Artist Versus Anatomist, Models Against Dissection: Paul Zeiller of Munich and the Revolution of 1848
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Medical History, 2007, 51: 279–308 Artist versus Anatomist, Models against Dissection: Paul Zeiller of Munich and the Revolution of 1848 NICK HOPWOOD* The uses of anatomical models in medical teaching changed dramatically during the nineteenth century. The most celebrated Enlightenment ceroplastics, the royal collections directed by the natural philosopher Felice Fontana in Florence and copied for the military- medical academy in Vienna, united science and art in three-dimensional encyclopaedias of the body. According to Fontana, one could learn more from the models in six months than from dissecting scarce human cadavers in six years. But he gave up wax for wood, and by the early nineteenth century anatomists routinely disparaged his collections as white elephants. Beauty and truth no longer went hand in hand. As anatomy broke up into specialized research programmes, works intended also for the public were criticized as aristocratic luxuries and vulgar entertainments. Above all, medicine’s rising authority was grounded in direct engagement with bodies, dead and alive. So when professors no longer had to rely on criminal corpses, but gained access to those of the poor, models were marginalized before they could seriously challenge dissection. They kept important roles in obstetrics, and gained new ones in specialties where objects were especially complex, rare, transient, hard-to-preserve and/or tiny, notably in pathology, dermatology and embryol- ogy. But wax, plaster, wood and papier m^ache´ were uncomfortably as well as strategically placed between prepared body parts, with their stronger claim to authenticity, and draw- ings, which were more established and easily reproduced. By the end of the century models of normal adult anatomy, now mostly commercially made, were more widely used in medical education than ever before, but for special purposes only.1 # Nick Hopwood 2007 The text was improved by comments from Tatjana Buklijas, Silvia De Renzi, Nick Jardine, Ayako *Nick Hopwood, MSc, PhD, Department of History Sakurai, Paul Ziche, three referees and audiences at and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge, talks in this department and at the 2005 meeting of the Free School Lane, Cambridge CB2 3RH, UK. AAHM. Research was supported by the Wellcome Trust. I thank the institutions credited as holding materials. In Munich, Florian Dering (Stadtmuseum), Reinhard 1 Thomas N Haviland and Lawrence Charles Heydenreuter (Archiv der Bayerischen Akademie Parish, ‘A brief account of the use of wax models in the der Wissenschaften), Ursula Lochner (Archiv der study of medicine’, J. Hist. Med. Allied Sci., 1970, Ludwigs-Maximilians-Universit€at), Anton 25: 52–75, pp. 68–9; Urs Boschung, ‘Medizinische Loffelmeier€ (Stadtarchiv), Reinhard Putz Lehrmodelle. Geschichte, Techniken, Modelleure’, (Anatomisches Institut) and Joachim Wild Medita, 1980, 10 (Folge 4 zur Geschichte der Medizin (Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv) were especially und der medizinischen Technik): ii–xv; Heike generous with time and expertise. I am very grateful to Kleindienst, ‘A¨ sthetisierte Anatomie aus Wachs. Peter Dorsch for searching newspapers and Ulrike Ursprung – Genese – Integration’, dr phil. diss., 2 vols, Lindner for putting us in touch, Elsbeth Schramm for Universit€at Marburg, 1989; Michel Lemire, Artistes et allowing me to reproduce pictures from a family album, mortels, Paris, Chabaud, 1990, pp. 323–65; Thomas and Pierre Buisseret and Ce´dric Cre´miere for showing Schnalke, Diseases in wax: the history of the medical me models at the Muse´um national d’Histoirenaturelle. moulage, Berlin, Quintessence, 1995, p. 49. In general 279 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.34.90, on 28 Sep 2021 at 19:21:37, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000144 Nick Hopwood No simple effect of increased corpse supply, this shift was negotiated by those involved in anatomy teaching at the same time as dissection was hotly debated. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe’s appeal for ‘‘plastic anatomy’’ vividly links the two discussions. The poet had dissected human cadavers and as a government minister been responsible for an anatomical institute, but, as reports of grave-robbing and murder spread from Britain, the old man rejected harsh new laws to requisition pauper corpses and advocated models as a humane surrogate for dissection.2 In Wilhelm Meister’s Travels (1829) a mysterious sculptor leads the troubled Wilhelm away from a beautiful female cadaver to a workshop for models. The artist, based on Fontana, explains Romantically that ‘‘building up teaches more than tearing apart, joining together more than separating, animating what is dead more than killing over again what has already been killed’’. Wilhelm becomes a ‘‘plastic anatomist’’.3 But Goethe’s proposal of an institute of plastic anatomy for Berlin was rejected a few weeks before he died in 1832 and histories of modelling report no further reception of his comments until the 1890s.4 This failure appears to confirm that models had lost any chance of substituting for dissection. Only recently have medical schools begun to take alternatives seriously.5 Yet that is not the whole story. Medical professors were the main patrons and customers, but they could not dictate models’ production and uses. Many modellers—a diverse bunch of artists and doctors—did accept the medical control that increasingly limited artists’ autonomy. Mid-century initiatives worked around the growing dominance of dissection by collaborating with discipline-builders to carve out more specialized niches, carefully negotiating the conditions under which models of normal adult anatomy would have a role, or concentrating on lay audiences.6 But Fontana had difficulty managing artists he on models, see Soraya de Chadarevian and Nick Tatjana Buklijas, ‘Dissection, discipline and urban Hopwood (eds), Models: the third dimension of science, transformation: anatomy at the University of Vienna, Stanford University Press, 2004; and specifically on 1845–1914’, PhD thesis, University of Cambridge, Fontana, Renato G Mazzolini, ‘Plastic anatomies and 2005, chs 2 and 7; and the other works cited in artificial dissections’, in ibid., pp. 43–70. note 18 below. 2 Ulrike Enke and Manfred Wenzel, 3 Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Wilhelm Meisters ‘‘‘Wißbegierde’’ contra ‘‘Menschlichkeit’’. Goethes Wanderjahre, ed. Gerhard Neumann and Hans-Georg ambivalentes Verh€altnis zur Anatomie in seiner Dewitz, Frankfurt am Main, Deutscher Klassiker Dichtung und Biographie’, Goethe-Jahrbuch, 1998, Verlag, 1989, pp. 599–612, on pp. 604, 609. This 115: 155–70; Irmgard Egger, ‘‘‘Verbinden mehr als translation is modified from Goethe, Wilhelm Meister’s Trennen’’. Goethe und die plastische Anatomie’, Travels, transl. by Edward Bell, London, Bell and Germanisch-Romanische Monatsschrift, 2001, Sons, 1882, pp. 301, 305; the others are my own. 51: 45–53. On corpse supply to nineteenth-century 4 J Schwalbe, ‘Zur Geschichte der ‘‘plastischen anatomy, see especially Ruth Richardson, Death, Anatomie’’’, Deutsche medizinische Wochenschrift, dissection and the destitute, Harmondsworth, Penguin, 1896, 22: 761–2; Schnalke, op. cit., note 1 above, 1988; Michael Sappol, A traffic of dead bodies: pp. 58–62. anatomy and embodied social identity in nineteenth- 5 Debate forum, Anat. Rec. (New Anat.), 2004, century America, Princeton University Press, 2002; 281B: 2–14. For Goethe’s relevance, see Charleen M Elizabeth T Hurren, ‘A pauper dead-house: the Moore and C Mackenzie Brown, ‘Gunther von Hagens expansion of the Cambridge anatomical teaching and Body Worlds. Part 1: the anatomist as prosektor and school under the late-Victorian Poor Law, 1870–1914’, proplastiker’, ibid., 2004, 276B: 8–14. Med. Hist., 2004, 48: 69–94; and Helen MacDonald, 6 See the surveys cited in note 1 above and Audrey B Dissection and its histories, New Haven, Yale Davis, ‘Louis Thomas Jerome^ Auzoux and the papier University Press, 2006. On the German lands, see m^ache´ anatomical model’, in La ceroplastica nella Karin Stukenbrock, ‘‘Der zerstuckte€ Corper’’.€ Zur scienza e nell’arte ..., 2 vols, Florence, Olschki, 1977, Sozialgeschichte der anatomischen Sektionen in der vol. 1, pp. 257–79; B W J Grob, The anatomical models fruhen€ Neuzeit (1650–1800), Stuttgart, Steiner, 2001; of Dr. Louis Auzoux, Leiden, Museum Boerhaave, 280 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.34.90, on 28 Sep 2021 at 19:21:37, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0025727300000144 Models, Dissection and the Revolution of 1848 treated as hired hands,7 and professors in early nineteenth-century France had to push modellers used to aristocratic commissions to submit to the disciplines of professional science.8 The same move to learning by seeing and doing that created opportunities for makers of visual aids also fixed dissection in the medical curriculum. But though widely recognized by law, it remained controversial as a final punishment for poverty, and the relative merits of natural and artificial preparations continued to be discussed.9 This article aims to expand our understanding of the range of mid-nineteenth-century negotiations over models and dissection, and to recover their ferocity. It is about Paul Zeiller (1820–93), a previously little-researched modeller who uncompromisingly challenged anatomical authority.10 He did not