries, by high frost-resistance and high yield. those cultivated in Polish climatic con- The established collection of Actinidia ditions had considerably higher vitamin cultivars and forms may serve as start- –1 C content (above 100 mg·100 g FW for ing material for this purpose. most of the tested cultivars). 52 N. Skrypchenko

TABLE 2. Titratable acidity and sugar content depending on cultivar and harvest year. The values are means (±SD, n = 50) Titratable acidity (%) Total sugar (%) Cultivar 2014 2015 2015 2013 2014 2015 ‘Purpurnaya 0.90 ±0.08 0.42 ±0.04 0.54 ±0.05 6.76 ±0.57 11.97 ±1.05 6.62 ±0.71 Sadovaya’ ‘Sentiabrskaya’ 0.32 ±0.04 0.63 ±0.06 0.41 ±0.03 7.59 ±0.69 5.56 ±0.59 8.03 ±0.73 ‘Krasunia’ 0.30 ±0.03 0.39 ±0.04 0.48 ±0.04 8.20 ±0.72 7.34 ±0.68 6.51 ±0.56 ‘Kievskaya 0.88 ±0.07 0.64 ±0.05 0.76 ±0.06 7.23 ±0.58 6.91 ±0.40 7.07 ±0.65 Gibridnaya’ ‘Kievskaya 0.65 ±0.05 0.81 ±0.06 0.49 ±0.04 7.62 ±0.65 8.47 ±0.74 6.80 ±0.54 Krupnoplodnaya ‘Figurnaya’ 0.28 ±0.03 0.46 ±0.04 0.37 ±0.03 10.01 ±0.95 10.36 ±0.89 9.72 ±0.83 ‘Rima’ 0.49 ±0.04 0.45 ±0.04 0.53 ±0.04 11.31 ±1.04 12.26 ±1.09 10.36 ±0.98 ‘Zagadkova’ 0.65 ±0.05 0.43 ±0.03 0.88 ±0.06 9.57 ±0.84 10.28 ±0.89 4.27 ±0.39 ‘Originalnaya’ 0.91 ±0.08 0.47 ±0.03 0.49 ±0.04 7.37 ±0.68 7.45 ±0.69 8.76 ±0.74 ‘Lasunka’ 0.77 ±0.07 0.62 ±0.05 0.72 ±0.06 7.80 ±0.69 10.88 ±0.84 8.20 ±0.68 ‘Karavaievskaya 0.78 ±0.06 0.51 ±0.04 0.88 ±0.07 8.75 ±0.77 9.95 ±0.86 9.64 ±0.88 Urozhainaya’ ‘Nadiya’ 0.71 ±0.05 0.52 ±0.04 0.76 ±0.06 8.40 ±0.71 5.46 ±0.42 7.95 ±0.62 ‘Rubinovaya’ 0.32 ±0.03 0.21 ±0.02 0.96 ±0.08 9.40 ±0.83 10.22 ±0.87 8.20 ±0.64 ‘Perlyna Sadu’ 0.75 ±0.06 0.38 ±0.03 0.55 ±0.04 9.91 ±0.84 9.40 ±0.72 9.64 ±0.73 ‘Juvileyna’ 0.51 ±0.04 0.43 ±0.03 0.52 ±0.05 10.78 ±0.97 11.79 ±0.98 10.09 ±0.89 ‘Smaragdova’ 0.44 ±0.04 0.42 ±0.03 0.49 ±0.04 9.20 ±0.87 9.64 ±0.81 8.76 ±0.74

FIGURE 2. Fruit dry matter content for Actinidia cultivars. Values are three-year averages Fruit characteristics of Actinidia cultivars... 53

FIGURE 3. Fruit vitamin C content for Actinidia cultivars. Values are three-year averages

FIGURE 4. Fruit carotenoids content for Actinidia cultivars. Values are three-year averages 54 N. Skrypchenko

CONCLUSIONS GOST 25555.0-82 (1984). Produkty pererabotki plodov i ovoszhej. Metody opredelenia ti- 1. As a result of the introduction, accli- triruemoj kislotnosti. Izdatelstvo standartov, matization and selection of Actinidia Moscow. at the NBG, a collection has been cre- GOST 8756.13-87 (1988). Produkty pererabotki ated including 6 species (A. arguta, plodov i ovoszhej. Metody opredelenia saha- A. kolomikta, A. arguta var. purpurea, rov. Izdatelstvo standartov, Moscow. A. polygama, A. chinensis, A. macro- GOST 28562-90 (1990). Produkty pererabotki sperma, A.callosa) and over 300 dif- plodov i ovoszhej. Refraktometricheskij me- ferent forms and cultivars. Fifteen of tod opredelenia rastvorimyh suhih veszhestv. these cultivars have been entered in the Izdatelstvo standartov, Moscow. Register of Plant Cultivars of Ukraine. KLIMIENKO S.V., SKRYPCHENKO N.V. 2. The average fruit weight of the select- (2013). Sorta plodovyh i jagodnyh rastenij selekcii Nacionalnogo botanicheskogo sada ed cultivars ranged from 6.4 to 20.0 g, im. N.N. Grishko. Izdatelstvo Ukrainskogo and the productivity of a 15-year-old ﬁ tosociologicheskogo centra, Kiev. –1 plant ranged from 9 to 35 kg·plant ; LATOCHA P. (2010). Morfologia oraz wartość the fruit ripening period lasted from użytkowa owoców aktinidii ostrolistnej i mie- late August until early October – prac- szańcowej. Postdoctoral dissertation. Wyd. tically for 2 months. Wieś Jutra, Warszawa. 3. The fruit of NBG Actinidia cultivars PLESHKOV B.P. (1976). Оpredelenie vitamina had vitamin C, carotenoid and to- С jodometricheskim metodom. Wyd. Kolos, tal sugar contents in the ranges 48– Moscow. –120 mg·100 g–1 FW, 0.39–1.40 mg· SHAJTAN I.M., MOROZ P.A., KLIMIENKO ·100 g–1 FW and 7.1–11.3% respec- S.V. (1983). Introdukcija i selekcija juszhnyh tively. i novyh plodovyh rastenij. Naukova dumka, Kiev. 4. It was concluded that the evaluated kiwiberry cultivars are able to com- pete with kiwifruit and other well- Streszczenie: Charakterystyka owoców odmian -known fruits. aktinidii wyselekcjonowanych w Ogrodzie Bota- nicznym Akademii Nauk Ukrainy im. M. Grish- ko w Kijowie. Celem pracy była charakterystyka REFERENCES owoców nowych odmian aktinidii wyselekcjo- BIENIEK A. (2012). Yield, morphology and bio- nowanych w Narodowym Ogrodzie Botanicz- logical value of fruits of Actinidia arguta and nym im. M. Grishko Narodowej Akademii Nauk Actinidia purpurea and some of their hybrid Ukrainy. Artykuł podsumowuje wyniki prac nad cultivars grown in north-eastern Poland. Acta selekcją i introdukcją aktinidii ostrolistnej (Ac- Sci. Pol., Hortorum Cultus 11 (3), 117–130. tinidia arguta) i jej mieszańców prowadzonych FERGUSON A.R., HUANG H. (2007). Ge- w Ogrodzie Botanicznym Akademii Nauk Ukra- netic Resources of Kiwifruit: Domestica- iny. Celem tych prac było uzyskanie odmian tion and Breeding. Plant and Food Research o lepszej jakości owoców, większej produktyw- 3: 1–121. ności oraz lepszej mrozoodporności. Badania po- GOST 8756.22-80 (1981). Produkty pererabot- mologiczne oraz biochemiczne owoców prowa- ki plodov i ovoszhej. Metody opredelenia dzono w latach 2013–2015. Owoce najlepszych karotina. Izdatelstvo standartov, Moscow. odmian zawierały znaczne ilości witaminy C, Fruit characteristics of Actinidia cultivars... 55 cukrów, kwasów organicznych, karotenu i miały owoców. Najlepsze odmiany mają owoce dobrej dużą zawartość suchej masy. Plon poszczegól- jakości, dają duży plon i mogą być z powodze- nych odmian zawierał się w przedziale 9–35 kg niem uprawiane na plantacjach towarowych oraz z jednej rośliny. Poszczególne odmiany podzie- w ogrodach przydomowych. Mogą być także lono na grupy pod względem pory dojrzewania cennym materiałem do dalszej hodowli.

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 36, 2015: 57–69 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 36, 2015)

Social initiatives as a means of participation in the transformation of city space MONIKA DOMANOWSKA* Mazovian Branch of the Polish Landscape Architects Association, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: Social initiatives as a means of par- current social needs in recreating city ticipation in the transformation of city space. space. We may regard these initiatives as A review is made of selected social interventions something of a “fi rst-aid kit” for urban having the goal of improving the quality of the landscape in Warsaw. The chosen case studies problems – in many cases social initia- also illustrate a typology of social activities car- tives are the fi rst step towards transform- ried out to improve city public spaces and green- ing city spaces in need of modernization. ery. The initiatives have taken place during the We can see that organized initiatives take past several years, starting from 2007 (the year place mainly in two kinds of city spaces: of the fi rst known social action to improve the landscape: “Dotleniacz/Oxygenator”, created by fi rstly in the most degraded city areas, Joanna Rajkowska). Since that time there has including residential neighbourhoods, been a noticeable increase in social expectations and secondly in the most representative in many areas of life, including the creation of city public spaces. This gives an indi- public city space. From the second half of the fi rst cation of what is important to citizens: decade of the 21st century we can observe more fi rstly a pleasant place to live, followed and more social initiatives which may be considered a reaction to the low quality of Polish city by space to spend time outside the home. space. The presented examples illustrate a trend It can also be clearly observed that many for the transformation of city space by means of of these actions include the moderniza- actions organized by nongovernmental organiza- tion of existing green areas and planting tions and non-associated activists. of new greenery1. These small-scale in- Key words: city landscape, social activities in the public space, social activities for landscaping, so- 1 These need basic knowledge about ecosystem cial participation, urban gardening services and green infrastructure theory – the two most contemporary theories on how greenery INTRODUCTION (and ecosystems on a larger scale) are perceived in human life. Ecosystem services are the benefi ts Nongovernmental organizations and provided by ecosystems that contribute to making foundations, which are the main organ- human life both possible and worth living. Ac- izers of various social activities in cit- cording to the European Commission’s defi nition ies, show through their actions the most of green infrastructure, greenery in the city is also a tool to increase the quality of life. Social benefi ts of green infrastructure include, for example: better health and human well-being, more attractive, * e-mail: [email protected] greener cities, higher property values and local 58 M. Domanowska terventions, of which the main idea is to 2014]. The selected examples indicate recreate city space with greenery, shows the needs and expectations of citizens how important for residents (on the basic concerning the modernization of degrad- level of needs) is contact with nature2. ed areas. They also show that increasing Observation of spontaneous actions in the amount and quality of greenery in the city space can provide an excellent the city is seen as one of the best tools to opportunity to obtain knowledge on improve the city space. how to create smarter and more pleas- The political backdrop to the problem ant cities. According to the New Charter is that since the fi rst decade of the 21st of Athens 2003 we can distinguish four century there has been a rapid increase main trends in changes in the city: so- in the interest of city inhabitants in trans- cial and political changes, economic and forming and improving their own place technological changes, environmental of living. There are several reasons why changes, and urban changes. Under each local activism has begun to gain popu- of these categories, the expected infl u- larity in Polish cities. First, Polish acces- ence on cities is considered – both for sion to the European Union has opened citizens and planners. These trends are a new period of social participation. also seen in social city interventions. The new political situation and opening We consider here selected social inter- of borders gave Poles a sense of equal ventions carried out since 2004 of which opportunity with the countries of West- the goal was to improve the landscape of ern Europe, and the end of the period Warsaw. The presented examples of so- of Poland’s association with the coun- cial initiatives show how great is the im- tries of Eastern Europe. Another reason pact of small-scale interventions on the is the increase in knowledge about the quality of living in the city. Nongovern- Polish spatial planning system, partly mental organizations, through their ac- because of educational social initiatives. tions, highlight the most pressing issues The next step to increasing opportuni- for urban residents. It has been observed ties for public participation in shaping that one of the causes of social activa- the landscape of the city was the creation of the city’s residents is a reaction tion in 2009 of a Commission for Social to the gradual degradation of Warsaw’s Dialogue at various offi ces of the City of urban spaces in four areas: physical, so- Warsaw (as well as in other Polish cit- cial, aesthetic and natural [Domanowska ies, for example Kraków and Łódź). This is an advisory body for the city authori- distinctiveness, enhanced tourism and recreation ties, and may include individual residents opportunities (from the European Commission and representatives of nongovernmental brochure “Building a Green Infrastructure for organizations and foundations (during Europe”, European Union, 2013). meetings, a given range of current issues 2 For basic information about the psychologi- cal impact of greenery on city residents, see relating to the commission’s area of inter- A. Baum, P. Bell, T. Greene, 2004, “Environmen- est are discussed). The Commission for tal Psychology”, Gdańskie Wydawnictwo Psy- Social Dialogue is one of the fi rst steps in chologiczne, Gdańsk. Social initiatives as a means of participation in the transformation... 59 the creation of a civic society. Public par- Only a few of the mapped interven- ticipation in the urban planning decision- tions were selected for inclusion in this -making process, respected by the author- article. All of them took place in Warsaw ities, forms part of the broader concept of over the past eight years. The interven- democracy [Siemiński 2007]. tions described here were chosen because of their diversity, the goal being to MATERIALS AND METHODS illustrate the full range of participatory The materials which were used to pre- activities for landscaping. The material pare a review of social activities having analyzed consisted of inventoried social an impact on city landscape quality were initiatives which took place in: collected by the author through her work ● city parks – 23 social initiatives; for nongovernmental organizations in ● green private gardens and terraces – 2007–2013. The starting point of the – 32 social initiatives; period of study is defi ned by the fi rst ● green streets and city squares – 45 so- known social action to improve the land- cial initiatives. scape: “Dotleniacz/Oxygenator”, created The cities with most inventoried ini- by Joanna Rajkowska. tiatives were Warsaw (33 initiatives), Basic materials for the article were Kraków (9 initiatives), Gdańsk (8 ini- gathered by the author by mapping and tiatives), Łódź (13 initiatives), Poznań describing (based on the same question- (12 initiatives), and Zielona Góra, Wro- naire) more than one hundred social cław, Olsztyn, Opole, Lublin and Biały- interventions on the Map of Social In- stok (a total of 27 initiatives). terventions3. The mapped interventions were required to fulfi ll several conditions RESULTS – A TYPOLOGY OF (Appendix): PARTICIPATORY ACTIVITIES FOR ● they took place in Polish city public LANDSCAPING space or in city parks or squares (so- On the basis of the Map of Social In- -called activities for landscaping); terventions described in the previous ● they were a social response to city section, it was possible to construct space degradation (activities such as a typology of participatory activities for city space modernization, creation of landscaping. Types of participatory ac- new public green areas, increasing of tivities for landscaping were also iden- the amount of greenery in the city); tifi ed on the basis of the most popular ● they took place after 2004; theory in social participation: the ladder 4 ● they involved the participation of lo- of social participation [Arnstein 1969] . cal inhabitants. 4 In the typology, social participation is divided 3 The map was prepared by Monika Domanowska into 8 levels, in three groups. The levels are ar- for the Sendzimir Foundation and is published on ranged from the lowest social participation up to the Foundation’s webpage: http://www.uslugie- the 8 level, called citizens’ control. Every level kosystemow.pl/?q=mapa. shows how great an impact citizens can have in 60 M. Domanowska

Landscaping activities carried out by and an educational impact (im- nongovernmental organizations are of pact on the creation of a civic so- two main types: those with short-term ciety); impact and those with long-term impact ● modernization of public spaces for local citizens. We can also distin- such as green spaces, housing guish actions which relate to a specifi c estates, residential courtyards, location in city space from those that do parks, green spaces and cemeter- not, as in the case of many education- ies – such actions can infl uence al activities. The fi rst type of activities the aesthetics and the quality of includes short-term projects of various city space; kinds carried out in a specifi c area of the ● urban gardening (including parks city, such as: and green spaces, boulevards, and ● artistic activities, art in public spac- housing estates) – such actions es, installations, exhibitions (in parks can infl uence the aesthetic, social and green spaces) – these actions and ecological aspects of living in may have an educational impact on the city; city inhabitants; ● action against destruction of green areas – these initiatives are ● temporary land development, for mainly organized by local inhab- example playgrounds which can be itants who use the green areas in used only in summer time – this kind question. of activity may have a diverse impact II. Educational activities: lectures, pic- on citizens, depending of the type of nics, workshops, training courses land use. – many of these initiatives are or- Participatory activities for landscap- ganized to educate people about ing with a long-term impact on the city ecological ways of living, sustain- space include: able development or the creation of I. Point actions (actions related to a spe- a civic society. cifi c location): Educational activities not related to ● design solutions and design con- a specifi c location in the city space may sultations – initiatives to present have the aim of teaching about the land- new ideas for the functioning and scape and promoting good practice in design of existing space – such the development of spaces, in the form actions have both an informative of workshops and lectures with the general theme of understanding the shaping creating their own way of living in the commu- of spaces. The goal of these initiatives is nity. Every step of the ladder also refl ects different stages in the creation of a civic society. Even to increase knowledge and contribute to if issues of public participation in transforming creating a civic society. the landscape in Poland are not new, it is still con- The activities listed above have dif- sidered to be at an early stage [Pawłowska and ferent durations and may have short- or Staniewska 2012]. Social initiatives as a means of participation in the transformation... 61 long-term effects. Short-term effects are veloped and under-utilized small squares associated with actions implemented in close to Warsaw city center. The instal- a particular area for a specifi ed time. lation in the square consisted of a pond Long-term effects are prolonged indefi - with aeration apparatus that created bub- nitely. A classifi cation of types of action bles on the surface of the water and mist into short-term and long-term is shown rising over the pond. This installation gained recognition both among peo- in Figure.

3DUWLFLSDWRU\ DFWLYLWLHV LQ:DUVDZ

Short-term impact Long-term impact

Point actions Point actions Educational activities

Artistic activities Design solutions Lectures

Temporary land Design consultations Workshops development Training Modernizations of areas Picnics Urban gardening

Initiatives against destruction of green areas

FIGURE. Types of participatory activities for landscaping

RESULTS – EXAMPLES OF ple living around the square (many of PARTICIPATORY ACTIVITIES whom are elderly) and other inhabitants FOR LANDSCAPING IN WARSAW of Warsaw, acting as a curiosity in the Point actions – artistic activities middle of town. “Oxygenator” was to be an installation with short-term impact The best-known social action (and one (remaining in place for the summer of of the most important and noteworthy) 2007), and became a symbol of the need in the Warsaw city landscape was also for a change of approach to the design one of the fi rst, created by the Warsaw of space in Warsaw. The installation at- artist Joanna Rajkowska. The “Oxygen- tracted many spectators, including both ator”5 was built on one of the poorly de- local residents as well as those coming from other districts who had heard about 5 “Dotleniacz/Oxygenator” was created in col- the “pond”. Following the success of laboration with artists from the Museum of Mod- “Oxygenator” the city announced a con- ern Art in Warsaw. 62 M. Domanowska test for the modernization of the square, ferred to the architecture and the present which was won by a design in a modern way of functioning of those residential style, although this did not provide for areas. The names “M3” and “M4” refer the continued presence of “Oxygena- to codes formerly used in standards for tor”. The modernization was carried out housing construction6. between 2009 and 2011; however, the removal of “Oxygenator” led to a drop Point actions – design solutions in the popularity of the square. Ultimate- ly, the square has become a symbol of The “Seven Year Stadium” Urban Sports the “death” of public space and of lack Square is a project which represents ac- of agreement between residents and of- tivities carried out by nongovermmental fi cials. organizations (NGOs). It is an initiative of social architects and representatives Activities in the fi eld of education of Warsaw NGOs (including ordinary with the temporary use of land citizens). The square was designed to offer a number of proposals for active The selected examples are two projects recreation. There was space for various prepared by the “Unlock” Association kinds of sports such as skating, biking, for the Improvement of the Residential yoga and basketball, and also a place for Environment, implemented between spending time more quietly, sitting and 2011 and 2012: “M3” and “M4”. The relaxing while viewing others engaged aim of these projects was to enable in sporting activities. The project led housing estate residents to attend meet- directly to the establishment of coopera- ings where actions were carried out, tion with the District Offi ce of Bemowo, and to encourage them to identify is- which worked with the project team sues affecting the development of the to design the Bemowo Urban Sports residential space and identify possible Square, opened in July 2014. solutions. Efforts were made to provoke local communities to engage in dialogue and cooperation to improve the quality Point actions – urban gardening of life. Additionally, a series of work- Urban gardening is one of the most pop- shops and lectures attempted to indicate ular types of city actions among indi- possibilities for residents of the housing vidual citizens, and also among NGOs. estates to use parkland for active recrea- Gardening initiatives include both grass- tion. Based on the whole of the projects’ roots actions such as “guerrilla garden- action plans in both cases, temporary ex- ing” (which consists of planting in pub- hibition halls were built in parks close lic spaces without obtaining a permit to to the residential areas. These were designed in the form of housing typical for 6 “M3” is the symbol for a two-bedroom apart- the residential development adjacent to ment with kitchen, and “M4” for a three-bedroom the parks. Both projects thematically re- apartment with kitchen. Social initiatives as a means of participation in the transformation... 63 do so) as well as a large group of edu- the environment, and gain their support cational initiatives to promote the plant- for the changes. The result in each case ing of crops. The promotion of urban was a mobilization of residents to work gardening in Warsaw is currently sup- together physically to improve the qual- ported by cultural institutions such as ity of the space “belonging” to them all. the Copernicus Science Center and the Ujazdowski Castle Museum of Modern Point actions – initiatives against the Art. The photos show one such initiative, destruction of green areas involving the creation of a communal vegetable garden. This was carried out Currently in Warsaw, some properties by individual urban gardeners in the area expropriated after the Second World War of the Finnish Cottages estate. are being returned to their prior owners. This situation creates social confl icts. Point actions – modernization of city One of these confl icts concerned the areas green space on Szara Street in the center of Warsaw. This green space lies within The purpose of these actions in the con- an area which was returned to its pre- text of Warsaw is the beautifi cation of war owner, who wished to change the degraded common areas (mainly court- zoning of the land from green space to yards of old houses) in the more ne- housing and services. This plan led to glected and less subsidized districts. An objections from local residents. By law, example of a project aimed at this kind the owner was entitled to build on the of renewal is a project of the “Unlock” site (as a result of, inter alia, the absence Association with the slogan “Blocks, of an enforceable zoning plan, and the courtyards, townhouses revive neighbor- issuance of a construction permit). Fol- hoods”. It consisted of the transformation lowing the intervention of citizens op- of selected courtyards in several districts posed to building on the green space (the of Warsaw. Activities within the scope of culmination of the intervention coming the project included partial moderniza- in 2010) the site today remains unde- tion, retrofi tting areas with recreational veloped and functions as a green space. infrastructure7, and vegetable plantings The determination of Warsaw residents in selected areas of the housing estates. in the fi ght against building on a small During the implementation of the project green area has had a real effect. public consultations were carried out to Another area of greenery for which determine the main needs of residents people in Warsaw are fi ghting is a small around the courtyards, integrate the resi- park in Szmulowizna, which, in accord- dents, increase their identifi cation with ance with the fi ndings of a study, is to be transformed into an area used for 7 This was mainly equipment typical of chil- transport purposes. Thanks to the inter- dren’s playgrounds, such as swings in courtyards vention of residents and nongovernmen- (http: www.odblokuj.org/?cat=3, data dostępu tal organizations, Warsaw’s authorities 20.04.2012). 64 M. Domanowska have begun work on the demarcation of Warsaw (for example, a campaign a new route for the road. In the literature which was organized to compel the we can fi nd a new term for this kind of City of Warsaw to publish offi cial situation: “public argument”, as opposed statistics on how many trees were to public debate [Pawłowska 2009]. felled and where); ● actions to draw attention to the extent DISCUSSION – SOCIAL ACTIVISM of the problem of air pollution and AS A TREND to campaign for new regulations to In comparison with other cities, War- protect Polish cities from pollution. saw appears to produce a relatively A good example of this can be seen large number of social activities related in Kraków, where because of a cam- to the landscape. According to the Map paign by activists and the very poor of Social Interventions prepared by the condition of the city’s air, a new by- Sendzimir Foundation, Warsaw heads law was enacted. Within a few years the list of active cities. This may result it will be illegal in Kraków to use both from the city’s large population and residents’ higher level of knowledge products (for example coal) which about social participation. In 2014 the increase dust emissions. City of Warsaw offered an opportunity We can also observe that some social for citizens to take part in reshaping the activists who formerly played a leading city. The municipality allocated a spe- role in the actions of NGOs have at- cial budget (“participation budget”) for tempted to form political groups such as social initiatives proposed by citizens. Miasto Jest Nasze (“The City is Ours”). We can also observe that there is cur- Also, a few activists from NGOs are ac- rently a trend towards social participa- tive in left-leaning political parties such tion and city debates. The most common as Zieloni (“Greens”) and Razem (“To- topics of debates include the aesthetics gether”). of the city space, greenery in the city or lack thereof, community gardens, local spatial plans and public transport in the CONCLUSIONS city. This trend can certainly be expected The actions described in this article il- to have a positive impact on the sense of lustrate how social activists try to deal social participation. with a wide range of city problems, in- In the period since 2013 we can ob- cluding air pollution, lack of greenery, serve three very strong trends in social the condition of housing estates, and so initiatives for green areas: on. These problems are mainly connect- ● urban gardening (here we should ed with city space degradation or with mention the Jazdów Housing Estate the lack of high-quality city public space and its vegetable gardens); which would offer diverse possibilities ● actions to draw attention to the of recreation. The beginning of the trend number of trees felled every year in for transformation of city space by non- Social initiatives as a means of participation in the transformation... 65

-governmental organizations and indi- There is no doubt that the future vidual activists has given a new outlook shape of the city landscape will be more on the role of social participation in the dependent on the voices of citizens. city. For several years there has been an Observing the types of social activities increase in social responsibility for pub- taking place in the city space, we can lic spaces, whereas about 10 years ago foresee that because of the stronger and most in Polish society felt that they only stronger position of NGOs and local ac- had the ability to decide about shaping tivists, these will have a great impact on private spaces. The last decade has been the further development of cities, and a turning point for the development of this can be hoped to result in more sus- the concept of the “citizen’s city” which tainable and people-friendly landscapes. Warsaw may become.

Appendix. Examples of participatory activities for landscaping in Warsaw No Name of activity Main organizer Place Year Target group Duration Category 123 45678 Warsaw, Green streets “Dotleniacz/ Joanna summer 1 Grzybowski 2007 local residents and city /Oxygenator” Rajkowska season Square squares Warsaw, next Green private 2 Rock bombing Kwiatuchi to the Central 2009 city activists 1 day gardens and Artistic Pool terraces Warsaw, local summer Green private Backyard Measure High, 3 Brzeska 2010 residents, city season, gardens and Gardens (Mierz Wysoko) Street activists 1 year terraces Warsaw, Green private Urban 4 Kwiatuchi Chmielna 2010 city activists 1 day gardens and gardening Street terraces Unlock Warsaw, local 1 month, Association 5M3 Służewiecka 2011 residents, summer City parks for Local Valley Park open access season Communities Neighbourhood Festival in local 1 day, Green streets My Sielce Warsaw, 6 Sielce 2011 residents, summer and city (Moje Sielce) Sielce area (Sielecki Festyn open access season squares Sąsiedzki) Green streets Partnership for Warsaw, summer 7 Powiślenia 2011 open access and city Powiśle Powiśle area season squares local Bowls of Warsaw, Sady 8 Kwiatuchi 2011 residents, 1 day City parks Raspberries Żoliborskie open access 66 M. Domanowska

Appendix, continued 12 3 456 7 8 Unlock Warsaw, local 2 months, Association Zasława 9M4 2012 residents, summer City parks for Local Malickiego open access season Communities Park Sielce for Sielce for local 2 weeks, Green streets Architects Warsaw, Baza 10 Architects 2012 residents, winter and city (Sielce Theatre exhibition open access season squares Architektów) Warsaw, local Social Garden Praga Północ summer Green private residents, 11 by Konopacki city activists district, 2012 season gardens and open access, Place Konopacki (1 year) terraces city activists Palace Warsaw, Za Żelazną local Green private Come On and 12 Kwiatuchi Bramą 2012 residents, 1 day gardens and Plant residential open access terraces area Warsaw, summer Green private Garden for Birds Polish Birds city activists, 13 Finnish 2013 season gardens and (Ogród na Ptak) Association open access Cottages area (1 year) terraces Krzysztof Social Garden Green private Herman and Warsaw, 4, autumn 14 (Ogród 2013 open access gardens and Art. Group Wilcza Street season społeczny) terraces Parque-no Grounded Kwiatkibratki Warsaw, (Uziemieni) and 2 months, Green private Copernicus 15 – a miniature Copernicus 2013 open access summer gardens and Science garden and Science season terraces Center water garden Center Iga Kołodziej Mint & Warsaw, Garden of the 2 months, Green streets Lavender for Ujazdowski 16 Senses 2013 open access summer and city Ujazdowski Castle (Ogród zmysłów) season squares Castle Museum Museum Actions and nature of letter-writing the initiative Warsaw, concerning Green Power prevents 17 Krasiński 2013 –- City parks the situation (Zielona Moc) identiﬁ cation Garden of Krasiński of the main Garden target Social initiatives as a means of participation in the transformation... 67

Appendix, continued 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 nature of Open letter the initiative concerning Warsaw, prevents 18 the situation M20 Krasiński 2013 – City parks identiﬁ cation of Krasiński Garden of the main Garden target local Warsaw, summer Green private Alter Eko residents, 19 City Garden Cypel 2013 season gardens and foundation open access, Czerniakowski (1 year) terraces city activists Warsaw, no guests, city 20 Misy Żywiciela Kwiatuchi 2013 1 day City parks Żoliborz activists Królikarnia Museum in Barren of Art cooperation Warsaw, summer – Królikarnia 21 with Elżbieta Królikarnia 2014 open access season City parks Museum Jabłońska Park (1 year) (Nieużytki Sztuki) Nieużytki Sztuki Blocks, Courtyards, Townhouses Unlock Revive Warsaw, summer Green private Association 2011, 22 Neighborhoods Praga Północ local residents season gardens and for Local 2012 (Blok podwórko district (2 years) terraces Communities kamienice ożywiły się dzielnice) Warsaw May Picnic on a Warsaw, Culture Road recurring Green streets Slope Rydza 2012, 23 / coordinator open access event, and city (Majówka Śmigłego 2013 Artur Jerzy spring time squares na Skarpie) Park Filip City Sports Group of 2011, Square volunteer Warsaw, 24 2012, city activists 3 years City parks (Skwer sportów architects and design theory 2013 miejskich) city activists Green Warsaw, recurring 2012, Green streets Green Jazdów Jazdów Ujazdowski event, 26 2013, open access and city (Zielony Jazdów) (Zielony Castle summer 2014 squares Jazdów) Museum season 68 M. Domanowska

Appendix, continued 123 45678 Warsaw, 3, Krochmalna In Place Street, Za 2012, local Green private Wola – Action In Foundation 27 Żelazną 2013, residents, city 2 years gardens and Place (Fundacja na Bramą 2014 activists terraces Miejscu) residential area In Place local Mariensztat 2012, Green streets Foundation Warsaw, residents, 28 – Action In 2013, 2 years and city (Fundacja na Mariensztat open access, Place 2014 squares Miejscu) city activists Warsaw local (Jazdów 2012, summer Green private residents, 29 Open Jazdów Open Jazdów area, Finnish 2013, season gardens and open access, Cottages 2014 since 2013 terraces city activists area) Sendzimir Warsaw, open access, Green streets Count on Green Foundation 2013, 30 Poznań, Łódź, experts, 2 years and city (Licz na Zieleń) (Fundacja 2014 Kraków ofﬁ cials squares Sendzimira) recurring Żolibuh 3.0, 2.0, 2011, local event, Green private Warsaw, 31 1.0 / Plant the Kwiatuchi 2012, residents, several gardens and Żoliborz City 2013 open access days each terraces year Protection People of Warsaw, of trees in Ochota Ochota, since 32 open access 5 years City parks Wielkopolski District Wielkopolski 2010 Park from felling (Ochocianie) Park Michał Mioduszewski and Paweł Althamer, Warsaw, Tea House summer Museum of Bródno Park, since 33 (Domek open access season, for City parks Modern Art Targówek 2011 herbaciany) 4 years in Warsaw, District Nowa Fala Theatre Foundation recurring Urban Warsaw, Green streets Planting Ursus since event, 34 Gardeners Ursus rail city activists and city Rail Station 2012 1 day each group station squares year Social initiatives as a means of participation in the transformation... 69

REFERENCES UK National Ecosystem Assessment. (2012). Retrieved from http://uknea.unepwcmc.org/ ARNSTEIN S.R. (1969). A Ladder of Citizen EcosystemAssessmentConcepts/Ecosystem- Participation. JAIP 35 (4): 216–224. BAUM A., BELL P., GREENE T. (2004). Envi- Services/tabid/103/Default.aspx. ronmental Psychology. Gdańskie Wydawni- ctwo Psychologiczne, Gdańsk. Streszczenie: Inicjatywy społeczne jako sposób DOMANOWSKA M. (2014). Degradacja ter- uczestnictwa w transformacji przestrzeni miej- enów zieleni na przykładzie Warszawy; doc- skiej. Prezentowany artykuł jest opisem specyfi ki toral thesis in the Department of Landscape oddolnych działań na rzecz krajobrau miejskie- Architecture, Warsaw University of Life Sci- go, gdzie działania na terenie Warszawy posłu- ences, Warszawa. żyły jako studium przypadku. Przegląd działań European Commission. (2013). Building a Green społecznych na rzecz krajobrazu rozpoczyna Infrastructure for Europe. Belgium akcja budowy “Dotleniacza” Joanny Rajkowi- PAWŁOWSKA K. (2009). Przeciwdziałanie skiej. Działanie to rozpoczęło trend inicjatyw konfl iktom wokół ochrony i kształtowania społecznych mających mieć wpływ na krajobraz krajobrazu; Partycypacja społeczna, debata Warszawy. Od tego czasu obserwować możemy publiczna negocjacje. Wydawnictwo Poli- stopniowy wzrost liczby chęci społeczności lo- techniki Krakowskiej, Kraków. kalnych do wprowadzania zmian w ich najbli- PAWŁOWSKA K., STANIEWSKA A. (2012). żyszm otoczeniu. Może być to reakcją na brak ak- Udział społeczeństwa w ochronie, zarządzaniu ceptacji niskiej jakości otaczającej przestrzeni jak i planowaniu krajobrazu – podręcznik dobrych i zauważenie możliwości wpływu na to, w jakim praktyk. Politechnika Krakowska, Kraków. otoczeniu żyjemy. W niniejszym artykule opisa- SIEMIŃSKI W. (2007). Cele i zasady partycypa- no zbiory tematyczne organizowanych inicjatyw, cji społecznej w planowaniu przestrzennym opisano ich specyfi kę, a następnia zaprezentowa- – przegląd literatury. Człowiek i Środowisko, no wybrane przykłady. Narzędziem do monitorin- Instytut Gospodarki Przestrzennej i Mieszkal- gu inicjatyw oddolnych na rzecz krajobrazu było nictwa, Warszawa. ich mapowanie.

Annals of Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW Horticulture and Landscape Architecture No 36, 2015: 71–92 (Ann. Warsaw Univ. Life Sci. – SGGW, Horticult. Landsc. Architect. 36, 2015)

The church garden as an element shaping the quality of city life – a case study in southern Warsaw MAŁGORZATA KACZYŃSKA*, DOROTA SIKORA Department of Landscape Art, Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW

Abstract: The church garden as an element Key words: garden, church, churchyard, quality shaping the quality of city life – a case study in of life, Warsaw southern Warsaw. The aim of the research was to identify the forms of presently existing gardens INTRODUCTION surrounding sacral buildings in the city, to verify how the presence of these gardens improves the State of knowledge quality of life, and to determine whether their model as shaped in the medieval period is still Sacral buildings located in a city are current. The research covered the gardens of 22 churches within the southern Warsaw deaner- often surrounded by designed green ar- ies of Wilanów, Służew and Ursynów. The con- eas. Churchyards perform the role of a tribution of the analyzed sacral complexes to transitional zone between the Sacred of improvement of the inhabitants’ quality of life is a temple and the Profane of an inhabited revealed in several of their functions: as histori- area. They are often garden composi- cally shaped spaces of prayer and contemplation, tions consisting of lawns, fl ower-beds, important for spiritual life; as biologically active areas, increasing the biological potential of the shrubs, trees, and elements of symbolic city; as recreational areas; and as city landscape meaning such as Stations of the Cross, dominants building a local identity. The results memorials, shrines, votive crosses or show that the majority of the analyzed church fi gures of saints [Mitkowska and Siew- gardens serve as meeting places for local inhabit- niak 1998]. They are used as a place ants. Within most of the complexes, biologically of celebration of some church services active space accounts for 50–60% of the total. [Mitkowska and Siewniak 1998], parish Nearly half of the complexes are spatially connected with other natural areas. Furnishings of the fairs and festivities [Nadrowski 2008]. church gardens are similar to those of other city They are also places where people can green areas – benches, lanterns and fl ower-pots calm down and concentrate before en- are the most frequent. A pathway encircling the tering the church, and so they should church, used during processions, is found within be laid out so as to favor the creation of the majority of the complexes, although often the such an atmosphere [Stępień 1982 and pathway systems are more developed. Sculptural Nadrowski 2008]. The authors assume and small architectonic elements related to religious symbolism occur within nearly half of the that church gardens located within dense complexes. urban developments are also valuable resources of biologically active areas, * e-mail: [email protected] which, despite their usually small size, 72 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora improve the quality of life in the city. M. Szafrańska [1998]. The vegetation of Green urban areas, even those of small European medieval gardens, including size, can improve the microclimate and cloister gardens, is discussed in works favor well-being [Forsyth and Musac- by P. Hobhouse [1997] and M. Milecka chio 2005, Mega 2010]. Church gar- [2009, 2012]. dens may be an example of such areas at Church gardens are less frequently neighborhood level. Areas surrounding discussed in the literature. Worthy of sacral buildings nowadays perform new mention are numerous publications on functions related to recreation and edu- English churchyards located both in cation: they may contain playgrounds the countryside and in the urban land- for children, secular displays and exhibi- scape. These provide information on tions, aviaries, and Christmas cribs with the churchyard’s form and its evolution, real animals. Information about such plant selection and social use, in both new activities can be found on many historical and contemporary contexts. parishes’ websites and journals. All of Recent publications refer to modern this proves that church gardens can be approaches to churchyard care and em- valuable sites in the urban landscape, phasize a growing recognition of their important for different groups of local biodiversity value. Examples of such inhabitants. publications include those of N. Cooper Generally, the subject of gardens [1995, 1996, 2001, 2012] and M. Child surrounding sacral buildings in Poland [2007]. Among recent noteworthy pub- and Central Europe is not frequently ad- lications in Poland are “The sacral gar- dressed in scholarly works. Usually, the den – the idea and the reality” [Kozakie- issue of gardens is mentioned in publica- wicz-Opałka et al. 2008], which contains tions dealing with the larger urban con- articles dealing with cloister and church text of the temple. An exception is clois- gardens, and “The Sacred in the histori- ters, whose gardens are well described cal gardens and the symbolism of their in the literature, usually with regard to vegetation” [Mitkowska and Siewniak the historical aspect. The principles of 1997], which contains articles dealing the composition of European cloister with green areas surrounding pilgrim- gardens have been described by P. Hob- age sanctuaries. Many sacral buildings house [2000] and E. Barlow Rogers and their garden surroundings, espe- [2001]. The monastery garden is also the cially historical monuments, have been subject of a publication by W. Braunfels described in monographs. An example [1993]. The symbolism of the Paradise of such a publication is one devoted garden and its representations on Earth to the church in Służew (Warsaw) and are analyzed by J. Delumeau [1996]. its surroundings [Sołtan-Lipska 2013]. The principles of composition of Polish There appear to be no scholarly publica- cloister gardens are discussed by G. Cio- tions describing the church gardens and łek [1954], L. Majdecki [1981], J. Bog- cloister gardens of southern Warsaw in danowski [2000], M. Milecka [2009] and a comprehensive manner. The chuch garden as an element shaping... 73

Historical forms of layout of church not allowed to possess their own land surroundings “except necessary terrain next to the cloister building, which could be exclu- Churches and cloisters have been im- sively used as a garden” [Ciołek 1954]. portant elements of the urban landscape The cloister garden was always the most since medieval times. Their architecton- important symbolic space. It represented ic form and their towers dominating the the idea of the celestial Paradise which city skyline have been a visual mark of was to be reached through contempla- the substantial role played by the Church tion. The symbolism of a square, the in the process of civilization. In the Mid- number four (rivers of Paradise, evan- dle Ages, principles were established gelists, cardinal virtues) contained in the concerning the shaping of the surround- cloister garden and elements like wells ings of the Christian sacral building, as or fountains favored comprehension and well as models of its location in the ur- contemplation of the religious content. ban structure. These models were copied The cloister garden was also used by the in the following centuries. monks as a place of recreation, to exer- The functional program of the clois- cise both body and mind. This tradition ters, which included also gardens, origi- may have been transferred from the gar- nated from the idea of the Roman cas- den courtyards in the antique gymnasi- trum and villa, and its principles were ums [Szafrańska 1999]. The medieval clearly presented in the drawing of the cloister was almost self-suffi cient. Its model plan of the Benedictine abbey well-developed economic and educa- in Sankt Gallen [D’Alfonso and Samss tional program, including also horticul- 1997]. This program included a clois- ture, enabled it to provide food for both ter garden, a herbaceous garden, used monks and pilgrims. Cloister schools both for curative and culinary purposes, also widely promoted effective forms of a cemetery and an orchard, which occu- cultivation, partially taking advantage pied the same area, and a vegetable gar- of the antique literature preserved in the den connected to the gardener’s house. cloister libraries [Böhm 1994]. Sometimes the whole cloister was called In the medieval period also parish a garden, in reference to Paradise, and the terrain of some Orthodox cloisters churches, especially cathedrals, acquired was entirely planted with fruit trees, pro- a proper setting for their rank and func- viding “redemption fruits” [Szafrańska tion – a square, which referred to the 1999]. In fortifi ed cities, where space antique forum [D’Alfonso and Samss was lacking, this program was reduced, 1997]. This can also be seen in the as can be seen in the cloisters of men- modern churchyards surrounding sacral dicant and preacher orders such as the buildings. In the vicinity of many medi- Franciscans, Dominicans and Poor eval churches, mostly behind the apse, Clares, who according to their monas- places called paradise were established. tic rule were obliged to settle in densely They served to cultivate fl owers to deco- populated zones. Until 1237 they were rate the altars, holy statues and shrines 74 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora

[Barlow Rogers 2011]. Cathedrals, even bars. The form Ordo visitationis from those located within dense urban de- the early 15th century indicates that it velopments, often had a cloister garden was important to “be able to distinguish [Stępień 1982]. the sacred from the non-sacred” [Bis and In England in the medieval period Bis 2013]. a churchyard was open to almost any It was the Edict of Nantes of 1777 kind of event. Parish activities taking that fi rst forbade burial within the place within the churchyard depended churchyard for sanitary reasons and or- on the priest who held it in freehold, and dered the necropolis to be established usually fostered activities from which he outside the city borders. After France, might supplement his income. Certain similar regulations were also introduced parts of the ceremonies associated with in other countries, including Poland. baptism, marriage and burial began in These changes resulted in the transfor- the churchyard. Itinerant merchants set mation of former church cemeteries into up their stalls beside the church. Strol- designed green areas, where apart from ling players, mummers and musicians ornamental trees and shrubs, Stations of performed and miracle plays took place. the Cross, votive crosses, holy statues There were also many children’s church- and representations of the grotto of Our yard games. Medieval churchyards were Lady of Lourdes were located. Often busy at most times, but the highlights the churchyard contains old trees (e.g. were fairs and feast days. Dancing and elms and limes in English churchyards), games took place within the churchyard, the majority of them planted along the although people respected the south part boundaries and marking clear borders where the majority of the graves were of the churchyard within the landscape located, and confi ned themselves to the [Cooper 2012]. In the mid-19th century, north side [Child 2007]. to promote the appropriate spiritual at- Churches and their surroundings mosphere in churchyards, John Claudius were also used for centuries as burial Loudon advocated formal designs with places. This led to the establishment of a somber tone of evergreens and a vertical cemeteries within churchyards. The fact theme provided by fastigiated Irish yew that the areas were considered sacred and Monterey cypresses [Cooper 2012]. ground protected them from being built over. For both symbolic and practical MATERIAL AND METHODS reasons they were permanently fenced. The aim of the research was to identify The obligatory fencing of the necropolis the forms of presently existing gardens was regulated by both medieval and lat- surrounding the sacral buildings in the er synods. The synod in Gniezno in 1512 city, to verify how the presence of these required a cemetery to be surrounded gardens improves the quality of life, and with walls, a wooden fence or a ditch. to determine whether the model shaped The 1538 synod in Chełmno required for such gardens in the medieval period cemetery gates with wooden or iron is still current. The research covered the The chuch garden as an element shaping... 75 gardens surrounding 22 parish churches century. Its spatial composition is based within three deaneries of southern War- on the historical road system of the pre- saw (those of Wilanów, Służew and viously existing rural area. Although, Ursynów) and their landscape context a great part of the landscape is occupied (Table 1, Fig. 1). by relatively new housing estates, the The urban landscape of southern War- spatial complexes of former villages saw was shaped mostly from the 1970s with their internal road systems are still to the 1990s and at the start of the 21st preserved. The analyzed area refl ects

TABLE 1. List of analyzed sacral buildings and gardens No Name of sacral building with garden Wilanów deanery Church of St. Joseph the Betrothed to the Virgin Mary (St. Stephan the King in Sielce parish) 1 Sisters of Nazareth convent 2 Church of St. Casmir the Prince in Sielce (Resurrectionist Congregation) 3 Sanctuary of Our Lady Teacher of Youths (Our Lady Queen of the Believers parish) Churches of St. Antonio of Padua and St. John of Dukla (St. Boniface in Czerniaków parish) 4 Bernadine cloister 5 Church of St. Thaddeus the Apostle 6 Church of St. Antonio Maria Zaccaria (Barnabite Fathers parish) 7 Church of St. Anna 8 Temple of God’s Providence 9 Church of the Mission of the Lord’s Disciples Służew deanery 10 Church of Our Lady Mother of Mercy (congregation of Marianist Brothers and Priests parish) 11 Church of St. Maximilian Kolbe 12 Church of St. Dominique and Dominican cloister 13 Church of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary (St. Catherine parish) 14 Church of St. Madeleine Sophie Barat, Sacred Heart of Jesus convent 15 Church of SS Peter and Paul the Apostles Ursynów deanery 16 Church of the Lord’s Ascension 17 Church of Blessed Edmund Bojanowski 18 Church of St. Thomas the Apostle 19 Lord’s Offertory church 20 Church of Blessed Ladislas of Gielniow 21 Church of St. Pio of Pietrelcina 22 Sanctuary of Our Lady Longing (St. Elisabeth parish) Note that in the following tables the same numbering is used, to avoid repeating the church names. 76 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora

FIGURE 1. Map showing the areas examined in their urban context. Churches are marked with numbers as in Table 1. Based on maps of Warsaw deaneries available at http://koscioly.warszawa.pl/ a process of city development through verify which historical patterns are still incorporation of the rural area with ex- present in the analyzed gardens. The isting historical parish churches into the next stage consisted of an on-site inven- city boundaries and establishment of new tory of the gardens’ compositional ele- urban housing estates with new parish ments: forms of vegetation, small archi- churches meeting the needs of new com- tectonic elements, sculptural details and munities. Therefore, the selected case pathway system, aimed at recognizing study provides an opportunity to analyze the present spatial structure of the gar- church gardens of different scale, church dens. This made it possible to determine rank, time of origin, and layout. the gardens’ artistic, spatial and symbol- The research included a literature ic values. review and collection of data by means The research also included estima- of on-site inventory and observations. tion of the biologically active area of The fi rst stage was a literature review the gardens (expressed as a percentage) aimed at recognizing the historical form based on analysis of aerial photographs, of the layout of a church’s surroundings, on-site recognition of the diversity of its typical elements, its further evolu- forms of vegetation, and identifi cation tion, and signifi cance for the surround- of whether the gardens are related to ing landscape. This made it possible to wider green structures. It was aimed to The chuch garden as an element shaping... 77 determine the gardens’ ecological value. regression. The relations between sacral During the research, non-participant ob- complex area as well as biologically ac- servations in the gardens were carried tive area and existing forms of vegeta- out on week-days, on Sundays and dur- tion, garden social function, road sys- ing festivities, enabling the collection of tem, small architectonic and sculptural information on social activities taking elements were assessed using the Anova place in the gardens and on the use of Kruskal–Wallis test. Values of p <0.05 the garden space. The collected data was were considered statistically signifi cant. supplemented with information acquired from interviews with the priests and RESULTS from the parish websites, particularly regarding the gardens’ accessibility, use The church gardens of southern of the gardens during church services Warsaw and parish fairs, parishioners’ activities, The selected church gardens represent existing potential tourist attractions, and different scales, church ranks, times memorial sites of national signifi cance. of origin, and layouts. Some of them This made it possible to determine the belong to historical parishes (parish gardens’ social function and utility value. of Saint Catherine in Służew with the The present research did not involve church of the Immaculate Conception the adoption of a profound sociologi- of the Virgin Mary, 1238; Saint Anna in cal approach including the interviewing Wilanów, 13th century; Saint Elisabeth in of garden users or surveys; however, to Powsin with the Sanctuary of Our Lady identify the gardens’ value and meaning Longing, 1410). The presently existing for the parish communities, such research churches of these parishes replaced those should be conducted in the future. formerly existing and originating from The data collected during the litera- earlier times (church of the Immaculate ture review, on-site inventory and ob- Conception of the Virgin Mary, from the servations were classifi ed in terms of turn of the 14th and 15th centuries; church fi ve aspects: forms of social activities, of Saint Anna, 1772; Sanctuary of Our forms of vegetation and ecological role, Lady Longing, 1725). Some parishes types of architectonic elements, form were established in the vicinity of previ- and material of the pathway system, and ously existing cloister churches: types of symbolic elements. The calcu- ● Saint Boniface in Czerniaków (the lations were performed using MedCalc Bernadine cloister and church of software. Continuous variables (area of Saint Antonio of Padua, built in sacral complex, biologically active area) 1690–1693, founded by Stanisław were reported as medians with a range, Herakliusz Lubomirski); because they did not follow a normal ● Saint Stephan the King in Sielce (the distribution. The relationship between church of Saint Joseph the Betrothed sacral complex area and biologically to the Virgin Mary, built in 1926 by active area was assessed by Spearman the Sisters of Nazareth convent); 78 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora

● Saint Casmir the Prince in Sielce other types of parks, gardens and green (church built in 1932–1933 by the squares, are surfaces that are permeable Resurrectionist Congregation); to rainwater and take part in the infi ltra- ● Saint Dominique in Służew (clois- tion process. These areas, despite their ter built by the Dominicans in 1935, often fairly small size and lack of diver- church built in 1981–1994). sity of vegetation, can have an infl uence However, the majority of the de- on improvement in climatic conditions. scribed parishes were established after Research indicates that even a terrain World War II and in the second half of covered only by a lawn reduces the air the 20th century. Other parishes were temperature by at least 2.3°C compared established at the beginning of the 21st with an area of the same size without century. In some of them the parish a lawn, and increases the air humidity church has already been erected (the by 6–13% [Orzeszek-Gajewska 1984]. church dedicated to Blessed Edmund Small-size green areas in the city, church Bojanowski in Wolica, that of Saint gardens included, can also become habi- Antonio Maria Zaccaria in Stegny, and tats for insects and birds. Their ecologi- the Temple of God’s Providence in cal value increases if they are connected Wilanów), while in others only tempo- to the open area system of the city [For- rary chapels exist (those dedicated to the syth and Musacchio 2005]. Mission of the Lord’s Disciples in Kępa To analyze the value of the gardens Zawadowska, and to Saint Pio of Piet- surrounding sacral buildings as part of relcina in Moczydło). The analyzed area the system of urban green areas, the also contains, in western Wilanów, a following parameters were used: sacral sacral building of national signifi cance: complex area (ha), biologically active the Temple of God’s Providence. area (%), presence of old trees, ornamental shrubs, fl owerbeds, rosaries, lawns, low-growing plants, climbers, or- Value of church gardens as part of chards, vegetable and herb gardens, and the system of urban green areas relations of the garden with natural areas The gardens surrounding sacral build- (Table 2). All the analyzed sacral buildings in cities are an important part of ings are surrounded by designed green the system of urban green areas. Usu- areas. Their size is diverse and ranges ally they are small biologically active from 0.21 ha up to 5.80 ha, while the size spaces surrounded by dense urban de- of the majority of the sacral complexes velopment. Despite their isolation and lies between 1 and 2 ha. In the majority small size, church gardens, like the of the complexes the biologically active other small-scale garden forms in the area covers 50–65% (9 churches) or 30– city such as pocket gardens, improve –45% (6 churches) of the whole terrain, the quality of life [Forsyth and Musac- while in four complexes it constitutes as chio 2005, Mega 2010]. The green areas much as 70–90% of the total area. Only surrounding sacral buildings, as well as in three complexes do green areas cover The chuch garden as an element shaping... 79

TABLE 2. Forms of vegetation Relation Biologi- Lawns, Sacral Orna- Flower- Vegetable of garden cally Old low- Climb- No complex mental beds, Orchards and herb with active area trees -growing ers area (ha) shrubs rosaries gardens natural (%) plants areas Wilanów deanery 1 1.20 40 + + + + + – + – 2 0.80 75 + + + + – – – + 3 1.00 50 + + + + – – – + 4 1.13 50 + + + + – – + – 5 0.21 15 – + + + – – – – 6 1.89 60 – + + + – – – – 7 0.50 64 + + – + – – – + 8 5.80 55* –+ – + – – – – 9 1.80 50* ×× × × × × × × Służew deanery 10 1.10 42 – + + + – – – – 11 0.72 40 – + – + – – – – 12 4.3 80 + + + + + + + – 13 3.41 65 + + – + – + – + 14 1.9 70 + + + + + – + + 15 1.2 55 – + + + + + – – Ursynów deanery 16 1.17 18 – + – + – – – + 17 0.60 40 + ×××××× + 18 1.07 19 – + + + – – – – 19 0.70 64 – + + + – – + – 20 0.90 33 – + + + – – – + 21 0.80 37* –+ – + – – – – 22 3.31 90 + + + + – – – – * Approximate data for churches and gardens under construction. + presence of the element, – absence of the element, × garden under construction. less than 20% of the whole. The median the churchyard. The church and the mass of sacral complex area is 1.12 ha (0.21– of the trees create a visible architectonic –5.8 ha), while the biologically active and landscape dominant. Old trees are area accounts for about 50% (15–90%). a more common form of vegetation in The percentage of biologically active the case of larger biologically active ar- area of the church gardens correlates with eas – 64.5 (40–90)% vs. 40 (15–64)%, total complex area (r = 0.47, p = 0.028): p = 0.01. In all sacral complexes where the larger the sacral complex, the greater the church surroundings are already the biologically active area. Old trees are laid out, ornamental shrubs are planted. present in ten of the sacral complexes. In Coniferous species predominate, and the historical complexes they surround rhododendrons are also often present 80 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora

(the churches of SS Peter and Paul the ples are the Immaculate Conception of Apostles and of Blessed Ladislas of the Virgin Mary church garden (Saint Gielniow). Fourteen of the church gar- Catherine parish), the Blessed Edmund den compositions include fl owerbeds Bojanowski church garden located on and rosaries. Usually they consist of the top of the Warsaw escarpment which seasonal fl owers, and sometimes also constitutes a natural ecological corridor, contain plants related to Christian sym- and the garden surrounding the Sanctu- bolism, such as roses or lavender. The ary of Our Lady Teacher of Youths (Our fl owerbeds often serve as decoration for Lady Queen of the Believers parish) lo- fi gures of Mary or votive crosses. Rarely cated in the vicinity of the riparian forest they constitute an independent composi- within the Vistula river valley. Exam- tion (Fig. 2). Climbers are not very com- ples of church gardens compositionally mon in church gardens, being recorded related to public parks are the garden at only four of the analyzed sites. of the church of St. Anna, connected to

FIGURE 2. Examples of plant compositions in gardens surrounding sacral buildings

All existent garden compositions the historical park in Wilanów, and the include lawns and low-growing plants garden of the Lord’s Ascension church, related to the modern John Paul II Park covering the ground. Orchards and us- and further to the structure of green ar- able gardens within the sacral complex eas in Ursynów. do not occur frequently (orchards were noted in three cases, vegetable and herb gardens in ﬁ ve cases). They are estab- Contemporary social functions of lished in complexes belonging to con- church gardens vents (e.g. the garden belonging to the To analyze the social functions of the St. Dominique church and Dominican gardens, the occurrence of the follow- cloister). An orchard is also likely to be ing items was recorded: parish fairs, found in larger rather than smaller sacral festivities and concerts, leisure places, complexes – 3.41 (1.2–4.3) ha vs. 1.07 (0.21–5.8) ha, p = 0.044). Eight of the tourist attractions, playgrounds, pres- sacral complexes are spatially connected ence of animals, national memorial sites to other valuable natural areas. Exam- (Table 3). The contemporary function of The chuch garden as an element shaping... 81

TABLE 3. Social functions of gardens Parish fairs, Tourist Presence of National No festivities Leisure place Playgrounds attraction animals memorial site and concerts Wilanów deanery 1 –––––– 2 ++–––– 3 ++++–– 4 –++––+ 5 –––––– 6 –+–+–– 7 +++––– 8 +++––+ 9 –––––– Służew deanery 10 –+–––– 11 –+–––– 12 +++––– 13 +++––+ 14 –+–––– 15 –+–––– Ursynów deanery 16 –––––– 17 –––––– 18 ––––+– 19 –+–––– 20 –+–++– 21 –+–––– 22 –++––– For symbols explanations see Table 2. the gardens surrounding sacral buildings Longing (St. Elisabeth parish), and also is infl uenced by many factors. Areas not next to cloisters, e.g. the Sacred Heart accessible to the public still perform of Jesus convent related to the church of the traditional function of a recreational St. Madeleine Sophie Barat. There are place for priests, monks and nuns, or also church gardens accessible only to are also used for the cultivation of us- particular groups of users, such as pu- able plants and fl owers and sometimes pils of the schools located in cloister for the raising of small livestock. Such buildings. An example is the Sisters of gardens exist near the clergy houses of Nazareth convent cloister related to the the church of the Immaculate Concep- church of St. Joseph the Betrothed to tion of the Virgin Mary (St. Catherine the Virgin Mary (St. Stephan the King parish) and the Sanctuary of Our Lady in Sielce parish), where the garden is 82 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora accessible to the nuns and their pupils. The gardens with relatively larger biolog- However, the majority of the analyzed ically active areas are likely to serve as gardens are open to the public. Usually local leisure places – 57.5 (33–90) % vs. they are used as a meeting place for lo- 29.5 (15–50) %, p = 0.005) and tourist cal residents during church services and attractions – 64 (50–90)% vs. 40 (15– festivities. Larger gardens also serve as a –75)%, p = 0.02. place for walking. Three of the analyzed The vicinity of some sacral buildings church gardens feature playgrounds for is also used as a location for national children (Sanctuary of Our Lady Teacher memorial sites. Examples include the of Youths, church of St. Antonio Maria monument commemorating the martyrs Zaccaria, church of Blessed Ladislas of of communist terror from 1944 to 1956, located within the Immaculate Concep- Gielniow), and in two gardens animals tion of the Virgin Mary church complex were exhibited (aviaries in the Blessed (St. Catherine parish), and plaques in the Ladislas of Gielniow church garden, wall surrounding the garden of St. An- and a Christmas crib with real animals tonio of Padua church (St. Boniface in in St. Thomas the Apostle church gar- Czerniaków parish) commemorating the den). Six parishes use the gardens to Bernardines and soldiers from the 14th organize parish fairs and festivities regiment of Lancers of Jazłowiec who (e.g. St. Casmir the Prince in Sielce died in 1939 and local inhabitants killed church with the Resurrectionist Con- and murdered during World War II. gregation, St. Dominique church and Also, the Temple of God’s Providence Dominican cloister) – Figure 3. Par- performs the function of a national me- ish fairs or festivities take place on sites morial site as the location of graves of with greater biologically active area prominent Poles. The temple is still un- – 64.5 (50–80)% vs. 41.0 (15–90)%, der construction, and so it is diffi cult to p = 0.02. Also, a biologically active area say whether this function will also be re- promotes leisure activities and tourism. fl ected in the surrounding garden.

FIGURE 3. Social functions of gardens surrounding sacral buildings. Dominicans’ Fair within the Do- minican cloister complex, and aviaries in the Blessed Ladislas of Gielniow church garden The chuch garden as an element shaping... 83

Small architectonic forms which emphasizes the place of crossing as an element of the composition of the border between the Profane and of church gardens the Sacred. The gate is usually situated on the main axis of the church. Sacral To analyze small architectonic forms as complexes with visible architectonic an element of the composition of gar- gate include both historical temples dens surrounding sacral buildings, the (e.g. the mid-19th-century gate with the following parameters were used: fences, Lubomirski family shield in front of gates, benches, lighting elements, refuse the church of St. Antonio of Padua) and bins and other small architectonic forms modern churches (e.g. the gate in front (Table 4). All analyzed sacral complexes of the Lord’s Offertory church). In the where the church surroundings are al- other sacral buildings, the entrance to ready laid out have a formal fence. Ten the church leads directly from the street of them have a visible architectonic gate (Fig. 4). TABLE 4. Small architectonic elements Lighting No Fences Gates Benches Refuse bins Other small architectonic forms elements Wilanów deanery 1 + + + – – Fountain 2+– + – – – 3 + – + + + Wooden bridge, artifi cial pond 4++ + + + – 5+– – + – – 6+– + – + – 7 + – – + – Baroque vases 8×× × × × × 9×× × × × × Służew deanery 10 + + + + – St. Joseph’s hut, granite and concrete fl owerpots 11 + – – – – – 12 + – + + – Bower Glass construction over the descent to the funeral 13 + + + + – chapel and the church cellar, concrete fl owerpots 14 + + + + – Artifi cial pond Lapidary, concrete fl owerpots, wooden trellis for 15 + + + + + climbers, bower Ursynów deanery 16 + + – – – Well, concrete fl owerpots 17 × × × × × × 18 + – – – – Stone fl owerpots 19 + + – – – Bower 20 + – – + – Aviaries, concrete and wooden fl owerpots 21 + + + – + – 22 + + – – – – For symbols explanations see Table 2. 84 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora

FIGURE 4. Examples of gates leading to sacral complexes. The churches of St. Antonio of Padua and the Lord’s Ascension Among the furnishing elements in the den occupies a larger area, and indicate analyzed church gardens, the most fre- that the garden is used not only during quent are benches (present in 11 of the church services but also for other types sacral complexes) and lighting elements of activities. (present in 10 cases). Usually they take Among other small architectural a form typical for urban green areas. forms, the most frequent are fl owerpots Only a few complexes contain indi- with seasonal fl owers, perennials and vidually designed furnishing elements. small shrubs. They emphasize the church Examples include lighting elements stylized as gas-lamps in the St. Antonio entrance or the location of Marian fi g- of Padua church garden, and benches ures, fi gures of saints and crosses. Rarely, decorated with forged elements in the wooden bowers or trellises for climbers shape of vines in the St. Antonio Maria are found in the gardens (Fig. 5). Zaccaria church garden (Barnabite Fa- Water elements are not very common thers parish). Refuse bins are found only in the sacral gardens (found in only two in the sacral complexes where the gar- cases). Usually they have the form of

FIGURE 5. Examples of small architectonic forms in gardens surrounding sacral buildings. Bench next to the church of St. Antonio Maria Zaccaria, and fl owerpots alongside the church of the Lord’s Ascension The chuch garden as an element shaping... 85 a small artifi cial pond located near fi g- Pathways and pavement types ures of Mary (the church of St. Madeleine in church gardens Sophie Barat, Sacred Heart of Jesus con- To analyze pathways and pavement vent) or chapels dedicated to the Virgin types in the gardens surrounding sacral Mary (Sanctuary of Our Lady Teacher buildings, the following parameters were of Youths). Near the Lord’s Ascension used: pathway surrounding the church, church a stone well has been built, per- developed pathway system, pavement forming only a symbolic function. An type, and square in front of the church unusual element present in a sacral gar- entrance (Table 5). The development of den is the aviaries located by the church a pathway system in a church garden of Blessed Ladislas of Gielniow. usually depends on the garden’s size.

TABLE 5. Pathways and pavement types Pathway Developed Square in front of No surrounding pathway Pavement type the church entrance the church system Wilanów deanery 1 – – Grey concrete sett, gravel – Grey concrete sett with light-grey ornament, 2– + – concrete paving 3 + + Grey and light-grey concrete sett with patterns + 4 + + Grey and red concrete sett + 5 + – Concrete paving – Grey and red concrete sett, granite sett decora- 6+ + + tive elements 7 + – Concrete paving + 8× × × × 9× × × × Służew deanery 10 + – Grey and red concrete sett + 11 + – Grey and red concrete sett – 12 + + Concrete sett, granite sett, concrete paving + 13 + + Concrete sett, stones, concrete paving + 14 + + Grey concrete sett – 15 + + Granite sett, grey concrete sett + Ursynów deanery 16 – – Grey concrete sett – 17 × × × × 18 + – Granite sett, concrete paving + 19 + + Grey and red concrete sett + 20 + + Grey and red concrete sett + 21 – – Grey concrete sett – 22 + – Concrete paving + For symbols explanations see Table 2. 86 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora

In larger-scale gardens, apart from the the church, the crossing of pathways or pathway surrounding the church, there is the location of a symbolic element. Con- an area with a well-developed system of crete sett pavement is also used in the paths for walking. This serves not only surroundings of some historical church- religious purposes, but is also used as es, such as the church of St. Antonio of recreational green area. Better developed Padua. Granite sett paving is notably pathway systems are found in the gardens less frequent, being found in only four with larger biologically active area – 62 of the complexes. Granite sett may be (33–80)% vs. 40 (15–90)%, p = 0.037. used only for decorative elements in Fifteen of the analyzed sacral complexes a concrete sett pavement (e.g. in the have a pathway around the church, most- St. Antonio Maria Zaccaria church ly used during processional church serv- garden – Fig. 6) or as the sole pave- ices. Ten of the complexes, apart from ment material (e.g. in the gardens of the road around the church, also have the churches of SS Peter and Paul the

FIGURE 6. System of pathways in St. Antonio Maria Zaccaria church garden a well-developed system of walking Apostles, St. Thomas the Apostle and paths. In the majority of the complexes, St. Dominique). In seven of the analyzed the path system is of informal character. sacral complexes several types of pav- An example is the relatively large-scale ing occur. An example is the Immaculate garden belonging to the church of SS Conception of the Virgin Mary church Peter and Paul the Apostles. Geometri- garden (Saint Catherine parish), where cal garden path compositions are found three types of pavement are used: con- less frequently. An example is the gar- crete sett, stones, and concrete paving. den layout in front of the façade of the Twelve of the analyzed sacral com- church of St. Antonio of Padua. plexes have a visible square in front of In the analyzed sacral complexes, concrete sett pavement predominates. the church’s main entrance. Often this This type of pavement is commonly used place is also marked with a pattern in in city public spaces. Often the pave- the paving. Only the churches located ment also contains colored decoration, directly adjacent to the street lack this which emphasizes the space in front of compositional element. The chuch garden as an element shaping... 87

Decorative elements with symbolic Figures of Mary are found in 13 of the meaning in church gardens sacral complexes where the garden composition has already been established The garden surrounding a sacral build- (Table 6). These are common elements ing should favor an atmosphere of self- in both historical and modern church -concentration, prayer, and feeling of gardens. The location of the fi gures of God’s closeness. In order to achieve Mary is always emphasized by a compo- such an atmosphere, symbolic elements sition of fl owers, shrubs or fl owerpots, are located in the garden. These include and sometimes also by water elements. fi gures of Mary or crosses commemo- There are also some commemorative rating the most important religious and fi gures, such as the statue of the Virgin spiritual events in the church or parish, Mary from the Warsaw ghetto in the Im- such as holy missions. On the crosses lo- maculate Conception of the Virgin Mary cated in the churchyard, tablets with the church garden (Saint Catherine parish) dates of each holy mission are placed. which witnessed the baptism of nearly Often the fi gures of Mary in the church- 5,000 Jews from the Ghetto. Another ex- yard have a commemorative character or ample is the statue of the Virgin Mary have been founded by a particular fam- from the January Uprising period, locat- ily belonging to the parish as a supplica- ed near the church of Our Lady the Moth- tion for benediction. In the churchyard er of Mercy (Congregation of Marianist also other religious fi gures appear, such Brothers and Priests parish), donated by as statues of Jesus Christ and fi gures a parishioner. Also, some fi gures have of saints related to the church or par- been founded by a family belonging to ish. Apart from the fi gures of Mary, in a particular parish. An example is the fi g- many churchyards chapels and grottos ure of Our Lady of Perpetual Help from for the Virgin Mary have been estab- 1902 in the Immaculate Conception of lished. Most frequently they are inspired the Virgin Mary church garden (Saint by the grotto of Our Lady of Lourdes, Catherine parish). In four of the ana- where several apparitions of Mary have lyzed sacral complexes, chapels in the been reported. Near some grottos, small form of a grotto or in the form of small artifi cial ponds have also been estab- buildings devoted to the Virgin Mary lished. These water elements symbol- are present. Examples of such symbolic ize the spring which was discovered in elements include the grotto established the grotto of Lourdes. In these grottos near the church of St. Casmir the Prince a statue of the Virgin Mary is placed on in Sielce (Resurrectionist Congregation) a mound made of stones. Usually the (Fig. 7) and the chapel built at the site of statue holds a rosary in one hand, as Mary apparitions near the Sanctuary of a reminder of the rosary prayer. The Our Lady Teacher of Youths (Our Lady grottos are decorated with fl owers and Queen of the Believers parish). Within candles. In May and October, they are the analyzed area there are also fi gures used to conduct the Mary’s services. of Jesus Christ (e.g. near the church of 88 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora

TABLE 6. Sculptural elements and small architectonic forms with symbolic meaning Marian Preserved Stations of the fi gures and Votive No historical Cross/shrines Other symbolic elements fi gures of crosses graves along wall saints Wilanów deanery 1– + – – – 2 + + – – Grotto of Mary, shrine Chapel commemorating the Marian 3+ + – – apparitions 4+ + – – – 5– – – – – 6+ + – – – 7 + + – + Grotto of Mary 8× + – – – 9× × × × – Służew deanery 10 + + – – – Grotto of Mary surrounded by fi gures 11 – + – – of the Apostles 12 + + – – – 13 + + – – – 14 + + – – – 15 + + – – – Ursynów deanery 16 + + – – – 17 – + – – – 18 – + – – Sculpture of Pietá 19 + + – + – 20 + + – – – 21 + – – – – 22 – + –– – For symbols explanations see Table 2.

SS Peter and Paul the Apostles) and the Cross or shrines along the wall sur- ﬁ gures of saints (e.g. the chapel with rounding the churchyard are found in a ﬁ gure of Saint Paul, the patron of the only two of the analyzed complexes. convent, near the church of St. Antonio The Stations of the Cross have been con- Maria Zaccaria in the Barnabite Fathers structed alongside the historical church parish). A distinctive symbolic ele- of St. Anna in Wilanów. Representations ment is the sculpture of Pietá located in of shrines from Sanctuaries of Mary in St. Thomas the Apostle church garden. many parts of the world have been es- Votive or missionary crosses occur tablished in the wall surrounding the in almost all the complexes. Stations of Lord’s Offertory church (Fig. 7). The chuch garden as an element shaping... 89

FIGURE 7. Figures of Mary at the churches of St. Madeleine Sophie Barat and St. Casmir the Prince in Sielce. The Stations of the Cross at the church of St. Anna in Wilanów, and one of the shrines in the wall surrounding the Lord’s Offertory church

DISCUSSION cover 50–65% of the whole terrain. They are usually connected to larger green ar- The research has confi rmed that histori- eas within the city, which increases their cally established models for the layout ecological value, since they constitute of the surroundings of sacral buildings a part of Warsaw’s natural system. They are still adopted in contemporary sacral improve local climatic conditions, and complexes, although the modern ways create a habitat for small fauna. Accord- in which church gardens are used lead to ing to Cooper [2012], towards the end of the introduction of some new elements. the 20th century the value of churchyards These traditional models include ele- for wildlife was recognized in England. ments such as the visible square in front Among principal habitats of importance of the church’s main entrance, which re- that he mentions are old trees, which are ferred to the antique forum [D’Alfonso also a common form of vegetation in the and Samss 1997], the pathway surround- church gardens analyzed here. ing the church, and gates and fences. The analyzed church gardens pro- The pathway surrounding the church is vide convenient conditions for outdoor still an important element used during leisure and recreation for local inhab- Eucharistic and resurrection processions itants. This is especially important in and parish fairs. The square in front densely built city districts. They are of the church is sometimes reduced to usually easily accessible and have a con- a small distance separating the temple from the street. Fences are of symbolic venient location, frequently in the centre rather than utilitarian signifi cance, serv- of the parish. Their composition, devel- ing to distinguish the sacred from the oped pathways, and presence of children non-sacred [Bis and Bis 2013]. Fences playgrounds, aviaries and small archi- and gates are often established accord- tectonic elements prove that they have ing to individual designs and include important social value for the local com- sacral and symbolic elements. munity. Among the cases analyzed there In the majority of the analyzed sac- are three where national memorials ex- ral complexes, biologically active areas ist. These have particular value for local 90 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora inhabitants, being regularly visited by 3. The green areas surrounding the an- parishioners and decorated with fl owers alyzed sacral buildings, with areas and candles. A similar relationship be- ranging from 0.21 up to 5.80 ha, are tween parishioners and memorial plac- an important element of the system of es in churchyards is noted by Cooper urban green areas. They improve local [2012], who emphasizes the great value climatic conditions, provide a habitat of the graves located within churchyards for small fauna, and create conven- for the local community. ient conditions for outdoor leisure and The only elements of symbolic reli- recreation for local inhabitants. In the gious meaning are sculptural elements majority of the analyzed sacral com- and small architectonic forms. The con- plexes, the biologically active area temporarily designed church gardens accounts for 50–65% of the total. usually have a secular composition and 4. The character of sculptural detail in do not include many plants with Chris- the analyzed gardens results from tian symbolism, apart from the roses their sacral ideological signifi cance, which usually accompany the fi gures of while small architectonic elements Mary. (benches, refuse bins, lamps) are of generic character. Fences and gates CONCLUSIONS are often established according to individual designs and refl ect the sacral, 1. Historically established models of symbolic character of the place. the layout of the surroundings of sac- 5. Developed systems of pathways, ral buildings, which emphasize the found in half of the analyzed sacral sacred nature of the place, are still complexes, as well as children’s play- adopted in contemporary sacral com- grounds, aviaries and sophisticated plexes despite changes in their func- compositions of plants, demonstrate tion (e.g. elimination of cemeteries that the function of the sacral garden within churchyards). These models has been intentionally broadened to include elements such as the visible include a recreational aspect. square in front of the church’s main 6. The church garden constitutes an im- entrance, a pathway surrounding the portant part of the composition of the church, gates and fences. sacral complex. It should be designed 2. The analyzed gardens surrounding together with the church building and sacral buildings perform a signifi cant parish buildings, allowing the achieve- role in the social life of local inhabit- ment of an integral composition with ants. They are places of regular meet- appropriate order and iconological ings at times of church services, they sense. Because of its specifi city, its serve as places of leisure and recrea- design and management should be the tion for various users, and three of subject of consultation with clerics, them also contain national memorial artists, architects and ecologists, so as sites. to avoid unfavorable decisions. The chuch garden as an element shaping... 91

7. The church garden composition pro- D’ALFONSO E., SAMSS D. (1997). Historia ar- vides a kind of distance between the chitektury. Arkady, Warszawa, pp. 102–104. space of the Profane and the church DELUMEAU J. (1996). History of Paradise. Continuum Press, London – New York. building interior. It should therefore FORSYTH A., MUSACCHIO L. (2005). Design- follow a designed iconological pro- ing Small Parks: A Manual for Addressing gram including sculptural elements, Social and Ecological Concerns. John Wiley small architectural forms, and plants & Sons, New York pp. 150–151. with Christian symbolism. HOBHOUSE P. (1997). Plants in Garden History. Pavilion Books Limited, London. HOBHOUSE P. (2005). Historia ogrodów. REFERENCES Arkady, Warszawa. BARLOW ROGERS E. (2001). Landscape De- KOZAKIEWICZ-OPAŁKA R., ZARZYCKI G., sign. A Cultural and Architectural History. ZAPAŁA B. (Eds) (2008). Ogród sakralny BIS M., BIS W. (2013). Średniowieczny i nowo- – idea i rzeczywistość: VII Międzynarodowa żytny cmentarz przy kościele św. Katarzyny. Konferencja o Architekturze i Sztuce Sakral- In: A. Sołtan-Lipska (Ed.) Służew i jego ko- nej z cyklu „Kościoły naszych czasów”, Kiel- ściół. Parafi a Rzymskokatolicka św. Katarzy- ce – SacroExpo 2008. Stowarzyszenie Archi- ny, Warszawa, pp. 394–415. tektów Polskich. Oddział Kielce. BOGDANOWSKI J. (2000). Polskie ogrody MEGA V.P. (2010). Sustainable Cities for the ozdobne, Arkady. Warszawa. Third Millennium: The Odyssey of Urban BÖHM A. (1994). Architektura krajobrazu. Jej Excellence. Springer-Verlag, New York. początki i rozwój. Wyd. Politechniki Kra- MILECKA M. (2009). Ogrody cystersów w krakowskiej, Kraków. jobrazie małopolskich opactw fi lii Morimon- BRAUNFELS W. (1993). Monasteries of West- du. Wydawnictwo KUL, Lublin. ern Europe: The Architecture of the Orders. MILECKA M. (2012). Średniowieczne dziedzic- Thames & Hudson, London. two sztuki ogrodowej klasztorów europej- CHILD N. (2007). Discovering churches and skich. Hereditas Monasteriorum, 1: 31–56. churchyards. Osprey Publishing, Oxford. MITKOWSKA A., SIEWNIAK M. (Eds) 1997. CIOŁEK G. (1954). Ogrody polskie. Przemiany Sacrum w ogrodach historycznych i symbo- treści i formy, Architektura i Budownictwo, lika ich roślinności. Wyd. Politechniki Kra- Warszawa. kowskiej, Kraków. COOPER N. (1995). Wildlife conservation in MITKOWSKA A., SIEWNIAK M. (1998). Te- churchyards: a case-study in ethical judg- zaurus sztuki ogrodowej. Ofi cyna Wydawni- ments. Biodiversity & Conservation 4 (8): cza Rytm, Warszawa. 916–928. NADROWSKI H. (2008). Bliższe i dalsze oto- COOPER N. (1996). Wildlife and DACs (Dioc- czenie kościoła. In: R. Kozakiewicz-Opałka, esan Advisory Committees). Churchscape G. Zarzycki, B. Zapała (Eds) Ogród sakralny 15: 21–23. – idea i rzeczywistość: VII Międzynarodowa COOPER N. (2001). Wildlife in church and Konferencja o Architekturze i Sztuce Sakral- churchyard: plants, animals and their man- nej z cyklu „Kościoły naszych czasów”, Kiel- agement. Church House Publishing, London. ce – SacroExpo 2008. Stowarzyszenie Archi- COOPER N. (2012). The history of English tektów Polskich. Oddział Kielce, pp. 51–70. churchyard landscapes illustrated by Riven- hall, Essex. In: G. Pungetti, G. Oviedo, D. ORZESZEK-GAJEWSKA B. (1984). Kształto- Hooke (Eds) Sacred Species and Sites: Ad- wanie terenów zieleni w miastach. Instytut vances in Biocultural Conservation. Cam- Urbanistyki i Planowania Przestrzennego Po- bridge University Press, Cambridge pp. litechniki Warszawskiej. Państwowe Wydaw- 97–110. nictwo Naukowe, Warszawa. 92 M. Kaczyńska, D. Sikora

STĘPIEŃ, P. (1982). Znaczenie krajobrazu kościo- dla życia duchowego mieszkańców, jako terenów ła. Ruch Biblijny i Liturgiczny 35: (4) 251. biologicznie czynnych, zwiększających biolo- SZAFRAŃSKA M. (1998). Ogrody średnio- giczny potencjał miasta, jako miejsc rekreacji, wieczne. In: M. Szafrańska (ed.) Ogród. For- jako miejsc pełniących funkcję dominant w kra- ma, symbol, marzenie. Arx Regia Ośrodek jobrazie miasta i budujących tożsamość lokalną. Wydawniczy Zamku Królewskiego w War- W wyniku przeprowadzonych badań ustalono, szawie, Warszawa, pp. 45–58. że większość ogrodów kościelnych pełni funk- cję miejsca spotkań okolicznych mieszkańców. Streszczenie: Ogród przy obiekcie sakralnym jako W większości zespołów sakralnych powierzchnia element kształtujący jakość życia w mieście – na biologicznie czynna zajmuje 50–65% terenu. Bli- wybranych przykładach. Celem badań było roz- sko połowa zespołów sakralnych jest powiązana poznanie form współczesnego ogrodu przy obiek- przestrzennie z innymi terenami przyrodniczy- cie sakralnym w mieście i ustalenie jak obecność mi. Wśród elementów wyposażenia w ogrodach tego typu obiektów wpływa na podniesienie ja- przykościelnych najczęściej pojawiają się ławki, kości życia mieszkańców oraz stwierdzenie na ile elementy oświetlenia i donice – elementy typowe wykształcony w średniowieczu model tego typu również dla innych obiektów zieleni urządzo- założenia jest współcześnie aktualny. Pole ba- nej. Większość badanych obiektów sakralnych dawcze stanowiły ogrody przy 22 kościołach, na ma obejście wokół kościoła, wykorzystywane terenie trzech dekanatów południowej Warszawy w trakcie nabożeństw o charakterze procesyjnym, (wilanowskiego, służewskiego i ursynowskiego). często rozbudowane o bardziej skomplikowany Wpływ przebadanych obiektów na podniesienie układ dróg spacerowych. W przeszło połowie jakości życia mieszkańców przejawia się w kil- zespołów sakralnych zlokalizowane są elementy ku aspektach: jako historycznie ukształtowanych rzeźbiarskie i małej architektury, związane z reli- przestrzeni modlitwy i kontemplacji, istotnych gijną symboliką miejsca. Agriculture (Agricultural and Forest Engineering) Animal Science Forestry and Wood Technology Horticulture and Landscape Architecture Land Reclamation

Annals of Warsaw University of Life University of Life Sciences Press in two Sciences were originally published in 1957 copies. Papers submitted for consideration as Zeszyty Naukowe SGGW (Scienti- by the Editorial board should not exceed 0.5 fi c Fascicles of SGGW). In 1980 the na- of a printed sheet (about 11 pages includ- me was changed to Annals of Warsaw ing illustrations, and should consist of the University of Life Sciences. following elements: 1) name and surname The Annals (5 subject series) are publi- of the author, 2) title of the paper, 3) abstract shed once or twice a year and will carry pre- (about 20 lines), 4) text of the paper, 5) date viously unpublished papers that are mainly when the paper was sent to the Warsaw Uni- in English, but also in French, German or versity of Life Sciences Press and mailing Russian, followed by a short summary in address of the author, 6) summary (one page), Polish. Manuscripts for publication should 7) tables and fi gures with captions. Authors be typewritten and submitted to the Warsaw receive twenty fi ve offprints free of change.