CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1. Title and Clarification of the Topic
Yogdcdra is one of the two Indian Mahdydna Buddhist Schools, its founding is ascribed to two brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu, but its basic tenets and doctrines were already in circulation for at least a century before the brothers lived. Yogdcdra focused on the processes involved in cognition and their sustained attention to issues such as cognition, consciousness, perception and epistemology.
Although the founding of Yogdcdra is traditionally ascribed to two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu (fourth- fifth century BC), most of its fundamental doctrines had already appeared in a number of scriptures a century or more earlier, most notably the Sandhinirmocana Sutra (Elucidating the Hidden Connections) (2"'' century BC). Amongst the key Yogdcdra concepts introduced in the Sandhinirmocana Sutra are the notions of only-cognition ( Vijnaptimdtratd), their self- natures (Trisvabhdva), storehouse consciousness {Alaya- vijndna), overturning the basic (Asrayapardvrtti) and the theory of eight consciousnesses. Yogdcdra held that the world is mind only; there are many similarities between the Vijndnavdda and other idealist philosophies. But one thing that makes the Buddhist idealism of the Vijndnavdda different from most forms of idealism is the doctrine illusion {Mdyd). According to the Buddhist schools, all things are impermanent (Anitya). The Mahdydna Buddhist maintained that the world is actually unreal (Asat, Mdyd). The Vijndnavddin interpretation of this doctrine was that the mind, under the influence of the beginningless delusion or ignorance (Avidya), believes that it apprehends in both the walking and dreaming states, objects which are external to it, when in fact it is only the mind itself which is projecting, or appearing, as something external. Hence, although mind is real, the world is unreal.
Yogdcdra is an influential school of Buddhist philosophy and psychology that stems from the early Indian Mahdydna Buddhist tradition. The Yogdcdra view is based on the fundamental truth that there is nothing in the realm of human experience that is not interpreted by and dependent upon the consciousnese and consciousnese only.
In Buddhism, consciousness-only or mind-only (Sanskrit: Vijnapti-mdtratd, Vijhapti-mdtra, Citta-mdtra; Chinese: 0^11^; Pinyin: Wei-shi) is a theory according to which unenlightened conscious experience is nothing but false discriminations or imaginations. Thus, the notion of consciousness-only is an indictment of the problems engendered by the activities of consciousness. This was a major component of the thought of the school of Yogdcara, which had a major effect on subsequent schools after its introduction in East Asia.
From the early Buddhism, the method of controlling the mind was the most important thing in the life of monks. The Buddha emphasized this in the first lesson of the Dhammapada Sutta:
"Akkocchi mam avadhi mam ajini mam ahasi me ye ca tam upanayhanti veram tesam na sammati."
(All the phenomena of existence have mind as their precursor, mind as their supreme mind leader, and of mind are they made. If with an impure mind one speaks or acts, suffering follows him in the same way as the wheel follows the foot of the drawer/of the chariot.)'
Or:
"Akkocchi mam avadhi mam ajini mam ahasi me ye ca tam upanayhanti veram tesam na sammati."
The Dhammapada, Tr., V. 1, p. 5. (All the phenomena of existence have mind as their precursor, mind as their supreme leader, and of mind are they made. If with a pure mind one speaks or acts, happi- ness follows him like his shadow that never leaves him.)
And the Buddha emphasizes that the person who is in the evil mind will be dangerous to himself and to others; a person with the virtuous mind will be useful to himself and to others:
"Diso disam yam tarn kariya veri va pana verinam micchapanihitam cittam papiyo nam tato kare."
(An ill-directed mind does greater harm to the self than, a hater does to another hater or an enemy to another enemy)."'
Or:
"Na tam mata pita kayira anne vapi ca nataka sammapanihitam citlam seyyaso naim tato kare."
(Nether father nor mother, nor any other kindred, can confer greater benefit that does the well-directed mind.)"*
2 Ibid., V. 3, p. 5. Mbid., V. 42, p. 19. ^ Ibid., V. 43. For the purpose of this thesis, I desire to concentrate on the consciousness which is the doctrine of Yogdcdra Buddhism, finding down the correct solution for the change of evil view of human beings and social order. Good and bad or evil in the society, group, or in a mind of a person is dependent on the consciousness. Society walfare of the society, preservation of lawful atate and justice also is based on the consciousness. All the problems in modern world like war, hatred, killing, terrorism etc. take place due to the ignorance of the mind.
Yogdcdra and the masters of Yogdcdra analyzed the role of consciousness and its function and confirmed that the reality of consciousness and the notion that the world is a world of ideas only, not of things. However, Yogdcdra is not the same like other philosophical doctrines of other religion, Yogdcdra is a method of experienced science, through the practice of yoga and meditation in the Bodhisattva's Path; one purifies his consciousness and accords with the stage of wisdom, which enteres into the purifying consciousness and develops to the positive tend of unlimited capacity of consciousness on the way of liberation.
Besides, the cosmological approach to consciousness consists in tracing the origin or evolution of consciousness in the universe from the other levels of beings and it explaining the 'causal' relation it bears to them. Anthropological approach to consciousness consists of various branclies of study and anlyses the characteristic of consciousness from different objective standpoints. It traces the development of consciousness in human being from the life in the past (animal, heaven), resulting in the corresponding the 'seed' changes in man, studies consciousness as found in the human culture development and describes consciousness in its social dimensions. That is the reason, none is the same anyone. Because the 'seed' in their consciousness of the past life mere beared in them not the same each other, and then, they are human being together in this life with different 'seed' in their consciousness. The man can bear the 'seed' in consciousness from the monkey in the past life, but not the ancestor of human, because the man can bear any 'seed' from any sentient beings. Epistemology is also an interesting field of consciousness in the different means of knowing the object, the reality of the object in term of its dependence or independence from the knowing consciousness, the standard of truth and the theory error applicable to the consciousness to understand about an object. Psychology is also the nearest to the phenomenology, as Edmund Husserl, a famous scholar in the field of consciousness in the West, he distinguishes the 'descriptive phenomenology' from 'transcendental phenomen ology' and says that the 'descriptive phenomenology' as 'phenomenological psychology' (A General Introduction to Pure Phenomenology, George Allen & Unwin, London, 1958, p. 15); and it seems an introspective method. That is a problem, while Yogdcdra thought said that consciousness is phenomenal status in independence of conditions. In the Vimsatikd-kdrikd, the master Vasubandhu says that the consciousness was born from the 'seeds', and he confirms that, it is the word of the Buddha.^Therefore, the phenomenology exists in its own distinct problems and object approach. Consciousness has developed into various branches of study and is interested in several objective issues connected with consciousness from childhood to adulthood, the process of learning, the various propensities or instincts which manifest in human conscious behaviour, the various behaviourist response of consciousness to the different situations, the broad distinctions etc. There are but general descriptions of highly complex studies of consciousness from objective standpoints.
However, the great mistake of Western scientists and psychologists is in thinking that the approach to consciousness is the inward approach, and more mistake is in their thinking that the system of nervs and brain as consciousness. Firstly, in Yogdcdra doctrine, the masters of Yogdcdra point out those neurons and brain which are only subtle elements, and follow the law of birth and death. It is certain these two viz. brain and neurons are not consciousness. Consciousness just depends on them and manifests; they belong to sense organ to give rising cognition. Consciousness is described by Yogacarins as the store-house with unlimited space. Brain is not enough for
Stefen Anacker, Seven Works of Vasubandhu, p. 165.
7 cognition. Brain along with consciousness gives rise to cognition. ^ In other words, the material cannot produce the consciousness. Just as, the bulb cannot produce the light, but without it, the power cannot be the light for itself. Brain is needed only as the conditional thing where the manifestation of consciousness and producing the cognition takes place; just the bulb is the conditional thing for the light from the power enabled. As the people die, the brain becomes decayed and cannot producing the cognition, but consciousness still exists in a state of potential energy; as in the computer, when the electricity is corrupted, the memory of computer is inactivated, but the database still keeps it in the memory; and when the electricity appears, the memory is generated again. Same is the case with consciousness in one's body, when the man dies, his physical body (the collection of four elements: earth, water, wind, and fire) decays, but his mental body or consciousness returns to the potential state and is waiting for the focusing of conditions and becomes active in a new body of the next life.
^ Countless examples could be collected from other works about the Cheng-wei-shi- lun or Yogdcdra as well. For instance. Tat, on p. 547. 'Translates': "The five material Indriyas or organs. They have as their essential nature the subtle Rupa (eyes, etc.,) which is the manifestation of Mulavijnana, etc.." Has the Cheng-wei-shi-lun finally said that ^/ayavz/na/ia 'manifests" Rupa. Tat's causative-idealist 'interpretation': "The five Rupa organs, which alterations in the Mulavijnana, etc., take in through the eyes, etc. Pure Rupa is regarded as their nature." The passage actually says that their nature is 'pure Rupa". One sees a visible object (Rupa) through eye, and that visible experience of 'pure Rupa' is registered as "alteration in the Mulavijnana, etc. Far from implying a causative idealist theory, the Alayavijnana and other consciousnesses are passive recorders of the activities of the visual organ and its corresponding objects. Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology: a Philosophical Investigation of Yogdcdra Buddhism and the Cheng-wei-shi-lun, note of the chapter 19, note 25, p. 495.
8 The Yogdcdra explains that the maintaining of the potential state is manifested by 'seeds' from the past, and they will be the causes to impulse the new life. Understanding the nature of the consciousness, we can control and purify its seeds, from that we can complete personal character of ourselves and develop the capacity of our unlimited consciousness. Yogdcdra School holds that the consciousness can transform into the wisdom, which is the main key to realise the nature of Dharmas (both self and thing), attain the Tathatd or Buddha nature.
The second important thing is the problem of the world of spirit, according to Buddhism, there is no soul, and no creator; but the man will pay his duties for his own actions or Karma. Yogdcdra proves that the consciousness is not the physical organ or the brain of the body, which is the basic organ (pure- Rupa) to enable the consciousness's activities. The 'seeds' are available in it, perfumed in the past. They were accepted in the process of daily life and stored at once, or in other words, its existence is established by dependent happening. Therefore, the natures of wholesome or unwholesome activity of the human beings depend on the decision of one's own consciousness completely, and such consciousness is the subject of all creations, or Yogacarins call all seeds consciousness (SarvabTJakam). So with this discussion we cay say that there
Trimsikd: vipako mananakhyas ca vijnaptirvisayasya ca | tatra"layakhyarh vijnanam vipakah sarvabTjakam |j 2 is the existence of mere consciousness and God or Creator does not exist according to Buddhism.
The transformation of consciousness is very complicated and abstract, so the psychologists or the scientists meet many difficulties in the process of study. The approach to consciousness requires tend to inward and outward, moreover, there are two types of operations of consciousness, viz. the operation of self thought and the operation of selfless thought. With the self thought, the scientists depend on the materiality to experience the world as the brain produces the cognition; and the philosophers and the psychologists even the religious founders set up themselves to the doctrines with the abstract as Great as Self, Brahma, God, idealism, realism, materialism, etc. Once these abstract concepts become the system of doctrine or religion, it gives rise to the different opinions or views about 'Self and can bring very serious consequences if the concepts of consciousness is wrongly understood.
The conception of consciousness - Yogdcdra divides this field into the system of eight consciousnesses. There are: (i) Storehouse consciousness {Alayavijndna); (ii) Afflicted consciousness (Manavijndna); (iii) Mental consciousness {Manovijndna)', (iv) Eye consciousness {Caksurvijfidna); (v) Ear consciousness {Srotravijndna); (vi) Nose consciousness
([They are] called Maturation, Mentation, and Reporting of Phenomena. Among these, the consciousness called the Foundation, or "Maturation," is the seed of everything.)
10 (Ghrdnvijndna); (vii) Tongue consciousness (Jihvdvijndna); and (viii) Body consciousness {Kdyavijndna).
Yogdcdra points out that the all the Dharmas exist as they belong to 'causal happening', including the Dharma called 'consciousness', but the consciousness plays a role of subject which establishes the universe and outlook of the life of man. Dharma which depends on the physical organ of the body, accepts the imagination of objects, and produces the cognition or distinction of the external world, is consciousness. Yogdcdra classifies the world of 'becoming' into five categories which are subdivided into one hundred Dharmas; consists of seventy-four created Dharmas {Samskrta Dharmas), and six uncreated Dharmas (Asamskrta Dharmas). Howevere, the existence of the objects in the world should reflect through the subjective and objective. The five categories, there are: (i) Citta Dharma or consciousness (8 Dharmas), (ii) Caitasika or Mental factors (51 Dharmas); (iii) Rupa Dharmas or Form-element (11 Dharmas); (iv) Citta- viprayakta Sanskdra or Thing not Associated with Mind (24 Dharmas); (v) Asamskrtadharmas or No-created Elements (6 Dharmas).
In the thesis, I also accept some principles of scholars in Western and especially some schools of Indian doctrines.
Based on Vasubandhu's Bai-fa-ming-men-lun (H}4H^P^Im) Mahdyana-satadharmd-prakdsamukha-sastra (Lucid Introduction to tiie One Hundred Dharmas) T. No.31.1614.
11 However, Indian ancient doctrines are nearly approaching thie field of consciousness, because most of them are of the same viewpoint of accepting the consciousness as subtle mind and not as the brain of body, but depending on consciousness arises and nervous systems functionmg it.
It should be noticed that the consciousness in Yogdcdra writings is meant to be an explanation of experience, rather than a system of Ontology. Therefore the school was called Yogdcdra (Yoga practice), therapeutic framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the goal of the Bodhisattva Path, namely enlightened cognition. Meditation served as the laboratory in which one could study how the mind operated. Yogdcdra focused on the question of consciousness from a variety of approaches, including meditation, psychological analysis, and epistemology. However, the term Vijfiapti- mdtratd often rendered as consciousness-only or mind-only, which has sometimes been interpreted as indicating a type of metaphysical idealism, the claim that the mind alone is real and everything else is created by the mind. But Yogdcdra doctrine refers something different; consciousness is not the ultimate reality or solution, but rather the root problem. This problem emerges in ordinary mental operations and it can only be solved by bringing those operations to an end and not for the sake of metaphysical idealism.
Swami Smarananda also agrees with this point and displays it at a seminar held at the Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture; "Life. Mind and Consciousness', Kolkata, India, 2004, p. 7-8.
12 Moreover, the Yogdcdra is a branch of Mahdydna Buddhism, it is the system practice religious rather than merely philosophical or the motive of building up their system is practical rather than theoritical. In Yogdcdra, the way leading to release or liberation through five stages experience step by step. The five stages are: (i) Sambhdrdvasthd: means 'provisioning' since this is the stage at which one collects and stock upon provisions for the journey. These provisions primarily consist of orienting oneself toward the pursuit of the path and developing the proper character, attitude and resolve to accomplish it. It begins the moment the aspiration for enlightenment arises (Bodhicitta); (ii) Prayogdvasthd: means the 'experimental', in which one begins to experiment with correct Buddhist theories and practices, learning which of them work and which are true. One begins to suppress the grasped relation and begins to study carefully the relation between them things, language and cognition. After keeping one's discipline, one eventually enters the third stage, (iii) Prativedhdvasthd: means 'deepening understanding', which is the path of corrective vision or Darsanamdrga. This stage ends once one has acquired some insight into non-conceptual cognition. Non-conceptual cognition deepens in the next stage, (iv) Bhdvandmdrga means 'cultivation'. The grasper and grasped relation are utterly eliminated as all are cognitive obstructions. This path culminates in the overturning of the basic or enlightenment and engages the world through the five immediate cognitions. All one's activities and cognitions at
13 this stage are 'post-realisation'. As a Mahayanists, from the first stage one has been devoting oneself not only to one's own attainment of enlightenment, but to the attainment of enlightenment by all sentient beings. In this stage such a pursuit becomes one's sole concern.
All above, Yogdcdra is not only a theoretical but also practical method. Hence, Yogacarins built up this school with the purpose through the analysis of consciousness to cultivate and purify the seeds in the consciousness. Yogdcdra emphasizes not thing but consciousness to abandon the erroneous view in self-grasping and thing-grasping. A practitioner after cultivating the five stages he transforms the consciousness into wisdom and realizes the nature of all dharmas, this reality as the goal of life, which can be realized by reaching bank into the source of our own existence in the true non-self. Approaching the operation of consciousness in Yogdcdra is a process to cultivate and transform consciousness, purify consciousness's seeds to develop the consciousness with right view on the changing the life and society according to the Yogdcdra. This purpose of approach will be discussed on whole the work.
1.2. Scope of the Topic
Consciousness is a big theme in many fields approach of scientific, philosophy, psychology, cosmology, and out look on life. According to Buddhism, all our actions are performed .:^(Wj
14 by mind or consciousness. Our actions always have two types - good and bad. The good actions produce good moral behaviours, on the other hand bad actions produce bad moral behaviours. In short, consciousness precedes all actions of human beings.
Depending on the consciousness, many schools of philosophy, their doctrine or religious systems came into existance. The operation of consciousness is very subtle and quick transformation, so it is difficult for the philosophers and religious founders to evaluate exactly, even it is changed into the kind of theology, idealism as the theory of Atman (Self), Brahman or the Great Self, and God; some of them think that consciousness is the brain of man according to the scientists. Therefore, they all fall into two mistakes: (i) Annihilationlism or non-eternalism; (ii) Eternalism. The thought of annihila- tionism or non-eternalism thinks that there is no individuality after death, the physical body of human after death returns to the earth, water, air and fire; and the sense faculties pass into space. Everybody ceases to be after death. By this way, it is very dangerous result and can be the cause leading to the destroying ethics and social order. For example, the man who keeps this thought, he will feel that the life after death is over, and he becomes libertine and breaks the principle of conduct. He disregards anything. It is the dangerous thought which will be damaging one and others. Eternalism is the view of permanental personality. It is opposite to the non-eternalism,
15 which is also a dangerous view; it is easy to lead the person who has this view into the stage of lazy and loose of life. He also dares to violate any moral conduct, because he thinks that after death he still exists, that there is no law of cause and effect influencing himself. Such thinking is a result of laziness which will destroy the development of people and society.
Existence of consciousness is acknowledged by founders of religion, Yogdcarins, philosophers, and scientists who think alike. But what is it that constitutes consciousness and how to define it yet remains a matter of debate. Regarding this, there are many viewpoints, methods and fields related to the concept of consciousness, but I discuss only on the Yogdcdra's experiences about consciousness with the following points:
- Introduction of the origin and development of Yogdcdra. - Historical Survey of Yogdcdra - The Operation of Consciousness in Yogdcdra - Moral Value of Yogdcdra - Conclusion
Taking into account above points I have tried to analyse consciousness through the texts of Yogdcdra, with special reference to the Vimsatikd (The treatise on Twenty Verses), the Trimsikd (The treatise on Thirty Verses), composed by Vasubandhu, and the Cheng-wei-shi-lun by Xuan-zhuang of Vijnaptimdtratd Sdstra original text and is a commentary on
16 Trimsikd. The original text of this commentary is lost, only translation is available.
There are many definitions of consciousness by different scholars and philosophy schools in India and Western. India is the gem of philosophy with reference to the consciousness as ancient holy books of the Upanisad, the Vedanta, etc. also introduce this concept.
Dictionary meaning of consciousness - consciousness is explained as being characterized by sensation, emotion, volition, and mind. (Weblert English Dictionary, Available: m- w.com/dictionary/consciousness.htm.) So the consciousness is explained as 'mind'. Generally, we understand the activity of thinking of human as a reflection by mind and it is the center to produce the sensation or thought. The ''A Dictionary of Philosophy", edited by A. R. Lacey, the word 'consciousness' pointes out the category of 'mind'. '° However, the word 'consciousness' is referred with different explanations. Even in the early Buddhism, the definition of this term is rendered as 'mind' in the theory of Dependent Origination (Pratitya- samutpdda), and in the five aggregates (Panca-skandhas). At the Western, scientists, in general, do not consider the mind to be different from the brain. However, all scientists do not subscribe to the view of identity of the brain and the mind. " Scholar D. M. Rosenthal, he respected Freud Sigmund too he
See A. R. Lacey, A Dictionary of Philosophy, p. 146-47. N. C. Panda, Mind and Supermind. p. xi.
17 could not find the limitation of his psychology and did seem right that many people do tend to equate mind and consciousness. '^ Recently, many scientists as C. George Boeree listed the definitions of consciousness about Bishop Bekeley (1710), Hume (1748), and J. J. Gibson (1979), etc. He points out that, it is mistake to view consciousness as a thing inhabiting a place, but a process, a verb is active and transitive on at that,'^ Although, they display many methods and suggestions about approach to consciousness, but the problem of consciousness always be with many questions on it. For the Yogdcdra, the concept of consciousness is understood in three categories, viz., mind, intellect, and consciousness. These are the basic meanings of consciousness and it is operated in the system of eight consciousnesses in Yogdcdra.
Anyhow, it is beginning to mention that we must have used the English word 'mind' to describe the term ' Citta' in Sanskrit and mental Factors with Caitasikas respectively. To enter the realm of mind, we should go with the experience way, practical more than theoritical. And mind or conscious-
lyyin, The Jerusalem Philosophy Quarterly 51 (July 2002), p. 227-51. C. Goerg Boeree, What is Consciousness.
18 ness is the highest good, ideal; truth in the ultimate sense; a philosophical truth 15
The term 'Citta' is defined in dictionary as the word for English 'mind', means someone's memory or the activity to think, feel emotions, and be aware of things. '^ Thus, we know that through the activity of mind, we know about the feeling on the experience of mind. However, the activity of mind is very subtle and deep. This work will discusse whole activities of mind according to the Yogacdra doctrine. Besides, scholars translate the term 'Citta' into English as consciousness in the field of psychological discussions. Therefore, the term 'mind' which I explain here will be understood due to two reasons. The first, it has greater scope and extension along with wide connotation than the word 'consciousness'. Secondly, the term 'mind' is appropriate to mean all psychological facts or mental phenomena. Moreover, the term ' Citta'' has root V cit, means 'to see', in Hinduism is understood as thought of a pure consciousness or the essential and irreducible quality of eternal Self, or Brahma. It illustrates the states of mind and ideas. The Upanishads say that "Beyond the senses is the mind, beyond the mind is the intellect, higher than the intellect is the Great Atman, higher than the Great Atman is the
'^ Amal K. B., Mind and Mental Factors in Early Buddiiist Psyciiology, p. 2. Cambridge Learner's Dictionary, p. 41 la. Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, p. 225.
19 1 fi Unmanifest." In Yogdcdra, this term 'Citta\ is equivalent to Manas (mind), Mano (intellect or reflective mind), and Vijfidna (consciousness). In short, the term ' Citta'' is used as the object to observe, so this school is also known as Cittamatra (Mind-Only or Consciousness-Only). Here we should explain the name of this school Yogdcdra, Vijndvdda, and Cittamdtra:
The name Cittamatra or Vijndnavdda implies the point of view of this school as Mind-Only or Consciousness-Only. Because, this school states that, all that exists is only ideas; representation, images, imaginations, creations of the mind, to which no real object existing outside the mind corresponds. It seems a dream, as bubbles of water or magical illusion; all are the produce of mind, without a real external existence. So this school is known as Cittamdtra (Only-Mind). If it is emphasized nothing but consciousness, is called Vijndnavdda (Only-Consciousness or Only Cognition). Only cognition in the meaning of only ideas is basic ontological and epistemological tenet of this school. When it is established, and obviously became Vijndnavdda (Mind-Only school or Consciousness-Only school). And the term Yogdcdra is proceeded from the term Yoga of Indian ancient practice. It is the method to practice body and mind before Buddhism. The person who practices Yoga is called Yogi. In India, Yoga
1 R The Upanishads, tr. Swami Nikhilananda, Gorge Allen & Unwin, Ruskin House Musium Street, Liverpool, London & Prescot, il.iii.7, p. 81.
20 presented very early and Patanjali is known as the founder of system Yoga. The term 'Yoga' is meant 'union', i.e., spiritual union of the individual soul with the universal soul and is used in this sense in the Vedanta. The Gita defines Yoga as that state free from all pains and miseries, '^ the control of the body, sense and mind. While Sdnkhya describes Yoga as knowledge, almost tends the theoretical epistemological aspect; and Yoga as the practical sides. The Yoga Sutra is divided into four parts. The first is called Samddhipdda which deals with the nature and aim of concentration. The second, Sddhardpdda, explains the means to realize this end. The third Vibhutipdda, deals with the supra-normal powers which can be acquired through Yoga. The fourth, Kaivalyapada, describes the nature of liberation and the realities of transcendental Self. ' However, some of the concepts belong to the thought of Self, are contradictory to Buddhism as Buddhism has the thought of non-Self. But Yogdcdrins used Yoga as the method to practice to purify the mind and concentration as Samddhi and Dhydna. Dr. T. R. Sharma [Reader in Sanskrit, Delhi University,] points out that the earlier phase of Buddhism was quite familiar with Yoga terminology. Yogdcdra means practice of meditation. Yoga and Buddhism are intertwined traditions which evolved and changed through the centuries in ancient India. Yoga in Sanskrit means "yoke," and in its broadest sense
'^ Chandra Sharma, A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy, p. 169. Ibid., Patanpali states that the yoga does not mean union.. ^' Ibid. ^^ T. R. Sharma, An Introduction of Buddhist Philosophy, p. 17.
21 it refers to yoking oneself to a discipline. In Hinduism, Yoga is thought of as a way of "yoking" the self to the divine. When used in Buddhism, it can refer to physical or meditative disciplines that enable mystical experience.
Yoga uses many of the same Sanskrit-origin words, as does Buddhism. Additionally many of the same principles and practices permeate both traditions. To those new to the practice of either Buddhism or yoga, it is very easy to see not only the parallels and similarities in the practices but to see the traditions as synonymous.
Yoga is any form of spiritual discipline aimed at gaining control over the mind with the goal of attaining liberation from rebirth. Body positions and breath control are common practices in many of the Indian-born religions. These practices were named 'Yoga' before the time of the historic Buddha. The Buddha used such techniques as deep meditation, whereas other teachers emphasized the physical exercises and bodily postures that became known as the various schools of Hatha Yoga.
Hatha Yoga helps us to be more aware of our bodies, which supports the process of developing mindfulness and other meditative states of mind. This is why Hatha Yoga is an excellent complement to and preparation for the practice of meditation. Yoga and Buddhism are both meditation traditions devised to help us transcend Karma (rebirth) and become "enlightened" to truth of consciousness.
22 Suffering is seen as a part of life, impermanence inherent in all birth, whether it is animal, human or god. Suffering ends through the awareness brought in large part by meditation. Both emphasize the need to dissolve the ego, the sense of self. Both traditions emphasize enlightenment through meditation. Earliest Buddhist practice incorporated meditation common also to Yoga. The oldest yogic ideas are found in the early teachings of the Buddha.
Some of these teachings are codified in the Yoga Sutra (2"'^ century CE) of Patanjali. According to this text, the goal of Yoga is 'the cessation of mental fluctuation' {Cittavrtti Nirodha), and the practical methods it uses to attain this are very similar to early Buddhist techniques of meditation based on breath control, which was advocated by the Buddha.
The method of meditation is described in Sutras of Hinaydna and Mahdydna both in Yogdcdra; they are referred in the text of Dasabhumisutra, deals with systematic process of ten different stages {Bhumis) of meditation {Yoga) for a Bodhisattva for an overall purification. According to Dr. T. R. Sharma, the Lankdvatdra Sutra also induces the Bodhisattva to follow Yoga in order to become Maha yogi {Great Yogi).'^^ And through the result of investigations, the Dasabhumisutra and the Lankdvatdra Sutra used the term yoga; these are the reasons to prove that the Vijndnavdda School can be rightly
23 called Yogdcara School.^"* Therefore, in this thesis, I use the term Yogdcara as the Vijndnavdda to discuss as the Mind-only school or Wei-shi school in Chinese.
There are many texts dealing with the concept of consciousness but I have accepted these three texts viz. Vimsatikd sdstra, the Trimsikd sdstra, and the Cheng-wei-shi- lun only as I want to deal with the concept of consciousness and its function according to Yogdcara. Consciousness is the storehouse of the seed oi Karma. One a person understands the function of consciousness in correct way; he or she can change it in right way with the purpose of purification.
'' Ibid.
24