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CHAPTER TWO HISTORICAL SURVEY OF YOGACARA

2.1. History and Development of Yogdcdra

It is truth to say that is an ideal religion, which gives human a permission to open the knowledge through the practice of , virtuous precepts, and knowledge. Consequently, after the passing away of the Lord , Buddhism developed many schools, sects and sub- sects. Each school or sect displayed its role and special doctrine about its religion. With a foundation of the Buddha's teachings, the Buddhist sects performed freely the in the mind understanding and its literature as well. However, although Buddhist schools developed its doctrine to the zenith, but the founders always depend on the basic teachings of the Buddha, practical methods, are with human beings, point out the truth of life and the world . It is the reason Buddhism develops and transforms whole the world. Where the Buddhism is there is peaceful and happy life; Buddhism comes to a country and gives it a way of life and thought, at the same time preserve the traditional customs and culture of that country. Therefore, Buddhism is welcomed in many countries.

25 The development of Buddhism began at the event of ; ^^ it has brought to Buddhism a great achievement in the development of Buddhist culture and thought. From the Buddhist first council to the third council at the time of the king , Buddhist literature was basic completed.^^ By that time the Buddhist sects has been divided clearly. Each sect built up its doctrine and claimed the name of its school. In the work ''Buddhist Sects in " Nalinaksha Dutt classified Buddhist sects into five groups, and the total number of sixty-five sects and subsects. Dutt observes and collects the number of Xuan-zhuang (529-664), a Chinese monk who traveled in India at the seventh century BC, referred to seven main schools and many sub-sects, the number of monks hundred thousands. Yi-Jing was a Chmese pilgrim too, who came to India after Xuan-zhuang a century, he also noted down a statistical list of Indian Buddhist sects. He divided into five groups and many sub-sects. In a study of Edward Conze, he found down in the first five centuries of Buddhist history, the number of schools or sects eighteen according to traditional source. And in the '''2500 Years of Buddhism" Bapat and Anukul Chandra Banerjee also show the number of thirteen schools in India during five century had

" Edward J. Thomas, The History of Buddhist Thought, p. 27-37. ^^ N. Dutt, Buddhist Sects in India, p. 12-36. ^^ Ibid., p. 51-9. ^^ Ibid., Appendix, p. 306-9. ^'Ibid., p. 310-12. ^^ Edward Conze, Buddhist Thought in India, p. 119.

26 T 1 been counted from the Buddha's . ' Such above investigation of scholars, we know that there were huge Buddhist schools or sects developed within the first five centuries after the passing away of the Buddha. In which the Yogdcdra School was a latest one. Buddhism propagated to neighbour countries quickly in the time of the king Ashoka and Kaniska, e.i., Yavanas (Ionian Greeks), Ptolemy (Turamevya) of Egypt, Antigonos (Antakini) of Macedonia, Alexandre of Epirus, and Magas of Cyrenia, Central Asia, and then Southern Asia, i.e., , , Korea, , and Vietnam; Northern Asia, i.e. Srilanka, Myanmar, , , Laos. Specially, when Buddhism was introduced to China, it was exited by monks and scholars. Therefore, thee are many new schools were established as Chan School, School, School, School, Avatamsaka School, Tian- tai School; and Shingon School, School in Japan. Although there are many schools in Buddhism which their different doctrines, 1 agree with Edward Conze that all Buddhist schools either or Mahdydna, origin or development, they respect and practice the Buddha's teachings as The Four Noble Truth, The Noble Eightfold Paths, The Law of Dependent Origination, and the way of purification of mind {Samddhi or meditation), keeping virtue of discipline

^' Bapat, 2500 Years of Budhism. p. 86-108. ^^ Ibid., p. 52-53.

27 (Sila), and wisdom {Prajnd)?^ And an observation of Thich Chon Thien in his worlc ''The Concept of Personality'' he points out that the Law of Dependent Origination, expounded by the Buddha covering whole the , and its existence by causual happening. Because, all Dharmas were born by causual happening, so it is non-self It is the essential teaching of Buddhism; those who can see this truth of Dependent Origination, see existing things; those who can see existing things, see the principle of Dependent Origination. And those who can see those things, see the Lord Buddha himself. "^'^ This point gives us knowledge that although there are many schools in Buddhism, but the founders always follow the principle or the essential teachings of the Buddha to develop the school's doctrine. And Thomas A. Kochumutton firmly repeats that "throughout its long history of development, has ever retained the original inspiration of its founder, the Buddha. The latter believed in a multiplicity of real, individual, beings, a belief that has never been seriously questioned by any of his followers. The different stages in the mark, if anything, the different ways of looking at the same teaching of the Buddha. Consequently, the different schools within Buddhism distinguish from each other not so much in their philosophy as in their practices. If, for example, there has been a movement from the non-theistic Theravdda school of Buddhism to the theistic Mahdydna school of the

" Op. Cit., Thirty Years Study on Buddhism, p. 87. ^'' Thich Chon Thien, The Concept of Personality, p. 67.

28 same, it is a change only in religion practices, and not a change in the philosophical convictions."'

In fact, Buddhism has opened with brightened history. A history of Buddhist thought began the teachings of the Buddha and his disciple later. Buddhism always retains its role and develops thoughts based on its principle. It is mind or consciousness. The Lord Buddha taught that:

"Atha kho, bhikkhave, Vipassissa Bodhisattassa etadahosi: Paccudavattati kho vinnanam namarupamha, naparam gacchati. Ettavata jayetha va jlyetha va miyetha va cavetha va uppajjetha va yadidam - paccaya vinnanam, vinnana- paccaya namarupam, namarupa- paccaya salayatanam, salayatana paccaya phasso, phassa - paccaya vedana, vedana - paccaya tanha, tanha - paccaya upadanam, upadana - paccaya bhavo, paccaya jati,jati - paccaya jara - maranam soka - parideva - dukkha - domanassa - upayasa sambhavanti. Evam - etassa kevalassa dukkhakkhandhassa samudayo hoti."

(This consciousness turns back at mind - and- body, it does not go any further. To this extent there is birth and decay, there is death and falling into other states and being reborn, namely: mind - and- body conditions consciousness and consciousness conditions mind - and -

^^ T. A. Kochunmuttom, A Buddhist Doctrine of Experience, p. 284. ^^ Mahapadana-Sutta, Dlgha-Nikaya. Vol. II. PTS, London, 1982, pp. 32-33.

29 body, mind - and - body conditions the six sense bases, tile six sense bases conditions contact, contact conditions feeling, feeling conditions craving, craving conditions grasping, grasping conditions becoming, becoming conditions birth, birth conditions aging and death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief and distress. And thus this whole mass of sufferings takes its origin).

And Samyutta Nikdya says:

"Kinca, bhikkhave, vinnanam vadetha || vijanatlti kho, bhikkhave tasma vinnanamti vuccati || kinca vijanati || ambilam pi vijanati || tittakam pi vijanati! || katukam pi vijanati madhukam pi vijanati || kharikam pi vijanati || akharikam pi vijanati || lonakam pi vijanati || alonakam pi vijanati || vijanatlti kho, bhikkhave, tasma vinnanan ti vuccati 11"^^

(And why, brethren, do you say Consciousness? One is conscious, brethren. Therefore the word "Consciousness" is used. Consciousness of what? Of [flavour] sour or bitter, acrid or sweet, alkaline or non - alkaline, saline or non - saline. One is conscious, brethren. That is why the word "Consciousness" is used.)

There are many evidences about consciousness expounded by the Buddha in the canon. Therefore, the

" Samyutta-Nikaya, Vol. Ill, p. 87.

30 theory of consciousness-only in Yogdcdra has the foundation of the teachings of the Buddha and is further developed by the scholars/ masters of Yogdcdra School.

The beginning of the development of the theory of consciousness was counted on Sarvdstivdda and its subsects with the point of view 'everything exists' {Sarvam Asti), while Hinaydna Buddhist thought retains the view as existence of a thing is conditioned and selfless, negates the existence of soul. With the new thinking of Sarvdstivdda, obviously, this school began with innovation and challenge with Buddhist origination or Buddhist Theravdda. But was this Hinaydna thought of negating the existence of the Soul, a threat to the existence of the Hinaydna School itself? It is somewhat misleading, and then this school should present a theory of wholes (Pudgalas) which in itself is unreal. Therefore, the school faces much more difficulties, and finally, it must be changed to the different root as Sautrdntika School. The Sautrdntika School opened the knot of Sarvdstivdda and negated the existence of Dharmas; Sautrdntika School retains the theory of imper- manence, selfless, and individuality (Anitya, Andtma, and Svalaksana). The school accepts the reality of the objects of the external world and the truth evidence of knowledge. "^ Sautrdntika school divided the world into 43 Dharmas, while Sarvdstivdda school accepted 75 Dharmas. The Sautrdntika school played an important role in the historical development

Ashok Kumar Chattejee, The Yogdcdra Idialism, p. 2.

31 of Buddhism in the rejecting of rest of subjective. According to A. K. Chatterjee and T. R. Sharma, the development of thought of the Sautrdntika was a basic thought which was built to the next step as the negative thought of all the unreal by the Mddhyamika.^'^ As we know the division of Buddhism is the process of development of the Buddhist history, not is the common separate thought or doctrine. Between their doctrines, they have a relationship to each others and increase its philosophies. In other words, the dividing of Buddhist sects is the heritage of Buddhist thought.

And then, the Mddhyamika appeared, this school thought that all Dharmas were unreal in themselves, and prove the reality of Dharmas were conditional under the operation of the law of Dependent Origination {Pratityasamupdda). The fundamental doctrine of this school is the theory of Sunyatd (Emptiness), therefore, this school is also called Emptiness

r School or Sunyatdvada. Emptiness does not imply 'nothingness'; it expresses 'the ever-changing state of the phenomenal world.' The Mddhyamika has renewed the whole of the thought of earlier Buddhist schools and built a foundation for the relationship between Dharmas, and critical analysis of the thing of external world. In Mddhyamika, 'the subjective is the other name of relativity. Relativity is the mark of unreal, of

^' Ibid., p. 4. Cf. T.R. Sharma, The Introduction to Buddhist Philosophy, p. 5. Yamakami Sogen, Systems of Buddhistic Thought, p. 194.

32 the subjective.' '*' There are two aspects of the theory of Sunyatd: Asanskrtasunyata and Sanskrtdsunyata. Asanskrta- sunyatd is the principle to be applied in the noumenal world, and Sanskrtdsunyata is the principle to be applied in the phenomenal world.

The Mddhyamika increased the role of highly, and the doctrine of Sunyatd has been formulated to rid of certain misconceptions or extreme views; and when its work is accomplished, it became incumbent on us to rid ourselves of the conception of Sunyatd as well, which, of itself, is an error, in the light of higher reasoning. Besides, the rejection of all experiences as illusory appeared to be an extreme position and could not be maintained for long. While Mddhyamikas emphasize conception of Sunyata and sceptism, a new Buddhist school appears which is known as Yogdcdra. Yogdcdra has the basic doctrine of Sarvdstivdda and Sautrdntika.

In fact, the Yogdcdra has concentrated to analyse the subjective factor in all experiences as a tent of criticism of Sautrdntika, and objective real of realistic of Sarvdstivdda. Moreover, the Yogdcdra advocated and revolted some complicated aspects of Mddhyamika.

After collecting the essence of former Buddhist schools, the Yogdcdra focussed on the characteristic of Dharmas and

'" Ibid., Sharma, p. 5. 42 Op. cit. p. 198.

33 increased the role of consciousness. The Yogacdra retained the concept of subjective reality while the Mddhyamika explained that the 'subjective creates unreality and is itself unreal. But the Yogacdra only accepts the source of all phenomena. The Yogdcdra also accepts unreality is real of all phenomena, but pointed out that although all the phenomenon are unreal, but it must be rooted in some reality; only the objects are unreal and consciousness is the only reality. According to Yogdcdra, everything that appears in experience is only within experience of a form of consciousness as something objective and independent is illusory. Everything is subjective, though appearing as something different. This appearance is unreal; its essence however, as a mode of subjective existence, is real. For the Sautrdntika subjectively is purely epistemic; the ultimately real is the unique particular which exists objectively and independently. The subject and object are entirely correlative to each other, and are both only subjective. Subjectively is conceptual and lacks any real basic. The Yogdcdra declines the notion of objectivity, but the subjective becomes ontological; it really exists, while the objective does not.

It seems that the Mddliyamikas built up a basic foundation to the development of the Yogdcdra School; as Dr. M. Nagao observed: "And one can see that the Yogdcdra, indeed, inherited the ideas of emptiness and the Middle Path from . It is almost as if Maitreyanatha or imitated, elaborates

34 and expanded Nagarjuna's verse will not only help us to understand Buddhist thought, but will also demonstrate how these ideas progressed in the development of Buddhist thought from Mddhyamika to the Yogacara.''

The development of the Yogdcdra thought brought to Buddhism as logical result; the role of logic in Buddhism was presented with highest zenith by Digndga (480-540 CE.) and refined by Dharmaknti (600-670 CE.) and described especially the formulations initially. Buddhist logic concerns to the types of reliable knowledge in two kinds, each with a corresponding type of object: (i) perception, which cognises particulars, and (ii) inference, which cognises universal. A particular is a completely unique, causally efficacious entity that exists for only moment. We know that particulars are real because they are causally linked, directly or indirectly, to our cognitions of them. Universals, the objects of inference, are concepts that are meant to apply to many particulars. They are causally inert; hence, although we imagine them to be real, they can not in fact be the cause of any cognition.'*'*

According to the Yogdcdra thought, consciousness is creative and its creativity is governed by the illusory idea of the object. On the way of reality, it is an idea or will; on the other way, the creativity is manifested by consciousness. The consciousness is divided into three categories, viz. (i)

^^ G.M. Nagao, Madhyamika and Yogdcdra. p. 196. '*'' The Encyclopedia of Buddhism, p. 469-70.

35 Alayavijnana (Storehouse consciousness), (ii) Manasvijndna (Thought Centre consciousness), and (iii) Manovijnana (Basic consciousness). Any mental process is operated by three consciousnesses. The evolution of consciousness takes place because of the transcendental illusion of objectivity. When the object is realised to be illusory its sublation is followed by the dissolution of the subject as well. The consciousness takes place very subtly and fast, so it evaporates out of its on accord, there being nothing to know. When the consciousness is freed from the false duality of subject and object, it is the absolute. This is the ultimate reality, the essence of everything.

The doctrine and content of Yogdcdra do not conflict and aggression with other Buddhist Schools. Therefore, the Yogdcdra developed firmly from the basic Buddhist background and high epistemology. The Yogdcdra agreed to the doctrine of former Buddhist Schools and quoted many for its literature."^^ However, the development of the Yogdcdra School is evaluated as the development of theory of mind in Buddhism, not only in the role of epistemology, but also in the religious experience.

The development of the Yogdcdra School has begun around 150 CE. According to F. Tola and C. Dragonetti, the arising of the Buddhist Idialistic position began to appear in a

'^^ A. K. Chatterjee, The Yogacdra Idialism, p. 27.

36 more or less developed way around the second century of CE. According to Thomas E. Wood, the Vijndnavdda flourished in India from the 4^^ to the 12"' century CE. and it disappeared along with Buddhism during the aggression of the Muslim. Obviously the history of Yogdcdra is agreed by scholars that the development of this school around the 7^^ century CE. onwards, and reached the height of their productivity in the 4'' century with a large number of works attributed to the great Buddhist Masters Maitreyandtha or (c. 300), Asanga (315-390 CE.), (320-380 CE.), and the various Masters in the University of . Among them, we mention Dharmapdla (530-561 CE.), and (both middle of the sixth century), and Xuan-zhuang (620-664 CE.), who wrote the commentary on the Vijnaptimatratasiddhi or Cheng- wei-shi-lun on the Trimsikd of Vasubandhu on the basis often Indian commentaries. Yogdcdra''s doctrine and its masters almost are generation to generation. Yogacarins continued to preserve and develope this doctrine perfectly and systematically. Takakusu, a Japanese scholar, says that the Yogdcdra School was established in the three lines after the death of Master Vasubandhu. The first line of Dignaga (5"^ century CE.), Agotra, and Dharmapada whose centre of transmission was Nalanda University; Silabhadra of Nalanda and his Chinese pupil Xuan-zhuang belong to this line. The second line of

F. Tola and Dragonetti, Being as Consciousness, p. xii. Tiiomas E. Wood, Mind Only, p. ix. ^^ F. Tola and Dragonetti, Op. cit., p. xii.

37 Gunamati and Sthiramati whose seat of transmission seems to have been Valabhi University; Paramdrtha the founder of the She-lun School in China belongs to it. The third line was the line of , whose tenet was followed by Paramdrtha, and Jayasena, who instructed Xuan-zhuang on certain questions.

It seems that the Yogdcdra built up the school depending on the Sandhinirmocana about the year of 150 CE. And after that some centuries, the Lankdvatdra Sutra appeared about the first of the fourth century; and the (the commentary of the Prajiidparamita), the later in the same century as well.^" Thus the and the Lankdvatdra Sutra are the basic texts of the school. Two brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu are taken as the founders to develop the Yogdcdra School. They lived in the North India at the time of the fourth century. However, the two brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu always say that they were preaded by the Master Maitreya or Maitreyandtha. And therefore, the founding of the Yogdcdra is ascribed to Maitreya.^^ In fact, two brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu were the most famous Masters, who systematised and developed the ideas already established in older writings, such as the , the Prajiidparamita, and the Lankdvatdra, and gave definitive form to earlier Mahayanist concepts like the Ten Stages (Dasabhumis) of development of concepts of

'*^ Takakusu, The Essential of Buddhist Philosophy, p. 85. Edwad Conze, Buddhism, Its Essence and Development, p. 164. ^' Chandradha Sharma, A Critical Survey of the , p. 108.

38 , the Three bodies of the Buddha (Trikdya), the Three stages of Self-being (), and the theory that reality is consciousness-only. This theory has differed from the Prajndparamita and the anti-metaphysical Mddhyamika approach in that it gives a positive qualitative description of the Absolute Reality, which is described as being of the nature of Pure Consciousness ( Vijndna), Consciousness Only {Vijndna- mdtratd, Vijnapti-mdtrata) or Mind Only {-mdtra).

Yogdcdra Buddhism contributed two important emanationist ideas: (i) the metaphysical idea of emanation from an original universal consciousness (the Alayavijndna); (ii) the theological idea of the Trikdya, the Three Bodies of the Buddha. As a philosophical school, Yogdcdra argues that all that exists are minds and their experience. The Alayavijndna is a storehouse consciousness; it brings the seeds from outside and perfumes them. The seed is manifested when all conditions concentrate together. Yogdcdra later described the Alayavijndna as the Tathdgata-garbha, which encourages people to have similar experiences in the future.

The Yogdcdra'^ Masters such as Dignaga, Dharmakriti, Sahatarakshita, Kamalasila, and Ratnakirti raised the doctrine of this school to the zenith of philosophy and logic in Buddhism. They were not only logicians but also epistemologists, theory of consciousness. They were called The Perfect Ones (Maha-

39 siddhas) in some aspects were also adherents of the Yogacara School.

In the seventh century, the famous Chinese pilgrim Xuan-zhuang travelled to India and he learnt the doctrine of Yogacara from the great disciple of is Silabhadra. Within 17 years in India, Xuan-zhuang studied , and Yogacara's, doctrine. He returned back to China with various Buddhist original texts. Xuan-zhuang's main career was translation and commentary. He wrote a work titled Treatise of {Ba-shi-gui-ju-song). ^ Besides, Xuan-zhuang taught and preached the doctrine of Yogacara School widely in China. He was a founder of Yogacara school in China as Wei-shi-zong or Ci-en-zong. In China, the doctrine Yogacara is not different from India, but under the influence of Confucius and Taoist culture, it became to mean "Buddha nature", an ontological reality or essence, like the Vedantic term 'Atman' (self). Alayavijnana then came to be seen as a lower or impure level of consciousness, the 'tainted consciousness' relative to the Tathdgata-garbha or innately pure Absolute Buddha Mind or Buddha Nature. That is the cause to develop the system of consciousness as nine consciousnesses. The Tathdgata-garbha thus became a ninth

Ti . . '^- 1 Xuan-zhuang, Ba-shi-gui-ju-song, inetioned in Ba-shi-gui-ju-bu-zhu, T. 45, no. 1865, p. 467-476. ^^ Chinese: Wei-shi-zong {^%^M) or Ci-en-zong {M-M-M)- See also Whalen Lai, Philosophy East and West 27. No. 1. p. 73-74.

40 consciousness or original principle over and above the other eight. However, the ninth consciousness is only the eighth consciousness in the state of purification. Then, the idea of the superiority of Mind over consciousness was used by the Mind- Only school of Hua-yen School and School to claim superiority over the Consciousness-only School of Wei-shi- zong in Chinese.^^ In all this, we see the development of an emanationist cosmology more than original Yogdcdra. But the anti-metaphysical emphasis of even the most elaborate Buddhist Schools prevented this modified Yogdcdra from ever becoming as sophisticated as those other two systems. In another words, the development of all above problems in Yogdcdra are not the philosophical process, but are the practical methods tend to purification of Mind and enter the wisdom.

Whole Yogdcdra discourse takes place with the religious and doctrinal dimension of Buddhism. It is also determined by the fundamental Buddhist problem, that is living being and its liberation from the cycle of Samsara. Just the thinkers of this school worked out the detail version of the Mahayanistic doctrine of Three Bodies (Trikdya) and the teaching about ten stages of the Bodhisattva, Three Self-nature etc. In this work, we constitute important structural units of such important

" Ibid., p. 65-79.

41 Yogdcdra texts of Asanga, Vasubandhu, Xuan-zhuang, and Kui-ji as well as the Yogdcdra literature in India and China.

2.2. Great Masters

According to the traditional source, the great master of Yogdcdra were referred to as the Ten Great Masters, they are Maitreya, Asariga, Vasubandhu, Dignaga, Gunamati, Sthiramati, Agotra, Sankarasvamin, Nan da, Dharmapala. However, the count of the Ten Great Masters from the founder Maitreya to the time of Yogdcdra was introduced to China, the number counted sixteen more, such as Xuan-zhuang, Kui-ji etc.

Although the founding of the Yogdcdra was traditionally ascribed to two brothers, Asanga and Vasubandhu, each were having initially been devoted to other . Asanga attributed a portion of his writings to Maitreya, the future Buddha living in Tusita heaven. However, some modern scholars, such as H. Ui (1939) have argued that this Maitreya was a historical teacher, not the Future Buddha, but the tradition is fairy clear. And an Indian scholar, T. R. V. Murti, in his work "The Central Philosophy of Buddhism", points out that Maitreya was a historical figure.^''

According to Yang-bai-yi, the system of Yogdcdra's masters counted from Maitreya to Xuan-zhuang as follows: Maitreya (270-350 CE.), Asanga (300-380 CE.), Vasubandhu

See H. Ui, Maitreya as a Historical Personage, p. 95-101; Cf. T. R.V. Murti, A Central of Philosophy of Buddhism, p. 107.

42 (320-400 CE.), Dignaga (400-480 CE.), Gunamati (420-500 CE.), Sthiramati (470-550 CE.), Agotra (450-530 CE.), Sankarasvamin (450-530 CE.), Nanda (450-530 CE.), Dharmapala (530-561 CE.), Jayasena (530-640 CE.), Bandhuprabha (561-634 CE.), Dharmakriti (643-673 CE.), Vimtadeva (630-700 CE.), STlabhadra (520-645 CE.), Paramdrtha (499-569 CE.), Xuan-zhuang (600-664 CE.)."

The date of the Great Masters of Yogdcdra School, of course, exist many doubts. But they were accepted by scholars about the corresponding of the dates with the classification between generation to generation or from teachers to their disciples. In this work, I do not discuss all the dates of Masters of Yogdcdra, except the date the master Vasubandhu because of revealed through the reference of the approach.

Again, the Cheng-wei-shi-lun-shu-ji, master Kui-ji referred

CO to ten Great Masters, who commented on the Trimsikd of Vasubandhu, and other works about Yogdcdra texts. The Ten Great Masters are: Dharmapala, Sthiramati, Cittabhana, Nanda, Gunamati, Visenamatra, Jnanacandra, Bandhuprabha, Suddhacandra, Jinaputra.

Yang-bai-yi (J^^i^), Wei-shi-chi-hen (\^^MM.'^), Gao-xiong-wen-shu-jiang-tang mmsa^mm, ?• 5. ^^ Kui-ji, Cheng-wei-shi-lun-shu-ji (]1?(J%Mm^%^) says: ''^M)^^-{"X^W (It is meant that the Cheng-wei-shi-lun was commented by ten Great Masters.) T. No. 1830, chapter I, p. 229.2. ^' Chinese: 1. ^;S (Hu-Fa), 2. ^» (Aii-Hui). 3. XM (Huo-Bian), 4. ||K (Nan- Tuo), 5. mm (De-Hui), 6. B^ (Sheng-You), 7. WR (Zhi-Cheng), 8. MB (Shen- Sheng), 9. )§n (Jing-Yue), 10. SS§"F (Zui-Sheng-Zi).

43 Recently, in an approach of scholars F. Tola and C. Dragonetti classified the system of Yogdcara School with the line from the Lord Maitreya to Xuan-zhuang consist of seven masters, are: Maitreya (c. 300), Asanga (315-390), Vasubandhu (320-380), Dignaga (480-540), Dharmapala (530-516), Sthiramati (middle of the sixth century), Xuan- zhuang (602-664).^" This is the same third line of Takakusu's discussion in his work.

As we know, the dates of the Great Masters of Yogdcara almost connect each other and do not interrupt from the founder Maitreya to Chinese Masters. We do not find down the gap between them. This is an important thing on the course of preaching the doctrine, at least preserving the essence of the doctrine. It is a basic point for the development of this school in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam later.

As the reference of this work, I only focus on the date of Vasubandhu as the presentation of Indian Yogdcara''s master with two works {Virnsatikd and Trimsikd), and the date of Xuan-zhuang as the presentation of China Yogdcdra's master with the work Cheng-wei-shi-lun.

Vasubandhu

Vasubandhu was born in Purusapura (modern Peshawar), a city of the north-west of Pakistan in the state of . It

F. Tola & C. Dragonetti, Being as Consciousness, p. xiv-xxii.

44 is a place where was the heyday of and religion. According to , Vasubandhu was born after one year of his brother Asanga entered into the . His family was of Kaushila. In the ''Bodhisattva-sou-ban-dou-zhuan'' of Paramdrtha, Vasubandhu's, mother was Virinci; and according to Buston and Taranatha mentioned his mother was Prasannashila by name, and Vasubandhu was the half brother of Asanga. His father was a Kshatn'ya, therefore, they belonged to Brahmana. Vasubandhu had a younger brother Viricivasta. His father was authority on the Vedas and working in the court of the prince of Shilada clan, who ruled Purusapura by that time. With this condition, Vasubandhu not only had the background of Brahmanical tradition, but influenced the thought of A^^Vi^wa and .

In childhood, Vasubandhu was very intelligent, and was praised by his teachers. According to Paramdrtha, the teacher of Vasubandhu was . Xuan-zhuang also mentioned in "'Xi-yu-Jf the teacher of Vasubandhu was Manoratha. By that time, Gandhar was a flourish city of Vaibhasika, the subsect of Sarvdstivdda. That is why Vasubandhu influenced this system thought. After that, he also studied Vaibhasika . This school not only developed in Gandhara, but as well. Vasubandhu came there and learnt the

^' Parmartha, Bo-sou-ban-dou-fa-shi-zhiuin {iMiW

45 higher thought of this school within four years and returned back Purusapura.

After being back homeland, Vasubandhu began to plan the composition. According to tradition, Vasubandhu expounded the theory of Vaibhasika in daytime, and conclude in verses in nighttime. He composed this doctrine into six hundred plus verses, called the Abhidhramakosa {the Treasure of Abhidharma). According to Paramdrtha, Vasubandhu wrote this work at outskirt of Purasapura. The content of the Abhidharmakosa was divided into seventy-five Dharmas, the basic factors of experience for the purpose of attaining the Bodhi, in which seventy-two Dharmas belong to Samskrtas (Conditioned Dharmas), and three Dharmas belong to Asamskrtas (Unconditioned Dharmas). And then Vasubandhu wrote the Abhidharmakosabhayam to explain the detail of Abhidharmakosa. In this work, Vasubandhu had added more new viewpoints which he studied in Kashmir as the development of Vaibhasika School and Sautrdntika School. Then Asanga had an appointment with him and taught him Mahdydna doctrine. After that, Vasubandhu realised his lacking and the higher thought of Mahdydna. He read the Satasahasrika-Prajndparamita SUtra carefully. And then Vasubandhu wrote the commentary on the Aksayamtinirdesa SUtra and the Dasabhumika Sutra, may be the earliest works of him about Mahdydna. Vasubandhu wrote many commentaries

46 on Mahdydna texts as Avatamsaka Sutra, Nirvdna Sutra, Vimalakirtinirdesa Sutra, and Srimdlddevi Sutra, etc.

The famous works of Vasubandhu are the treatises on Vijnaptimdtratd as the Vimsatikd and the Trimsikd, and other works of Mahdydna field. The career of Vasubandhu is truly respected. He wrote each work every year. According to Paramdrtha in the work ''Bodhisattva-sou-ban-dou-fa-shi- zhuan," Vasubandhu was the master in Yogdcdra literature after the death of Asanga. Consequently, Vasubandhu venerated 'The Master of One Hundred Treatises.'^'^ According to Le Manh That, Vasubandhu wrote 56 works. Le Manh That classified the works of Vasubandhu into four parts: (i) The Independent Writings, consist of 25 works; (ii) The Commentaries, consist of 25 works; (iii) The Hymns and Discussions of Hymns, consist of 7 works; and (iv) The Miscellary, consist of 1 work. According to tradition, Vasubandhu wrote 500 works in Hinaydna thought, and 500 works in Mahdydna. That is why he also was called "The Master of Thousand Treatises." Presently, there are 9 works of Vasubandhu survived in the original Sanskrit, twenty-seven works into Chinese translation.

Now I only introduce two masterpiece of Vasubandhu related to the thesis and also paid attention by many scholars, such as Thomas E. Wood, Thomas A. Kochumutton, F. Tola

See Le Manh That, The philosophy of Vasubandhu, p. 62, fn.80. " OnUne:

47 and C. Dragonetti. These are the Vimsatika (Treatise in the Twenty Verses) and Trimsikd (Treatise in the Thirty Verses).

2.3. Two Famous Works of Vasubandhu and Cheng-wei- shi-lun

2.3.1. The Vimsatikd-vijhaptimdtratd-siddih !^astra

Vimsatika is the short name of Vimsatikd-vijnapti-mdtrata- siddih Sastra. Vasubandhu wrote it when he converted into Mahdydna. The text still is survived in Sanskrit original by Sylvain Levi. He discovered it in Nepal around the year of 1920. And we also know this work through two translations in Chinese.^'*

The Vimsatikd is the treatise which is very important work of Vasubandhu and Yogdcdra literature. It describes almost the fundamental Yogdcdra doctrine. Vasubandhu hold that the external objects appearing in our dreams are unreal; they are only the existence of sole consciousness. This means that the appearance of cognitive objects dose not require an actual object external to the consciousness cognising it. Therefore, there is only consciousness, and the objects are unreal. In the other word, the consciousness is the necessary condition and not an external object. Vasubandhu cleared the termologies of the world as a mere mental creation, the theory of Vdsand or subliminal impression of a habit, the theory of

^'* Chinese translation of the Vimsatika available in T. No. 1590.

48 elements {Dharmas) of existence, the criticism of the seeds (BTJas) theory, the method to interpret Buddha's teachings, the perception with and without Vikalpas (mental elements) that accompany the cognitive process, the problems to which give rise the inexistence of an external object of knowledge in relation to memory, moral responsibility, etc.

The most interesting is the approach to the dream in the Vimsatikd. Vasubandhu considers that the objection that his idealist views consciousness not account of for the fact that the good and bad actions which are done in the waking state have consequences, whereas the good and bad actions of the dream do not. He says that that this difference can be the account for by the fact that in the dream state of the mind is overcome by "duUess". This reply, of course, implies that there is no real, qualitive difference between waking and dreaming. ^^ The realist objection that the objective world functions by determinate causal principles, Vasubandhu points out that the appearance of causal efficacy also occurs in dreams. Therefore our conscious 'dreams' can have causal efficacy.

The Vimsatikd contains twenty verses and a commentary by Vasubandhu himself, and is like Trimsikd an exposition of

^^ The Vimsatikd: anyonyadhipativena vijfiapti-niyamo mithah | middhenopatam cittam svapne tenasamam phalam || 18 (In a dream mind is overpowered by sleepiness. And, therefore, fruits of the actions done in a dream Are not on a par with the fruits of those done In a waking state.)

49 several important doctrines of the Yogdcara School. I shall refer to this work with more details later on. l.'i.l. The Trimsikd-vijhaptimatrata-siddhih Sastra

The Trimsikd-vijnaptimdtratd- Sastra is known as Trimsikd, and English translation is 'The Treatise in the Thirty Verses.' It is the basic text of Yogdcdra and the most matured work of Vasubandhu. Through 30 verses (Kdrikd), Vasubandhu sums up the doctrine of Yogdcdra i.e., Mind-only; and he analyses the activity of consciousness, theory of Three natures, Five stages to the enlightenment. The system of Eight consciousnesses are explained in the verses of Trimsikd. The Eight consciousnesses consist of five first consciousness (eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, and body consciousness); the empirical consciousness {Manovijndna or the sixth consciousness); the self-aggrandising mentality {Manasvijndna or the seventh consciousness); and the Storehouse consciousness (Alayavijndna or the eighth consciousness).

The original Sanskrit text of Trimsikd is available and was discovered by professor Levi in Nepal in the year of 1920. In Chinese tradition also we get two translations along with the text. According to Yogdcdra tradition, this treatise was commented by ten great masters in India, ^^ such as Dharmapala,

According to Yogacani tradition, tiiere are Ten Great Masters who commented on Triinsikd. See Thomas Wood, p. 16 and Anacker, p. 2 i.

50 Sthiramati, Silabhadra, etc., but most of the commentaries are lost except the commentary of Master Sthiramati, which was translated into Chinese by Xuan-zhuang as Cheng-wei-shi-lun.

In the content of the Trimsikd, Vasubandhu points out the wrong view of common people recognise the Dharmas, because of unreality and delusion. He also presents the practical way of the Five Stages. When one reaches each stage, who can taste the felling of liberation, and can change consciousness into wisdom at the end as the Thusness, the wisdom of Buddha.

Three Self-nature is also an important concept of Trimsikd. It recognises three types of knowledge: (1) imaginary {Parikalpita), (2) relative {Paratantra); and (3) absolute (Parinispana). The first is the common sense knowledge of multiplicity unconnected with one another. It includes illusory knowledge also. The second is intellectual knowledge of objects as causally connected with, and dependent upon, other objects. It is relative knowledge. It severs our practical purpose. The last is absolute knowledge. When a rope is mistaken for a snake, we have imaginary (Parikalpita), or illusory knowledge. When it is known as a rope depending upon its causes and conditions, we have relative or dependent (Paratantra) knowledge. When it is known as Thusness (Tathatd), we have absolute (Parinispanna) knowledge. It is right knowledge

51 {Samyagjna). It is the highest intuition or highest wisdom {P raj no).

According to Xuan-zhuang, the Trimsikd is the illustration of the three aspects of Mind-only. These are: (i) The characteristics of mere consciousness;^^ (ii) The nature of the mere consciousness; ^^ and (iii) The stages of the mere consciousness. ^^ Thomas E. Wood observes that "the first verse of the Trimsikd is the general philosophy: what are called selves (Atman) and entities (Dharmas) are simply the transformations of consciousness ( Vijfiana-parindma). Verses 2-18 give some of the details of these transformations, which are said to the threefold, i.e., the storehouse consciousness {Alayavijfidna), the thinking consciousness {Manovijndna), and the six sense-base consciousness. Verses 20-24 present the doctrine of the three self natures (also called the three non- self natures). Vesrses 25-30 return to the general topic of

The Trimsikd, verse 24 says: "The first one is with regard to characteristics; the second is with regard to origination; the last is far away from the fist (nature of imagination) in which the natures of atman and dharma are conceived."' The Trimsikd says: dhamianarh Paramarthasca sa yatastathatapi sah | sarvakalarh tathabhavat saiva vijiiaptimatrata || 25 || (This absolute truth about all the dharmas is also the absolute Suchness. Because it is always thus in its nature, it is the real nature of Mere- consciousness.) The Trimsikd says: sa evanasravo dhaturacintyah kusalo dhruvah | sukho vimuktikayo 'sau dharmakhyo 'yarn mahamuneh || 30 || (Such pure dhatu is unimaginable, good and eternal. It is a state of bliss, an 'emancipated body', called the famous law of the great sage (sakyamuni).)

52 Mind-only {Vijnaptimatrata). The two including verses describe the ultimate reality which is attained by Buddha." ^°

2.3.3. The Cheng-wei-shi-lun

The Cheng-wei-shi-lun ^' is a summary of Yogdcdra doctrine. It may be called Vijfiapti-mdtratd-siddhi Sastra in Sanskrit. It introduces exhaustively about the system of consciousness in Yogdcdra and analyses a 'creative and elaborate exposition' of Vasubandhu's Trimsikd-vijfiapti- mdtratd-siddhi-sdstra (Treatise on Thirty Stanzas on Consciousness-Only).

The text of Cheng-wei-shi-lun has lost original Sanskrit scripture. According to tradition, Cheng-wei-shi-lun was commented by Ten Great Masters at Nalanda. When Xuan- zhuang travelled in India, he directly learnt it from Dharmapala, and then he brought to China. Xuan-zhuang translated into Chinese in 659 CE. He not only translated into Chinese, but also selected and evaluated into ten parts. After that, Kui-ji who was the disciple of Xuan-zhuang arranged it and wrote Cheng-wei-shi-lun-shu-ji J^ and referred it as the basic teaching of Xuan-zhuang about Yogdcdra school in China.

Through the contents of Cheng-wei-shi-lun, we know the text is quoted and established based on the doctrine of the

™ Thomas E. Wood, Mind-Only, p. 49. "" Cheng-wei-shi-lun (j^M^Am). T. No. 1585. 72 Cheng-wei-shi-lun-shu-ji {Wc^^'M.m^t^), T. No. 1830.

53 Sandhinirmocana Sutra, Mahayanabhidharma Sutra, Buddha- bhumi Sutra, Srimald Sutra, Pratitya-samutpada Sutra, Lankdvatdra Sutra, Ghanavyuha Sutra; and Yogdcdra-bhumi Sastra, Vikalpa-yogdcdra Sdstra, Mahdyana-sutra-lamkara Sdstra, Madhyanta- Sdstra, Mahdydna-samparigraha Sdstra, Abhidharma-samuccaya Sdstra, Arydesana-vikhyapana

r r ' Sdstra, Vimsatikd-karikd Sdstra, Alambana-pariksa Sdstra, and Pramasamuccaya Sdstra. Dependent on the Yogdcdra thought, the Cheng-wei-shi- lun explains all sentient beings suffer because of two false views: belief in the real existence of self (Atman), and belief in the real existence of things {Dharma). Therefore, Yogdcdra doctrine always destroys these beliefs by affirmativeness that both self and things are unreal. The appearance of them are controlled by consciousness, consciousness is the subjective and reflects all objective through consciousness. The consciousness is analysed deeply in Cheng-wei-shi-lun, which symbolises a superior advance over the earlier Lankdvatdra Sutra, a basic Yogdcdra's canonical text that sets forth quite a

These are the which are the basic sources of Cheng-wei-shi-lun; Chinese: 1. Jie-shen-mi-jing iM^i'^W^M.), T. 16. No. 689; 2. Da-cheng-a-pi-da--jing UKWM^ MlglM), quoted in She-da-cheng-liin (WiXMrn)- T. 31. No. 1594; 3. Fo-di-jing (f§ ife^M), T. 16, No. 722; 4. Sheng-man-jing (jj#M^M), T. 12, No. 222; 5. Cheng-zan-da- cheng-gong-de-jing (^^M^KM^IJWM). T. 16. No. 841; 6. Leng-yan-jing (t^ftDll), T. 16, No. 526; 7. Hua-yan-jing (111^!?.). T. 16. No. 731. ^^ Chinese: (1) Yu-qie-shi-di-lun {IMM^'^m)- (2) Fen-bie-yu-qie-lim {"rfWrnUm), (3) Da-cheng-zhuang-yan-jing-htn (K'^i±Wi^^.m). (4) Bian-zhong-bian-lun (il4^iS Iro), (5) She-da-cheng-lun {^i^Mfm). (6) A-pi-da-mo-ji-lun {M^i^MMm), (7) Xian-yang-sheng-jiao-lun {WM^4.fXm). (8) Eishi-wei-shi-lun (^+0^=^=^). (9) Guan-suo-yuan-yuan-lun (HPJT^.tltiiil). (10) Ji-liang-lun {MM.m)- A"1 54

.^finy p^^a. few hallmarks of position, Cheng-wei-shi-lun is a detailed and coherent analysis, a scholastic apologetics on the doctrine of Consciousness-only. Cheng-wei-shi-lun explains that consciousness exist in two faces of purification and impurification. Consciousness is impure because of the grasping on self and things and becomes the impure consciousness; consciousness is pure, because of the abandon of grasping on self and things and becomes pure consciousness. It is the notion of Nirvana, Suchness or the existence of the mind as true reality. Consequently, for the pure consciousness will be changed to wisdom and it is equivalent with Suchness or SUnyatd (emptiness) or the knowledge of emptiness. It is the concept of SUnyatd which is accepted in the Mddhyamika School.

The theory of BTja and Alayavijndna are important parts in Cheng-wei-shi-lun. The pure or impure consciousness dependent on the pure or impure BTJas (seeds) which perfumed in Alayavijndna. There can be a common empirical world for different individual who ideate or construct particular objects, and who possess distinct bodies and sensory systems. The consciousness of individual manifests itself in a peculiar and distinctive manner, but inherent to the Alayavijndna of every being there are archetypal determinations of consciousness (i.e., of and by the Alayavijndna itself) which ensure a common manifestation of the phenomenal world. The uniformity of the physical shapes and localities of this specific world system

55 (mountains, rivers, etc.) affect tlie universal self-particularisations of consciousness. The apparent solidity and uniform stability of those forms by no means invalidates their origin in, and persistence as, consciousness-only. The Alayavijndna is also called the base consciousness, which is as the container of impression of or seeds, manifested and perfumed by us beings the process of our existence. And these seeds are the cause for our next life as the present day understanding of genes. Hence, through the theory of seed, we can prove why a child can write the famous song when he is too young. Those are the seeds which are perfumed in the Alayavijndna from the last life and manifest in this life. With the practical method of Yogdcdra, we can change our and purify the consciousness.

In Cheng-wei-shi-lun, there are five categories of Dharmas: (i) Eight Mental Dharmas, consisting of the five sense consciousness (eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, and body consciousness), cognition consciousness, {Manovijndna), the cognitive faculty consciousness (Manasvijfidna), and the storehouse consciousness {Alayavijndna); (ii) eleven elements relating to appearance or mental forms; (iii) fifty one mental capacities or function activities, and dispositions; (iv) Twenty four situations, process, and things not associated with the mind; (v) Six non- conditioned or non-created elements. These five categories constitute Hundred Dharmas of the material world and mind.

56 Cheng-wei-shi-lun displays the relationship between external world and mind, the operation of consciousness, and the path leading to the purification of mind, reform the mind of individual and social thought; Yogdcara also guide the method to transform the impure consciousness to pure consciousness. It is wisdom or the true knowledge.

From this historical survey we can see that there is some change which takes place in the journey of the concept of the operation of consciousness. I have noticed following changes.

Since this school believes that only ideation exists, it is also called the Idealistic School. In China, it was established by Xuan-zhuang and his principal pupil Kui-ji who systematized the teaching of his masters recorded in essential work: the Cheng-wei-shi-lun-shu-ji or Notes on the Treatise on the Completion of Ideation Only. On account of the school's idealistic accent it is known as Wei-shi (Wei-shih) or Ideation Only School; yet because it is concerned with the specific character of all the Dharmas, it is often called the Fa-xiang School as well. Besides, this school argues that not all beings possess pure seeds and, therefore, not all of them are capable of attaining .

The founders of Yogdcara in China believed that there was a "pure" consciousness (Amala-vijndna) which underlay the Alaya. This pure consciousness is the same for everyone.

57 Experiencing the Amala is the same as the experience of Nirvana. This was a result that fed into the development of the idea of the Tathdgata-garbha, the innate "Buddha-nature" that one seeks to experience in Zen meditation.

In brief, in China, the doctrine Yogdcdra is not different from India, but under the influence of Confucius and Taoist culture, it became to mean "Buddha nature", an ontological reality or essence, like the Vedantic term 'Atman' (self)- Alayavijndna then came to be seen as a lower or impure level of consciousness, the 'tainted consciousness' relative to the Tathdgata-garbha or innately pure Absolute Buddha Mind or Buddha Nature. That is the cause to develop the system of consciousness as nine consciousnesses. The Tathatagarbha thus became a ninth consciousness or original principle over and above the other eight. However, the ninth consciousness is only the eighth consciousness in the state of purification. The ninth or pure consciousness is not actually different than the storehouse consciousness. If the storehouse consciousness is the field of cause and effect, then the pure consciousness is that aspect of the field wherein there are no fixed or independent entities, but only the pure non-dualistic dynamism and wonder of the process itself In fact, no matter what kind of seeds and fruits are currently appearing and disappearing within the workings of the storehouse consciousness, they are all operating in accord with the true reality which is the pure consciousness. Nothing can obstruct it, because all things are merely the

58 passing manifestations of the process of cause and effect; and all things which arise and fall in accordance with cause and effect display their emptiness and ultimate purity. Then, the idea of the superiority of Mind over consciousness was used by the Mind-Only school of Hua-yen School and Zen School to claim superiority over the Consciousness-only School of Wei-shi-zong in Chinese.

59