Trans.Inst.Indian Geographers ISSN 0970-9851 Archaeological heritage in with particular reference to Geographical setting

Hema Thakur, Bangalore.

Abstract Karnataka has given extremely rich evidence for archaeological remains. The landscape of Karnataka seems to have been suitable for human habitation from the pre-historic through the proto-historic and historic period as evidence for all the three phases is available almost all over the state. In this paper the geographical landscape of Karnataka has been discussed. The drainage of Karnataka is based on three notable rivers - Krishna on the north, the Kaveri on the south, the two Pennars (North Pennar and South Pennar) and the Palar on the east. The drainage of Karnataka is mentioned as settlements from the period onwards are located close to the rivers and rivers played a crucial role in sustaining human habitation. Similarly, Karnataka enjoys the benefit of numerous mountain ranges. Mountains are a source of economically viable rocks and minerals. There is evidence for the exploitation of metals and minerals since prehistoric period. Other important geographical aspects which may have had a bearing on the historical development such as soil types, flora and fauna, climate, etc. have been examined. Key words: landscape, rivers, mountains, metals and minerals

The discipline of archaeology is extremely culture complex in Karnataka were first relevant for the Deccan, especially Karnataka noticed by Col. Colin Mackenzie. They were as this region has a rich assemblage of explored, excavated and analysed by amateur antiquities ranging from pre-historic through archaeologists and other scholars, prominent the proto-historic to early historic period. among them being Newbold, Cole, Knox The antiquities first attracted the attention of and Fawcett, Sewell, Longhurst, Captian the British officers in the nineteenth century Leonard Munn and Sir Leonard Woolley. who perhaps realized their significance A large number of megalithic monuments and thus brought to light a potentially rich were identified for the first time by British source for the reconstruction of the past. It officers in the course of explorations. They was Robert Bruce Foote who established not only faithfully recorded the details the presence of very large number of ground of megaliths and funerary appendage but stone axes in the Karnataka region, in the some of them like Colonel Meadows Taylor valley of the river Krishna and its tributaries. undertook their scientific investigation and Due to his efforts it has now become the best analysis. Furthermore, British officers were documented of the neolithic groups. Ash- perhaps the first to take note of some of the mounds, an integral feature of the neolithic finer aspects of human workmanship such

Transactions | Vol. 39, No. 1, 2017 | 109 as paintings executed in rock-shelters. Some centuries of Christian era as the literary of the chance discoveries of the Britishers sources are few. A detailed review of proved to be of immense significance. For archaeological settlements is undertaken instance, C. Beadon, a mining engineer, specially with respect to the location, prospecting for gold in District Raichur, resource utilization, etc. The primary sources discovered at Maski, the famous Asokan used to closely study the geographical edict which mentioned the name Asoka as its setting are the District Gazetteers which author. Consequently the importance of the provide a very clear and detailed account. site was recognised and it attracted further The author also undertook a field-survey to archaeological attention. have first-hand account of the settlements and the immediate surrounding. Aim The aim of the paper is to discuss in detail Geographical Setting and Archaeological the geographic conditions in Karnataka and Settlements its possible link with the establishment and Karnataka shares border with more than sustenance of archaeological settlements. one state. The state of Maharashtra adjoins Karnataka has given rich evidence for northern Karnataka. Maharashtra stands out human habitation from the pre-historic, as a large but fairly homogeneous region through the proto-historic and early historic (15o 44’ - 21o 40’N and 73o 15’ - 80o 33’ E). period. Karnataka is immensely rich in Andhra Pradesh and east Karnataka share natural resources particularly perennial a common border. The Andhra Plateau rivers and their numerous tributaries, fertile (12o 14’ - 19o 54 N and 76o 50’ - 81o 50’ E) soils, rocks bearing minerals, forest cover, covering a major part of Andhra Pradesh, etc. There is sufficient evidence to show that is spread over 2,04,882 km2. Tamil Nadu these resources were being exploited since a and Kerela, on the south of Karnataka, are very long period. For instance, many ancient spread over an area of 74,254 km2. This metal workings have been located which region occupies a significant position as it is testify to the fact that mineral ore was being a connecting link between the Western coast sourced. How far did the local environment and Coromandal coast ((Singh:1971:698, facilitate human habitation? Did the local 821, 851). Though these neighbouring resource base fulfill the basic subsistence states share some common features with needs of various settlements? What bearing Karnataka, it is the rivers which tie them did the local geographical lay-out have on more closely to each other as some of the the over-all socio-economic conditions? important rivers originate in neighbouring These are some of the issues which the states and flow in Karnataka or vice-versa. author has tried to examine in this paper. The drainage of Karnataka is based on three notable rivers - Krishna on the north, the Methodology Kaveri on the south, the two Pennars (North Pennar and South Pennar) and the Palar on Archaeological data is the primary evidence the east. Along with the three great river for the history of Karnataka till the early systems, Godavari and its tributeres also

110 | Transactions | Vol. 39, No. 1, 2017 flow through the state in the north. Few is about 600 mt. with broad flat bottomed streams unite in the Sharavati and flowing valleys, ranging upto 450 mt. Southern half down the Ghats in the falls of Gersoppa join of the area lies on Peninsular gneiss with the Arabian sea. NNW-SSE belts of Dharwar Schists. To the The region of Karnataka can be divided north of Dharwar and Peninsular gneisses, between the forested Malnad in the west and sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, the more open country of the Maidan in the limestone and mudstone of Cuddapah east. Maidan can be further divided between formations are found in a continuous line in North Maidan and South Maidan. Karnataka the west and Kurnool formations in the east. plateau with its Malnad rim and Maidan The remaining area is capped with Deccan character is diversified by the Krishna and trap. South Maidan is a plateau region Cauvery river systems, rainfall variability studded with bare granitic boulders and hills. resulting in varying patterns of land use The region has a relatively moderate climate and settlements. The vast Maidan, so named with greater variability of rainfall, the drier after its relatively low and subdued relief, is parts lie around Chitradurga, in the extreme divided into north and south, largely owing east near Kolar and around Srirangapatam. to cultural differentiations, the former is The region is very rich in mineral deposits, mostly drained by the Krishna and the latter particularly in iron ore, manganese, gold, by the Cauvery system. Malnad in Kannada etc. (Singh:1971: 817, 819). means “hilly country” as Male stands for “hill” and Nadu for country. The Malnad 1. North Maidan - The region of North stretches in a continuous belt trending Maidan has emerged as probably richest in NNW-SSE. The topographical features of the remains of the neolithic period. In North the Malnad also vary greatly from North Maidan there appears to be a concentration of to South. In the North, it attains a height neolithic sites on the banks of river Krishna of 450 mt. to 600 mt. and south of this it and its tributaries, notably the Bhima, the descends and is just an upraised part above Tungabhadra and the Malaprabha. The the general level of the plateau. The South important excavated neolithic settlements attains a height of 900 mt. - 1200 mt. in a that are situated on river banks are Maski (on large tract, especially along the western rim Maski nullah, a tributary of Tungabhadra), just above the coastal plain. Some of the Hallur (on Tungabhadra), as well as a large parts of this area attain considerable height number of explored sites. Proximity to as the Bababudan hills (1,913 mts.). This the rivers must have fulfilled not only the part serves as watershed for the two different basic needs of man concerning subsistence drainage systems and the rivers have, finely but would have facilitated traffic as well. dissected the area giving a picturesque hill- Along with fertile plains drained by rivers and-valley terrain (Singh:1971:794, 814). neolithic man inhabited granitoid hills. North Maidan is a landscape of Notable settlements such as Tekkalakota, monotonous seemingly endless plateau Piklihal, are located on terraces at different covered with rich black cotton soil, of large levels of the hillocks or at the foot of hills. open treeless fields. The general elevation The large number of sites and extensive

Transactions | Vol. 39, No. 1, 2017 | 111 pottery suggest that neolithic settlements There are several indications that small were perhaps thickly populated. A crucial scale horticulture rather than agriculture factor that was probably responsible for was practised. The fertile plains drained by sustaining the large population was the rivers were ideal for agricultural activity. resource base that man could effectively The fact that agriculture, even though on a exploit as per his needs. The evidence of small scale, was being practised is further large number of animal bones indicates that proved by plant remains such as from pastoralism was an important economic Hallur and horsegram, wood of the date activity. The presence of certain animals palm and charred grains (Dolichos lablab) such as Deer and Snail indicates that the from Tekkalakotta. It is a possibility that vegetation must have been thick. The animal Cattle were used for agricultural operations. bones comprised those of Cattle, Sheep, The food produced by way of domestication Goat, Swine, Canine, fresh water Mussel, of animals, hunting and agriculture, might Gasterpoda, Snail and Fowl. The charring have been further suplemented by forest of bones suggests that they were roasted. produce. The subsistence economy was Cattle and other domesticated animals such further reinforced by various kinds of crafts. as Sheep and Goat would have provided not Two gold ornaments were reported from only meat but also milk which in turn was Tekkalakota thereby indicating that gold was used in various ways. Similarly the flesh being prospected and exploited during this period. The source of gold was not very far of animals like Swine, fresh water Mussel, from Tekkalakota. The famous Kolar gold Gasterpoda, Snail and Fowl might have mines were only 200 miles south. Ancient been consumed. Alongside domestication gold workings have been reported in the of animals hunting seems to have continued Dharwar bands near Maski and Hutti mines and augmented the food supply. The animals which were 40 miles north. The craft of mat that were commonly hunted included the making was perhaps known, for at Hallur a Antelope, Deer or Stag with horns, Soft base fragment of a thick jar had impressions Tortoise, Rodents (Squirrels or Gats), of a fine reed mat. Reed is known to grow Gazalle, Monitor Lizard, etc. The evidence on the river banks and Hallur is a riverine of terracottas, rock paintings, engravings settlement. and bruisings, indicated that some other animals and birds such as Horse, Snake, 2. South Maidan - It seems that Boars, Peacock, Pegion were known to megalithic culture flourished in South the neolithic man. Certain tool types of the Maidan and certain areas such as Kolar period are suggestive of hunting activity. and Mysore are particularly rich in the vestiges of megalithic period. Many of Tools such as axes and spears must have the important excavated settlements of the been of great help in hunting operations. period were located on river banks, such Spherical and spheroid balls were probably as Brahmagiri and Chandravalli close to used as sling stones or bolas employed as Chinnahagari, T. Narasipur on the left bank missiles for killing fast moving game. The of the river Kaveri, Muttalavadi on the left evidence of copper Fish hooks from Hallur bank of river Kaveri,etc. However, many and Tekkalakota indicated fishing activity. of the megalithic sites were also situated

112 | Transactions | Vol. 39, No. 1, 2017 at foothills. The discovery of large number is received both during south-west monsoon of megalithic monuments particularly in and north-east monsoon. The area is drained districts Kolar and Mysore and that of by a large number of rivers such as Netravati, abundant pottery, is suggestive of dense Gurpur, Gongolli, Sitanadi, Swarnanadi, population. The large population seems to Tunga, Bhadra, Tungabhadra, Sharavati, have derived its sustenance from the locally Kumudvati and Varada. The stretch of available resources. Agriculture must have Malnad is notable for the cultivation of cash been an important economic activity as crops like cashew, pepper, cardamom and the region enjoyed the benefit of fertile cinnamon. Cool climate and heavy rains soils and rivers. The use of iron tools and are to an extent responsible for thick forest implements such as chisels, sickles, axes, cover. Forests are source of commercially hoe, must have aided agricultural activity. valuable products such as Teak, Ebony, People in all probability were familiar with Bamboo, Sandalwood, etc. Resource the cultivation of crops like rice as indicated base of the area is further enriched by by the discovery of rice husk at Jadigenahalli the availability of minerals which include and Doda Kadattur. Agriculture might have quartzites, laterite, granite, shale, limestone, become an important economic activity but soapstone, gold, garnet and iron, among it seems that hunting and domestication others. Vadgaon-Madhavapur, Banavasi of animals continued. Iron spearheads, and the surrounding early historic sites are arrowheads and stone balls (both spherical in the Malnad area. Favourable climate and spheroid) were the equipment used in and availability of resources were major hunting operations. The wide range of iron factors behind a reasonably big population artifacts i.e. weapons, tools and implements and over all prosperity which reflected noted at various sites like Jadigenahalli, T. itself not only in major settlements such as Narasipur, suggest that megalithic folk had Vadgaon-Mahavapur and Banavasi but also become fairly proficient in the exploitation in a large number of other sites of the region. of iron ore. Iron ore deposits are known Incidentally these sites have yielded not only to occur in districts Chitradurga, Mysore, typical pottery but also permanent brick Kolar and Tumkur, which fall in South structures, pottery, terracottas, ornaments, Maidan. Similarly, gold is reported from sculptures, coins, thereby suggesting that districts Chitradurga, Kolar and Tumkur early historic culture was spread across (Gazetteer of ,Chitradurga District:14- a large area. Banavasi was a major early 15;Gazetteer of India,Kolar District:17; historic centre and is particularly noteworthy Gazetteer of India,Tumkur District:14-15). for the Roman antiquities. Banavasi was a At Brahmagiri in district Chitradurga gold reputed trading station of the period and beads were found. Interestingly, in district found mention in the works of classical Chitradurga there is evidence for old writers. Ptolemy (150 A.D.) refered to it workings of gold at Halekal, Honnemaradi, as Banaouasei. Of the many commodities Kotemaradi, (Gazetteer of India,Chitradurga Rome showed interest in buying mention District:14). can be made of pepper. Malnad and South 3. Malnad - In this region climatic Kanara are known to grow pepper in large conditions are cool and rains are heavy. Rain quantities (Murthy:1996:20).

Transactions | Vol. 39, No. 1, 2017 | 113 Conclusion References The above mentioned facts establish Desai P.B. (1970): A History of Karnataka beyond doubt that Karnataka is fairly (From Pre-history to Unification). Dharwar, rich in resources of various types. Water Kannada Research Institute, Karnatak. resources such as tanks, wells, ponds, Gazetteer of India: Mysore State, Bidar District. irrigation channels, streams, rivers facilitate Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Gulbarga the growth of thick vegetation which in District. turn provides safe sanctuary to various Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Kolar District. types of fauna. Abundant water supply Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Raichur makes it easy for the farmer to irrigate District. his land. Further, water bodies not only Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Hassan support an extensive fishing industry but District. are successfully harnessed to produce Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Bijapur hydro-electric power. Karnataka has large District. number of mountains which are the home Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Bellary of numerous rivers, valuable minerals and District. economically useful rock types. Infact, these minerals and rock types since ancient times, Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Chitradurga District. have been put to various uses, so much so that the first evidence for the use of iron in Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Tumkur the country comes from Hallur in Karnataka. District. Further, the easy availability of building Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Coorg District. stone has encouraged the construction of Gazetteer of India, Mysore State, Shimoga some of the most imposing temples since District. earliest times. Dharwar schists were used Law B.C. (1976): Historical Geography of for ornamental structures in the temples Ancient India. Delhi, Ess Ess Publications. of Halebid and Belur (Singh:1971:799). Murthy A.V. Narasimha (1996): Studies in Some of the mountains have beautiful water Karnataka Numismatics. Mysore:Directorate falls (Gagana Chukki and Bara Chukki in of Archaeology and Museums. Biligirirangan range) while others have Singh R.L. (ed.) (1971): India: A Regional notable religious centres (the summit of Geography. Varanasi, National Geographical Indragiri has the statue of Gomateshwara Society of India. and is a reputed religious centre). Spate O.H.K. and A.T.A. Learmonth (1984): Karnataka is well provided with natural India and Pakistan --A General and Regional resources of various types but the distribution Geography, New Delhi. of these natural resources is not uniform, with some areas being rich in forest and Hema Thakur faunal wealth (Malnad) while others being National Institute of Advanced Studies, more suitable for agriculture (Maidan). The Bangalore, India abundance and the unbalanced distribution of these resources have influenced the course of historical development.

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