Richard Nixon I Mit Złego Prezydenta W Amerykańskiej Kulturze Popularnej

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Richard Nixon I Mit Złego Prezydenta W Amerykańskiej Kulturze Popularnej Uniwersytet Jagielloński Wydział Studiów Międzynarodowych i Politycznych Instytut Nauk Politycznych i Stosunków Międzynarodowych Piotr Tarczyński Richard Nixon i mit złego prezydenta w amerykańskiej kulturze popularnej rozprawa doktorska przygotowana pod opieką prof. dra hab. Adama Walaszka Kraków 2014 Nixon jest nami, my jesteśmy Nixonem. Gore Vidal 2 Spis treści Wstęp...............................................................................................................4 Rozdział 1. Wokół teorii mitu politycznego...............................................17 1.1. Mit a prawda, wiara w mit..................................................................19 1.2. Mit polityczny a ideologia..................................................................27 1.3. Mity jako narracje...............................................................................34 1.4. Mit polityczny a kultura popularna....................................................37 Rozdział 2. Zarys amerykańskiej mitologii politycznej...........................47 2.1. Mit amerykańskiej wyjątkowości.......................................................48 2.2. Mit pogranicza ...................................................................................60 2.3. Monomit i monomit amerykański......................................................67 2.4. Mitologia prezydentury.......................................................................70 2.5. Monomit amerykańskiej prezydentury ..............................................79 Rozdział 3. Richard Nixon i amerykańskie mity polityczne....................91 3.1. Kontekst historyczny..........................................................................93 3.2. Prezydentura Richarda Nixona jako wypaczona narracja monomityczna..........................................................................................108 3.2.1. Amerykańska wspólnota w niebezpieczeństwie........................108 3.2.2. Zdecydowany przywódca stosuje nadzwyczajne metody..........110 3.2.3. Kierując się szlachetnymi motywami odnosi sukces.................118 Rozdział 4. Źli prezydenci a kultura popularna.....................................127 4.1. Prezydent jako bohater popkultury...................................................127 4.2. Nixon wyobrażony w kulturze popularnej........................................133 4.3. Nixon jako Czarny Charakter...........................................................142 4.4. Nixon jako narzędzie krytyki prezydentów......................................153 4.4.1. Nixon a Ronald Reagan.............................................................155 4.4.2. Nixon a George Bush.................................................................157 4.4.3. Nixon a Bill Clinton ..................................................................158 4.4.4. Nixon a George W. Bush ..........................................................161 4.4.5. Nixon a Barack Obama .............................................................165 Zakończenie................................................................................................169 3 Wstęp Ilekroć, zapytany przez jakiegoś Amerykanina o temat mojego doktoratu, odpowiadałem, że piszę o Richardzie Nixonie, zawsze spotykałem się z taką samą reakcją. Rozmówca z entuzjazmem zaczynał opowiadać o swoich wspomnieniach związanym z Nixonem: o tym, co o nim sądzili jego (lub jej) rodzice; o tym, jak oglądał w telewizji transmitowane na żywo posiedzenia senackiej komisji do zbadania afery Watergate, lub – wiele lat później – pogrzeb byłego prezydenta. Jeden z rozmówców wspominał, jak w dzieciństwie nauczył się naśladować charakterystyczny dla Nixona gest zwycięstwa: uniesione ramiona i palce obu rąk ułożone w literę „V”. Biegał tak po domu, wykrzykując „I'm not a crook!”. Rodzice, zdeklarowani Demokraci, uznali to początkowo za przedni żart, dopóki zabawa nie stała się coraz częstsza. Wreszcie, przestraszeni obsesją syna (i perspektywą codziennego oglądania w swoim domu parodii znienawidzonego Nixona), kazali chłopcu skończyć z tym raz na zawsze. Historyk David Greenberg nazywa Nixona „jedynym prezydentem, co do którego nie sposób być obojętnym”1 i trudno się z tą oceną nie zgodzić – z jednym wszakże zastrzeżeniem: w przeważającej większości Amerykanie mają o Nixonie zdanie jak najgorsze – i to nawet ci, którzy nie pamiętają już ani jego prezydentury, ani nawet jego samego. Sondaż agencji Rasmussen z 2007 roku wykazał, że Nixona ocenia źle dokładnie 60% ankietowanych Amerykanów2. Paradoksalnie dokładnie tyle samo – 60% – wyniosła liczba głosów oddanych na Nixona w wyborach prezydenckich 1972 roku, kiedy został wybrany na drugą kadencję. Był to najlepszy wynik, jaki osiągnął republikański kandydat w dwudziestowiecznych wyborach prezydenckich3. Nixon, który w 1960 roku przegrał o włos z senatorem Johnem 1 David Greenberg, Nixon's Shadow: The History of an Image, W. W. Norton & Company, New York, London 2003, s. 98. 2 Washington, Lincoln Most Popular Presidents: Nixon, Bush Least Popular, http://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/people2/2007/washington_lincoln_most_popu lar_presidents_nixon_bush_least_popular [dostęp: 21.01.2014]; Presidential Approval Ratings -- Gallup Historical Statistics and Trends, http://www.gallup.com/poll/116677/Presidential-Approval-Ratings- Gallup-Historical-Statistics-Trends.aspx [dostęp: 21.01.2014]. 3 Nixon zdobył dokładnie 60,7% oddanych głosów, zob. The American Presidency Project, Election of 1972, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 [dostęp: 26.06.2014]. 4 F. Kennedym, a w roku 1968 ledwie pokonał wiceprezydenta Huberta Humphreya, osiągnął spektakularny sukces. Minęło jednak zaledwie kilka miesięcy, kiedy na jaw zaczęły wychodzić informacje na temat tego, co dziś zbiorczo określa się mianem afery Watergate – choć nieudane włamanie do kwatery Partii Demokratycznej w kompleksie hotelowym o tej nazwie, było tylko jednym z elementów skandalu, i to wcale nie najważniejszym. Ujawnienie związków między włamywaczami a Białym Domem doprowadziło do powołania specjalnej komisji Senatu do zbadania afery. Za sprawą przesłuchań przed komisją opinia publiczna dowiedziała się, że Komitet na Rzecz Reelekcji Prezydenta podsłuchiwał przeciwników politycznych Nixona i sabotował ich kampanie wyborcze za pomocą tzw. „nieczystych zagrywek”; że Richard Nixon wykorzystywał IRS (amerykański urząd podatkowy) do nękania oponentów (znajdujących się na tzw. „liście wrogów prezydenta”); że fundusze na jego kampanię zdobywane były niezgodnie z prawem. Przede wszystkim jednak, okazało się, że Biały Dom próbował tuszować skandal, m.in. przekonując CIA, by śledztwo, które prowadziło FBI. Kiedy w trakcie posiedzeń komisji wyszło na jaw, że w Białym Domu istnieje system taśm, nagrywających prowadzone w prezydenckich gabinetach rozmowy, rozpoczęła się sądowa batalia między Nixonem (zasłaniającym się przywilejem władzy wykonawczej), a specjalnymi prokuratorami, domagającymi się wydania wszystkich nagrań. W marcu 1974 roku zarzuty mataczenia postawiono byłym najbliższym współpracownikom Nixona: Johnowi Mitchellowi, prokuratorowi generalnemu, H. R. Haldemanowi, szefowi sztabu prezydenta oraz Johnowi Ehrlichmanowi, doradcy do spraw polityki wewnętrznej. Poparcie dla Nixona topniało błyskawicznie – nie tylko w badaniach opinii publicznej, ale też w jego własnej partii. Dwie trzecie Amerykanów oceniało prezydenta negatywnie i tyle samo popierało usunięcie go ze stanowiska w ramach impeachmentu4. W lipcu 1974 roku Izba Reprezentantów, także głosami Republikanów, zdecydowała o postawieniu Nixonowi zarzutów, m.in. utrudniania pracy wymiarowi sprawiedliwości oraz nadużycia władzy. W Senacie, który miał decydować o winie prezydenta, mógł liczyć na zaledwie kilka głosów. Kiedy w lipcu 1974 roku Sąd Najwyższy nakazał mu wydać wszystkie taśmy, których żądał prokurator, na jednej z nich znaleziono niepodważalny dowód na to, że Nixon brał aktywny udział w tuszowaniu 4 Presidential Approval Ratings -- Gallup Historical Statistics and Trends; 21.01.2014; 62% In N.B.C. Poll For Impeachment, „New York Times”, 6.08.1974. 5 skandalu. 9 sierpnia 1974 roku, jako pierwszy w historii (i póki co, jedyny) prezydent Stanów Zjednoczonych zrezygnował ze stanowiska, składając dymisję na ręce swojego sekretarza stanu, Henry'ego Kissingera. Miesiąc później, następca Nixona, Gerald Ford, ułaskawił byłego prezydenta, wybaczając mu wszystkie popełnione – faktyczne i potencjalne – czyny przestępcze. Wydając akt ułaskawienia Ford oświadczył: „Ta amerykańska tragedia (…) może trwać i trwać, albo ktoś może położyć jej kres. Doszedłem do wniosku, że tylko ja mogę to zrobić, a jeśli mogę, to i muszę”5. Ułaskawienie Nixona wcale nie zakończyło jednak „długiego, narodowego koszmaru”, za jaki uznano jego prezydenturę. I nie chodzi jedynie o to, że – zdaniem większości obywateli – główny winny w aferze Watergate uniknął odpowiedzialności karnej, a zatem sprawiedliwości nie stało się zadość. Choć w tym roku mija równo czterdzieści lat od tych wydarzeń, „amerykańska tragedia” wciąż trwa – nieustannie przepracowywana w kulturze popularnej, w której Nixon jest obecny tak trwale, jak żaden inny prezydent – z wyjątkiem może Johna F. Kennedy'ego. By odwołać się do tylko do najaktualniejszych przykładów: w czerwcu bieżącego roku na ekrany światowych kin weszła hollywoodzka superprodukcja pt. X-men: Przyszłość, która nadejdzie (reż. Bryan Singer, USA 2014), piąta cześć cyklu filmów o superbohaterach obdarzonych nadludzkimi mocami, adaptacji jednej z najpopularniejszych
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