PASSION & PERSISTENCE:
A STUDY OF MOTIVATION
AMONG LEARNERS OF JAPANESE IN AUSTRALIA
Barbara M. Northwood
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Japanese Studies School of International Studies Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences University of New South Wales, Sydney
September 2013
Originality Statement
‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own word, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’
…………………………………………………. 31 March 2013
ii List of publications
Northwood, B. and Thomson, C.K. 2010. “Why stop studying Japanese? A case in Australia.” In A.M. Stoke (Ed.), JALT2009 Conference Procedings. Tokyo: JALT. (Written about initial findings in the high school study, Chapter 4).
Northwood, B. and Thomson, C.K. 2012. “What Keeps Them Going? Investigating Ongoing Learners of Japanese in Australian Universities.” Japanese Studies, 32(3): 335-355. London, U.K.: Routledge. (Written about findings from Round I of the University study, including Interviews 1 and 2).
Northwood, B.M., 2012. “Persistence and Learning Japanese.” In N. Sonda & A. Krause (Eds.), JALT2012 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT. (Discusses the predominant factors that influenced intention to continue among both university and high school study participants).
iii
Abstract
There are large numbers of learners of Japanese in Australia, but few learners reach an advanced level of the language. The fundamental question underlying the study was: what keeps some learners going to reach an advanced level of Japanese, when so many do not continue? Motivation and attitudes play an important role in persistence according to previous L2 research, consequently, this Australian study of over 600 learners of Japanese used Gardner’s AMTB to measure motivation/attitudes. The data from both school and university learners of Japanese was supported by interviews that explored issues in support of the quantitative research methods.
Results based on Gardner’s AMTB indicated that those who intended to continue, the stay-ins, showed much higher levels of motivational desire, motivational effort, and more positive attitudes towards learning Japanese than those who intended to dropout. This suggested that the stay-ins were more passionate about learning Japanese (along with being more persistent), indicated by the proposed compatibility of definitions of motivation (Gardner, 1985) and passion (Vallerand, 2003). Stay-ins also showed higher levels of Integrativeness compared to drop-outs although some sub-components showed higher levels than others.
However, the magnitude of differences between stay-ins and drop-outs was lower for the measure of motivational intensity compared to the measures of motivational desire and attitudes towards learning Japanese. This was attributed partly to the measure of motivational intensity, which did not take into account the popularity of J-pop activities amongst participants. It was also attributed to learners not identifying J-pop activities as learning activities or as being effortful, according to surveys and interviews. Rather, effort seemed ‘effortless’, which was explained by the concept of flow, the optimal experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
Major conclusions: A growing sense of self-identity as speakers of Japanese was evident among advanced learners; Passion and persistence differentiated the stay-ins from the drop-outs; The passion for an activity itself may be the driving force in Motivation, not effort, since participants did not identify J-pop activities as ‘learning’ or ‘effortful’. Rather, the effort seemed ‘effortless’, which indicated almost an ironical reversal of the effort component of Motivation in Gardner’s SE model.
iv
Acknowledgements
I would sincerely like to thank my supervisor Dr Chihiro Thomson and my co- supervisor, Dr. Sumiko Iida, for their valuable suggestions and advice. I would also like to particularly express my appreciation to Dr Thomson for her help and encouragement in this project. This research was conducted under funding generously provided by the Australian Research Council and The Japan Foundation, Sydney, for which I am most grateful. [ARC Linkage Project Grant LP0776318. Project Title: Tackling the issues of low numbers of Australia’s advanced users of Japanese: Reasons and Strategies. Chief Investigator: C.K. Thomson]
I would also like to especially thank Dr Robyn Spence-Brown, and Dr Deryn Verity who generously gave up their time to offer insightful suggestions, and Prof. Peter Lovibond (School of Psychology, UNSW) and Prof. Emeritus R.C. Gardner who kindly answered statistical queries.
Thank you to David Kelly, text editor, for his valuable assistance on Chapter 1 and earlier drafts of Chapters 6 and 7.
Thank you also to the teachers and students who participated in this research, which made the study possible.
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I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only).
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vi Page of Contents
Originality Statement ...... ii
List of publications ...... iii
Abstract ...... iv
Acknowledgements ...... v
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ...... vi
AUTHENTICITY STATEMENT ...... vi
Page of Contents ...... vii
List of Tables and Figures ...... xiv
CHAPTER 1 ...... 1
Introduction ...... 1
1.1. Background ...... 1
1.2. The Study ...... 5
1.3. Motivation ...... 7
1.3.1. Exploration of Issues ...... 8
1.4. Organisation of the Chapters ...... 10
CHAPTER 2 ...... 12
Literature Review of Related Research: Motivation ...... 12
2.0. Synthesis of Four Motivational Models ...... 13
2.1. The social psychological period (1959-1990) ...... 15
2.1.1. The Socio-Educational model of Second Language Acquisition ...... 17
2.1.2. The Integrative Motive and Integrative Motivation ...... 18 2.1.2.1. Motivation ...... 19
2.1.2.2. Attitudes toward the Learning Situation ...... 20
2.1.2.3. Integrativeness ...... 20
2.1.2.4. Orientations and Motivation ...... 21
2.1.2.5. Instrumental motivation ...... 23
2.1.2.6. Integrative and Instrumental Orientations Issues ...... 23
2.1.2.7. Second or foreign language learning ...... 26
2.1.3. The Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) ...... 27
2.1.3.1. Inconsistent Findings ...... 28
2.1.3.2. Validity of the AMTB – Four Issues ...... 29
2.1.3.3. AMTB flexibility...... 31
2.1.3.4. The mini-AMTB ...... 32
2.2. The cognitive-situated period (the 1990s) ...... 33
2.2.1. Self-Determination Theory ...... 33
2.2.2. The Noels Studies and Self-Determination theory ...... 36
2.2.2.1. Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Integrative Orientations ...... 38
2.2.3 2 motivation construct ...... 40
2.3. The. Dörnyei process and-oriented the L period (the 2000s) ...... 41
2.3.1. Qualitative studies (Ushioda, 1996; 2001) ...... 42
2.3.2. Language ‘identities’ ...... 45
2.3.3. The L2 2005) ...... 48
2.3.3.1. Self-MotivationalDiscrepancy Theory Self System ...... (Dörnyei,...... 48
2.3.3.2. Synthesis of four motivational models ...... 49
2.2.3.3. Reinterpreting Integrativeness ...... 51
2.3.4. ‘Harmonious Passion’ ...... 52
2.3.5. ‘Flow’ ...... 54
2.4. Language and Persistence - Studies in Schools...... 57
Incentives ...... 57
viii Disincentives ...... 58
A monolingual attitude ...... 59
2.4.1. The Ramage study (1990) ...... 60
2.4.2. The Bartley studies (1969; 1970) ...... 62
2.4.3. The Gardner studies (1975) ...... 65
2.4.3.1. Further Gardner studies ...... 67
2.5. Language and Persistence Studies in Universities ...... 71
2.5.1. LASP 1 (2007) ...... 71
2.5.2. LASP 2 (2009) ...... 72
2.5.2.1. Languages spoken ...... 73
2.5.2.2. Intention to continue ...... 73
2.5.2.3. Motivating Factors ...... 74
2.5.3. The Matsumoto Study (2009) ...... 76
2.5.3.1. Level-based differences ...... 77
2.5.3.2. Inter-cultural comparisons ...... 78
2.6. Chapter Summary ...... 80
2.6.1. Concluding Remarks ...... 82
CHAPTER 3 ...... 85
Research Design ...... 85
3.1. Participants ...... 86
3.2. Data Gathering Procedure ...... 87
3.3. Instruments and Measures ...... 88
3.3.1. Focus Group Interviews ...... 88
3.3.2. Questionnaires ...... 89
3.4. Reliability and validity ...... 93
Measurement Validity ...... 94
Research validity ...... 94
ix 3.5. Confidentiality and disclosure of information ...... 95
3.6. Data Analysis Procedure ...... 95
3.7. In Summary ...... 97
CHAPTER 4 ...... 98
The High Schools study ...... 98
4.1. Demographics ...... 99
4.1.1. Participants ...... 99
4.1.2. Japanese Proficiency ...... 101
4.1.3. Languages spoken ...... 104
4.2. Demographics and the Intention to Continue ...... 105
4.2.1. Factors influencing Intention to Continue ...... 107
4.2.1.1. Language background and continuation ...... 109
4.2.2. Factors influencing Intention to Discontinue ...... 111
4.2.3. Learning activities outside the classroom ...... 115
4.3. The Motivation and Attitudes questionnaire ...... 117
4.3.1. Motivation and Integrativeness - overall ...... 117
4.3.2. Motivation, Integrativeness, and Japanese course ...... 119
4.4. Chapter Summary ...... 122
CHAPTER 5 ...... 125
The University Study ...... 125
5.1. Questionnaires Round I, 2009 ...... 126
5.1.1. Demographic Results and Discussion ...... 126
5.1.1.1. Participants ...... 126
5.1.2. Japanese Proficiency ...... 127
5.1.3. Demographics and the Intention to Continue ...... 128
5.1.3.1. Factors influencing Intention to Continue ...... 129 x 5.1.3.2. Factors influencing Intention to Discontinue ...... 131
5.1.4. The Motivation and Attitudes questionnaire...... 138
5.1.5. Questionnaire Summary ...... 144
5.2. Interviews 1, 2, and 3 ...... 146
5.2.1 Interview 1 ...... 146
5.2.2 Interview 2 ...... 148
5.2.3 Interview 3 ...... 151
5.2.3.1. Factors influencing continuation ...... 152
5.2.3.2. Factors influencing discontinuation ...... 155
5.2.4 Interviews Summary ...... 158
5.3. The University study Round II ...... 160
5.3.1. Round II ‘SPOT’ Proficiency test ...... 160
5.3.2. Round II Demographic Questionnaire ...... 161
5.3.3. Round II Intention to Continue ...... 163
5.3.4. Round II Motivation and Attitudes questionnaire ...... 165
5.3.5 Chapter Summary ...... 166
CHAPTER 6 ...... 169
Discussion ...... 169
6.1. Factors influencing the Intention to Continue ...... 170
6.1.1. Hope to travel to Japan – Let’s speak! ...... 170
6.1.2. Interest in Japanese culture ...... 171
6.1.3. Previous kanji knowledge ...... 172
6.2. Factors influencing the Intention to Discontinue ...... 173
6.2.1. Effort - ‘deliberate practice’ ...... 174
6.2.2. Feeling disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students ...... 176
6.3. Motivation and attitudes ...... 177
6.3.1. Passion ...... 180 xi 6.3.2. ‘Effortless’ effort ...... 181
6.3.3. Interest in J-pop ...... 183
6.4. Integrativeness and attitudes ...... 185
6.4.1. Instrumental orientation ...... 187
6.4.2. Orientation Issues ...... 189
6.4.3. Integrativeness or Openness ...... 189
6.5. J-pop, identity & learning Japanese ...... 191
6.5.1. Visions of their future ...... 193
6.6. Expanding L2 motivational concepts ...... 194
CHAPTER 7 ...... 197
Conclusion ...... 197
7.1. Passion & Persistence: A study of motivation among learners of Japanese in
Australia ...... 197
7.1.1. Intention to Continue ...... 198
7.1.2. Orientations - the overall purpose ...... 200
7.1.3. Motivation & Integrativeness ...... 201
7.1.4. Passion and persistence ...... 202
7.1.4.1. Enjoyment ...... 203
7.1.4.2. ‘Flow’ ...... 204
7.1.4.3. Language identity ...... 204
7.1.5. J-pop and learning Japanese ...... 205
7.2. Contributions to the Field ...... 206
7.2.1. Limitations of the study ...... 207
7.2.2. Suggestions for Further Research ...... 209
7.3. Concluding remarks ...... 211
REFERENCES CITED ...... 212
xii APPENDIX 1(i): PARENT/CAREGIVER INFORMATION ...... 221
APPENDIX 1(ii): PARENT/CAREGIVER CONSENT ...... 222
APPENDIX 2(i): DEMOGRAPHICS SURVEY - Schools ...... 223
APPENDIX 2(ii): DEMOGRAPHICS SURVEY – Universities ...... 225
APPENDIX 3: MAIN SURVEY...... 227
APPENDIX 4: AMTB ITEMS ...... 234
APPENDIX 5: PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS & UNIVERSITIES ...... 235
APPENDIX 6: CONTINUUM OF LEARNING FOR JAPANESE STAGE 6 ...... 236
APPENDIX 7: Ethics Approval - Schools ...... 238
APPENDIX 8: Ethics Approval – Universities, 2009; 2010 ...... 240
xiii
List of Tables and Figures
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1. The L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei) Figure 2.2. The basic model of the role of aptitude and motivation Figure 2.3. The complex of the Integrative Motive Figure 2.4. Orientations in language learning Figure 2.5. Comparison of Motivation and Passion components Table 2.1. Descriptions of Language Learning Orientations Scale Table 2.2. Correlation of Intention to Continue and SDT motivational subtypes Table 2.3. Predominant motivational dimensions Table 2.4. Optimal experience components for flow Table 2.5. The four main motivating factors in order of importance (LASP 2, 2009) Table 2.6. Top priority ratings for main interest in Japanese, and where they would most like to improve
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1. H.S. study: time spent in Japan (in weeks) versus percentage Figure 4.2. H.S. Proficiency scores vs Frequency Figure 4.3. H.S. Reasons to Continue vs frequency Figure 4.4. H.S. Reasons to discontinue Table 4.0. High School Year according to Japanese Course levels Table 4.1. Demographic summary for High School participants Table 4.2. SPOT proficiency scores according to Japanese Course Table 4.3. Additional languages spoken according to Japanese Course Table 4.4. Intention to Continue according to Japanese Course Table 4.5. Intention to continue and language spoken Table 4.6. Principal Reasons to Continue among stay-ins according to Japanese Course Table 4.7. Main Reasons to Continue according to language spoken. Table 4.8. Five Reasons to Continue according to Previous knowledge of kanji xiv Table 4.9. Principal Reasons to Discontinue according to Japanese Course Table 4.10. Frequency of learning activities outside the classroom Table 4.11. Motivation and Integrativeness according to Intention to Continue Table 4.12. ‘Forced’ discontinuers group versus ‘true’ discontinuers group Table 4.13. Differences in Motivation and Attitudes according to Japanese Course
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1. SPOT Test scores Figure 5.2. Reasons to continue studying Japanese and Frequency Figure 5.3. Reasons to discontinue Japanese Figure 5.4. Round II University Reasons to Continue Figure 5.5. Round II UNIV Discontinue Reasons Figure 5.6. Comparing RI and RII on 7 measures of Motivation and Integrativeness. Table 5.1. Demographic details for Round I University participants Table 5.2. Demographic details for Round I University participants Table 5.3. Round I Intention to continue/discontinue according to Japanese Course Table 5.4. Reasons for Continuing in Japanese Third Year-and-above Table 5.5. Round I No room in program cross-tabulated with Japanese Course Level Table 5.6. Participant ID for the ‘true’ discontinuers and their Reasons to Discontinue. Table 5.7. Intention to Continue Study crosstabulated with Previous Knowledge of Kanji Table 5.8. Motivation/Attitudes: Differences for Univ. RI stay-ins and drop-outs overall Table 5.9. Motivation/Attitude Differences for RI according to Year of University Table 5.10. Motivation/Attitudes Round I: Differences according to Japanese Year Table 5.11. Motivation/Attitudes: Differences for Round I discontinuers Table 5.12. SPOT proficiency scores in Round II according to Japanese Course Table 5.13. Round II survey and Interview 3 demographics Table 5.14. Previous kanji knowledge according to Other Languages Spoken Table 5.15. Motivation/attitudes of 27 ‘continuers’ compared to other RI participants
xv
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1. Background
In terms of size of learner population, Japanese is the first foreign language of Australia (Lo Bianco, 2009:133). Consequently, perhaps, study of this language is now accepted as normal to school and university students, not exotic. The number of learners of Japanese began to rapidly increase in the 1990s, with Japan having become an increasingly important economic and strategic partner to Australia. Japanese investment, trade, and tourism gave Japan a high profile. There seemed to be a growing perception in Australia that it had grown away from its European roots and that its destiny lay more closely linked with its Asian neighbours (Baldauf & Heike, 1990:238). Currently, China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, India, and ASEAN neighbours absorb around three quarters of our merchandise exports and supply half of our imports according to an Australian Government source (Australia in the Asian Century, 2011:11). In earlier decades, by contrast, Australia’s most important trading partners were largely in the Western world.
It is not the intention here to suggest that trade/economic reasons should be the rationale for languages education, but rather the opposite. For a great length of time in Australian schools and universities, the basis for language study was cultural, intellectual, and social. However, it seems that levels of government funding of Japanese language education coincides with the rise and the later decline in Japan’s economic situation. In 1994, Japanese became one of the four priority Asian languages (designated by NALSAS: The National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian 1 Schools strategy). Government educational policies with substantial funding had an impact on enrolments in Japanese: the 52,000 learners of Japanese in 1988 rose to 382,000 in 2003 (The Japan Foundation, 2005). Indeed, the 2003 figure meant that one in every 52 Australians was studying Japanese in that year (according to the percentage of the country’s total population). Japanese had become a major foreign/second language in Australia.
In this study of motivation, generally, no distinction is made between the terms ‘foreign’ and ‘second’ language (in keeping with Gardner’s practice), not meaning to imply that the additional language is dominant or necessarily readily available to the students but merely that it is another language. Nevertheless, the status of a language conceptualised as ‘foreign’ is different to that of a ‘second’ (heritage/community) language. Lo Bianco explained to me recently (August, 2013) that, “These differences are important because they connect to who the learners are, why they study the language, and its presence in their lived world.”
Japanese is generally taught as a ‘foreign’ language in Australia as the number of Australian students with a family background in Japanese is “relatively small” in comparison with Chinese (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:23). Consequently, Japanese is accessible to students from a range of backgrounds, which is important, as many students are deterred from learning a language if they think they have to compete with those who have a background in the language (ibid). Increasingly though, Australian learners from Chinese and Korean background are studying “side by side with those from English or other language backgrounds” (Iwashita, 2012:290). Iwashita found that such cross-linguistic influence seems to impact upon student level of written and spoken performances in Japanese.
Currently, the number of learners of Japanese and of Asian languages generally, is decreasing rapidly and dramatically in Australia. Government policies have changed, and funding has been reduced (e.g. the Languages Continuity Initiative program in New South Wales primary schools ceased in 2003; the NALSAS in 2002). The decrease is causing anxiety in the media, amongst educators, politicians, and in business. ‘We do our children a deep disservice if we fail to equip them with knowledge of the cultures and the languages of not only the fastest-growing region in the world but also the region that is on our doorstep’ (namely, Asia), a group of
2 prominent Australian business leaders declared in 2011.i There has been a noticeable decline in the number of learners of Japanese in schools, while the overall numbers of Japanese-learners decreased by 25% since 2006, to 275,710 in 2009 according to The Japan Foundation’s latest survey (2011:4). There is a concern among educators, in business, and in the media, that Australia's ability to engage effectively in the ‘Asian Century’ will diminish if government programs such as the National Asian Languages and Studies in Schools Program (NALSSP) are cut. This program, due for renewal in 2012 had committed funding of $62.4 million to significantly increase the understanding of and proficiency in the languages of Australia’s neighbours, namely China, Japan, Indonesia, and Korea. Funding for the program ceased in June 2012.
Lo Bianco has described the period from the late 1990s to 2006 as ‘normalization’, after a deluge:
While the range of programs (ab initio, immersion, bilingual, maintenance, foreign language, taster) was impressive and Japanese was emerging as a community language with heritage associations for Australians, there was already a sense of overreach. For the first time a population of ‘failed learners’ emerged and interest turned towards Chinese. Such short national attention spans would be bizarre in other fields, but Australian language education is characterised by dramatic and damaging chopping and changing. Fortunately, Japanese retains attractiveness but is beset by concerns about proficiency levels and high attrition. (LoBianco, 2009:334)
Regardless of Australian government policy towards languages, negative attitudes toward learning foreign languages persist in the Australian community. Failure at languages, and its effect on future expectations may be partly responsible. “What failed learners say to themselves, their children, neighbours and friends, is a material factor influencing language education policy” (Lo Bianco, 2009:332). Martin (2005) described the state of foreign languages in Australian universities as in ‘permanent crisis’. He suggested that, “there has been a token support for the learning of languages by all Australian governments in numerous statements, but there have been few serious attempts to teach languages to the English-speaking majority” (Martin, 2005:71).
Learning a foreign language such as Japanese to advanced level takes much more time, effort, and commitment for English native speakers than for one of the European alphabet-based languages (Odlin, 1989; Jorden & Lambert, 1991).ii Literacy
3 is a major aspect of that difficulty as Japanese is tri-scriptal. It uses two phonetic scripts, hiragana and katakana, in combination with a semantic-based script from China introduced at the end of the fourth century known in Japanese as kanji (‘Chinese letters’). The pedagogic load is evident in the way that acquisition of the 1,945 ‘Essential Kanji’ is spread over all nine years of compulsory schooling in Japan: 80 in Grade 1, 160 in Grade 2, 200 in both 3rd and 4th Grades, 185 in 5th, and 181 in 6th Grade, and the remaining 939 from Grades 7 to 9. The sheer number of kanji and unlimited combinations cause alphabet-users great difficulty.iii (It is obvious that those literate in Chinese have a distinct advantage in Japanese literacy.)
According to an extensive study of beginner-level language learners across Australian universities (LASP 1, 2007:15), about one-third of those who begin a language do not go on to the second semester, and fewer than 25% of beginners complete a third year. Furthermore, amongst Asian languages “Indonesian and Japanese seem to suffer from greater levels of attrition” (ibid) while Japanese in particular, suffers large losses during First Year of university, and relatively low retention into Second Year. In schools, attrition occurs once language is no longer compulsory (Years 8, 9 and 10), which reflects “not only student disengagement but structural factors in schools and in course requirements” (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010). (See Appendix 6 for explanation of the continuum of learning in the New South Wales education system.)
The situation regarding Japanese is particularly worrying because most learners of Japanese in Australia are intermediate level or lower, with 96% of learners in primary or secondary school (The Japan Foundation, 2005:8; 2011:16). The remaining 4% of Japanese learners are predominantly university students, where largest enrolments by far are in Beginner courses (Thomson, 2010:159). Nationally, it is estimated that only about 500 tertiary learners of probably 10,000 are studying at an advanced or professional level of Japanese proficiency.iv
Advanced proficiency refers to the level of language necessary for professional negotiation and business as well as cultural awareness. “In Japanese, even the simplest utterance is overtly marked for degrees of politeness and distancing, depending on the speaker, the addressee, others present, the general topic, the occasion, and other factors” (Jorden & Lambert, 1991:15). Advanced proficiency means coping with
4 situations demanding speed and accuracy, as in trade, research, security, and diplomacy. Few learners of Japanese in Australia keep going to an advanced level of the language. Proficiency levels categorized as ‘beginner, intermediate, and advanced’ etc. are at best, relative. Moreover, classifications of learner levels are difficult, since an individual learner may be at varying levels of proficiency in their listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Perhaps the only way to define proficiency levels is through a standard set of guidelines, such as the ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages) Proficiency Guidelines (Brown, 2007:110). However, in the context of this study, restricted in terms of survey length, ‘advanced’ learners came to mean those students in ‘advanced’ Japanese classes (such as Third Year-and-above at university).
1.2. The Study
This study was part of a larger projectv that was undertaken to investigate the rapidly decreasing numbers of Japanese learners, and why so few learners of Japanese in Australia keep going to an advanced level of the language, despite the relatively large number of learners overall. Being part of the larger project, the study was carried out in senior high schools and universities in and around Sydney, Australia.
The aims of the thesis can be seen as forming a three-tiered arrangement. The main aim of the thesis was to enhance understanding of motivation and attitudes in relation to the decision to either continue or discontinue formal Japanese study by Australian learners of Japanese. It formed the middle tier. On the lowest tier, while attention was paid to the the possible influence of demographic and external factors on continuing or discontinuing Japanese study, the two main research questions that guided the investigation were:
Research question 1:
What factors most often influence the intention to continue (or discontinue) the study of Japanese among senior high school and university participants? 5 Research question 2:
What are the differences in motivation and attitudes between those who intend to continue and those who do not intend to continue their formal study of Japanese? Do the differences indicate evidence of a significant relationship between intention to continue and motivation/attitudes?
The third tier of the investigation aimed to explore the synthesis of four major L2 motivational models (as proposed by Dörnyei, 2005). This overall aim grew out of the literature review, and the four models provided a theoretical framework of the study.
As motivated students tend to direct their own learning, and learner autonomy in turn boosts levels of motivation, learner autonomy is considered to positively impact upon learning a foreign language. Research has shown that motivated language learners who are also equipped with a combination of autonomous learning skills and strategies will be most likely to achieve a favourable outcome (e.g. Dickinson, 1995; Lamb, 2004). While the larger project had the additional focus of learner autonomy and learning skills, this study focused upon motivation and attitudes. However, some of the autonomy findings were found to be relevant to the study, and are used here with permission.
In second language (L2) research, differences in motivation and attitudes have been related to differences in persistence (e.g. Clement, Smythe & Gardner, 1978). Students with higher levels of motivation intend to continue more often (Lalonde & Gardner, 1985), and those who continue show more positive attitudes towards learning a language and tend to have a higher proficiency (Gardner & Smythe, 1975; Bartley, 1970). Some researchers have proposed that, motivation is “the primary determinant of persistence” (Clement, Smythe & Gardner, 1978:694). Current L2 motivational research has focused upon the individual, and the possibility of the development of a self-identity as a speaker of a second language (Dörnyei, 2005; 2009). This inherently appears to imply a certain level of persistence.
6 1.3. Motivation
Motivation is widely recognised as a key factor in successful second language learning, and has been linked with persistence. But what is motivation? Robert Gardner, prominent in the field of L2 motivation, pointed out that, “It really isn’t possible to give a simple definition of motivation, though one can list many characteristics of the motivated individual. For example, the motivated individual is goal directed, expends effort, is persistent, is attentive, has desires (wants), exhibits positive affect, is aroused, has expectancies, demonstrates self-confidence, (self-efficacy), and has reasons (motives)” (Gardner, 2007:10). Some of these characteristics are cognitive, some affective, and some are behavioural.
A simple definition of motivation by Keller states that “Motivation refers to the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree of effort they will exert in that respect” (1983:389 in Crookes & Schmidt, 1991:481). Keller’s model of motivational design (ARCS, 1983) identified four major determinants of motivation that give the model its name: attention (interest), relevance, confidence (expectancy), and satisfaction (outcomes). The second of these, relevance, is necessary for “sustained motivation [and] requires the learner to perceive that important personal needs are being met by the learning situation” (Keller, 1983:406).
Motivation consists of seven aspects, according to Crookes and Schmidt (1991), some of which are internal to the learner, such as interest in the language. Other aspects, including persistence over time, are external. Self-Determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985) suggests that motivation is a continuum ranging from a lack of motivation, or amotivation at one extreme through to somewhat more self-determined forms of extrinsic motivation, to the most self-determined form of intrinsic motivation at the opposite extreme. Intrinsic motivation refers to an action that is rewarding in itself, rather than one undertaken as a means to an end that is rewarded or satisfying (‘extrinsic’ motivation).
If the whole person were not engaged in learning the L2 of his/her own volition typically they would be less persevering with their study, according to both the Self- Determination theory (Noels, 2000; Ramage, 1990), and Gardner. To Gardner, motivation is “a total state of the individual, not a simple interest in the language or a
7 desire to please a teacher or parent, or to pass an exam” (Gardner, 1985:10). Motivation is attitudinal, and is a combination of three elements that differentiate between learners who are more motivated and those who are less motivated: the desire to learn the language, combined with positive attitudes towards learning the language, and effort expended to learn the language. Moreover, motivation is subject to change through “reinforcement associated with the act of learning” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993:4).
“One of the prime characteristics of motivation is that it ebbs and flows” (Garcia, 1999:231). To account for such changes in motivation over time, a model of L2 motivation as a process with three distinct motivational stages was developed (by Dörnyei & Otto, 1998), although identifying the boundaries of each proved difficult. Nevertheless, to motivational psychologists, how one thinks about aspects such as one’s abilities, past performance, and the benefits or goals to be attained is a crucial aspect of motivation (Dörnyei, 2005:74).
1.3.1. Exploration of Issues
Despite what might appear to be conflicting concepts of motivation, after examining the literature on motivation, it became apparent that second language motivational research owes a considerable debt to Robert Gardner. Much research has been built upon, or is an extension of his Socio-Educational (SE) model of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) and the battery of tests developed alongside the model, the Attitude Motivational Test Battery (AMTB; Gardner, 1985).
As a consequence, the quantitative investigation of motivation and attitudes in the study is founded upon Gardner’s theory of motivation. Items from the AMTB measured motivation and attitudes in this study. Indeed, it was noticed that the three Motivational subcomponents bear a strong resemblance to the three elements that define a passionate activity (Vallerand, 2012, 2003). Both learning Japanese and engaging with Japanese popular culture (J-pop) seem to qualify as passionate activities. Therefore, one issue explored in this study is the possible compatibility of passion and motivation not only in relation to existing motivational models, but in relation to persistence as well.
A second issue that grew out of the study is that “effortless effort” may play a substantial role in motivation. Effortless effort is an almost ironic reversal of the effort component of Motivation in Gardner’s SE model. It seems inherently related to 8 persistence. It may also be related to the pleasure of learning an L2, and perhaps to the notion of optimal experience, or ‘flow’ (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990, 1997). In a study of flow theory in relation to learning languages, Egbert (2003) found that computer- related tasks were especially suited to flow experiences as they promote concentration. By extension, it appears that engagement in J-pop activities might also be related to flow, and optimal performance.
A further issue explored in the study is the recent concept of motivation that focuses upon the language learner developing an image as an L2 speaker “in the context of contemporary notions of self and identity” (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2009, coverpage). Such notions include techniques whereby Olympic athletes ‘envision’ success as part of their training, but are perhaps supported by and reflected in the abundance of self-help guidebooks, and in the proliferation of self-concepts on the Internet. Increasing the vividness of ‘self imagery’ may well increase student levels of motivation and persistence, according to Ushioda (2001). Ushioda’s findings led Dörnyei to suggest that learner motivation might be “fuelled by the positive experiences of their learning reality or by their visions for the future” (Dörnyei, 2005:106). Norton (2001) has proposed that learners of an L2 may see themselves as belonging to an ‘imagined community’, and that learners may have more than one identity, perhaps multiple identities. A final issue explored in this study was whether the potential exists to synthesise four existing L2 motivational theories, proposed as part of Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (2005). If the models could be linked as Dörnyei suggests, this would appear to indicate that their differences are principally to do with focus. The four models not only provided a theoretical framework for the study, but exploring the potential for ‘convergence’ of the models became an overreaching aim of the study.
9 1.4. Organisation of the Chapters
There is a substantial body of research concerning L2 learning and motivation, but mostly in relation to language achievement. There has been much less motivational research into persistence or its opposite, attrition; and little or no research using learners of Japanese and the Attitude Motivational Test Battery. Studies of retention and student attrition have included dropping out of higher education altogether (Tinto, 1975; 1993; 2005) as well as attrition in, that is the loss of L2 language skills (e.g. Gardner, Lalonde, Moorcroft & Evers, 1987), or attrition in certain programs of study (e.g. Ferguson & Grainger, 2005). Such issues were seen as not relevant and were not included here. Rather, the study examines the issues of motivation, attitudes, and continuation/discontinuation of Japanese study.
Chapter 1 outlines the background to the study and the rationale for its undertaking, as well as the study aim, research questions and defining of motivation. Chapter 2, the Literature Review, outlines major L2 motivational research along with key motivational models and concepts, including Gardner’s influential SE model. It will be seen that scholarly misunderstanding of Gardner’s model has persisted up until the present. Some of the issues are related to the AMTB, and as it provided measurement of attitudes and motivation they are dealt with in this chapter. In the second part of the chapter, research studies focused upon motivation and persistence are reviewed. The studies in Canada and the USA were carried out some time ago and consequently, perhaps, should be viewed with a little caution. Australian studies and government reports in relation to Japanese learning are also included in Chapter 2.
Chapter 3, Research Design, explains the methods of research used in the study. Questionnaires and a Japanese proficiency test provided quantitative data, and allowed statistical comparisons of those participants who intended to continue (the ‘stay-ins’) and those who did not (the ‘drop-outs’). SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) Version 17 was used for analysis of the data. Focus group interviews with a subset of participants provided qualitative data, which made it possible to explore learners’ thoughts about continuing or giving up Japanese study, and reasons for initially taking up the language. In combination with statistical analyses, the insights gleaned allowed a fuller understanding of issues related to motivation and persistence.
10 Participants were drawn from universities as well as senior high schools, forming separate but related studies. The High School Study, detailed in Chapter 4, consists of one round of data collection in 2009. (The project’s second round of data collection in schools and a third via email in 2012 were out of range of this study due to time constraints.) The University Study follows in Chapter 5. Longitudinal studies in the area of motivation and persistence are rare, but there were two rounds of data collection in the University Study, in 2009 (Round I), and 2010 (Round II). University learners took part in focus group interviews, which are included as part of the University Study. The decision was made to not pursue interviews in schools. The results of the University and High School studies are drawn together in the Discussion, Chapter 6, where they are compared and contrasted. Then, Conclusions, suggestions for further research, and limitations of the study are presented in Chapter 7.
i See Business leaders back Asian studies, Sydney Morning Herald, 31 March 2011, accessed 31/4/2011): http://www.smh.com.au/national/business-leaders-back-asian-studies-20110330-1cgay.html ii There is some disagreement on this point. A figure of 2,400 hours from the US Foreign Service Institute to learn languages such as Japanese or Chinese compared to far fewer hours for alphabet-based languages “is spurious and is often used inappropriately to support the argument that (these languages) are difficult to learn. What the figure shows is that these two languages have different requirements than say French and German” (Marriott et al., 1994:20). iii Toyoda (1998:156) offered a number of reasons for the difficulty: the appearance of kanji having many strokes in a small space; a single kanji has many readings depending on the context; a kanji has many homonyms; the meanings of the same kanji can vary; a similar meaning can be shown by many kanji; the original meaning of kanji can change when combined with another kanji and this cannot be inferred from the meaning of the word; and finally, there are numerous kanji and endless combinations. iv The estimate was based on The Japan Foundation「海外日本語教育機関調査結果」surveys and their Directory of Japanese Studies. v An Australian Research Council Linkage Project (2008-2011) led by C.K. Thomson.
11
CHAPTER 2
Literature Review of Related Research: Motivation
Many theories have been proposed to explain what motivates us, but in the field of second language (L2) learning, the initial concept of motivation came from social psychology, with Robert Gardner and associates. Motivation refers:
To the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity. Effort alone does not signify motivation…When the desire to achieve the goal and favourable attitudes toward the goal are linked with the effort or the drive, then we have a motivated organism (Gardner, 1985:10-11).
Gardner’s comprehensive description aptly describes the highly motivated learners whom every teacher has encountered in the classroom at one time or another. In carrying out this literature review, I have come to admire Gardner’s scientific approach to motivation and the sophisticated level of statistical analyses he has used to back up his tests, outcomes, concepts and theories, a challenge particularly in times pre-dating the personal computer. At the same time, I can understand Ushioda’s stance against so much quantitative research, not least because in this current project some of the most illuminating material came from group focus interviews with participants. Being a learner of Japanese myself, I cannot help but support Dörnyei’s latest concept of L2 motivation that proposes a learner develops a self-identity as a speaker of the target language (TL).
In this thesis I will add that developing a ‘language identity’ and developing a passion for an activity appear to be closely related, as both ultimately can come to define the 12 person. In the sense that someone passionate about playing the piano may develop a self-identity as a pianist, a learner might develop an identity as a speaker of Japanese. [This is not meant to imply a fixed or stable construction, as research into language identity (e.g. Norton, 2000) indicates that identities can be multiple, shifting, and hybrid, which may also apply to learners of musical instruments.] Therefore, it is possible to view L2 motivation and identity through the concept of Harmonious Passion (HP; Vallerand et al., 2003). HP inherently implies some proficiency in the language, and therefore a certain amount of persistence. That I can support not only one, but a number of major L2 models indicates that perhaps the differences between them are principally a matter of focus; looking at L2 motivation from different angles.
2.0. Synthesis of Four Motivational Models
Indeed, Dörnyei has proposed a synthesis of four influential L2 motivational models in the L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2005). The components of each of the models fall into three main divisions (see Figure 2.1). Firstly, Dörnyei’s Learning Experience and the Intrinsic category of Noels’ (2003) Orientations Model are related to the Actual Learning Process (consisting of Language-Related Enjoyment/Liking, Positive Learning History, Personal Satisfaction) of Ushioda’s (2001) Dimensions Model. Each of the models appears to agree that L2 motivation consists of an educational component, although it is the attitudes (Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation) that are stressed in Gardner’s Socio-Educational model (of Second Language Acquisition).
13
Ideal L2 Self (Dörnyei) Integrative (Noels) Integrative (Ushioda) Integrativeness (Gardner)
Learning Experience (Dörnyei) Ought-to Self (Dörnyei) Intrinsic (Noels, 2003) Extrinsic (Noels) Actual learning process (Ushioda, 2001) External pressures/incentives Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation (Ushioda) (Gardner) Instrumentality and Motivation (Gardner)
Figure 2.1. The L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei), a synthesis of Orientations (Noels), Motivational Dimensions (Ushioda), and Integrative Motivation (Gardner). (Adapted from Dörnyei, 2005:105)
Secondly, the four models include a pragmatic/utilitarian aspect, one that illustrates pressures external to the learner. Dörnyei’s Ought-to (L2) Self corresponds to Gardner’s Instrumentality (and Motivation). Both are grouped with Extrinsic types of orientations in Noels’ model, together with the second cluster of External pressures/incentives from Ushioda’s model.
Thirdly, in contrast with the pragmatic dimension, the four models involve some kind of integrative, or inter-group aspect. Initially, Gardner and Lambert (1959) proposed that learning an L2 involves this social/cultural aspect, which they called ‘integrativeness’. Integrativeness is grouped with Noels’ Integrative component and a broadly Integrative cluster from Ushioda’s model consisting of Personal Goals, Desired Levels of L2 Competence, Academic Interest, Feelings about L2 Countries/People.
Having begun with a brief overview of four influential L2 motivational models as an introduction, the literature review now proceeds to examine the models individually. The literature is divided into three phases (Dörnyei, 2005:88) or chronological divisions that capture the development of the major L2 motivational models. They are: the social psychological period (1959-1990) of Gardner, Lambert, and associates in Canada; the cognitive-situated period (the 1990s) characterized by cognitive theories from educational psychology including intrinsic/extrinsic motivation; and the process-oriented period (the 2000s) where motivation is investigated as a process by Dörnyei, Ushioda, and colleagues in Europe. 14 As part of the 2000s (in Section 2.3), Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System and its proposed synthesis of L2 motivational models is re-visited. L2 motivation relating to the learner’s identity as an L2 speaker is linked with Harmonious Passion (Vallerand, 2003) and the ‘flow’ theory of optimal experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
Finally, specific studies of L2 motivation and persistence are reviewed in two sections, dealing with those previously undertaken in schools (Section 2.4), and those in universities (Section 2.5). The chapter summary concludes the literature review. The following section opens with the social psychological period of L2 motivation.
2.1. The social psychological period (1959-1990)
The social psychological period is characterised by a broad view of motivation, dominated by research by Robert Gardner and associates that centered upon individual differences in L2 learning. In an initial study, Gardner and Lambert (1959) proposed that attitudes and motivation were related to achievement in a second language, and they considered two contexts to be important in second language learning.
The first is the Cultural Context of learning a second language. For the first time the existence of a social/cultural component in learning a second language was recognised. Whilst generally irrelevant to other school subjects, language learning is different as it involves making things foreign (such as pronunciation, vocabulary, and language patterns) a part of one’s self. In some countries, the cultural milieu may be one where second-language acquisition is expected. The individual L2 learner, then, is a member of a particular culture that has its attitudes, beliefs and characteristics, which in turn may apply to language learning: “beliefs about its value, meaningfulness, and implications, expectations about what can and cannot be achieved” (Gardner, 2007:13). Gardner pointed out that Canadians have commonly supposed Europeans to be more successful than themselves at learning languages (an observation that could equally be made of Australians) and, whether true or not, this attitude could influence their own success. Similarly, older Japanese often admit a lack of confidence in their ability in English particularly with respect to pronunciation (personal experience in Japan). With the increase in exposure of young Japanese to native English speakers through such initiatives as the JET program (established in 1987), this attitude could disappear.
15 Gardner theorized that the cultural context “can have an effect on an individual’s ultimate success in learning the language” (Gardner, 2007:13).
A second context hypothesised to have an important effect on motivation to learn a language was the Educational Context, which includes “all variables that can be linked directly to the educational system and the experiences associated with the educational environment” (Gardner, 2007:15). The Educational Context was later labelled as Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation, and specified evaluation of both the L2 teacher and L2 course. The point was that a socially relevant and an educationally relevant construct together support the motivation to learn another language (Gardner, 2010:86).
Further research confirmed that attitudes and motivation are related to achievement in a second language (Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Findings from studies by Gardner and Smythe (1975) led to an initial model of second language acquisition, one that identified aspects of the motivation to learn French. Possible motivational characteristics were divided into four categories: Group Specific Attitudes (e.g. attitudes towards French Canadians), Course Related Characteristics, Motivational Indices, and Generalized Attitudes (e.g. Interest in foreign languages). Later, this was modified, and Gardner (1979) distinguished four segments in the model, namely, Social Milieu (cultural beliefs), Individual Differences (the Integrative motive), Acquisition Contexts (i.e., language experience gained formally in the classroom, or informally outside the classroom), and subsequent Outcomes, linguistic or non-linguistic. Non- linguistic outcomes were any affective reactions (e.g. anxiety) to either formal or informal language acquisition context.
Gardner’s achievements in L2 motivational research consist of three main aspects: (i) a theory of second language acquisition (SLA), (ii) a concept of integrative motivation, and (iii) an accompanying test battery. Briefly, the theory of SLA evolved (e.g. Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972; Gardner & Smythe, 1975; Gardner, 1979); Gardner, 1983) into what became known as the Socio-Educational (SE) Model of Second Language Acquisition (Gardner, 1985). (For an historical account, see Gardner, 2010.) The concept of integrative motivation is a central part of the SE model, both of which were further developed through and tested by what became the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (the AMTB). The next section looks at the SE model.
16 2.1.1. The Socio-Educational model of Second Language Acquisition
The central concept in the Socio-Educational (SE) model is motivation (see Figure 2.2). The attitudinal components, Integrativeness and Attitudes towards the Learning Situation, “have a direct influence on Motivation, which mediates their relationship with second language achievement” (Lalonde & Gardner, 1985:403).
Figure 2.2. The basic model of the role of aptitude and motivation in second language learning, taken from a recent version of the Socio-Educational model (Gardner, 2001:5)
Motivation and language aptitude have a direct influence on language achievement (shown by the arrows of direction). In turn, Motivation is influenced by Integrativeness and Attitudes toward the Learning Situation, which play supportive roles. Not only is the relationship between motivation and achievement seen as dynamic, but also the motivational construct itself since motivation is subject to change through “reinforcement associated with the act of learning” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993:4). It was apparent that motivation might be altered through the changing of attitudes.
As implied in the name Socio-Educational, the model emphasises both a social/cultural context and an educational context. Gardner has always maintained that
17 the SE model does not attempt to show “all possible links or even all the possible variables, since the intent is to focus attention on the role of integrative motivation” (Gardner, 2001:7). Instrumentality was not a specific part of the SE model (though it appeared in the test battery). However, other support (see Figure 2.2) Gardner notes, may include instrumental factors contributing to motivation, and “we could label this combination of instrumental factors and motivation as Instrumental Motivation” (ibid). This point will become important later with regard to Dörnyei’s (2005) model. Other factors may also have a direct effect on achievement, factors such as language anxiety (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1989), or language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990).
2.1.2. The Integrative Motive and Integrative Motivation
‘Integrative Motivation’ is made up of three components shown within the dotted lines in Figure 2.2, which illustrates that levels of Motivation are influenced by and supported by both Integrativeness and Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation. These three “composite indices are assumed to reflect the different aspects of an important attitudinal complex referred to as an Integrative Motive” (Lalonde & Gardner, 1985:404). Although the terms, ‘integrative motivation’ and ‘integrative motive’ are used somewhat interchangeably (e.g. Dörnyei, 2005:69), Integrative Motivation is the measure of the aggregated scores on all three components, while the Integrative Motive refers to a particular attitudinal/ motivational configuration based on a logical and not an empirical grouping (see Figure 2.3).
Individuals who demonstrate heightened levels of motivation to learn the language, who hold integrative attitudes (not simply orientations), and who have favourable attitudes toward the learning situation, can be characterized as reflecting an integrative motive” (Gardner & Tremblay, 1994:361).
[Indeed, there is some confusion over terms used in Gardner’s model (see Dörnyei, 2005:69). Consequently, when referring to motivation generally, lower case will be used, but when referring to components of the SE model, Motivation (and Integrativeness) will be capitalised.]
18 The Integrative Motive: three indices with their sub-components
ATTITUDES TOWARD the LEARNING SITUATION:
Evaluation of L2 teacher Evaluation of L2 course
INTEGRATIVENESS: MOTIVATION:
Integrative Orientation Motivational Intensity (Effort) Interest in Foreign Languages Desire to Learn the L2 Attitudes toward L2 Community Attitudes toward Learning the L2
Figure 2.3. The complex of the Integrative Motive showing components and subcomponents, adapted from Gardner (2001:8-9) and Dörnyei (2005:69)
Attitudes operate on three levels within the Integrative Motive (in Figure 2.3): within Motivation itself (Attitudes toward learning the L2), within Integrativeness (Attitudes toward the L2 community), and as one (of three) main components of the integrative motive (Attitudes toward the Learning Situation). Motivation is considered to be attitudinal. Each of the three main components of the Integrative Motive consists of sub-components as explained in the following.
2.1.2.1. Motivation Motivation to learn a second language is the centre of the SE model; a combination of three elements, Motivational Intensity (Effort), Desire to Learn the L2, and Attitudes toward Learning the L2. The truly motivated individual would display all three elements. A motivated learner exerts effort to learn the language, that is, “a persistent and consistent attempt to learn the material, by doing homework, by seeking out opportunities to learn more, by doing extra work etc” (Gardner, 2010:89). The motivated learner shows a desire to learn the language, striving towards success. The motivated learner holds positive attitudes toward the task of learning, finding it “fun, a challenge, and enjoyable, even though at times enthusiasm may be less than at other times” (ibid); an acknowledgement of the ups and downs in the process of L2 learning.
19 2.1.2.2. Attitudes toward the Learning Situation The Attitudes toward the Learning Situation component “involves attitudes toward any aspect of the situation in which the language is learned” which includes peers/classmates, and extra-curricular activities associated with the course, according to Gardner (2010:89). This component was previously labelled as the Educational Context, and in the SE model is made up of two sub-components, evaluation of the L2 teacher and evaluation of the L2 course. In the present study, this main component was replaced by two autonomy questionnaires that covered similar content in perhaps greater detail.
Gardner found it difficult to see how anyone could really learn a language if they did not like the group who spoke the language (Gardner & Lambert, 1972:14), an idea that has become broadly accepted (Dörnyei, 2005:67). This willingness to interact with the L2 community Gardner called Integrativeness.
2.1.2.3. Integrativeness Integrativeness is one of two major individual difference factors featured in the SE model (Attitudes toward the Learning Situation being the other). “Integrativeness reflects the individual’s willingness and interest in social interaction with members of other groups” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993:159). It was later broadened “to refer to openness to other cultural groups in general and a willingness or ability to adopt features of the other language group” (Gardner, 2010:85). Integrativeness represents the socially relevant affective construct (as opposed to educationally relevant) that supports the motivation to learn another language (ibid). It relates to the former Cultural Context of language learning (Gardner, 2007:15).
From the point of view of the SE model, integrativeness has never meant ‘to integrate’ into the other community, which was an interpretation made by other researchers (Gardner, 2010:223) - although, in an extreme form, integrativeness might involve “complete identification with and membership in the other community” as well as perhaps withdrawal from one’s original group (Gardner, 2010:88). One such student who “wanted to be like a Japanese” is discussed in Otsuji and Thomson (2009).
Integrativeness has three sub-components: attitudes toward the L2 community, interest in foreign languages and integrative orientation. The last, integrative 20 orientation, indicates “a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language group” (Lambert, 1974:98), while the alternative ‘instrumental’ orientation emphasizes “the practical value and advantages of learning a new language” (ibid). Gardner and Lambert (1972:14) tentatively suggested a contrast where instrumental orientation and integrative orientation were represented by two extremes on a continuum, with an interpersonal outlook at one end, and at the other, a more self-oriented outlook, more interested in personal satisfaction than in the other people per se. Initially, the two orientations made up the Orientation Index (Gardner & Lambert, 1959) but were later introduced as the separate measures of integrative orientation and instrumental orientation.
2.1.2.4. Orientations and Motivation The Orientation Index provided survey respondents with four possible reasons for learning French, to be ranked in terms of personal relevance from 1 to 4. Those reasons that involved communication with the L2 (French) community were seen as indicating an integrative orientation, whilst more pragmatic reasons for learning were taken to indicate an instrumental orientation. Students were then classified as being integratively or instrumentally oriented based on their rankings – an “unfortunate measurement decision” according to Gardner as “it gave the impression that individuals could be classified as either integratively or instrumentally oriented in their study of the second language” (2001:14). It is an impression that still persists:
The misrepresentation of Gardner’s theory as the sum of integrative and instrumental motivation has been pervasive, as evidenced even today by the many manuscripts submitted to international journals which start out by conceptualizing motivation purely (and poorly) along the instrumental- integrative dichotomy (Dörnyei, 2005:70).
The most widely misunderstood feature of the Gardner model “is the distinction between orientations and motivation” (MacIntyre, MacMaster & Baker, 2001:463). Motivation is an attribute of the individual not synonymous with orientations, which are clusters of reasons for studying the L2. Motivation is clearly defined in the SE model (1985) as the combination of a desire to achieve a goal (cognitive), intensity or effort (behavioural), and positive attitudes toward the task of learning the L2 (affective). An individual can be oriented towards a language, “but without activating 21 effort and positive affect, the individual would be oriented but not motivated to learn the L2” (Gardner, 2001:464).
A classic example of how such misunderstanding may spread is found in Oxford, Park-Oh, Ito, and Sumrall (1993), who “expanded the paradigm of language learning motivation by suggesting that language learning motivation is not just a simple instrumental-integrative split. Many other motivations (altruistic, communicative, etc.) exist that do not fit neatly into these two categories” (p. 361). The underlining is not part of the original, but it illustrates more clearly that not only have orientations been mistaken for motivation, but also that Gardner’s motivation is thought to fit neatly into a simple instrumental-integrative split. There is another example in a chapter by Neustupny in an Australian study (Marriott, Neustupny, & Spence-Brown, 1994):
The most widely known theory of motivation is that of Gardner and Lambert (1972). In their theory motivation has been classified as either instrumental or integrative… Although this distinction is important, it deals with only one limited aspect of the processes involved. For example the aim of language study may also be to engage in a pleasurable activity - as when a learner ‘likes’ languages’ (1994:80).
Criticism that motivation is dichotomous (see Crookes & Schmidt, 1991; Oxford & Shearin, 1994) Gardner described as “based, in part, on a misunderstanding and a misrepresentation” (Gardner & Tremblay, 1994:360). Gardner has explicitly stated on a number of occasions that an orientation refers to “a class of reasons for learning a second language”, whereas Motivation “is a complex of three characteristics which may or may not be related to any particular orientation” (Gardner, 1985:54).
Integrative or instrumental orientations are “ultimate goals for achieving the more immediate goal of learning the second language” (Gardner, 1985:11). More recently, Gardner has stated that, an orientation “is the overall aim, purpose, direction, and/or goal of the activity” (Gardner, 2010:16, italics in the original). Therefore, there is little reason to believe that the reasons, in themselves, are directly related to success in learning a second language. “It is the motivation that is responsible for the success” (Gardner, 2001:16).
22 2.1.2.5. Instrumental motivation Actually, Gardner had conducted little research on instrumental motivation or an instrumental motive. Of eleven factor analytic and causal modelling studies under Gardner’s name published between 1959 and 1993, involving 21 different samples of students and a total of 139 factors, “although an integrative motive or similar factor was identified in all 21 samples, no instrumental motivation factors were identified, and an instrumental orientation factor was identified in three of the samples” (Gardner & Tremblay, 1994:360).
Only one study of the many studies and publications under Gardner’s name, explicitly considered instrumental motivation. In that study by Gardner and McIntyre (1991), instrumental motivation was determined by the response to a monetary reward (Reward vs. No reward), promised randomly to 50 of 92 subjects for successfully learning 24 of 26 French word pairs. Both integrative and instrumental motivation were found to have a positive effect on vocabulary learning, as “subjects who were motivated, either integratively or instrumentally, tried harder to think of the correct answer and apparently were more successful in finding it” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991:69). Those with higher levels of integrative motivation learned more words than those with low levels, and those who anticipated a financial reward learnt more words than those who didn’t anticipate a reward. Significantly, on the final trial when any chance of gaining the reward had been decided and was no longer applicable, those in the incentive condition “simply ceased applying any more effort. This if anything, is a major disadvantage of an instrumental motivation” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991:68).
2.1.2.6. Integrative and Instrumental Orientations Issues Research into the effect of integrative orientation on language achievement has been considerable. The initial study in this area (Gardner & Lambert, 1959) found significant correlations between the Orientation Index and French achievement, upholding the relative importance of integrative orientation. That early study indicated, “that integratively oriented students were more successful at learning French than were instrumentally oriented students, but it was also found that they were more motivated” (Gardner & Tremblay, 1994:361).
23 Some of the research results regarding orientations were inconsistent (Au, 1988; Gardner, 1985) and, being related to measurement, these will be discussed under the AMTB in the following Section 2.1.3. However, the source of the discrepancies could be attributed to problems of definition and the failure to consider the influence of the social milieu, according to Clement and Kruidenier (1983). Reasons for studying a second language in their study formed a number of different factors besides integrative and instrumental, depending on the nature of the community and the language concerned. Integrative orientation appeared only in multicultural contexts among members of a clearly dominant group. Four orientations were found to be common to all groups of learners: travel, friendship, knowledge, and instrumental orientations.
In a linguistically diverse sample of students, Svanes (1987) found that cultural distance was more closely related to proficiency than integrative and instrumental orientations (according to multiple regression analysis). European and American students were found to be more integratively oriented than the Middle Eastern, African and Asian students at a Norwegian university. However, few of the 20 items came from the AMTB (i.e. Gardner & Lambert, 1972 version). Most were adapted from Oller’s (1977) survey.
To identify types of orientation in many L2 studies, factor analysis is used to find common factors among the various reasons. The ways in which reasons may cluster together as a result are not orientations, according to Gardner, but simply groups of reasons. Indeed, Gardner (2010:15) listed 67 so-called orientations that have been identified as a result of a number of studies in various countries, including ESL studies by McClelland (2000) and Yashima (2000) in Japan. Gardner pointed out that when orientations are measured, the items generally begin with an expression such as “learning the language is important because,” and that “those who see some value in learning the language would tend to score higher on many reasons than those who do not see any value in learning the language” (Gardner, 2010:18). Therefore, one would expect a degree of positive correlation between them.
Gardner always maintained that the reasons for learning an L2 are varied and complex, and that potentially there are more than two basic orientations (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993:162). “There could be many different practical reasons for learning a second language that could be relatively unrelated to each other, and thus not form a
24 common bond as is the case for integrative reasons” (Gardner, 2010:127). For example, ‘to get a good job’, and ‘to satisfy a university requirement’ are distinctly different instrumental reasons, and a student may feel strongly about one but not others. Consequently, the internal consistency reliability of measures of instrumentality may not be as high as that of integrative reasons.
Integrative and instrumental orientations were no longer seen as “opposing forces” at opposite ends of a continuum. To classify someone as integratively oriented and therefore not instrumentally oriented (or vice versa) was an oversimplification; even ‘to get a job’ involves some level of willingness to interact with the L2 community. “There simply is no good reason to believe that a person who sees the value of the target language as a means of communication and social interaction would not also see the value of the language in instrumental terms, and the empirical results support that idea, whether from scholars critical of the SE model or from Gardner’s own data” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991:59).
The Orientation Index was ultimately dropped, replaced by individual measures of Integrative and Instrumental Orientation, each made up of four items in the AMTB (1972). In fact, due to what Gardner calls “the excess meanings that have become associated with the ‘integrative’ concept” by 2007 he had begun to refer to it as Openness to Cultural Identification. Using the Interest in Foreign Languages scale, Integrativeness may involve “an open interest in other cultural communities in general (i.e. an absence of Ethnocentrism and authoritarianism, or the presence of Xenophilic attitudes etc.)” (Gardner, 2007:15).
Rather than being limited to the L2 community, some researchers (e.g. Dörnyei, 2001, McClelland, 2000) have suggested that Integrativeness should be broadened or even re-interpreted as a desire to communicate with members of the global community (a proposal discussed further on). However, investigations show that such dimensions broadly defined as ‘pragmatic-instrumental’ and ‘cultural-affective’ “cannot be regarded as straightforward universals, but rather as broad tendencies – or subsystems - comprising context-specific clusters of loosely related components” (Dörnyei, 1994:275).
25 2.1.2.7. Second or foreign language learning Many of Gardner’s studies were carried out in Canada, featuring Canadians learning English or French. Subsequently, the research was criticised for not being generalizable to language learning situations in other cultures, or to foreign language (FL) learning in a classroom. To Gardner, this issue was first addressed as far back as 1972 when Gardner and Lambert carried out detailed studies ‘across the border’ in Louisiana, Maine and Connecticut (followed by a Philippines study). Locations were selected after “a good deal of thought and search” motivated by “a serious desire to test the generalizability of our notions about the language-learning process” (1972:19).
More recently, Gardner pointed out that although Canada has two officially recognized languages of French and English, both are not necessarily available in all environments. He provided data from the 1996 census of the population in Canadian provinces by knowledge of English and French (Gardner, 2001:11). Of the total population of roughly 28.5 million, the majority of the total knows English (84%).1 Many of Gardner’s studies have been ‘classified’ as second language studies because, although Canada is officially bi-lingual, most were carried out in Ontario (population 10.6 million) where less than 12% know French. Therefore, in regard to the availability of the L2, the studies actually involve foreign language learning. The difference in Canada between foreign language and second language learning “is sometimes more imaginary than real” (Gardner, 2001:16). Although the studies are described as second language learning, Gardner is “not meaning to imply that the other language is necessarily dominant or readily available to the student, but rather that it is another language” (2001b: 3). A current trend is to refer to ‘additional language’ (AL) study, particularly in multi-lingual/multi-cultural societies, rather than learning a foreign language, or an L2 (e.g. Armour, 2000; Holt, 2006).
Gardner’s SE model dominated motivational research for three decades; its influence at least partly due to the Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (Gardner, 1985).
1 67% know English only, 14% know French only, and 17% know English and French (84% or 67 + 17). In Ontario, 85.7% know English only, 0.4% knows French only, and 11.6% know English and French. 26 2.1.3. The Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB)
The Attitude/Motivation Test Battery began to be developed in studies by Gardner and Smythe (1975a, 1975b), was elaborated (Gardner & Smythe, 1981), and finally attributed to Gardner (1985). The AMTB typically consists of the three main components of the Integrative Motive with respective sub-components:
(i) The AMTB measure of Motivation consists of the items motivational intensity, motivational desire to learn French, and attitudes toward learning French, referring to the individual’s total drive to learn the L2.
(ii) Attitudes toward the Learning Situation measures the individual’s evaluation of the French teacher and evaluation of the French course. (This was omitted in the current study of Japanese learners, and replaced by two learner autonomy questionnaires.)
(iii) Integrativeness consists of attitudes toward French Canadians, attitudes toward the European French, interest in foreign languages, and integrative orientation.
These nine measures made up the AMI, or Attitude Motivation Index (Gardner & Smythe, 1979), basically a summary of the main affective variables thought to be involved in second language learning (Lalonde & Gardner, 1985). The same AMI measures were used to identify attitudes and motivation in studies related to persistence as will be seen (e.g. Ramage, 1990).
As the SE model evolved, modifications were made to the AMTB and, depending on the focus of the research, other variables were added or combined with the measures. For example, in the study by Gardner, Smythe, Clement, and Gliksman (1976), the measures were: achievement-need, ethnocentrism, interest in foreign languages, parental encouragement, integrativeness, instrumentality, classroom anxiety, reactions to the learning situation, and motivation. Typically, the AMTB also included Language Anxiety and Degree of Instrumental Orientation.
27 2.1.3.1. Inconsistent Findings The AMTB “has had considerable attention paid to assessing its reliability and validity and thus has known utility” (Gardner, 1985:5); however, some questions have been raised about measurement (Oller, 1982), and about the theoretical formulation/validity of the SE model (Au, 1988). This criticism deserves some attention here, as the AMTB measures are used in the present study.
Significant positive correlation between scores on the Orientation Index and French achievement had indicated that students who were integratively oriented were more proficient than those instrumentally oriented (Gardner and Lambert, 1959). Other research however, found that the instrumental orientation predicted L2 outcomes as high as, or better than for the integrative orientation (e.g. Chihara & Oller, 1978; Gardner & Lambert, 1972). Gardner and Lambert (1972) had expected that those with an integrative orientation would demonstrate greater motivational effort in learning an L2, and thereby achieve greater L2 competence, but found very few significant correlations between the Orientation Index and achievement.
Such differing results, nevertheless, agree with the SE model where orientations would have a direct effect on Motivation (as with Integrativeness and Attitudes towards the Learning Situation), but not directly affect language achievement (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993:164). Motivation would correlate more highly with indices of Language Achievement than would Integrativeness or Attitudes Toward the Learning Situation, as Motivation is the primary factor for achievement (Gardner, 2001:13).
Gardner also quite pointedly noted that the cause of disagreements about relationships found in some studies could be due to “a simplistic interpretation of the research literature and/or theoretical formulations, or methodological and analytic difficulties” (Gardner, 1988:137). These difficulties he said, can be grouped into three categories. First, was the use of single items, for example, or defining an integrative motive merely in terms of orientations to language learning or attitudes to the L2 community, rather than in terms of the entire concept of integrative motivation. A second category of methodological difficulty occurs where the research sample is not homogeneous in regards to attitude and/or motivation, or to proficiency, or both. Thirdly, studies may fail to find significant relationships due to low power, due to a small sample size, or inadequate measurement because of too few items (Gardner,
28 1988:137-9). These issues were expressed more directly when (in 2010) Gardner wrote:
I have never been able to understand, however, why some of these [L2] researchers found it necessary to preface their articles by criticizing our research and model, and/or concluding that their research demonstrated inconsistencies, errors or inappropriateness in our research and model. This has often been the case when the researchers concerned did not assess the same variables as us, used different constructs, introduced new concepts, formulated hypotheses that were comparable to ours but using different constructs, or reformulated hypotheses that they claimed we made in our model when in fact we had not” (Gardner, 2010:207).
2.1.3.2. Validity of the AMTB – Four Issues Although considering the questions of validity to have already been addressed (as in Gardner, 1985; 1988), Gardner and MacIntyre nevertheless carried out an extensive study to explore these issues (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993). A very large number of variables were involved, including nine measures of achievement. Participants were 92 university students in an introductory French course. The aim was to examine the AMTB variables and their inter-relationships, and four issues concerning aspects of the validity of the AMTB. The study is rather involved, and shows an enormous attention to detail, which partially accounts for the dominance of Gardner’s SE model. It is described here in brief.
The first issue concerned the various AMTB subtests and whether they assess what they are supposed to measure. The validity of a measure is thought best assessed by comparing it to measures of the same concept using a number of methods. The AMTB normally had three different methods of assessments, which added to its complexity, for the reason that some variables seemed to suit one strategy better than another: 7-point Likert-scale, multiple-choice, and semantic differential judgements (i.e. marking a continuum between two extremes, such as easy and difficult). In this Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) study, in a multitrait/multimethod analysis, three different ways were used to assess the same measures: a 7-point Likert-scale, semantic differential judgements, and a single-item scale (Guilford, 1954). All three different ways of measuring the same construct tested the convergent and discriminant validity of 11 measures of attitudes and motivation from the AMTB. The analysis was carried out in accordance with the four conditions that should be met when undertaking the multitrait/multimethod approach (Campbell & Fiske, 1959; details in Gardner &
29 MacIntyre, 1993). These conditions were satisfied overall. The outcome: different measures of the same construct mostly correlated with each other, indicating that the subtests measured what they were intended to measure (construct validity), and that they correlated with measures of achievement (predictive validity).
The second issue concerning the validity of the AMTB was to investigate the relationship of the AMTB subtests to the higher order constructs, using factor analysis.vi For example, summing the scores on motivational intensity plus desire to learn the L2 plus attitudes toward learning the L2, would give a Motivation aggregate score. Factor analysis indicated that the nine subtests (making up the Integrative Motive) typically assessed by the AMTB, did measure what they were intended to measure. It was found that distinctions made in the SE model “are meaningful and are supported by the data” (1993:181), with little overlap between factors.
There were two more issues concerning aspects of the validity of the AMTB that are relevant to the present study. One of these issues considered whether the technique used to measure affective variables influences their correlation with achievement. This issue related to research where variables (with names similar to those assessed by the AMTB) did not correlate with achievement. However, as Gardner and MacIntyre (1993) pointed out, the studies (e.g. Asakawa and Oller, 1977; Chihara and Oller, 1978) had not actually measured integrative motivation as conceived in the SE model, but rather, the variables seemed more closely related to orientations.
To give an idea of the size of the study by Gardner and MacIntyre (1993), there were nine achievement measures: five objective and four Can-Do measures (a Cloze test being one of the objective tests). Correlations between these nine measures were calculated with aggregate scores of (among others) Integrativeness, Attitudes toward the Learning Situation, Motivation, and Language Anxiety. In brief, the results indicated that measurement strategy did influence correlation of affective measures with achievement and that some affective variables related more closely to certain achievement measures than to others. Motivation and Integrativeness, assessed by Likert scales, correlated significantly with all objective measures of achievement except the Cloze test (which related strongly only to anxiety). “Many studies that fail to find an association between attitudinal/motivational measures and second language achievement (e.g. Asakawa & Oller, 1977) have often made use of a Cloze test to
30 measure achievement” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993:182).
Likert measures proved the most favourable in that, more correlations (in fact, 26) showed significance on measures of achievement than the semantic differential (with 15) or the Guilford measures (with 19). Investigation of the correlations in a matrix indicated that using the Likert-scale offered similar internal consistency and reliability to the regular AMTB. This result was supported by evidence from studies where attempts had been made to measure all constructs using Likert measures (e.g. Gardner, Lalonde & Moorcroft, 1985; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991). Accordingly, the 7- point Likert format has become the regular AMTB format for all measures in recent years.
Finally, the fourth issue concerning AMTB validity investigated how integrative and instrumental orientations relate to each other and to second language achievement. It was prompted by the identification of three factors (by Svanes, 1987), and a number of different orientations depending upon the community and the language concerned (by Clement & Kruidenier, 1983), all of which suggested more than two basic orientations, integrative and instrumental, as Gardner had often speculated.
Results, very briefly, showed internal consistency between items in each of the two orientations, although for Instrumental Orientation it was the lowest of all measures in the study. This was attributed to the variety of possible pragmatic reasons for learning a language (as I previously mentioned) and that an individual may subscribe to one but not others (e.g. to get a job, or, to satisfy university requirements). On the contrary, Integrative reasons “tend to stress an interest in the other language group; hence, there is more communality among them” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993:189).
2.1.3.3. AMTB flexibility The AMTB items themselves have been adapted and altered depending on the study focus (e.g. Gardner and MacIntyre, 1991) or the participants (Gardner, Tremblay & Masgoret, 1997). In the latter study, the AMTB items were altered to accommodate university-level learners.
Variables from the Gardner, Tremblay and Masgoret (1997) study were really an extended version of Gardner’s SE model, and it highlighted problems of administering the AMTB. It usually numbered about 98 items, but with the addition of 31 Language Anxiety, Degree of Instrumental Orientation and Parental Encouragement, it could be over 130 items. The outcome was shorter versions of the AMTB. They are described briefly below.
2.1.3.4. The mini-AMTB The mini-AMTB is easier to administer while keeping the conceptual structure of the original. All measures in the mini-AMTB have just a single item with a 7-point rating scale using the Guilford format (1954) in which each item corresponds to one of the 11 scales in the larger battery. Just 11 items (compared to 98 items in the full AMTB) are grouped into five categories: three from the integrative motive, with the remaining two being Instrumental Orientation and Language Anxiety.
The mini-AMTB was adapted for children in a summer language programme and used in a study by Masgoret, Bernaus, & Gardner (2001), and a quick, computerized version of the mini-AMTB was used in Tennant & Gardner’s (2004) study. However, single-item scales have an increased likelihood of measurement error due to less choice among possible responses, which can influence the relationships of the items to other variables. Tremblay (2001) noted that:
Exploration analyses such as a study trying to identify various dimensions of motivation may go for more bandwidth at the cost of lower reliability (with one-item scales). If, however, the scores will be used to make classification decisions about the respondents, then reliability should be a priority. Thus, twenty to thirty scales may be needed (Tremblay, 2001:242).
In the current study of learners of Japanese, a computerized questionnaire in schools would not qualify for ethics approval, and although the mini-AMTB was considered for use the AMTB was chosen, with 30 scales but a reduced number of items (see Ch.3).
Gardner’s concept of L2 motivation had dominated the field until the 1990s, and laid a solid, scientific foundation for L2 motivational research. As will be seen in the following sections, other theories and concepts have a thread of commonality with, are built upon, or are an extension of Gardner’s socio-educational concept of L2 motivation.
32 2.2. The cognitive-situated period (the 1990s)
Crookes and Schmidt (1991) called for ‘reopening the motivation research agenda’ in what became an influential article, and which provides a convenient starting point for the cognitive-situated period in the 1990s. Motivational research in this period was characterised by a “more pragmatic, education-centred approach” (Dörnyei, 1994:273). Motivation consists of seven aspects, according to Crookes and Schmidt, four of which are internal: interest in the language, relevance of the language, expectancy of success/failure, and outcomes, namely rewards felt by the learner. The three other aspects are external: decision to engage in L2 learning, persistence over time, and high language activity level.
As Dörnyei pointed out, the broad perspective on motivation taken by the social psychologists narrowed under the influence of developments in motivational psychology, from a ‘birds-eye’ view of motivation to actual learning situations such as the foreign language classroom.
Motivational psychologists representing a cognitive perspective argued convincingly that how one thinks about one’s abilities, possibilities, potentials, limitations, and past performance, as well as various aspects of the tasks to achieve or goals to attain (e.g. values, benefits, difficulties) is a crucial aspect of motivation (Dörnyei, 2005:74).
2.2.1. Self-Determination Theory
The influential Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2002; Ryan, 1995), or SDT, made up of two general types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic, came from the field of motivational psychology. Intrinsic motivation (or IM) refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or engagement in an activity because the activity is enjoyable and satisfying. IM would seem to relate to not only ‘effortless effort’ but also to the notion of ‘flow’, concepts to be discussed in Sections 2.3.4 and 2.3.5. Proponents of SDT argued that traditional classrooms emphasize Extrinsic motivation (or EM) which “focuses students too exclusively on the material or monetary rewards of an education rather than instilling an appreciation for creativity and for satisfying some of the more basic drives for knowledge and exploration” (Brown, 1994:40 in Dörnyei, 2005:76).
33 Kimberley Noels, a psychologist, together with two leading experts of self- determination theory, Luc Pelletier and Robert Vallerand, in the early 2000s aimed to relate the various intrinsic/extrinsic motives of SDT with L2 research. Noels thought the constructs of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (from SDT) bore a similarity to orientations, as they differed “according to the reasons why a person exerts effort at a task” (Noels, 2001a:130). Noels proposed that orientations in language learning motivation could be broadly divided into intrinsic and extrinsic orientations, and amotivation, as in SDT (which uses the terms ‘intrinsic’ and ‘extrinsic motivation’, not ‘orientation’). Noels uses the terms ‘intrinsic motivation’ and ‘extrinsic motivation’ when referring to constructs of SDT but uses ‘intrinsic orientation’ and ‘extrinsic orientation’ in L2 discussions “in order to be consistent with the L2 nomenclature” (Noels, 2001a:130), a distinction that can be somewhat confusing. Perhaps this contributed to what appears to be general confusion over orientations and motivation in the literature. Here, it will be noticed that when comparing language orientations to SDT components, the latter are referred to as IM and EM (as does Dörnyei, 2005).
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have entered common parlance, possibly since being adopted by business models and then adapted to the workplace in an effort to enhance productivity (as was Maslow’s 1943 ‘hierarchy of needs’). Intrinsic orientation refers to learning an L2 because of an interest in the language itself. On the other hand, activities carried out due to some reward, or course requirement, or to avoid losing something (e.g. failing a test), are referred to as an extrinsic orientation. It seems to be clearly related to instrumental motivation (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991), and they are positioned together in Dörnyei’s L2 Motivation Self System, as mentioned earlier in Section 2.0.
Orientations (in SDT ‘motivations’) lie along a continuum of self-determination from amotivation at one end, which is a lack of motivation, through extrinsic orientation, to intrinsic orientation at the other extreme (see Figure 2.4). Orientations are not necessarily mutually exclusive; learners may have several reasons for learning a language although some reasons may be more important than others. An idea not unlike the contrast of an instrumentally oriented learner who shows few signs of interest in the L2-speakers per se at one end of a continuum and the integratively oriented learner at the other end (Gardner & Lambert, 1972:15).
34
non-self-determined self-determined amotivation extrinsic orientation intrinsic orientation external, introjected, identified, integrated regulations
Orientations in language learning, a continuum from non-self-determined to self-determined Figure 2.4. Orientations in language learning, adapted from Noels (2001b:49) Both Intrinsic and Extrinsic Orientations have a number of subtypes (descriptions from SDT are presented in Table 2.1 below). The Extrinsic Orientation subtypes, seen here in Figure 2.4, in increasing degrees of self-determination are: external regulation, introjected regulation, and identified regulation. A fourth type identified by Deci and Ryan as integrated regulation, was not included in studies by Noels. Integrated regulation has not been widely studied in the L2 context Noels (2003:48) explained, due to difficulty in distinguishing it from identified regulation empirically. The subtypes of extrinsic orientation differ according to the extent to which the activity involves personal choice and a sense of personal relevance that is, depending upon how much they are integrated into the person’s self-concept (Noels, 2001:46).
Fundamental to the self-determination theory is that humans have certain psychological needs, and that for individuals to be self-motivated, these needs must be met. The primary factors that encourage motivation and development are autonomy, competence and relatedness. Autonomy is central to the continuum of self- determination, as people need to feel that they are in control, autonomous, not at the mercy of others. Competence relates to the need to feel competent, able to deal with challenges in one’s surroundings. Lastly, relatedness is the need to feel securely connected to and part of a larger social group. It is not hard to imagine that all three might be related to persistence in L2 learning.
At the time, a very influential aspect of SDT was that intrinsic motivation could be facilitated. That educators might influence students’ motivation to improve L2 outcomes was clearly of interest to teachers and students - and institutional management. Of more importance to this study, was the idea that extrinsic motivation could be internalized if the task fitted with a person’s values and beliefs and would therefore help to fulfil basic psychological needs.
35 2.2.2. The Noels Studies and Self-Determination theory
A series of studies by Noels and associates aimed to amalgamate L2 research with SDT. The first study by Noels, Clement, and Pelletier (1999) found a general pattern of correlations consistent with the Deci and Ryan (1985) model. Relevant to this study of learners of Japanese, the two least self-determined orientations (External and Introjected Regulations, that is, learning a language for material rewards or because of some outside pressure, respectively) did not correlate with sustained effort (i.e. Intention to Continue L2 study) or eventual competence. Rather, it was found that “the more students feel that they personally have chosen to learn the language and the more they are learning it because they enjoy the learning process, the more effort they make and the more they intend to pursue their studies” (Noels et al., 1999:30). Having a reason of any kind was found to be better than amotivation or the absence of motivation, which had also been found to be associated with dropping out of college.vii
To Noels, SDT allowed many L2 orientations to be reorganised into a systematic framework. Another larger study of 159 participants by Noels, Pelletier, Clement, and Vallerand (2000) aimed to explain how SDT subtypes of IM and EM relate to instrumental orientation of Gardner, and the orientations of travel, knowledge and friendship identified by Clement and Kruidenier (1983).
Instrumental orientation appears similar to Externally Regulated orientation as both refer to a reaction to something external to the person or activity. However relations between the other three orientations of travel, knowledge and friendship and EM and IM were less obvious. They may be extrinsically motivated goals, or relatively self-determined orientations, or they may be related to IM because they elicit positive feelings through encouraging autonomy and self-perceptions of competence (SDT fundamentals).
A new measuring instrument, the Language Learning Orientations Scale (LLOS), was developed for this study (Noels et al., 2000) to assess the different subcomponents of IM and EM and to explore links between them. Intention to continue was again one of the criterion variables. SDT descriptions of the scales and sample items are found in Table 2.1.
36 Table 2.1. Descriptions of Language Learning Orientations Scale. Shows SDT subtypes of Intrinsic, Extrinsic Motivation, and Amotivation (Noels, Pelletier, Clement & Vallerand, 2000). Adapted from Dörnyei (2005:78) and Noels (2001:47). Subscale Description and example Intrinsic The motivation to engage in an activity because that activity is enjoyable and Motivation: satisfying. To gain Knowledge for the inherent pleasure; feelings of satisfaction Knowledge from Accomplishment; interest and Stimulation arising from doing the task. Accomplishment Could be linked with the ‘high’ feeling characterised by ‘flow’. Stimulation I enjoy the language, I am good at it, and I want to become fluent in speaking Spanish. Extrinsic Similar to intrinsic motivation but the L2 learning activity is not done for the Motivation: enjoyment of it, but as part of a self-concept. The goals to be achieved are for Integrated reasons extrinsic to the self, rather than the enjoyment or interest inherent in the Regulation task. E.g., seeing themselves as a “universal person”, the student might see competence in one or more L2s as inherent to that self-concept. Knowing another language, being bi-lingual or tri-lingual makes me feel educated. Identified The activity is seen as being personally worthwhile or useful (e.g. learning a Regulation language which is necessary to pursue one’s hobbies or interests). It is expected that learning will continue for as long as it is considered to be worthwhile. I may stay in California, and Spanish is a useful tool to be able to use as a teacher and/or counselor. Introjected Introject means incorporating ideas of others. For example, learning so as to Regulation impress others with proficiency, i.e. to self-aggrandize; or to overcome guilt or anxiety such as the shame of not being able to speak the L2 (Learning only continues as long as the need to reduce guilt is present). Because I would feel guilty if I didn’t know a second language. External The least self-determined form of extrinsic motivation (performance due to a Regulation reward or to escape punishment, thus is external to the person). The only reason that I’m taking Spanish is because I have to get the “GE” [general education] requirement filled. Amotivation A lack of motivation caused by the realization that ‘there is no point…’ or ‘it’s beyond me…’ E.g., [Why are you learning the L2?] Honestly, I don’t know, I truly have the impression of wasting my time in studying a second language.
As predicted, results generally provided evidence for a self-determination continuum.viii Details are presented below in Table 2.2, where a negative correlation between Intention to Continue and Amotivation indicates that the more amotivated the student, the less they intend to continue.
Table 2.2. Correlation of Intention to Continue and SDT motivational subtypes (Noels et al., 2000:50) Non-self-determined Self-determined Amotiv Extrinsic Motivation (EM) Intrinsic Motivation (IM) ation External Introjected Identified Knowledge Accomp. Stimul. Intention -.57* .19* .02 .55* .49* .46* .34* to continue (*p<.05).
Between Intention to Continue and the three IM subtypes of Knowledge, 37 Accomplishment, Stimulation there was a strong correlation. However, the strongest correlation (.55, indicated in bold font) was with Identified Regulation (EM), indicating (as described in Table 2.1) that learners were motivated to continue because learning the language was found to be personally worthwhile or useful, for example, to pursue hobbies or interests.
Travel, friendship, and knowledge orientations were highly intercorrelated with the more self-determined Identified Regulation and IM subscales. This suggests that the orientations relate to the drive for knowledge, accomplishment, stimulation (the IM components), or as part of a self-concept (Integrative Regulation). In regards to persistence, Intention to Continue correlated most with Travel (.52), Knowledge (.46), and Friendship (.38), but least with Instrumental (.28), although all were significant at p<.05. As might be expected, a strong correlation was found between Instrumental orientation and External Regulation, the least self-determined type of EM.
Consistent with SDT, “the more internalized the reason for L2 learning, the more comfortable and persevering students claimed to be … Learning an L2 for knowledge, to travel to the country being studied, and, to a lesser extent, to develop friendships were readily related to feelings of competence and autonomy, as in the case of IM” (Noels, 2001:54). Similarly, Ryan (of Deci and Ryan) pointed out that,
Generally actions that are a function of outer forces… typically lack the coordinated engagement of the person. Even when motivation and efficacy are high, less autonomous regulation typically results in behaviour that is less stable, persistent, well-performed, and subjectively enjoyable (Ryan, 1995:408).
Noticeably absent from the previous (Noels et al., 2000) study was Gardner’s integrative orientation, the other main orientation in L2 learning. Noels’ subsequent study of Spanish beginners at a Californian university (2001b, a.k.a. 2003) used correlations and multiple regression to investigate the link between SDT subtypes and Gardner’s integrative orientation. ix
2.2.2.1. Intrinsic, Extrinsic, and Integrative Orientations On the one hand, integrative orientation is similar to IM as both refer to positive attitudes towards the activity and the learning process. On the other hand, integrative orientation includes attitudes towards the L2 community, that is, intergroup issues. Gardner maintained that both instrumental and integrative orientations are extrinsic 38 because the language is being learnt to achieve goals, not due to an intrinsic interest in the language itself (Gardner, 1985:12).
Consistent with Gardner's view, Noels found significant correlations between SDT extrinsic motivation forms and integrative orientation (Noels, 2003:27). But, at the same time, integrative orientation (measured using four items from the AMTB) was most strongly related with the more self-determined types of EM (e.g. Identified Regulation). Notably, this indicated to Noels that the more the respondents wanted to learn the L2 because it is interesting, enjoyable, and has value to them personally, the more they were likely to learn the language so as to interact with members of the L2 community (Noels, 2003:127).
Enjoying the challenge of language learning, and seeking interaction with the L2 community appeared to address separate issues for participants. That is, integrative orientation was a better predictor of intergroup variables (i.e. ethnic identity and contact). However, intrinsic orientation was a better predictor of variables such as intention to persist, motivational intensity, and attitudes towards learning Spanish than was integrative orientation (although independently integrative orientation too predicted the former two variables). Therefore, Noels concluded that intrinsic and integrative orientations (independently) predicted both learner intensity and the intention to sustain that effort.
Noels was working towards a model of intrinsic, extrinsic, and integrative orientations and motivation. Initially there seemed to be three inter-related types of orientations, where the third type included reasons such as “whether it is fun, engaging, challenging, or competence enhancing” (Noels, 2001:98).x Ultimately, Noels’ (2001) view was a theoretical framework where intrinsic/extrinsic orientations and integrative orientation represented two ‘separate motivational substrates’ placed along a continuum.
Integrative orientation in the upper half of the model related to the inter-group situation and L2 use outside class. The lower half of the model related intrinsic/extrinsic orientations to the interpersonal and immediate learning situation of the classroom. The relevance of integrative, intrinsic and extrinsic orientations may vary depending upon the context (Noels, 2001:54). In other words, those in the immediate context of the learner (the L2 community, the teacher, family members) can
39 nurture or frustrate learners’ fundamental needs. Four fundamental needs were specified, with (a positive) social identity as the most “intergroup”, then, relatedness, autonomy, and competence (as the most “interpersonal”).
Ultimately, what became Noels’ Orientations Model (2003) provided a systematic framework for organizing orientations. Fundamentally, L2 motivation consisted of three inter-related orientations to Noels: intrinsic (inherent to the learning process), extrinsic (reasons for learning), and integrative. Noels’ proposal that intrinsic/extrinsic orientations and Gardner’s integrative orientation form two ‘separate motivational substrates’ represented by the immediate learning context and the intergroup context, is consistent with Gardner’s original concept (Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972; Gardner, 1985) that learning a second language takes place within social and educational contexts
Zoltan Dörnyei, in his research into L2 motivation, also made a distinction between a dimension that is specific to the learning situation and an intergroup dimension (Dörnyei, 1994). Consistent with the reduced area of perspective in the cognitive-situated period, as previously mentioned, Dörnyei focused on motivation related to the L2 classroom, along with the question of how to motivate students. For example, after developing the L2 motivation construct (Dörnyei, 1994), he compiled a list of thirty strategies for teachers to use to motivate their L2 learners based on components of the framework.
2.2.3. Dörnyei and the L2 motivation construct
The L2 motivation construct (Dörnyei, 1994) operates on three levels: the Language Level (composed of both integrative and instrumental motivational subsystems), the Learner Level (the need for achievement, self-confidence), and the Learning Situation Level. The last consists of three motivational components: course-specific (concerning the syllabus, teaching materials, tasks etc), teacher-specific (teaching-style, personality etc) and group-specific (‘group dynamics’). The L2 motivation construct was largely theoretical with little empirical evidence (Gardner, 1994; Dörnyei, 1994:283).
One might conjecture that this is what prompted Dörnyei (2001) to carry out a very large-scale survey (n=4765) of 13/14-year-old school children in Hungary to investigate attitudes and motivation regarding five European languages. Girls’ scores in seven main motivational dimensions were significantly higher than boys’ scores, and, 40 incidentally, marked gender differences were found in choice of subjects: French and Italian were more ‘feminine’ (that is, chosen more often by girls) in comparison to German and Russian, whilst English was largely gender-neutral amongst participants (Dörnyei, 2001:423). More relevant to motivation, the study found substantial correlations between language choice and intended effort (to learn the language) across three motivational scales: Integrativeness, Instrumentality, and Direct Contact with L2 Speakers. Integrativeness was by far the most significant. This “unambiguously confirms Gardner’s repeated claim that the integrative motive plays a significant role in shaping L2 motivation” (Dörnyei, 2001:419).
2.3. The process-oriented period (the 2000s)
The process-oriented period can be characterised as viewing L2 motivation as being a dynamic process with continuous fluctuations that is, “the daily ups and downs of motivation to learn” (Dörnyei, 2005:83). Williams and Burden (1997) had separated three motivational stages along a continuum that, put simply, were “Reasons for doing something, Deciding to do something, and Sustaining the effort, or persisting” (in Dörnyei, 2005:83). Reaching further, Dörnyei and Otto (1998) developed a model, the process-oriented approach/paradigm with three distinct stages, preactional, actional, and post-actional stages of motivation. It described “how initial wishes and desires are first transformed into goals and then into operationalised intentions, and how these intentions are enacted, leading (hopefully) to the accomplishment of the goal and concluded by the final evaluation of the process” (Dörnyei, 2005:84). The paradigm was a beginning in understanding motivation as a process but the difficulty was identifying the boundaries of the processes.
When either discussing the role of motivation or identifying the components of motivation (since these correlate strongest with achievement measures), Ema Ushioda pointed out that the “underlying assumption seems to be that language achievement or success is the principal criterion” (Ushioda, 1996:9). Ames too, involved in qualitative studies of motivation in competitive versus cooperative classroom settings, had called for a “move away from using achievement as the singular measure for evaluating
41 everything that happens in the classroom” (Ames, 1986:236). Language teachers wanting to motivate students in their classes found that Gardner’s SE model really lacked useful detail on how this could be done.
Ema Ushioda advocated an alternative view of motivation as part of an individual learner’s thought processes, “in terms of what patterns of thinking persuade students to act and behave as they do” (Ushioda, 1996:12). That is, an approach that might “usefully complement the dominant quantitative tradition of research on language learning motivation with a more qualitative ethnographic approach” (Ushioda, 2001:94).
2.3.1. Qualitative studies (Ushioda, 1996; 2001)
Ushioda began to investigate the role of student beliefs, perceptions and interpretations in a small study (1996a), by interviewing 20 students who had studied French at school for 5 or 6 years and then chosen French as part of an undergraduate degree at Trinity College, Dublin. Learners were encouraged to explain in their own way with minimal directions, their motivation for learning the L2 (individuals were interviewed twice, about 15 months apart).xi
Analysis of the first set of interviews began with collating numerous individual conceptions of motivation by learners (details in Ushioda, 2001:103), xii resulting in eight motivational classifications. The classifications formed what would become Ushioda’s Motivational Dimensions model (2001). The dimensions are descriptive, in that they are not patterns identified as a result of an empirical factor analysis.
Motivational profiles of the 20 participants were built up based upon the eight dimensions, which were ranked in order of importance to each learner. This gave a 5- point scale of Motivation from I to V. Generally, the items given primary (I) or secondary emphasis (II) came out in the “initial flow of each self-report account before much prompting became necessary and which were often reiterated during the course of the interview” (Ushioda, 2001:105). The number of participant profiles giving primary or secondary emphasis to each motivational dimension is listed in order of frequency in Table 2.3. Language-related enjoyment/liking, and Positive learning history were most often nominated by participants as their reasons to learn French.
42 Statements indicative of a positive learning history were typically “you keep up something you’re good at” or “I always found learning languages very easy at school” (Ushioda, 2001:106).
Amongst the eight dimensions that are shown in Table 2.3, the individual motivational feature most often given by the 20 respondents with a total of 16 responses was a Personal Goal: To Live in France/Francophone country short-term (14) and long-term (2). The individual reason to continue given most often by learners was the desire to travel to the country.
Table 2.3. Predominant motivational dimensions, adapted from Ushioda (2001:106) Predominant Motivational dimensions Number of profiles in which the dimension is given primary or secondary emphasis (N=20) Language-related enjoyment/liking 16 Positive learning history 16 Desired levels of L2 competence 11 Personal goals 11 Academic interest 9 Personal satisfaction 6 Feelings about French-speaking countries or people 7 External pressures/incentives 2
Through patterns and features in the interview recordings, Ushioda determined that “Effective motivational thinking may hinge on sustaining a positive self-concept as language learner and language user” (Ushioda, 1997a: 49). However, “the impetus for applying effective motivational thinking must lie within the learner” (ibid, 48).
Effective motivational thinking (where effective indicates sustaining involvement in language learning rather than how well learners learn) entails focusing on positive elements or incentives and filtering out negative elements or experiences over time. For example, two students may perform equally poorly at a particular learning task, but one student may blame him/her-self for being inadequate, whereas the other might blame lack of preparation, or lack of relevance of course material. Therefore, the difference in thinking might well have “quite different repercussions for students’ subsequent engagement in learning” (Ushioda, 1998:78).
Effective motivation is reminiscent of Positive motivation, which is “reflected in how students think about themselves, the task and their performance” (Ames, 1986:236). “According to the self-worth theory of achievement motivation (Covington 43 & Beery, 1976) student achievement behavior is directed toward maintaining a positive self-concept of ability…so students often engage in a variety of tactics (e.g. not trying, procrastinating) to avoid the negative implications of failure” (Ames, 1986:243). Norton (2001) discussed resistance and non-participation in language classrooms in relation to two immigrants to Canada (who eventually dropped out of their ESL class). Non-participation can include an aloof, unengaged form of behaviour in a classroom.
In Ushioda’s study, participants with higher levels of achievementxiii attributed less importance to long-term personal and vocational goals (Personal Goals), but more importance to being good at French (Positive Learning History) and to achieving a high level of L2 fluency or competence (Desired Levels of L2 Competence). In other words, those who were already relatively successful “tended to feel intrinsically motivated by the aim of achieving a high level of L2 fluency or competence” irrespective of any specific goals. Ushioda viewed this ‘learner motivational configuration’ as representing “almost classic characteristics of intrinsic learning motivation” (Ushioda, 2001:109).xiv
On the other hand, less successful learners tended to view their motivation mainly in terms of particular personal goals or career plans (an inverse relationship existed between Personal Goals and both measures of proficiency). Although no less motivated but merely expressing their motivation differently, these learners with “less illustrious learning histories” were able to compensate for it motivationally, Ushioda suggested, by focusing on certain goals or incentives, such as hoping to visit a Francophone country, to channel their motivation. “In short, these findings suggested that effective motivational thinking might entail filtering experience and focusing on the positive elements or on positive incentives, while de-emphazing the negative” (Ushioda, 2001:109).
Ushioda concluded that, “We can classify all the factors in each language learners’ motivation configuration as either causal (deriving from the continuum of L2- learning and L2-related experience to date) or teleological (directed towards short-term or long-term goals and future perspectives)” (2001:117). Students with positive learning experiences were likely to emphasise intrinsic motivational factors, while less able students tended to define their motivation in terms of particular personal goals or career plans. These findings led Dörnyei to suggest “there may be two potentially successful motivational routes for language learners, either fuelled by the positive
44 experiences of their learning reality or by their visions for the future” (Dörnyei, 2005:106).
This leads to the latest construct from Dörnyei, the L2 Motivational Self System (2005), where L2 motivation is related to the learner’s identity as an L2 speaker. The L2 selves in the model “are by definition teleological, concerning future motivational perspectives (as they concern imagined future end-states) and the L2 Learning Experience component is the causal dimension” (Dörnyei, 2005:106).
Before discussing the model, however, the next section reviews some of the latest motivational developments involving learner ‘language identity’.
2.3.2. Language ‘identities’
Life in the era of globalization with the proliferation of talk shows and reality shows on television, self-help literature in a vast range of fields, and technological networking (mobile phones and iPads) “have all combined to make the present first and foremost about individuals” (Block, 2009:3). The most recent concept of L2 motivation involves the notion that a learner might develop an identity as a speaker of the target language (TL). However, language identity appears to mean different things to different scholars.
David Block examined a number of previous studies from the viewpoint of identity, and found that Wallace Lambert (a founder of Canadian research into bilingualism, and co-author with Robert Gardner) had linked identity with learning a second language when he pointed out that as one becomes more proficient, the second language community “may in fact become a second membership group” (Lambert, 1972:225, in Block, 2009:48). Lambert noted the social pressure on individuals to belong to one community group or the other, and the ways that accent and dialect serve as the markers of such allegiance.
Language identity, to David Block, involves altering one’s identity to accommodate a new concept of one’s self; that to learn a second language is to take on a new identity, that arises due to a critical experience. A ‘critical experience’ is “a period of time during which prolonged contact with a TL and a new and different cultural setting causes irreversible destabilisation of the individual’s sense of self” (Block, 2002a:4). In regard to language identity, Block concluded “that in the FL 45 [Foreign language] setting, there is usually far too much first language-mediated baggage and interference for profound changes to occur in the individual’s conceptual system and his/her sense of self in the TL” (Block, 2009:144). This is in contrast with the opportunities potentially available in adult migrant settings, and study abroad contexts, where individuals must make a new life in an unfamiliar culture and setting. Block suggested that it “is perhaps not surprising if one considers that identity work is about drawing on semiotic resources2 available in the here and now, to participate in activities carried out in the here and now” (ibid). Whereas, for FL learners, obviously their resources have to come mostly from their local environment, and not TL related “multimodalities”.
Language identity to Bonny Norton involves an imagined L2 community. An ‘imagined community’ is linked with the concept of imagined identity, and extends beyond the physical classroom. “When language learners speak, they are not only exchanging information with target language speakers, but they are constantly organising and reorganising a sense of who they are and how they relate to the social world” (Norton, 2001:166). In relation to adult immigrants to Canada, Norton thought that if learners invest time and effort in a second language, they hope to get a good return on their investment – gaining access to the privileges of target language speakers, that is, symbolically (e.g. friends, education) or materially (e.g. money). Therefore, an investment in the target language is also an investment in a learner’s own identity, which is constantly changing.
Norton carried out a small qualitative study of five ESL learners in the 1990s, all recent adult immigrants to Canada (see Norton, 2000) to investigate the relationship between identity and language learning. One participant, Katerina, having migrated to Canada from Poland where she was a teacher (a member of the ‘professional community’), was then unable to find employment as a teacher. Katerina’s imagined community was perhaps, a community of professionals, which was a reconstruction of her past with an imaginative construction of the future. A language learner’s “imagined community invites an imagined identity”, and teachers are often the people who represent or provide access to the imagined community of a given learner (Norton,
2 Semiotics is the study of human communication, especially communication using signs and symbols (Collins Australian dictionary, 1990). 46 2001:166). Apparently, Katerina felt most uncomfortable speaking ‘beginner’ English with English-speaking professionals, such as her teacher, or doctor.
The ability to speak the target language, and the level of comfort of the learner when doing so, vary according to the social encounter, and therefore, it seems quite likely that a learner’s identity as an L2 speaker will also vary. Norton (2000:13) took the stance that ethnicity, gender and social class are “implicated in the construction of identity and the possibilities of speech” in relation to the immigrant women in her study. This suggests that one can have multiple identities, which are not static, but are constructed, maintained, and challenged regularly. Other research, for example, has indicated a third-space identity between the L1 and L2, which is neither the TL ‘native’ speaker, nor one’s own L1 cultural identity, but a place between the two (Otsuji & Thomson, 2009).
Ema Ushioda put forward a “person-in-context relational view of emergent motivation, self and identity” (Ushioda, 2009:215). Ushioda argued for the need to understand learners as people who are “located in particular cultural and historical contexts” (ibid: 216). That is, rather than viewing context and culture as something pre- existing and outside of the learner, to focus on the person “as a self-reflective intentional agent, inherently part of and shaping her own context” (ibid: 218).
Lantolf and Pavlenko (2001), from the perspective of activity theory, stressed the effect of historical context. They suggested that all individuals in a language class may not necessarily have the goal of learning the language since they have different motives for being in the class, because they have different histories.
It doesn't matter that in the operational domain they are all engaged in the same overt behaviour, for example, listening and reporting, reading and writing, communicative /task-based group work. Cognitively, they are not all engaged in the same activity. And this is ultimately what matters, because it is the activity and significance that shape the individual's orientation to learn or not (Lantolf & Pavlenko, 2001:148).
To Dörnyei, language identity is seen in terms of the learner developing an identity as an L2 speaker, partially based on the possible selves theory (Markus & Nurius, 1986). Having students examine their futures and think about goals that are important to them might increase their motivation, according to Markus and Nurius. “The more vivid and elaborate the possible self, the more motivationally effective it is 47 expected to be” (Dörnyei, 2005:100). Visualisation is a concept that now appears to be widely used in the sporting world where Olympic athletes, for example, make use of a vision as a motive, and ‘envision’ success. [It may even be related to the ‘power of positive thinking’ (Peale, 1952), which was perhaps the first widely known ‘self-help’ book.]
Motivation, learner identity, and possible selves return this literature review to the L2 Motivational Self-System of Dörnyei (2005) outlined at the beginning of the chapter, and is the final L2 motivational model to be reviewed.
2.3.3. The L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2005)
The L2 Motivational Self System of Dörnyei (2005) consists of the Ideal L2 Self, the Ought-to L2 Self, and the Learning Experience (as described earlier). The Learning Experience can now be seen to relate to the actional stage of motivated behaviour in Dörnyei and Otto’s earlier process model (1998), while the ‘selves’ relate to pre- actional deliberation. Together with the Possible Selves theory (Markus & Nurius, 1986), Dörnyei incorporated the Self-Discrepancy Theory (1987) of Higgins into the L2 Motivational Self System. The background of Higgins’ theory is outlined briefly in the following.
2.3.3.1. Self-Discrepancy Theory This psychological theory aimed to explain depression-type disorders, and the distinct types of emotional responses associated with belief incompatibility in regard to the different facets of the self. In brief, Higgins (1987, 1998) distinguished the ‘Ideal Self’, which is focused on promotion (i.e. hopes and advancements) from the ‘Ought Self’ with its focus on prevention (i.e. safety and obligations) such as avoiding pain or failure. People are motivated by the desire to reduce the discrepancy between one’s actual self (now) and, for example, the ideal self (or the ‘ought’ self).xv
From an L2 perspective, these distinctions correspond with two types of instrumentality: instrumental motives with a promotion focus (e.g. to learn an L2 for the sake of professional advancement) relating to the Ideal self, and instrumental motives with a prevention focus (e.g. studying to avoid failing an exam) related to the Ought Self. This duality could be interpreted as long-term and short-term instrumental
48 motives, Dörnyei suggested. That is, a “non-internalised motive generated by a fear of punishment for example, is not likely to have the sustained commitment that the successful mastery of an L2 requires” (Dörnyei, 2005:103).
The self-discrepancy theory has general implications for motivation. Motivation to achieve can subsequently be influenced by emotional responses to one’s performance (Higgins, 1987:335). Higgins’ theory identified two standpoints; that besides one’s own standpoint there is also the other standpoint (of significant others). Differences between low and high achievers could be due to a tendency among low-achievers to interpret their performance as a success or failure by comparison to others, on the basis of whether it is above or below their ought/other standard. xvi This contrasts with a tendency among high-achievers to see their performance as a success or failure on the basis of their own past performance for example, or the average performance, and appraising it in relation to their ideal/own standard. Thus, low-achievers would tend to judge their performance as a failure and feel apprehensive and anxious, which would, in turn, cause them to avoid subsequent similar tasks. Whereas high-achievers may increase their efforts as they would tend to see success, thereby increasing their self- confidence. Although they would also feel dissatisfied at not having fulfilled their personal aims.
Therefore, the L2 Motivational Self System, as a combination of possible selves (Markus & Nurius) and the self-discrepancy theory (Higgins), relates to the learner’s own identity or self-concept as a second language speaker. The self as “the centre of motivational thinking” (Dörnyei, 2009:354) had the potential to open up new directions and new possibilities for L2 research.
2.3.3.2. Synthesis of four motivational models The possible synthesis of four motivational models in Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System links the ‘selves’ components in Dörnyei’s motivational concept to the models of Gardner, Noels, and Ushioda. Ushioda’s model is linked through three broad clusters obtained by grouping the eight dimensions (Dörnyei, 2005:105).xvii To Dörnyei, there were “striking similarities” between his proposed system and Gardner’s integrative motive, especially since Gardner (2001) had included “a possible instrumental motivational link to the Motivation subcomponent” (Dörnyei, 2009:30). This relates to Gardner’s statements (previously mentioned) that Instrumental motivation could appear
49 as other support for Motivation in the (2001) SE model (see Figure 2.2). In the L2 Motivational Self System, Instrumentality seems to indicate a combination of instrumental factors and motivation (in contrast to ‘integrative motivation’). The inclusion implied that motivated behaviour (i.e. the Motivation subcomponent) “is determined by three major motivational dimensions, Integrativeness, Instrumentality, and Attitudes towards the Learning Situation, which corresponds closely with the proposed L2 Motivational Self System” (Dörnyei, 2009:30). As it is imposed from outside the individual, Instrumentality corresponds to the Ought-to L2 Self.
The research method used to investigate possible selves is typically qualitative, using open-ended surveys (MacIntyre, Mackinnon & Clement, 2009b: 196). Generally, participants either list the possible selves relevant to them, or rank-order lists of possible selves they were given. A Possible Selves Questionnaire (MacIntyre et al., 2009b) was developed to assess possible selves in a study of 135 high school students. The aim was to “empirically assess the links” between Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System and Gardner’s Integrative Motive as a source of L2 motivation. Consistent and strong correlations between the two approaches were found, “providing evidence that the concepts share conceptual ground” (MacIntyre et al., 2009b: 209).
Nevertheless, due to the complexity of studying the self, if possible selves are to be used as a framework to understand L2 motivation, “research is needed to clearly define what is appropriately conceptualised as a possible L2 self” (MacIntyre, Mackinnon & Clement, 2009a: 50). For example, there is a proliferation of self-related concepts that can be found on the Internet, and possibly cultural variations in the concept of self, such as might be found between ‘Eastern’ and ‘Western’ cultures (terms used by Markus & Kitayama, 1991, in MacIntyre et al., 2009a: 54). Variations such that Western cultures are more likely to view the self from an individualistic viewpoint; an Eastern viewpoint would perhaps be interdependent on others, or lower in self-esteem than Western cultures, whilst bilingual speakers themselves could be affected by which language they speak. Empirical research of the L2 Motivational Self System constructs appears to be ‘in its infancy’ with many questions yet unanswered.
50 2.2.3.3. Reinterpreting Integrativeness Dörnyei has called for the need to reinterpret Gardner’s Integrativeness, to include not only identification with particular L2 communities but also with a worldwide community (Dörnyei, 2005:97). The L2 Self System would incorporate Integrativeness, in that the Ideal L2 Self can be considered to be a member of ‘an imagined community’ partly based on one’s imagination and partly on real-life contact with members of the L2 community. “If the person that we would like to become is proficient in the L2, we can be described as having an integrative disposition…since it is difficult to envisage that one can develop a potent ideal L2-speaking self while at the same time despising the people who speak the L2 in question” (Dörnyei, 2005:102).
Integrativeness, defined initially as a willingness to interact with the L2 community, was later broadened to also refer to openness to other cultural groups in general (Gardner, 2010:85). This broader view of integrativeness perhaps takes into account the global identity associated with learning English, and the general international outlook, or ‘international posture’ found among Japanese learners of English by Yashima (2000:57). However, Dörnyei has suggested leaving the term integrativeness behind, and focusing more on the learner’s self-concept, and on the identification aspects of integrativeness (Dörnyei, 2005:98).
Lamb (2004) in Indonesia found that aspirations such as meeting with westerners, using computers, studying and travelling abroad, were all associated with English the international language. In fact, the learners balanced their English-speaking international version of themselves, and their Indonesian-speaking local-community self, in a kind of ‘bi-cultural identity’ (Lamb, 2004:240).
The global identity of English encapsulates a sense of belonging to a worldwide culture in the 21st century, with Internet shopping, and ease of international travel. Perhaps even (glamorous) Hollywood movies are potentially attractive to an ESL learner’s Ideal Self. This global sense of community might also apply to fans of J-pop, as well as to the many learners of Japanese who also engage in what has become a worldwide phenomenon (e.g. anime, manga, drama). Although, it is not the language that unites the community, as with English, but J-pop itself. Without the Internet, anime outside of Japan would perhaps have remained a “niche phenomenon”. Napier has noted that “it was probably the single most important instrument in creating the anime
51 fan ‘community’” (2007:138). It could also be argued that the use of the Internet is the language of the global J-pop community. Tsutsui (2010) pointed out that:
Dedicated and vocal fans have been active in getting manga into public libraries and Japanese animation onto cable television. Fans have also made extensive use of the Internet, creating blogs, chat rooms, and websites (such as the Anime News Network) to interact, build communities, and share information (Tsutsui, 2010:46).
Although the reasons for J-pop’s popularity are “as diverse as the forms of Japanese popular culture and the sources of Japan’s pop creativity”, quality, stylistic and thematic complexity, and the offer of an alternative to Western popular culture are attributes that attract audiences (Tsutsui, 2010:46).
The popularity of J-pop among learners of Japanese may be linked not only with the Internet, but also with accessing authentic materials so as to transform the target language (TL) from “a distant native culture to an international resource within reach of learners” (Block, 2009:144). For example, a study by Thorne (2003) of learners in the USA found that “chatting” on-line using text messaging (AOL IM; America On Line Instant-Messaging) with French speakers in France seemed to “transcend” their geographical and cultural distance. In reference to the study, Block noted that learners were able “to forge TL-mediated identities, albeit somewhat ephemeral ones” (Block, ibid). Importantly, the popularity of J-pop among learners of Japanese may also be linked with self-image and identity. The consumption of J-pop in many situations exemplifies the concept of a ‘passionate activity’.
2.3.4. ‘Harmonious Passion’
Vallerand has proposed through the Dualistic Model of Passion (DMP), that passion toward activities is either Harmonious (HP) or Obsessive (OP). HP is the kind of passion “that can fuel motivation, enhance well-being, and provide meaning in everyday life” (Vallerand, et al., 2003:756). (Obsessive passion is where people inflicted with passion can experience a kind of suffering, “which can lead to inflexible persistence, and interfere with achieving a balanced, successful life” (ibid), for example, gambling). As HP is engaged in freely, individuals experience positive outcomes both during and after task engagement, with little or no conflict with other life activities. 52 Passion is defined as “a strong inclination toward a self-defining activity that people like (or even love), find important (valuable), and in which they invest time and energy on a regular basis” (ibid). In line with Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), individuals are driven to explore their environment, and as a consequence, engage in a number of activities, of which only a few will be seen as important, or to have some “resonance” with how people see themselves. “From these few activities one or two will eventually be preferred and engaged in on a regular basis and turn out to be passionate” (Vallerand, 2012:3).
In this thesis, the idea is put forward that there is a close resemblance between the motivational subcomponents from Gardner’s SE model and the elements that define HP, according to Vallerand. (See Figure 2.5.) Together with the additional component of identity, passion could be expressed as:
[Passion = Motivation + Identification].
Figure 2.5. Comparison of Motivation and Passion components
If an individual has a strong motivational desire to learn an L2, it is something they consider to be important and valuable. Motivational intensity is a measure of the regular effort that is invested in learning the L2. Motivational attitudes toward learning an L2 reflect the degree of an individual’s feelings for the activity they enjoy/love.
However, a passionate activity is not simply an activity that one loves, sees as valuable, and engages in regularly. The activity “becomes an inherent part of who the person is” (Vallerand, 2012:3). A passionate activity may define the person, in the sense that those passionate about playing guitar, or writing songs, come to see themselves as 53 guitarists, or songwriters. Or a learner of Japanese may eventually define themself as a speaker of Japanese, as part of their vision of themselves.
Harmonious passion is connected with and contributes to facets of wellbeing that have been identified through theory and research (Ryan & Deci, 2001), namely, the person’s general happiness (hedonic well-being) and that which is concerned with self- realisation/personal growth (eudaimonic well-being) (see Vallerand, 2012:6). This ties in with the concept of ‘flow’, the psychology of optimal experience, proposed by Csikszentmihalyi (1990): “the state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990:4).
2.3.5. ‘Flow’
Flow contributes to optimal performance and learning, since, as a result of the intrinsically rewarding experience associated with flow, people push themselves to “higher levels of performance” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990:74). The experience of flow “is characterized by a deep, spontaneous involvement with the task at hand” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997:82) that leads to improved performance whether it is reading, rock climbing, or performing surgery. In fact, reading is widely mentioned as an example, as it requires one’s attention, has a clear goal and immediate feedback, and requires skills which include literacy as well as the ability to produce images from text and to manipulate symbolic information.
Both challenges and skills are important in producing a flow experience, which occurs when the two sets are in close balance. “When challenges overwhelm skills, we feel anxious; when skills outweigh challenges, we feel bored” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997:83). To achieve the balance, new challenges must materialise if boredom is to be avoided, while the challenges must be able to be adjustable so that anxiety can be reduced.
Intrinsic orientations refer to reasons for L2 learning that are derived from an inherent pleasure in the activity. In line with SDT, these feelings of enjoyment come about as a result of developing a sense of competence in an activity that is voluntarily chosen (Noels, 2001:45). Intrinsic-Stimulation, one of three IM subtypes, refers to the simple enjoyment of the aesthetics of an activity, which is characterised by a sense of ‘flow’ (ibid). 54 People will experience flow when they are extremely interested in what they are doing and therefore highly intrinsically motivated (Deci & Ryan, 1986:29).
An important aspect of Csikszentmihalyi’s research into flow, Dörnyei points out, is that “flow theory specifies the task conditions under which flow can occur” (Dörnyei, 2005:82). Studies have suggested that there are eight major components for optimal experience (see Table 2.4). “The combination of all these elements causes a sense of deep enjoyment that is so rewarding people feel that expending a great deal of energy is worthwhile simply to be able to feel it” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990:49).
Table 2.4. Optimal experience components for flow to occur (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990:49)
Optimal experience components:
1 The experience usually occurs when we confront tasks we have a chance of completing. 2 We must be able to concentrate on what we are doing 3 & 4 The concentration is usually possible because the task undertaken has clear goals and provides immediate feedback. 5 One acts with a deep but effortless involvement that removes from awareness the worries and frustration of everyday life. 6 Enjoyable experiences allow people to exercise a sense of control over their actions 7 Concern for the self disappears, yet paradoxically the sense of self emerges stronger after the flow experience is over 8 The sense of the duration of time is altered; hours pass by in minutes, and minutes can stretch out to seem like hours.
In a study of the role of flow in foreign language classrooms, Egbert (2003) suggested that, like reading, computer-based tasks support flow. Among a number of studies of flow and the use of computers (including Ghani & Deshpande, 1994; Chan & Repman, 1999; Jones, 1998, all in Egbert, 2003:506), two studies by Trevino and Webster (1992, 1993) investigated flow in computer-mediated communication (electronic mail and voice-mail) in the workplace. They suggested that the computer screen not only helps one to focus (avoid distractions), but that computers allow sensory/cognitive curiosity to be aroused through “varied, novel, and surprising stimuli” (1992:543). Computer tasks provide instant feedback (Ghani & Deshpande, 1994), anonymity, and allow individual learners to experience optimal levels of challenge and control (Egbert, 2003:506).
55 Egbert characterised the associated conditions of flow along four dimensions: a perceived balance of skills and challenge, the opportunity for intense concentration with clear task goals, that participants find the task intrinsically interesting or authentic, and that they feel a sense of choice or control over the task process and outcomes. These dimensions are applicable to engaging in J-pop as well as learners engaging in speaking in Japanese. Indeed, the popularity of J-pop may be partly explained by the theory of flow, the optimal experience. As Vallerand has pointed out, activities that are regularly engaged in, and enjoyed, will be “incorporated in the person’s identity to the extent that they are highly valued (Aron et al., 1992; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1993), thereby leading to passions towards these activities” (Vallerand, 2012:3).
Briefly, in relation to the present study, it is likely that a motivated learner develops a self-identity as a speaker of Japanese. If learning Japanese becomes a passion with the learner, they would be likely to continue their study and seek out opportunities to use the language. The learner is likely to engage in J-pop due to its authenticity as a Japanese resource and its popularity among peers (a common interest). When highly intrinsically motivated learners also develop a passion for J-pop, they may experience a sense of ‘flow’. The enjoyment may motivate students to continue their study of Japanese. This implies that passion and persistence are linked.
Thus far, this chapter has reviewed key motivational models, along with the major theories and concepts of L2 motivation over three chronological periods. This has laid the foundation for a review of studies that specifically relate to L2 motivation and persistence/attrition in the next section. The studies are grouped into two sections distinguishing research undertaken in schools from that in universities, corresponding to the separation of the school study and the university study into individual chapters later. The review considers government-funded reports of large-scale surveys that give a broad picture of learning languages in Australian schools, and universities. Also, well- known studies of L2 motivation and persistence carried out in the USA, Canada, and Australia are reviewed.
56 2.4. Language and Persistence - Studies in Schools
It might be assumed that on a broad strategic level, the issues and requirements of the major Asian foreign languages taught in Australia (Chinese, Indonesian, Japanese, and Korean) are similar, and by extension, reasons for attrition in one language could probably be true for the other Asian languages too. At least one report has, however, stressed how different the situations for each language can be, and that there are many marked differences across the four languages (The Current State of Chinese, Indonesian, Japanese and Korean Language Education, 2010).
In Australian schools, a steep decline occurs in the number of students studying Japanese particularly when languages are no longer compulsory, usually after Year 8 (The Current State of Chinese etc., 2010:7). The numbers continue decreasing until Year 12 (between 88-94%); the decrease is most severe in NSW (ibid:18). Languages are rarely core curriculum subjects; rather, they are deemed as ‘extras’. Foreign languages are assumed to be a luxury, not a fundamental, “yet one of the most effective ways to get students to understand, read, and write better English is the study of another language” (Simon, 1980:96). Three or four-year language programs as a minimum in schools would provide a much better basis for proficiency, although few language teachers would view even one semester of experience in learning a new language to be a waste of time (Nettlebeck, LASP 2, 2009:15).
Incentives ‘Enhancing future career’ was given most often (by 73%) as the reason for continuing Japanese study in a major national study in Australian schools (Marriott, Neustupny, & Spence-Brown, 1994). Undertaken during the Japanese ‘boom years’ in Australia, the utility of the language was highly publicised. Liking languages, and liking culture, as well as ‘good marks’ and ‘contact with the country’ were also found to be important (Marriott, et al., 1994:90).
De Kretser and Spence-Brown (2010:33) reported similar reasons in a later study, although the structure of senior courses and availability of bonus points (as partial compensation for the difficulty of the subject) was also seen to be important. Enjoyment of Japanese was apparently “often enhanced by an interest in Japan or Japanese culture and a desire to be able to access cultural products in the original
57 language, or to travel to Japan” (ibid). Although no further explanation of “cultural products in the original language” was given, it might be seen as including J-pop activities. If so, it is the only mention of J-pop found in the studies in relation to motivation and persistence in this literature review.
Disincentives Disincentives for continuing Japanese after it becomes an elective include structural issues such as timetabling conflict as well as student perceptions of the difficulty and the workload of the subject (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:33). In an earlier study (Marriot, 1994), ‘perceived difficulty’ was given as a major reason to discontinue, as students balance level of difficulty and workload against the expected level of attainment. A subject that demands a high workload also affects the amount of time that can be devoted to other subjects.
However, there appear to be two key factors as to whether or not students will be able to continue with Japanese into their senior secondary years, de Kretser and Spence-Brown (2010:34) concluded. Firstly, not allowing Japanese at senior school level because of small classes, or combining for example, Years 11 and 12 together often creates a “vicious cycle”. As small senior classes are not set up due to lack of numbers, this causes junior students to give up study, and reduces the future pool of students. Secondly, the number of subjects that students take overall. New structures in Australian states where only four subjects will become the norm:
will make it impossible for all but the most dedicated students to take Japanese, and then it will be at the expense of other important subject areas. On the other hand, structures that assume five subjects, and encourage good students to take six subjects, facilitate continuation of Japanese to Year 12 level. Unless such general structural issues are addressed, other improvements to Japanese language teaching itself will be ineffective in achieving higher numbers of Year 12 graduates… Even a small improvement in the retention rate for Japanese… would dramatically increase the number of Australian students studying an Asian language to senior secondary standard, consistent with the goals of the NALSSP. (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:71)
It seems that school and course structures (e.g. years of compulsory enrolment, timetabling of language against attractive electives, willingness to run small classes at
58 senior levels) may significantly influence attrition, rather than popularity of Japanese itself (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:25).
A monolingual attitude Focusing on overall statistics rather than individual language statistics hides the fact that the number of continuing ‘classroom learners’ has declined substantially over the last seven to eight years. To alter this situation, as another major report (LASP 2, 2009) proposed, requires clear policies at both government and institutional levels that,
stress the fundamental value of languages as a core part of the Australian education process. As long as this is not the view of the relevant authorities, most students cannot be expected to see languages as other than a desirable but optional ‘add-on’, or something they might try as the spirit or fashion, moves them. (LASP 2, 2009:19)
This perceived lack of relevance and lack of appreciation of the value of learning languages, both in Australian schools and in the general community, negatively impact upon student motivation.
A monolingual attitude is prevalent in Australian institutions and communities suggested Lo Bianco and Aliani (2008:7). Their large-scale study in primary (n=132) and secondary schools (n=530) in Melbourne during 2005-2007 used Q methodology, which draws themes and issues from surveys and questionnaires. Many teachers (60%) identified the curriculum as a key factor in improving student motivation, that is, through making it more engaging. Impacting on student motivation negatively was the difficulty (or perceived difficulty) of learning a language, plus the perceived lack of relevance and the lack of appreciation of the value of learning languages, both in schools and in the general community.
Warning bells have been sounded repeatedly in the national press and in academic channels about the worrying contraction in the area (of Languages Other Than English), seen in a continuing pattern of reduction in the number and range of languages on offer. (LASP 1, 2007:7)
This trend of contraction appears to be in direct contradiction with that of Australia’s national interests. xviii
59 2.4.1. The Ramage study (1990)
Almost twenty years previously, Katherine Ramage (1990) researched motivation and persistence in the U.S.A. amid a similar “rising concern” for the need of competence in languages other than English (LOTE), especially in international diplomacy and business. Few monolingual English speakers were acquiring competence in another language, and foreign languages were of “low priority in the overall educational curriculum” (Ramage, 1990:190). A foreign language requirement in most American high schools had been discontinued, while at the same time, languages spoken by immigrants were often neglected. Ramage thought that the standard time of two years spent studying a language to satisfy college entrance requirements was inadequate for proficiency (Ramage, 1990:190). A sharp fall in foreign language enrolments after Level 2 indicated to Ramage that when the entrance requirement was fulfilled, 50% of students did not continue. (Level 2 appears to refer to a particular level of achievement in foreign language study that may take two or even three years to achieve.) The following research studies of L2 motivation and persistence begin with her study undertaken in the USA.
Ramage set out to investigate differences between the motivation and attitudes of those who planned to continue language study beyond the pre-requisite two years, and those who would discontinue. Ramage’s (1990) study aimed to isolate factors that affect the decision to continue or discontinue study, and then to construct learner profiles related to motivation. xix Participants were 138 Level 2 Spanish and French learners in three different high schools, two in Northern California and one in Arkansas.
Initially, participants’ reasons for studying a foreign language were elicited using an open-ended approach in a pilot study. These free-response items were used to make four Likert-type scales relating to: why students took up the language initially, why that particular language, and whether intending to continue, or discontinue, after second-level in high school. These scales were then combined and developed into the survey questionnaire together with three other sections, namely: a demographic section; the three AMTB measures of Motivation, Integrativeness, and Attitudes towards the learning situation (Gardner & Lambert, 1959 version); as well as likely situations where students encounter native speakers of their L2.
This meant that items from the AMTB were interspersed with student-generated
60 reasons for study, diluting the test battery scales. Only items from the Attitudes towards the learning situation component of the AMTB formed a group recognisable in the primary statistical analyses. This may account for many results being related not to AMTB components such as motivational desire or integrativeness, but to intrinsic and extrinsic forms of motivation.
Or it may be due to the misconceptions at the time surrounding Gardner and Lambert’s ‘Orientation Index’ (see previous), which was undoubtedly part of the AMTB (1959) version that Ramage used. Although using the AMTB, Ramage perceived the “integrative-instrumental approach to measuring motivation” (Ramage, 1990:192) of Gardner and Lambert (1959) to be more appropriate to Canadian contexts, and as being inadequate since Clement and Kruidenier (1983) had found four other orientations in addition to integrative and instrumental orientations. Ramage suggested that “a more open-ended approach to identifying students’ motivations” (Ramage, 1990:193) was needed to overcome the difficulty found in the classification of some factors as integrative or instrumental (e.g. Chihara & Oller, 1978). Ramage had reiterated all three classic misconceptions of Gardner’s SE model.
Ramage concluded from the results, that although all students showed similar motivations for learning a foreign language, what distinguished continuing students were the intrinsic motives associated with persistence: a stronger interest in the L2 culture,xx and in increasing their knowledge, and their interest in learning the language thoroughly, which included reading and writing the language. Associated with continuing was the extrinsic motive of taking a language due to its usefulness. In other words “behind the goal of mastery may lie a motive of wanting to actually use the language in a career or otherwise” (Ramage, 1990:208). The individual reason most frequently given for continuing was the desire to learn to speak another language. Relating to the AMTB, continuers showed more positive attitudes toward the L2, as well as toward their particular language class and towards the learning situation, showed higher levels of commitment to foreign language study (greater persistence), and felt that it was fun and challenging.
On the other hand, discontinuers seemed to be primarily concerned with fulfilling a requirement. Reasons given by students for discontinuing ranged widely, but meeting the requirements characterized them overall, according to Ramage.
61 The profile of discontinuing students was “generally characterized by an interest in language learning as a means to other goals” (Ramage, 1990:211), as well as a somewhat lesser interest in foreign languages. Attitudes towards the learning situation were typically positive, and when asked what might have changed their decision to discontinue, many indicated that they had no room in their schedule. Ramage interpreted this as an indication of “the low priority of foreign language study in relation to other subjects” (Ramage, 1990:212). Moreover, “factors such as the prestige of the target language, availability of target language speakers, and other socio-cultural factors are likely to have influenced student motivations for continuing L2 study as such factors have been shown to do when motivations and attitudes are associated with proficiency” (Ramage, 1990:193).
Ramage came to the conclusion that a combination of factors was more useful than any single factor in predicting continuation and discontinuation; a combination “including grade level when taking Level 2, grade in the foreign language class, and students’ motivation and attitudes in foreign language study” (Ramage, 1990: 210).
2.4.2. The Bartley studies (1969; 1970)
The first widely known studies of motivation and persistence were undertaken twenty years previous to Ramage’s study. Dianne Bartley set out to investigate what she called the ‘foreign language dropout problem’ in California: that Junior high school students after Grade 8 discontinued the language they had studied since Grade 6. Using national and state surveys of foreign language enrolments, Bartley demonstrated that although the number of students taking second language courses was actually increasing, it was noticeable that the more advanced levels had a greater decrease in enrolments.
In terms of language learning theory, it would seem that an optimum learning experience for the student would be reached by continuous study of the foreign language over a period of years in order to achieve mastery of the basic skills of language learning. Completing one or two levels of a foreign language would certainly seem insufficient.” (Bartley, 1970:384)
Bartley’s (1969) study investigated the extent to which aptitude and attitudes influence the foreign language dropout rate. Bartley explained that in California, under the Casey Bill, foreign language study from sixth to eighth grades was a requirement, 62 but when replaced by the Miller Bill in 1968, language study became optional. However, the effect did not impact on this study as data collection was undertaken in the 1966-67 school year. Participants were in Grade 8 at a junior high school in Palo- Alto, California, and were divided into two groups: those who intended to continue (n=73), and those who had chosen not to continue a foreign language in Grade 9 (n=98). Measuring instruments were the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT; Carroll-Sapon, 1959) and the Foreign Language Attitude Scale – Spanish (FLAS; Mary DuFort, 1962). Why the school in Palo-Alto was chosen is not made clear, but Bartley may have been teaching Spanish there.
The study was limited, however, to one class in the one school in Palo-Alto, an area that may not be a typical school district due to the high percentage of college- bound students, and that most students had learnt a foreign language in elementary school. As the FLAS needed to be adapted from Spanish to French, German, and Latin (Bartley, 1969:50; 1970:387) apparently, students were studying a variety of languages. Gardner later pointed out that the same socio-psychological processes might not underlie student attitudes towards all languages: “That is, in the California setting in which these studies were conducted would it be possible to equate the reasons for learning, say Spanish and Latin?” (Gardner, 1975b: 174).
Independent t-tests found significant differences between the scores of the two groups for both attitude and aptitudexxi and led Bartley to conclude that aptitude and attitude appear to play a decisive role in persistence. Being interested in being able to detect attitudinal low-scorers in particular, in order to help them, Bartley proposed that further research might uncover the extent to which the two factors influence the dropout rate. Indeed, Bartley acknowledged Gardner and Lambert’s (1959) finding that attitudes seem to play a more important role than aptitude in second language learning.
Therefore, Bartley’s next study (1970) focused on the importance of attitude in language dropout, and aimed to estimate the probability of continuing. This study was an extended version of the 1969 study: all of the 8th-grade participants learning ‘modern’ foreign languages at two Palo-Alto junior high schools were tested in September, the beginning of the school year, and then again in March for any significant change of attitude (whether the same school as before is unknown). This allowed inter-group and intra-group comparisons, both between and within the
63 discontinuing student group and the continuing student group.
Attitude was again defined as a favourable or unfavourable disposition towards L2 study, measured by the Foreign Language Attitude Scale – Spanish, and adapted to French and German. The FLAS consisted of 30 Likert-type items, and although Bartley noted that the FLAS items could be grouped semantically to form sub-scales that may influence attitude, she only reported total test scores without any kind of componential analysis of attitude. Generalisability of the study remained limited to a sample taken from just two schools in one district, and from one grade, Grade 8, and participants were studying a variety of languages.
Bartley found, as predicted, that those who intended to drop out differed significantly from those who intended to continue, both in terms of their attitude towards the foreign language itself, and in terms of gender. The attitude of the dropout group (n=89) was significantly lower throughout than that of the larger continuers group (n=334) as mean differences and t-tests of inter-group differences showed: September (dropout Mean=66.1; continuers M=71.8) and then in March (dropout M=61.1; continuers M=71.1). Furthermore, from those figures it can be seen that the attitude of the dropout group deteriorated over time, whilst the continuers remained stable (at M=71), the intra-group differences. In regards to gender, girls in both groups and in both time periods showed significantly higher scores than boys. A significant change of attitude existed for boys and girls only in the dropout group (n=89) where the proportion of girls (n=40) to boys (n=49) was almost equal.
To detect possible dropouts in advance, Bartley constructed her own probability distributions of attitude scores, the Empirical Relative-Frequency Distribution of Attitude Scores. Students scoring within a given ‘attitude’ range (e.g. 110-120) according to Bartley, could be predicted to continue or discontinue the foreign language, as the higher the score, the more likely they would be to continue. Bartley gave the example: if in the September administration a student scored within the 30-39 score interval, there was a .21 chance of not continuing the language, or a .79 chance of continuing. If in March, the student scored within the same interval, the student’s chances of dropping out would increase to .52 and chances of staying reduced to .48.
The probability distribution indicated that the majority of the dropout group scored on average 20 points lower in attitude than the continuing group both in
64 September and March. Indeed, few students in the dropout group scored in the uppermost intervals, for example, only 9% of these students scored above 90 (maximum score of 120) compared to 25.9% in the continuers group.
In summary, Bartley’s studies found quite a strong association between attitude towards foreign language study and persistence amongst junior high school students in Grade 8. Potential ‘language dropouts’ were indicated by low attitude scores and by deterioration of attitudes during the sample period. Although the generalisability of the studies was limited as previously discussed, Bartley concluded that the findings of this study “clearly point to the important role which attitude plays in foreign language drop- out” (Bartley, 1970: 392).
2.4.3. The Gardner studies (1975)
Following on from Bartley’s studies, and perhaps, as a consequence of them, a number of studies involving school learners of French were undertaken in London, a city in Ontario, Canada, by Gardner and Smythe. In Canadian provinces, enrolments in French were found to be decreasing despite the drive towards developing a bilingual identity, reflecting a ‘foreign language dropout problem’ similar to that described by Bartley in the USA (Gardner & Smythe, 1975a: 221). Aiming to extend Bartley’s findings in a Canadian context, Gardner and Smythe designed a study to compare student attitudes, language aptitude, and language achievement as “predictors of the likelihood that a student will continue or drop out of second language courses” (Gardner & Smythe, 1975b: 177). If the Integrative Motive is important for achievement in a second language, they reasoned, those variables should tend to differentiate between learners who continue and those who discontinue French study.
The study involved two phases: Study I, and Study II. They were part of an analysis of the role of motivation and attitudes in language achievement detailed in an extensive (324-page) research bulletin entitled: Second language acquisition: A social psychological approach.xxii The findings outlined in the report were ‘the initial steps towards a theory’ (Gardner & Smythe, 1975b: 268).
In Study I (Gardner & Smythe, 1975a), the motivational characteristics making up the Integrative Motive were divided into four categories: Group Specific Attitudes (e.g. attitudes toward French Canadians), Course Related Characteristics (e.g. Attitudes toward learning French), Motivational Indices (three Motivation components), and 65 Generalized Attitudes (e.g. Interest in foreign languages). Sample data that had been collected in 1971-1972 of 100 students in each of Grades 9, 10, and 11, was divided according to enrolment figures in 1972, into students who had continued or discontinued French study, that is, Behavioural Intention. The scores of the two groups (the ‘stay-in’ and ‘drop-out’ samples respectively) were then compared on the Integrative Motive components, Intention to continue, tests of achievement and intelligence, an integrative-instrumental difference score, as well as Evaluation of the course and the teacher.
This is an interesting study in a number of ways; firstly, as virtually a taxonomy of the variables under investigation, pre-dating Gardner’s SE model. Secondly, results of analyses were ‘dramatic’. Compared to the ‘stay-ins’, the ‘drop-outs’ at each grade level showed lower scores on seven variables characteristic of the Integrative Motive: significantly less positive attitudes toward both the French Canadians, and the European French, less favourable attitudes toward learning French, perceived less parental encouragement regarding French, exerted less effort, less desire to learn French, and less interest in foreign languages. The achievement scores for the dropouts were also significantly lower. Nonetheless, differences of motivation and attitudes were more consistent discriminators between the two groups at all grade levels, than were achievement or intelligence, which varied according to the grade. This indicated that motivation and attitudes were better indicators of persistence than was achievement.
Thirdly, a trend of persistence among ‘integratively oriented’ students was indicated. A steady increase in the proportion of integratively oriented students from Grade 9 to Grade 11 was found, particularly amongst the stay-ins, and there were more, proportionally, among stay-ins compared to dropouts across the three grades. Finally, the outcomes suggested to Gardner and Smythe that student attitudes and motivation do indeed influence student willingness to continue, which agreed with Bartley’s outcomes.
Participants in the second phase, Study II, were from three different schools in London, Ontario; schools that drew students from a wide cross-section of socio- economic backgrounds, including both suburban and rural areas. The sample numbered over 1,000, with more than 200 students in each of five grades from 7-11, and testing was carried out between December 1972 and May 1973. There were five additional
66 variables included from the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) used by Bartley.
In Study II, males were more likely to drop out than females. Then, similar to Study I, the stay-in group in Study II showed significantly more positive attitudes toward learning French, greater interest in foreign languages, greater motivational intensity, and desire to learn French, stronger integrative and instrumental orientations, and more positive attitudes toward French people. In Study I, the best single predictor of discontinuing xxiii had been the attitudes toward learning French scale accounting for 29%, 51% and 39% of the variability between the stay-in and drop-out groups in Grades 9, 10, and 11 respectively. Similar results were found in Study II, where the best single predictor was also the attitudes toward learning French scale. The attitude/motivational variables most consistently associated with variance between drop-outs and stay-ins were components of the Integrative Motive (lending support to the construct).
The findings of Gardner and Smythe (1975) and Bartley (1969, 1970) despite their dissimilarities, had found that stay-ins had more positive attitudes and also tended to be more proficient than those who chose to drop out. The Gardner and Smythe studies used a more complete test battery than did Bartley. Although the students tested in Study I came from only one school, they were from three different grades, whilst Study II involved three schools and an even larger sample of students. Nevertheless, two more studies relating to persistence were soon underway.
2.4.3.1. Further Gardner studies Gardner, Smythe, Clement and Gliksman (1976:204) suggested that there were two possible paths to solve ‘the foreign language dropout problem’. One path was to reinstate compulsory foreign language requirements. The other was to try to modify student motivation and attitudes towards language study, which offered them another exciting step towards developing a motivational model. They set out to identify those attitudes that seemed relevant to persistence using a larger and more diverse sample of students than that of 1975b.
A nation-wide survey of about 1,000 students in each of five grades from Grades 7 to 11 asked learners to indicate whether they planned to continue their study of French the following year. This allowed comparisons to be made both within each grade and across all five grades for the relative strength of the association between
67 Behavioural Intention and other variables of proficiency and attitude/motivational measures, namely, achievement-need, ethnocentrism, parental encouragement, classroom anxiety, integrativeness, instrumentality, interest in foreign languages, reactions to the learning situation, and motivation. Initially, the Behavioural Intention measure was tested for reliability on about half of the sample, comparing student intention with whether they did actually continue the following year. Found to accurately reflect actual behaviour, it allowed data for the whole sample to be included rather than only those who could be located the following year.
Firstly, comparisons across each of the five grades revealed a good deal of similarity between them. Although all correlations were significant, the composite measure of Motivation showed the highest correlation with Behavioural Intention at each grade level. Moreover, Integrativeness showed higher levels of correlation with Motivation than Instrumentality, that is, it was more closely related to Motivation in each grade. The actual levels of correlation between Motivation/Integrativeness, and Motivation/Instrumentality, respectively, for the upper grades were: Grade 9, .69 and .46; Grade 10, .67 and .46; and Grade 11, .63 and .34. This suggested that the motivation was primarily integrative. It appeared that the Integrative Motive provides students with the motivation necessary to persist, “whereas students without this motivational support will tend to drop out of the language program” (Gardner et al., 1976:207).
While Motivation seemed to be the best predictor of which students would continue French, proficiency appeared to be among the poorest at each grade level. Together with correlations between intention to continue and final L2 grade at each level, this suggested that those who would dropout were not necessarily the least competent students in regards to aptitude or final marks in French.
Secondly, comparisons within each grade showed that, for example in Grade 10, the highest correlation with Behavioural Intention was Motivation (.52) indicating the strongest relationship. Course grade (.40) showed the second strongest relationship, followed by interest in foreign languages (.39). Therefore, for example, Grade 10 ‘stay- ins’ in comparison to drop-outs, could be characterized as more highly motivated, gaining higher grades in French, more interested in learning foreign languages, more positive attitudes toward the learning situation, both integratively and instrumentally
68 oriented, and reported greater support in learning French from their parents. To a lesser degree, the remaining variables suggested that the continuers had a higher French proficiency, and reported less anxiety in the classroom (as indicated by a negative correlation). In summary, Motivation did show a stronger association with intention to continue than did either achievement or aptitude, and there was a consistent association between attitudes and persistence.
As in previous studies, the results suggested that attitudes and motivation play an important role in persistence of second-language study. Besides investigating the role of attitudes and motivation in language dropout, the study (Gardner et al., 1976) had presented a general model describing the psychological processes related to second language acquisition. The previous two Gardner and Smythe (1975) studies had provided “a useful inventory” of the variables that differentiated between those who continued and those who did not (Clement, Smythe & Gardner, 1978:690). To be able to “pin-point the specific role of individual characteristics” in choosing whether to stay or dropout, should make it “possible to influence much more systematically” that decision (ibid).
Persistence would most strongly associate with Motivation was the hypothesis to be tested by Clement, Smythe and Gardner as they collaborated in a further study (1978). Attitudes toward the L2 community, the French course and the teacher, as well as parental encouragement should mainly impact on Motivation. Intention to re-enrol was used as the persistence measure (having been shown to be relatively accurate in regards to actual re-enrolment figures in Gardner & Smythe, 1975b). Participants were 4,741 learners of French from Grades 7–11 in six Canadian provinces, about 1000 students in each grade.
Similar outcomes across all grade levels in the six provinces were found, while Motivation showed a higher correlation with Intention to re-enrol than any other variables. Although attitudes might be significantly related to the choice to re-enrol, this relationship “should disappear if the motivational component is extracted statistically from the attitude measures thus supporting the hypothesis that the influence of the individual’s attitude on persistence is mediated by his motivation” (1978:692). The result supported the hypothesis. All part-correlations showed a subsequent significant decrease when the motivational component was removed from the attitude
69 and aptitude indices. On the other hand, when Motivation was correlated with Intention to re-enrol, and the attitudinal or the aptitude component was removed, there was no such decrease.
The results provided evidence that “motivation is the primary determinant of persistence in second-language acquisition” (Clement et al., 1978:694). Motivation was seen as supported by attitudinal aspects, including the attitudes toward the L2 community and evaluation of the Learning situation. Any influence of aptitude on the Intention to re-enrol ‘is mediated through motivation’. In other words, in the SE model Motivation directly influences persistence but aptitude does not (see Figure 2.1). This relationship between motivation and attitudes suggested that it is through attitude change that change in motivation may come about. Increasing positive attitudes toward the L2 community and the L2 course could impact upon the individual’s motivation and persistence. Inter-ethnic contact programs such as excursions or class visits by native speakers were recommended particularly in foreign language classrooms where L2 contact is limited (ibid).
70 2.5. Language and Persistence Studies in Universities
This section reviews three specific studies that have been undertaken in universities in Australia. Two large-scale government-funded studies of beginner-level languages give a broad picture of second language learning across Australia, and address issues of retention and attrition. Referred to as LASP 1 and LASP 2, both studies were funded under the Learned Academies Special Projects (LASP) scheme, with Colin Nettlebeck as project leader. Following the reviews of LASP 1 and 2 is a study in Queensland that investigated L2 motivation and persistence of Japanese study (Matsumoto, 2009).
2.5.1. LASP 1 (2007)
LASP 1, an analysis of Beginners’ LOTE in Australian Universities, involved “a reasonable cross-section of the Australian tertiary sector” that included the Group of Eight Universities and other large urban universities as well as smaller and regional institutions (LASP 1, 2007:10). xxiv Data was gathered through questionnaires, the Internet, classroom observations, and interviews. Retention and attrition patterns in the study were determined by data collected from two groups of students, one group began first semester in 2005 and were tracked over three years of study. Those in a second group, who began in 2006, were tracked until first semester of their second year of study, which enabled comparisons as to whether the same patterns emerged.
About 90-95% of First Year students take no languages at all other than English at university, it was found, and about a third of those who begin a language do no more than just one semester. Overall, “retention from entry level to third year varies from a high of 34% to a low of 9%. The average is 25%” (LASP 1, 2007:14). Japanese apparently suffers high levels of attrition compared to other languages, with large losses from first to second semesters in First Year of university, and relatively low retention into Second Year.
The main reasons for students not continuing their study of languages beyond a semester or two were, firstly, many students take up a language as an elective in a later stage of their university career for fun, or out of interest, then even if they would like to
71 continue, they have no room left in their program; secondly, many do not foresee the demanding nature of language study, with its considerable workload and sequential learning process; thirdly, many become frustrated at their slow progress; and finally, many experience timetable conflicts with their main study area and “limits on the number of units they can take outside their main course” (LASP 1, 2007:15).
Four recommendations were made in the report, one of which is particularly relevant here, namely, that a large-scale national study of retention and attrition be undertaken, and its findings widely disseminated. It was stressed that, “although retention levels constitute an important and urgent problem for beginners’ language courses, there is not likely to be any single simple solution” (2007:15).
2.5.2. LASP 2 (2009)
Addressing the recommendation, a follow-up study of Beginners’ LOTE in Australian universities was undertaken soon afterwards, from April 2008 to February 2009. The study (LASP 2) aimed to identify factors that affect retention and attrition. The study was “underpinned by both a belief in the importance of tertiary languages provision, and a sense of urgency…derived from the wide recognition that the tertiary languages sector is in crisis” (LASP 2, 2009:9).
Two questionnaires were administered to beginners at the same ten universities (plus the University of Technology, Sydney) towards the middle of each semester in 2008. The two samples were not identical although there was some overlap of students, with about 3,000 responses to the first questionnaire, and 1810 for the second. The majority was enrolled in Arts or Arts combined (57.4%), Economics/Commerce (16.4%), Science (10.8%) then Engineering (3.4%) and other faculties. While 62% had studied a language before university, mostly to Year 10 in secondary school, just less than 25% had studied to Year 12. Although a range of proficiency is to be expected within a course level, “somewhat alarmingly” only 38% of those in Beginner courses in the study were ‘true’ beginners. Quite a significant number admitted that they enrolled in the beginners’ stream of a language that they had successfully completed in year 12. Understandably, this issue of mixed proficiency “could cause significant morale issues for true beginners, and would be highly likely to affect retention rates” (2009:12).
72 2.5.2.1. Languages spoken There were 77 Languages Other than English (LOTE) spoken at home by 38% of participants according to the report, ranging from the Chinese-speaking group, the largest, then Indonesian, Korean, Japanese, German, Vietnamese, to a multitude of others. While 63% reported speaking only English at home, 23% spoke a language other than English only, and about 14% a mixture of both. Of those studying Beginner Japanese, about 50% spoke a Chinese language at home. Whether they were also literate in Chinese is unknown, but if so, they would clearly have an advantage of previous language experience, to the disadvantage of others.
Indeed, the diversity of language learners in Australia is challenging for educators (Iwashita, 2012; Scarino, 2012). Scarino and Elder (2012) noted the different “learning trajectories and achievements” that exist among students, “some who are learning the particular language as an additional language, some who are learning their first language, and some who have varying degrees of home background in the particular language being learnt” (p.225).
2.5.2.2. Intention to continue The belief that retention is low because students do not intend to continue beyond a semester or a year “was not borne out” in the study. On average, only 13% said they intended to study for only one semester, and a further 12% for a year. Fully 25% remained undecided as to their intention to continue, which allows some hope to turn around the rate of attrition. However, it was “clear that significant numbers of students do change their minds – in both directions” (2009:13). About 22% had changed their intentions since first semester, and of these almost twice the number had decided to extend their course rather than shorten it. But “significantly more students initially intend to study their language for longer than turns out to be the case in reality” (2009:19).
Given three options for extending, namely, ‘more interesting than expected’, ‘less work than expected’, better teaching than expected’, most participants nominated the first and third factors. On the other hand, the overwhelming reason amongst those who had decided to shorten their language study was the high workload. The report stressed that, “it is absolutely clear that in the retention/attrition question, the quality of teaching, far from being a cause of attrition, is in fact a significant contributor to
73 retention” (LASP 2, 1990:18).
The situation with regards to intentions proved complicated due to significant variations between institutions and inconsistencies. ‘Intentions to major’ ranged from as low as 28% to over 60% in the various universities, but no specific mention was made of Japanese. (It is generally the case that those intending to major in Japanese would enrol in First Year). Nevertheless, according to their intentions, students with previous language experience, whether formal study or a language spoken at home, were significantly more likely to major in a language, and “markedly less likely to end their study after a semester or two” (LASP 2, 2009:14).
2.5.2.3. Motivating Factors The four main reasons given by the university participants for enrolling in their language course (selected from ten possible factors) are presented in Table 2.5 in decreasing order of importance for both Survey 1 and Survey 2. They were ranked by students on a scale of 1 not important to 5 very important.
Table 2.5. The four main motivating factors in order of importance (LASP 2, 2009) Motivating Factors: Survey 1 Survey 2 Total possible Desire to travel to the country where the 4.2 4.4 5 language is spoken Enjoyment of language learning 4.0 4.1 5 Useful for future employment 3.6 3.7 5 Interest in history and culture of the language 3.5 3.6 5
Responses in both questionnaires were virtually identical, although somewhat higher in the second survey as shown. The four factors rated highest across all languages were: travel (Survey 1: 4.2; and Survey 2: 4.4 on a scale of 5) and enjoyment (4.0 and 4.1), then employment and interest in history and culture. Little variation was found among individual languages, except in Chinese, where, incidentally, employment ranked highest. Enrolments in Japanese were “somewhat more likely to be influenced by the presence of friends in the course” (LASP 2, 2009:15). This compares to the top five reasons amongst 3,058 Higher Education learners according to The Japan Foundation survey (2011:9), which were: (i) interest in Japanese language (approximately 70%), (ii) employment (70%), (iii) learning about manga, anime, etc. (68%), (iv) communication (62%), and (v) learning about history, literature, etc. (62%).
74 In the first semester questionnaire, students were asked to indicate their main interest in this language (on a scale from 1 most interested to 4 least interested) but in the second questionnaire to indicate where would you most like to improve in the language? In both semesters the overwhelming choice for students of all languages including Japanese was speaking, and to a lesser extent, understanding, which may mean that self-expression was of significantly greater interest than listening to others.
The results for Japanese (n=402) are presented in Table 2.6, showing speaking skills as most highly valued, in Questionnaire 1 at 50.5, and understanding at 41.7. In other words, the desire to speak Japanese was a positive motivating force. In the second questionnaire there was a marked increase in ratings for all four skills to 20.1, from 7.3 in the first questionnaire. This was interpreted as “a more integrated understanding of and approach to the language learning process” (2009:18).
Table 2.6. Top priority ratings for main interest in Japanese, and where they would most like to improve Japanese language All Four Read=1 Write=1 Speak=1 Understand=1 Other (n=402) Skills =1 or nil Questionnaire 1 7.3 20.6 14.1 50.5 41.7 34.6 Main interest Questionnaire 2 20.1 3.1 2.8 26.4 14.5 33.1 Most like to improve
The relative difficulty of reading and writing Japanese is widely recognized, and it seems not surprising that beginner students of Japanese acknowledged greater interest. Reading and writing ranked much higher in Japanese (and Chinese) than in other languages (not shown in the Table). For example, main interest in reading Japanese rated 20.6 compared to Indonesian 6.4, and Italian 11.1; while most like to improve reading in Japanese rated 3.1, Indonesian 0.0, and Italian 0.9. The report conjectured that this result could correlate with the greater presence of Asian background speakers in the Japanese and Chinese courses, although time prevented any investigation.
The LASP 2 report began with the main patterns of retention and attrition reported in LASP 1, across a range of languages taught in participating universities. “It sought to determine the factors shaping those patterns, including student motivation, intention, and previous language experience, on the one hand; and institutional practice and policy on the other” (LASP 2, 2009:10). One of the recommendations of the LASP 2 report was to administer questionnaires early in first semester of language study “to gain a clearer picture of the student cohort and their motivations and intentions” (p.7).
75 The final study to be reviewed follows in the next section. Undertaken in Queensland, motivation and persistence were investigated in relation to student interest in aspects of Japanese such as culture, society, people, language, and business. Persistence is also viewed according to the different cultural backgrounds of participants.
2.5.3. The Matsumoto Study (2009)
Masanori Matsumoto’s (2009) study of motivation and persistence began with 300 elementary and 150 intermediate-level students of Japanese from the University of Queensland, Griffith University (Gold Coast), and Bond University. However, only (continuing) participants who responded to questionnaires both at the beginning and end of one semester were selected to take part (46 elementary and 47 intermediate-level learners).
Indication of intention to continue study in the following semester allowed students to be categorized as continuing or discontinuing. They were then separated into two groups, students from ‘East-Asian’ background, and those from ‘Western- background’. East Asia included China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Korea, whilst the other group included Europe, America, New Zealand and Australia (from Appendix in Matsumoto, 2009b).
It is not clearly indicated whether the East-Asian-background learners were all studying in Australia as ‘overseas’ students, or whether any at all were ‘local’ students - an important distinction. Often, therefore, it is not possible to neatly divide students into two cultural groups as Matsumoto has done. Although the majority of Australian university learners of Japanese are of Asian heritage, some are Australian born, others are recent migrants, and yet others are international students (Thomson, 2010b). Nevertheless, Matsumoto has assumed that there exists a closer linguistic/cultural distance to Japanese for the East-Asian group compared to those from a Western background. This closeness was attributed to linguistic similarities (such as kanji in the case of Chinese and grammatical similarity for Koreans), as well as cultural philosophical principles such as Confucianism and Buddhism.
Intention to continue provided the persistence measure, and analysis involved four groups, namely, level of study (beginner/intermediate), and cultural/linguistic backgrounds. Differences were investigated within the same cultural background group 76 between continuers and discontinuers (intention-based intra-culture); then, in regards to differences within the same cultural/linguistic background group between beginner and intermediate levels (level-based intra-culture); lastly, differences between East-Asian and Western groups at both levels (inter-cultural comparisons).
2.5.3.1. Level-based differences Higher continuation rates were found in both beginning and end-of-semester surveys for those in the intermediate level of study regardless of their background, as well as for those of Western-background at both levels. A significant difference was found in the East-Asian group where far more at elementary level dropped out (from 74.1% in the survey at the start of the semester to 55.6% at semester-end) compared to the other three groups. In the light of previous research, such as Ramage (1990) and the LASP 1 and LASP 2 reports, this result could be attributed to merely fulfilling course requirements. Matsumoto however, suggested three possible causes for this level-based difference within the same (i.e. intra-cultural) group, which he proposed could form a variable ‘distant educational background’.
Firstly, the difference could be due to the ‘unfamiliar’ style of learning Japanese in Australian universities for the East-Asian group, a style that emphasises communicative competence. Matsumoto claims that students have possibly adjusted to it by intermediate level. However, there may be less emphasis on communicative competence past the beginner levels, and if any of the East-Asian-background learners are ‘local’ students, this argument cannot be sustained.
Secondly, since East-Asian students had travelled all the way to Australia, rather than to neighbouring Japan, it was likely that Japanese was not their primary area of study, according to Matsumoto. Therefore, “their perceived strength of commitment to ongoing study would be potentially weaker than other groups” (Matsumoto, 2009:10.8). Although Japan may be much closer geographically than Australia, however, as a destination for studying abroad Japan presents “at least four hurdles” (Thomson, 2003:176). To enter a tertiary institution in Japan, one has to pass the Japanese Proficiency Test at Level 1 or equivalent; a daunting task. Australia may be attractive being an English speaking country, as Asian students have often learnt English already at school. Secondly, financially, Japan is an expensive country in which to live. Moreover, support for tertiary students in Japan is not common, whereas in
77 Australia many universities have designated International Offices to help students with accommodation, social life on and off campus, part-time work, visas etc. Finally, although diminishing in recent years, “prejudice and discrimination against foreigners, especially against non-Caucasian foreigners still persists” (ibid). Such factors may influence Asian students towards studying in Australia, since most overseas students studying Japanese at Australian universities come from Asian countries (Thomson, 2010:176).
Matsumoto proposed that the East-Asians might see Japanese as a relatively easy academic credit because of the proximity with their own culture and/or language. Indeed the potential career advantage of Japanese combined with no (English) essays, and a beginner level of a language could be attractive to those of East-Asian background, who would be learning Japanese as their third, or even fourth language. “By adding Japanese to their list of languages, they will increase the potential marketability of themselves in their future” (Matsumoto, 2003:175).
A third possible cause for the level-based intra-cultural group difference, noted Matsumoto, was that advantages in learning Japanese for the East-Asian group could result in an inappropriately high level of self-efficacy. Affecting their beliefs in their capabilities to carry out certain tasks, this could lead to unexpected difficulties in coping with course requirements once enrolled. If their expectations of having an advantage in Japanese were high, it may have a stronger negative effect on motivation, according to Matsumoto.
2.5.3.2. Inter-cultural comparisons Persistence was investigated in relation to student interest in various aspects of Japanese categorized as culture, society, people, language, and business. Matsumoto found that Western-background students showed greater interest in culture and people in the semester-beginning survey, which, he suggested might be an important factor in their persistence. The continuing Western-background students in the semester-end survey too, showed a stronger interest in every aspect of culture. As they belong to a more distant cultural/ linguistic background, Matsumoto proposed that their choice to study Japanese was at least to some extent, then, due to an interest in the language and/or culture. Perhaps as a consequence they showed a stronger intention to persevere in their study.
78 Conversely, the weaker interest of the East-Asian students may be attributed to linguistic/cultural proximity. This differs from results found by Svanes, for example, who concluded that closer cultural distance is advantageous for language achievement (Svanes, 1987:358). More recently, in Queensland, Iwashita (2012) found higher achievement among Year 10 learners of Japanese with Korean or Chinese background (‘related language backgrounds’ to Japanese) than for learners from ‘unrelated language backgrounds’ such as English. Iwashita argued that, “learners were able to take advantage of their familiarity with Japanese culture and (thereby) include more relevant cultural information” in spoken and written tasks, and use more complex grammatical forms and structures (p.302).
Intermediate level Western-background students significantly lost interest in Japanese language by the end of the semester in Matsumoto’s study. He proposed that due to their larger cultural distance, the Western-background students were more likely to be overwhelmed: as Japanese study at university involves memorization of a large number of kanji characters, as well as more complex linguistic structures, and honorific/modest expressions that are closely related to Japanese culture. However, it may be that the students felt less engaged, as more advanced classes tend to offer fewer communicative opportunities, and become more lecture-like. Perhaps honorific/modest expressions seem irrelevant and of not much use to Western-background students, coming from a so-called ‘class-less’ society.
In summary, possibly echoing the stronger interest in L2 culture among continuing students in Ramage’s (1990) study, Matsumoto partly attributed the stronger interest in culture by Western-background students as a factor in their persistence. Conversely, the ‘closer proximity’ to Japanese among East-Asian participants may have had the opposite effect. They were less interested in culture, and their reasons for taking up Japanese were more pragmatic and therefore, perhaps, less sustainable over the long-term.
79 2.6. Chapter Summary
The final section in this chapter presents a summary of the literature review. Gardner’s concept of motivation provided a firm foundation for research into L2 motivation. Even as other concepts emerged, they built upon, were influenced by, or were measured against Gardner’s Socio-Educational model of SLA, although the model has been misunderstood and misrepresented. The focus of motivational research narrowed to learning situations such as the classroom in the 1990s, then further to the individual language learner in the 2000s. Nonetheless, a common thread connects Gardner’s broad ‘parsimonious’ concept of motivation with Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (2005), with Noels’ Orientations Model (2003), and Ushioda’s Dimensions model (2001).
Intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985) due to the inherent pleasure and interest in the learning activity is suggestive of Gardner’s concept of motivation as ‘a total state’ of the individual. However, Gardner’s concept includes an inter-group aspect that is not taken into account by Self Determination Theory (intrinsic/extrinsic motivation). Noels (2001) concluded that integrative orientation forms a separate motivational substrate to intrinsic/extrinsic orientations, where the latter are related to the learning situation. This is consistent with Gardner’s initial concept that learning a second language takes place within Educational and Cultural/Social contexts.
By the 2000s, L2 motivation was being viewed as a ‘process’, and qualitative methods had gained acceptance in L2 motivational research. Ushioda (2009) pointed out that quantitative research concentrates on averages, rather than individuals, and that a more ethnographic approach would achieve a balance. The Process-oriented approach (Dörnyei & Otto, 1998) described three distinct stages of preactional, actional, and post-actional motivation, although distinguishing the boundaries was problematic.
Rethinking the integrative concept in terms of a global community led to a change in focus from an external target language group (Gardner), to a non-specific global community (Noels), to an internal domain of self and identity (Dörnyei). The notion of self-imagery, that is, the Ideal L2 Self and the Ought-to L2 Self as possible selves, forms the basis of Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System.
80 Developing measures of the underlying constructs will be challenging, but to define what is meant by “self” will perhaps be even more so, due to variations amongst cultures, and the abundance of self-related concepts (MacIntyre et al., 2009a).
The notion that a learner might develop an identity as a speaker of the target language (i.e., a language identity) involves a number of variations upon a theme: possible selves to Dörnyei; accommodating a new concept of one’s self that arises due to a critical experience (according to Block); ‘imagined’ identity and integration with an imagined L2 community (to Norton); the learner as an agent who is shaping her own context (to Ushioda). An enjoyable activity carried out regularly and repeatedly may involve language identity, if it becomes a self-defining or passionate activity (e.g. speaking Japanese).
Harmonious passion (Vallerand, et al., 2003) was likened here to identity plus the three sub-components of Motivation (Gardner, 1985). Gardner’s concept of integrative motivation, complete with Integrativeness, already contained an identity component, such as identification with the L2 community. However, identity of the individual learner is a shift in focus, from a community that is external to the learner to an internal learner-constructed identity. As Harmonious passion contributes to feelings of wellbeing (Vallerand, 2012), it may also explain in part the global phenomenon of J- pop and perhaps the “seemingly intense and often passionate interest” in manga, anime, and television drama found among students of Japanese (Armour, unpublished draft paper, p.1).
‘Flow’ is also associated with feelings of wellbeing (Csikszentmihalyi, 1978; 1990) and has been connected with the interest and excitement that accompany intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985:29), and therefore with self-determination. Flow is characterised by a balance between challenge and skills, as well as a person’s interest, control, and focused attention during a task. Flow experiences can lead to optimal L2 learning, and, like reading, computer-based tasks and engagement in J-pop, may be particularly well suited to flow. The literature review has indicated that there may be a connection between passion and persistence due to the association of (HP) passion with the concept of language identity and with sub-components of Motivation. ‘Flow’ experiences might be linked with passion, and therefore persistence in the formal study of Japanese.
81 2.6.1. Concluding Remarks
The findings from specific studies of motivation and persistence featured in the literature review are not summarised here, as they re-surface in relation to findings in the school study and the university study and in the resultant discussion. The low priority of foreign languages relative to other subjects was found in Canada, the U.S.A., and Australia, although one might expect the situation to differ in Australia due to its strong multi-cultural policy. However, it appears that little change is likely without concerted effort in Australia by government, institutions and business to reduce the monolingual attitude in schools, universities, and in the community. According to official reports, language learning in Australia is in crisis, attrition rates are unacceptably high, and Japanese may well be one of the worst affected.
Many of the findings of LASP 1 and LASP 2 “reinforce the sense of alarm” (LASP 2, 2009:2) that was expressed in the report Languages in Crisis: a Rescue Plan for Australia by the Group of Eight Universities (2007). That report called for a “comprehensive policy to be developed at the national level that would embrace the learning of languages as an integral part of Australia’s political security, cultural harmony, and economic and educational competitiveness” (LASP 1, 2007). These same principles were the basis of the Call for Action (November 2007) by the Australian Academy of the Humanities, the Group of Eight, the Australian Council of State School Organisations, and the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
Most recently, the Languages and Cultures Network for Australian Universities (LCNAU) was established June 2013, to help provide support to the tertiary languages sector by facilitating systematic, regular collaboration, and as a lobby group for language education. With the release of Australia in the Asian Century: White Paper (October, 2012) Australian Prime Minister, Julia Gillard, re-iterated the importance of learning Asian languages in Australia. It is recommended that all Australian students will have the opportunity, and be encouraged, to undertake a continuous course of study in an Asian language throughout their years of schooling. All students will have access to at least one priority Asian language; these will be Chinese (Mandarin), Hindi, Indonesian, and Japanese (Australia in the Asian Century: White Paper, 2012:16).
82 Japanese was nominated as one of the four Asian languages to be accorded priority, which may be encouraging. However, it is of great concern to language educationalists that this ambitious public policy declaration contains little to indicate how, or to what extent, it will be implemented.
vi In regards to relationships between the AMTB subtests, a principal components analysis and LISREL analysis confirmed a five-factor solution being made up of Integrativeness, Attitudes toward the Learning Situation, Motivation, Language Anxiety and Instrumental Orientation. The latter factor when omitted, gave a solution where all values were meaningful. All hypothesized factor loadings were significant. Significant correlations were found among Integrativeness, Attitudes toward the Learning Situation, and Motivation, while Language Anxiety did not correlate significantly with the other factors. vii Vallerand & Bissonnette, 1992; Vallerand, Fortier & Guay, 1996 (In: Noels, Clement, & Pelletier, 1999). Although these studies refer to students at college overall, not specifically L2 learners. viii An unexpected result was that the most self-determined subtype of EM measured in the study, Identified Regulation, correlated higher with the four criteria (Intention to Continue, Perceived Freedom of Choice, Perceived Competence, and Anxiety) than with IM subscales. It could imply that “those who naturally enjoy the feeling of learning an L2” (Noels et al., 2000:52) rather than internalizing the learning, that is, rather than being personally involved in the learning, they might see it more as a language game or as a puzzle, somewhat removed from their daily life. So, in order to encourage persistence of study, “it may not be sufficient to convince students that language learning is interesting and enjoyable; they may need to be persuaded that it is also personally important for them” (Noels et al, 2000:52). ix Participants were 322 native English speakers taking first year Spanish in a Californian university, ranging in university levels and from 17 - 54 years of age. The Motivational orientation scale consisted of Amotivation, Intrinsic and Extrinsic orientations adapted from Noels et al. (2000), to assess why students were learning Spanish (altogether 19 items) and Integrative orientation (4 items). Much of Gardner’s (1985) research had demonstrated a positive association among integrativeness, attitudes towards learning the L2, motivational intensity and behavioural intentions. Consequently, Noels’ second scale, L2 variables relevant to the immediate situation and the inter-groups context consisted of the motivational sub-components of Motivational intensity (10 multiple choice items) and Attitudes towards learning Spanish (4 items), along with Intention to continue (3 items), Frequency of, and Quality of contact with the L2 community, and Ethnic identity. A third scale, students’ perceptions of their teachers’ communicative style was made up of Self-Perceptions of competence, and Self-Perceptions of autonomy (e.g. I feel I am forced to learn Spanish). x The initial three inter-related types of orientations were: inherent reasons “such as whether it is fun, engaging, challenging, or competence enhancing”; extrinsic reasons following the self-determination continuum, “including external pressures, internalised pressures, and self-expressive reasons”, and probably including Instrumental orientation; and thirdly, integrative reasons that relate to positive contact with the language group (Noels, 2001a: 98). xi Questioning in the second round of interviews covered motivational developments since the first interviews about 15 months previously, including the nature of any de-motivation (and potential for re- motivation) as well as perceived causes of any success or failure. Three initial questions (from a total of nine) sought any developments in motivation; questions were open-ended but with a more structured interview technique (Ushioda, 1996:241): 1. How would you describe your present state of motivation for learning French, and have you experienced any motivational changes over the past year? 2. Have you any further ideas or experienced any changes in your ideas about future career plans? If so, do you think these have had any impact on the way you feel about studying French? 3. Has anything happened in your personal life that has influenced the way you feel about your studies?
xii These were grouped into eight possible classifications, which included Academic interest, Personal satisfaction, Feelings about French-speaking countries or people, and External pressures/incentives. Four 83
(other) dominant motivational dimensions were identified, namely Desired levels of L2 competence, Personal goals, Language-related enjoyment/liking, and Positive learning history. xiii Achievement in the study was measured by Grade averages in public post-primary exams in French and average scores in two French C-tests at Trinity College. xiv The relatively successful participants also showed patterns of positive motivational thinking when analyzing the causes of their success in French. Generally enhancing their self-concept and perceived ability, they attributed their success to internal attributes (such as personal ability, effort, love of the language, interest, a perfectionist approach), as well as opportunities coming from personal experience (time spent in France, learning French as a child, having a French girlfriend etc). External causes (see Ushioda 2001:114 for details) of success were fewer, limited to the quality or motivating influence of the teachers (five responses) or the competitive atmosphere that motivated one to work hard (one response). xv Higgins’ theory aimed to explain depression-type disorders, “to predict which types of incompatible beliefs will induce which kinds of negative emotions” (Higgins, 1987:320). Briefly, Higgins proposed that if either the magnitude of the discrepancy, that is, the size of the difference, or the availability/accessibility of the belief of the discrepancy was greater between, for example, a person’s self-concept and one’s ought self-guides they would suffer more from agitation-related emotions (fear, restlessness, tension). They would feel tension from not accomplishing what they felt they ought; widening the gap between their ideal self and what they felt others expected of them, their ought self. On the other hand, if the discrepancy between a person’s self-concept and one’s ideal self-guides was greater, subjects suffered more from dejection-related emotions (e.g. disappointment, dissatisfaction, sadness) (Higgins, 1987: 336). To illustrate, according to Higgins, most theorists consider shame to involve the other standpoint and the ideal domain, while guilt involves the opposite, namely, the own standpoint and ought domain. Guilt involves chastising oneself for having broken one’s own rules of conduct. xvi For explanation of other standpoint, ought domain, and ideal/own see endnote x above. xvii The first cluster, the Actual learning process, consists of Language-Related Enjoyment/Liking, Positive Learning History, and Personal Satisfaction. The second cluster: External Pressures/Incentives. The third cluster (broadly integrative) is made up of Personal Goals, Desired Levels of L2 Competence (consisting of language-intrinsic goals), Academic Interest (literature), Feelings about French-speaking Countries/ People. xviii Colin Nettlebeck, The Australian, June 17, 2009. ‘Threatening blot on the polyglot’. xix Discriminant function analyses were used to isolate those factors that affect the decision to continue or discontinue study, and then point-biserial correlation coefficients indicated how each variable in isolation correlated with continuation or discontinuation. Analysis of the factorization as well as questionnaire items related to motivation, allowed Ramage to construct learner profiles. xx The motivational and attitudinal factor defining culture was: I’m interested in culture – the way different people in the world think and live. No data was collected regarding the source of this interest, whether it originated in the class, from outside influences or whether students were interested before taking the class. xxi Aptitude: t(169)=5 at delta=.001; Attitude: t(169)=3.74 at delta=.05 xxii Much of the data was related to studies carried out by the Language Research Group, which, established in 1971, consisted of a group of researchers, graduate students, research assistants and educators concerned with problems of second-language acquisition (Gardner & Smythe, 1975:218). xxiii Using Hays (1963) estimate of proportion of observed variability (see Gardner & Smythe,1975:190). xxiv The Group of Eight universities: The Australian National University (ANU), The University of NSW (UNSW), The University of Queensland, The University of Adelaide, The University of Sydney, Monash University, The University of Melbourne, The University of Western Australia.
84 CHAPTER 3
Research Design
The present study departs from previous research into L2 motivation by taking a mixed methods research approach. The mixed methods relate to the general orientation underlying the study, as well as the methods of data collection, the nature of the data, and the methods used for analysis. It is said that combining quantitative and qualitative research methods “can be beneficial to ‘corroborate’ (provide convergence in findings), ‘elaborate’ (provide richness and detail), or initiate (offer new interpretations) findings from the other method” (Rossman & Wilson, 1985:627, in Dörnyei, 2007:30). A survey research design was used in this study to investigate motivation, attitudes and persistence, which provided quantitative data. Items from Gardner’s Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) were selected for the survey, as the AMTB has often been used in studies of L2 motivation and persistence, and boasts proven reliability and validity. The qualitative data from focus group interviews allowed a closer look at individual students and their reasons for taking up Japanese initially, then continuing or discontinuing Japanese study. Usage of focus groups is a survey method in its own right. Originally conceived by Robert Merton, although Ernest Dichter apparently coined the name, the method is widely used in marketing and advertising (Stopher, 2012:127). The focus group interviews also served as “triangulation”, providing another method to substantiate findings, and fleshing out quantitative findings in a more personal way. Triangulation is described as the “observation of the research issue from (at least) two different points, most often realized by applying different methodological approaches” with each approach given equal value (Flick, 2004:178). The advantages of such an approach being the increase in theoretical generalisability, a broader and deeper understanding of the research topic, a thicker description of the subject investigated, and finally the addition of trustworthiness and validity. 85 The study overall, aims to enhance understanding of what motivates learners to continue (or discontinue) their formal learning of Japanese. An underlying question asks why are there so few advanced learners of Japanese despite the large number of beginner learners? Previous research has indicated a relationship between motivation and attitudes, and persistence (see Ch. 2). However, there have been few studies in English of motivation and persistence involving the learning of Japanese, and apparently none that used Gardner’s AMTB, or that was undertaken in both universities and schools.
Two research questions guided the present study, and applied to both quantitative and qualitative data where possible. The questions are:
(1) What factors most often influence the intention to continue (or discontinue) the study of Japanese among senior high school and university participants?
(2) What are the differences in motivation and attitudes between those who intend to continue and those who do not intend to continue their formal study of Japanese? Do the differences indicate evidence of a significant relationship between intention to continue and motivation/attitudes?
The data gathering procedure is explained in the following section, along with an overview of participants, but with full details given in the relevant senior high school (henceforth, ‘the school’ study) or university study chapters, that is Chapter 4, or Chapter 5 respectively. The instruments used as measures in the quantitative survey are detailed then reliability and validity issues are discussed. The chapter concludes with data analysis procedures.
3.1. Participants
Ten schools and four universities in the greater Sydney area were willing to participate in the project over three years. This study covers only two years. As participants were either currently enrolled in Japanese or had been enrolled previously, they represented a sample population of learners of Japanese in Australia. In schools, Japanese elective
86 classes participated as groups (Years 10, 11, and 12) while university learners volunteered to participate individually. However, this meant that the composition of the university sample in particular, is related to respondents’ own willingness to participate, which limits its generalisability. In return for taking part, each participant received a (A$20) voucher from the (Japanese) Kinokuniya Bookshop in Sydney. There were 164 university learners of Japanese in the first survey round (RI) of data collection in September/October 2009, and 56 in the second round (RII) in September/October 2010. 464 senior high school learners of Japanese took part in RI (the only round in this thesis) between May and July 2009.
3.2. Data Gathering Procedure
This study is part of a larger project, as previously mentioned, and the data gathering process was the same for the study and the project. Invitations to take part in the research were sent by email to both school and university Japanese departments through existing networks of New South Wales’ teachers of Japanese. The Japan Foundation, Sydney (one of the sponsors of the project) made initial contact with high schools through their database. The Foundation also arranged for the research team, which included myself, to visit individual schools and universities. The questionnaires and a Japanese proficiency test were administered and collected after the session, on the same day. A Pilot study for the overall project was carried out by the Chief Investigator, using a small group of learners of Japanese. As a result, the questionnaires were fine- tuned and some minor changes were made. For example, one item asked participants about activities they did in Japanese, and the option listening to radio was deleted as the pilot participants indicated that they never listen to radio.
87 3.3. Instruments and Measures
Both the university and the school studies consist of an identical Japanese proficiency test, and Motivation/Attitudes questionnaire. There were some necessary differences in the two Demographics questionnaires as is to be expected. The Motivation/Attitudes questionnaire used a multi-item Likert scale with closed-ended items. The focus group interviews on the other hand, used open-ended questions, aiming to delve deeper into student reasons for continuing or discontinuing Japanese study. Details of the instruments are given below and in the relevant study chapters.
3.3.1. Focus Group Interviews Focus groups gather together small groups of people with common characteristics relevant to gathering data on a given topic. Originally used as a market research tool to investigate the appeal of various products, the technique allows firsthand insights into respondent attitudes, language, etc. (Stopher, 2012:127). It was seen in Chapter 2 that Ushioda used the technique for quantitative data collection, as part of instrument development. In this study, however, focus groups were used to assist with interpretation and validation of quantitative findings. Three sets of focus group interviews were carried out in universities as part of the overall project. All participants were volunteers and each received a voucher (A$20) for the Kinokuniya bookshop. One interviewer carried out Interview Sets 1 and 2 in September 2009, while the author led Interview (Set) 3 in September/October 2010. Open-ended questions were used to elicit and to guide discussion. Both interviewers expressed the purpose of the interviews at the time, namely, an attempt to find out why learners do/do not continue Japanese study, and to uncover possible incentives (or disincentives) to continue. Interviewers need to be able to manage groups, and to be supportive listeners. The author’s background as a teacher was an asset in facilitating the interviews when necessary, and yet as a student too, the learners appeared to be at ease and willing to freely discuss their opinions. Interview 3 was carried out at three different universities. Depending upon the numbers willing to participate, a number of sessions were held in September/October 2010, with available dates and time-slots organised via email. Interviews took place in a
88 classroom and generally took about 45 minutes. Each session was recorded with permission of the participants, and later transcribed.
3.3.2. Questionnaires The quantitative measures can be divided into six sections, described in more detail below: (i) Learners’ demographics survey: Appendix 2(i) schools; 2(ii) universities. (ii) The Motivation & Attitudes questionnaire (30 items selected from Gardner’s AMTB): Appendix 3 Main Survey, Section 3: Views (iii) Intention to Continue measure (1 item): Appendix 3 Main Survey, Section 4: Future. (iv) Japanese language proficiency test (the SPOT test). (v) Activities autonomy survey: Appendix 3 Main Survey, Section 2: Activities. (vi) Habits autonomy survey: Appendix 3 Main Survey, Section 1: Habits.
(i) The Demographics survey This survey included age, gender, language background, Japanese language learning history, previous knowledge of kanji, and length of study. There were slight differences between the high school and the university survey items where necessary, and further details will be provided in the relevant chapters (4 and 5).
(ii) The Motivation & Attitudes questionnaire This survey consists of items from Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) from two of three main sections in the Integrative Motive: Motivation and Integrativeness. The third main section, Attitudes toward the Learning Situation was not included in the survey, due to constraints of questionnaire length. It was replaced by two autonomy surveys, Activities and Habits, by the Chief Investigator of the project, which cover similar issues in a different but more detailed way. They do make an appearance in this thesis by permission and are listed above, as sections (v) and (vi). The thirty items selected from a recent version of the AMTB (Gardner, Tremblay & Masgoret, 1997) were adapted in wording where necessary to the context of learning Japanese. The items fall into seven categories of sub-components, six from the Integrative Motive, plus Instrumental Orientation. The closed-ended items all used a 7- point Likert scale, ranging from Strongly Disagree through to Strongly Agree. Items were presented in a jumbled order to prevent respondents simply repeating previous answers.
89 As in the AMTB, positively and negatively worded items were included so as to reduce the effect of acquiescence, that is, variance due to socially desirable responding, or merely selecting the same response throughout. To cause as little disruption to classes as possible, and to fit in with high school timetables, and short class periods, the questionnaire for the whole project as well as the proficiency test needed to be completed within 40-minutes. Rather than reducing the scope of the instrument, the number of items focusing on each variable was restricted: whereas the AMTB generally has five negatively and five positively worded items to each measure, three were included in the Attitudes questionnaire. All negatively keyed items were then reversed before analyses were carried out. The scale descriptions and internal consistency reliability (alpha) coefficients obtained in Round 1 are presented below for both samples. Firstly, the Cronbach alpha score for the university (U) study, then the high school (HS) study. This is an internal consistency coefficient (calculated using SPSS) that indicates how different scores, for example, of several parallel questionnaire items in a scale ‘hang together’. The thirty test items are listed in Appendix 4: AMTB Items.
Motivational Measure: 1) Desire to Learn Japanese (Cronbach alpha, Univ=.81, HS=.81 ). This scale consists of six items, three positively worded and three negatively worded items. Using negatively keyed items prevents acquiescence, that is, students automatically ticking the items. All negatively keyed items are then reversed for analyses. A high score indicates a strong desire to learn Japanese. 2) Attitudes Towards Learning Japanese (Cronbach alpha, U=.77, HS=.85). This scale consists of six items, three positively worded and three negatively worded items. A high score indicates a positive attitude towards learning Japanese. 3) Motivational Intensity (Cronbach alpha, U=.75, HS=.65). This scale consists of three items, one positively worded and two negatively worded items. A high score indicates a high degree of effort. Total Motivation (Cronbach alpha, HS=.914): 15 items. This is an aggregate score of the previous three measures.
90 Integrativeness measure: 4) Interest in Foreign Languages (Cronbach alpha, U=.71, HS=.58). This scale consists of six items, three positively worded and three negatively worded items relating to general interest in studying foreign languages. A high score indicates an interest in learning/using a foreign language. 5) Attitudes towards the L2 (Japanese) Community (Cronbach alpha, U=.57, HS=.52). This scale consists of three items, two positively worded and one negatively worded item. A high score indicates a positive attitude or a predisposition towards the Japanese people. The score here may be due to the research situation where the Japanese community is not easily accessible for learners and the teacher is often the main contact. 6) Integrative Orientation (Cronbach alpha, U=.69, HS=.79). This scale consists of three items, two positively worded and one negatively worded item. The items emphasise the importance of learning Japanese so as to interact with and share cultural experiences with the Japanese community. A high score indicates the endorsement of integrative reasons for studying Japanese. Total Integrativeness (Cronbach alpha, HS=.68) 12 items. This is an aggregate of the previous three measures.
Other Measures: 7) Instrumental Orientation (Cronbach alpha, U=.57, HS=.73). This scale consists of three items, two positively worded and one negatively worded item, that relate to the practical importance of learning Japanese such as for one’s future career. A high score indicates endorsement of instrumental reasons for studying Japanese. The lower Cronbach alpha on this measure in the university study perhaps reflects the many different reasons for learning an L2 that could be relatively unrelated to each other, such as ‘to get a good job’, and ‘to satisfy a university requirement’ (Gardner, 2010:127).
(iii) The Intention to Continue measure This measure asked participants to indicate whether they planned to continue or discontinue formal Japanese study after they completed their current course of Japanese, e.g. School Certificate (‘current course’ was clarified for respondents by the research team during administration of the questionnaire). Intention to continue was used as the 91 measure of persistence in other studies and shown to be an accurate reflection of behavioural intention (as discussed in Ch.2). Two checklists of 16 options each followed the Intention to continue measure. One list contained possible motivations for continuing and the other list, for not continuing. Multiple answers were possible as they were asked to indicate those factors that were applicable; most gave a number of reasons. Less than 10% of students took the opportunity to add extra comments, which suggests the options given were adequate.
(iv) The Japanese Proficiency Test The Simplified Proficiency Oriented Test, or SPOT (Kobayashi, Ford-Niwa, & Yamamoto, 1997) was used to measure Japanese proficiency in the study. The SPOT test consists of 60 statements that are spoken once each by a native Japanese speaker. While reading and listening to the pre-recorded items, participants write one hiragana letter to fill a blank space in each statement. The test is considered to measure learners’ overall proficiency as it is not only a measure of grammatical knowledge, but listening comprehension, and reading ability, together with an ability to write hiragana with little time to dwell upon it. It has been used widely as a placement test and as a test of proficiency in SLA research experiments.3 This across-the-board test was used rather than student academic results because of the difficulty involved in correlating scores of senior high school students in Years 10, 11 and 12, and university students in Years 1, 2, 3 and 4, all participating in the study. The difference in year/course level was taken into account in the analyses.
3 A placement test in Tsukuba University, University of Melbourne, University of California, San Diego. A proficiency test in Fukuda (2007); Okuno (2004); and Son (2010). 92 3.4. Reliability and validity
With sufficiently large sample sizes as in this study, the characteristics of the individuals in a group will generally approach what is known as a ‘normal distribution’, forming a bell curve. The larger the sample group, the more regular or ‘normal’ the curve becomes. The importance of the bell-curve is that a whole range of mathematical procedures (i.e. statistics), with precise rules and analytical tools, provide a systematic approach to both data collection and analysis, thereby eliminating reliance on a researcher’s subjective interpretations (Dörnyei, 2007, Research methods in applied linguistics). On the other hand, questions typically raised about qualitative studies are of validity and reliability. Reliability relates to whether consistent results are obtained, whereas to be valid, one must ask to what extent do the assessment procedures assess what they claim to assess. Triangulation, defined by Burns (1997) is “the use of two or more methods of data collection in the study of some aspect of human behaviour” (p.324). If the different methods produce the same results, the data are likely to be valid. The present study, by combining qualitative and quantitative data sources to study motivation and persistence, aimed to maximize the internal and external validity of the research. The internal validity refers to the soundness of the research; whether the outcome is really due to the variables and factors measured. External validity concerns whether the results can be generalised to other samples or populations. Dörnyei (2007) divided quantitative measurement standards into three parts: reliability, measurement validity, and research validity. Reliability “is the extent to which our measurement instruments and procedures produce consistent results in a given population in different circumstances” (Dörnyei, 2007:50). Different circumstances can involve for example, changes in test takers over time, or various forms of the test. If variations such as these cause inconsistencies, the results are unreliable. Contrary to some usage in methodological literature, it is not the test or the measuring instrument that is reliable or unreliable. Reliability is a property of the scores on a test for a particular population of test-takers (ibid). Researchers then, need to report the reliability of each score or combination of scores, and one way, which was used in the present study, is to give the Cronbach alpha statistic.
93 Measurement Validity That a test is valid if it measures what it is supposed to measure has been the traditional view but the current view is that neither the instrument, nor the actual score is valid. “There has been a shift from seeing validity as an attribute of the test to considering it the truthfulness of the interpretation of the test scores” (Dörnyei, 2007:50). Correspondingly, in the present study, a serious effort was made to give truthful interpretations and inferences from the instruments and scores.
Research validity Research validity concerns the whole research project as well as this study. Internal and external validity are aspects of research validity, and both can be affected if there is “a flaw in the design” (Dörnyei, 2007:53). The main threat to longitudinal research validity, a part of the present study, is participant mortality or attrition, where not only the number of participants with complete data sets are reduced, but the dropouts may not be random but differential (i.e. participants who drop out are different to those who stay-in), “leaving the remaining group with disproportionate characteristics” (ibid). This issue is discussed further particularly in regards to the university sample (see Ch.5) as the individuals were free to choose whether or not they participated in the study. This may produce a biased sample and limit the generalisability. The Hawthorne effect, where participants behave differently when they know they are being studied is another main threat to validity. Maturation, where participants change over the course of a long-term study; participant desire to meet expectation, where participants perform in a way they think is expected of them; and events taking place outside the study that may affect participant performance over time, are examples of the Hawthorne effect (Dörnyei, 2007:53). However, perhaps due to the nature of this study, the Hawthorne effect was not found to be noticeable. Perhaps the greatest limitation in this study is that of the difficulty of test reliability and assessment of internal consistency, as the classes were not formed randomly, prior to testing (Gardner & Tremblay, 1994). In the school study, classes consisted of Japanese elective groups therefore learners are likely to be interested in Japanese. Generally, whole grades (e.g. Year 10 Japanese) completed the questionnaire in the same sitting. Students were encouraged to not communicate with anyone whilst answering the questionnaires. Further limitations in the study are presented in Chapter 7 and in other relevant chapters.
94 3.5. Confidentiality and disclosure of information
Ethics approval to gather questionnaire data was sought and finally granted by governing bodies of universities (Human Research Ethics Advisory panel, HREA) and NSW high schools (State Education Research Approvals Process, SERAP). For copies of the approvals see Appendix 7 and Appendix 8. Approval for focus group interviews among university students was obtained, but interviews with school students would not qualify for ethics approval. As an essential part of gaining ethics approval, both survey and interview respondents were given two identical Participant Information Statement and Consent forms to read and sign (Appendix 1(i) and (ii)). One signed copy was retained and stored with completed questionnaires by the Chief Investigator in a locked cabinet at the university. Participant responses are confidential, with respondents being coded with a number for analyses. But being a longitudinal study, participant names and email addresses were obtained for follow-up purposes. As a fairly standard practice, the data is to be destroyed after five years, which has been bemoaned by some researchers as a waste of precious resources. 4 Perhaps data would be better retained as a database accessible for future research as it is becoming increasingly difficult to carry out surveys in schools.
3.6. Data Analysis Procedure
The Statistical Program for Social Sciences (SPSS versions 17, 18) was used to analyse the questionnaire data. Although many of the comparisons produced differences that were statistically significant, this does not denote the strength of the association between the variables. Rather, “effect size” (or strength of association) estimates the relative magnitude of the differences between means, or of the proportion of variability between two groups, such as those who intended to continue and those who did not. Effect size was calculated (as it is not provided by SPSS) using the formula for eta squared: t²÷ t²+df (Pallant, 2007:236). The eta-squared effect size ranges from 0 to 1.
4 At the ACSPRI Social Science Methodology conference, Sydney, 2010. 95 In the motivational analyses in this study, the dependent-measures t-test was used to examine relationships between the same individuals in Rounds I and II of the university study. The independent-measures t-test was used to compare the mean score, on some continuous measure, for two test groups made up of different individuals. For example, do males and females differ in terms of their motivation? The t-test was used to examine relationships between scores on the AMTB (Gardner, 1985) as the dependent variable, and other variables, such as intention to continue, as the independent variable.
The Intention to Continue measure allowed the sample to be divided into those who intended to continue and those who would discontinue, and then compared. The chi-square test for independence was used to explore the relationship between two categorical variables, such as gender vs. intention to continue, with two categories in each (i.e. 2x2 table) or more. Chi-square uses a cross-tabulation procedure to evaluate the significance of a relationship, by comparing the observed frequencies or proportions of cases in each category with values expected if there was no association. The Yates Continuity Correction, a significance value calculated by SPSS, compensates for what is considered the overestimate of the chi-square value when using 2 by 2 tables. The most commonly used effect size statistic for 2x2 tables in the Cross-tabulation procedure is the phi correlation coefficient, which can range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating a stronger association between the two (dichotomous) variables. As phi is a correlation, it measures the strength of the relationship (rather than significance), providing a measure of effect size (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2007:602). Using Cohen’s (1988) criteria, .01 indicates small effect, .30 medium, and .50 large effect sizes. Cramer’s V rather than phi is used for tables larger than 2 by 2, as it takes into account the degrees of freedom (Pallant, 2007:217).
The Pearson correlation is used to analyse data consisting of numerical scores such as the SPOT proficiency scores, not frequencies, or categories. As the main purpose of a correlation is to measure the strength of a relationship, squaring the correlation (r squared) gives a measure of effect size; the proportion of variance in one variable that is accounted for by its relationship with the other variable (Gravetter & Wallnau, 2007:605).
96 The focus group interview data on the other hand, was subjected to content analysis, that is, searching for patterns and themes, or whether there were any deviations from patterns, and how they might be related to the questionnaire data and to the broader study questions. The qualitative analyst (the author) was “self-aware, honest, and reflective about the analytic process” (Frechtling & Sharp, 1997:98).
3.7. In Summary
This chapter described the research design of the overall study, which consists of two related studies that are given separate chapters. The school study follows in Chapter 4, and the university study in Chapter 5, giving details of participant demographics, the tests carried out and consequent analyses.
97 CHAPTER 4
The High Schools study
This study consisted of senior high school students in Years 10, 11 and 12, all of whom were studying or had studied Japanese as an elective subject. Year 10 (or Stage 5) students in New South Wales (NSW) schools generally take Japanese as part of the School Certificate (replaced from 2012 with the Record of School Achievement, or ROSA). The Higher School Certificate, or HSC, on the other hand, is awarded to students after they successfully complete Years 11 and 12 (Stage 6), and is a university entrance qualification. 5 In NSW schools, Japanese is offered in the following HSC courses: Beginners, Continuers, Extension, Background Speakers and recently, Heritage courses (for details see Appendix 6). Only one course of any one language may be taken in the HSC, with the exception of Extension, which is taken in addition to the Continuers course. The Continuers course targets those who have studied Japanese in secondary school for three to five years previously. Japanese is also studied under the two-year International Baccalaureate (IB) Diploma course (instead of the HSC), where foreign language study is compulsory. There is an intensive language 'A' course in IB; a language 'B' course, which assumes some level of proficiency; or foreign languages may be taken ab initio (for beginners). Students in NSW are required to study at least 100 hours in one language between Years 7–10 (preferably in Year 7 or 8). They may continue that language as an elective for the School Certificate (and/or choose to study another language). 6 Three or
5 In 2011, the largest group of Year 12 students in Australian history (72,391) sat the exams according to www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/media-release/pdf.../111011-hsc.pdf). 6 Many learners though, begin Japanese in primary school “and in an ideal system would achieve higher levels by the end of Year 12 than those commencing in secondary school. However, … there is no clear 98 four-year language programs as a minimum in schools would provide a much better basis for proficiency, although any experience of learning a new language is valuable.
This chapter is divided into four sections. The following section (4.1) presents details of participant demographics, including the Japanese proficiency test outcomes, and other languages spoken by participants. In the second section (4.2), the Intention to continue measure allowed comparisons to be made between those who intended to continue (the ‘stay-ins’) and those who intended to discontinue (the ‘drop-outs’). In section 4.3, findings related to the Motivation and Attitudes survey, and differences between the stay-ins and the drop-outs are discussed. Finally, there is a short chapter summary, section 4.4.
4.1. Demographics
4.1.1. Participants
Ten schools took part in this study. Eight were located in Sydney, and two were regional schools in Gosford, north of Sydney. Six of the schools were ‘selective’ schools, which means that students undergo a highly competitive ‘selective’ entrance test. Two of these six were boys’ schools, one was mixed, and three were girls’ schools. Of the remaining four schools, one of the ten was a non-governmental school, whilst the other three were mixed, comprehensive government schools (see Appendix 5). Year 10 students accounted for 55% of the total sample of 464 (see Table 4.0). Although about 51% of the sample was studying Japanese for the School Certificate, five of the learners were in Years 11 and 12 (possibly an error in ticking the boxes). The 33% taking the Continuers course were mostly in Year 11 or 12, although 3.5% were in Year 10. Those taking Extension (9%) were all in Year 12 except one. A small number of students just (1%) were studying the International Baccalaureate Diploma course. Therefore, due to over-lapping of courses and grades, for analyses Japanese Course was preferred over school years.
pathway which allows these learners to consistently maintain their head start and achieve higher levels by Year 12 in any state or territory in Australia” (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:27).
99 Table 4.0. High School Year according to Japanese Course levels School Year Yr 10 Yr 11 Yr 12 Total School Count 229 2 3 234 Certificate % of Total 49.6% .4% .6% 50.6% Beginners Count 8 15 10 33 % of Total 1.7% 3.2% 2.2% 7.1% Continuers Count 16 79 55 150 % of Total 3.5% 17.1% 11.9% 32.5% Extension Count 1 0 39 40 % of Total .2% .0% 8.4% 8.7% IB Count 0 4 1 5 % of Total .0% .9% .2% 1.1% Total Count 254 100 108 462* % of Total 55.0% 21.6% 23.4% 100.0% (* 2 missing)
The total sample of 464 participants consisted of 35% males and 65% females. Most respondents (71%) had studied Japanese for four years or less, while just 17% had studied for two years or less. Participant information is summarized in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1. Demographic summary for High School participants Demographics Round 1 2009 Count Percent % Gender Female 300 65 Male 164 35 School Grade Year 10 256 55 Year 11 100 22 Year 12 108 23 Japanese Course School Certificate 234 50 Beginners 33 7 Continuers 150 33 Extension 40 9 IB 5 1 Missing 2 - Total 464 100 Previous knowledge More than 1000 31 6 of kanji 501-1000 9 2 101-500 41 9 Less than 100 134 29 No prior knowledge 249 54 Additional language Yes 332 72 Spoken No 132 28 Visited Japan Yes 182 40 No 282 60
About 72% of respondents spoke at least one other language, and 43% of these spoke Chinese, which, in Australia, can mean that while they may speak the language fluently they are not necessarily literate (in kanji). About 46% of the sample had prior
100 knowledge of kanji before studying Japanese. The majority of these respondents knew less than 100 characters (29%), while those who knew over 1000 kanji characters were few (6%). (54% of participants had no prior knowledge of kanji). Of the 40% who had visited Japan, about half had spent two weeks there (see Figure 4.1). Some had spent substantial time in Japan with their family; for example, at the far extreme one student had spent 260, and another 366 weeks there.
Figure 4.1. H.S. study: Time spent in Japan (in weeks) versus percentage
Time spent in Japan did not necessarily mean a high proficiency in Japanese however, as shown by proficiency scores featured in the following section. One student with a very high score of 59/60 had been to Japan for one week, while another (ID 1204) was born in Japan and spent 366 weeks (about 7 years) there but achieved 17/60.
4.1.2. Japanese Proficiency
Proficiency was measured with a version of the Simplified Proficiency Oriented Test (SPOT). The test is considered to measure overall proficiency from beginner to intermediate level, through listening comprehension, grammatical knowledge, and reading and writing ability (see Ch.3).
101 Indicating the varying level of exposure to the language by high school participants, Japanese proficiency levels were widely distributed (see Figure 4.2) although scores were (positively) skewed, with most scores towards the lower end. There were 19 students who scored the minimum of zero, and two students attained 60, the maximum score.
Figure 4.2. H.S. Proficiency scores vs Frequency (N=464); Mean=20.87; Min=0; Max=60
There was an unexpectedly high number of zero scores, which might indicate that students ‘gave up’, perhaps as a form of ‘non-participation’. When administering the test, this researcher found that some Year 10 students reacted to the practice listening questions at the start of the SPOT test with incredulity, and nervous laughter. Apparently, the speed of the test items was well above their listening (and reading capabilities) although this version of the test was designated appropriate for beginner and intermediate levels. Each item in the proficiency test was spoken only once whereas school students are accustomed to repetition. Together with the speed of the recorded test items, which was faster than an average Japanese native-speaker, this allowed no time for hesitation or to think how to write the appropriate hiragana symbol (or to return to a previous answer). 102 Beginner students, or students whose knowledge of hiragana was ‘shaky’ may have given up and/or scored zero. Alternatively, the test may just not be suitable for a certain type of beginner personality, who might panic, then perhaps even become angry resulting in non-participation (and a zero score). Alternatively, a score of zero might be a defiant form of resistance, rather than appearing foolish with low marks. Students use tactics such as not trying so as ‘to avoid the negative implications of failure’ (Ames, 1986:243). Norton (2001) focused on two learners (who eventually dropped out of the ESL class) from the point of view of resistance and non-participation in second and foreign language classrooms. Non- participation includes not only dropping out of class, which is an extreme form but also, for example, an aloof, unengaged form of behaviour in a classroom (or in a proficiency test). Non-participation refers to how “we not only produce our identities through the practices we engage in, but we also define ourselves through the practices we do not engage in…what we are not, can even become a large part of how we define ourselves” (Wenger, 1998:164, in Norton, 2001:159). Proficiency scores fell within a similar range of scores in the different Japanese courses (from about 0 to 60) excepting Extension level. Those in Extension showed greater proficiency, which is expected, scoring from 15 to 58, with a mean of 39.6 (see Table 4.2).
Table 4.2. SPOT proficiency scores according to Japanese Course Japanese Course N=462 SPOT SPOT SPOT SD Level Min Max Mean School Certificate 234 0 58 15.4 12.7 Beginners 33 0 60 14.0 15.4 Continuers 150 1 59 26.2 14.2 Extension 40 15 58 39.6 10.9 IB 5 7 38 16.6 12.5 Total 462 0 60 20.9 15.2
Conversely, the minimum for IB was 7, whilst the maximum was surprisingly quite low (38), much lower than Beginners and School Certificate. However, the Mean score for IB was slightly higher than that of Beginners. Taken together this would indicate that Japanese was taken as ab initio (for beginners) rather than level B in the IB course, which assumes some level of proficiency.
103 Demographics allowed other comparisons, such that females showed significantly higher levels of proficiency than males. 7 Surprisingly, no significant relationships were found between proficiency and the number of kanji previously known by participants (p >.05). Since most who had prior knowledge knew only a limited number (less than 100 kanji) it may have provided little advantage in terms of proficiency, as at beginner and lower intermediate levels katakana and hiragana alphabets, rather than kanji, are the main focus.
4.1.3. Languages spoken
In each Japanese course, the majority spoke another language (excepting IB), with a high proportion among the Beginners course - all but one (see Table 4.3). About 36% spoke another language in the School Certificate cohort, which is the largest group in the sample (at 51%); 22% of Continuers, the next largest group (at 32%); and two- thirds of Extension spoke another language. A significant relationship was found between Japanese course and whether or not another language was spoken (Chi- squared (4, n=462)=.197, p=.001, Cramers’ V=.197).
Table 4.3. Additional languages spoken according to Japanese Course
Japanese Course Other Language Spoken No Yes Totals School Certificate Count 68 166 234 % of Course 14.7 35.9 51% Beginners Count 1 32 33 % .2 6.9 7% Continuers Count 47 103 150 % 10.2 22.3 32% Extension Count 11 29 40 % 2.4 6.3 9% IB Count 4 1 5 % .9 .2 1% Totals Count 131 331 462* % 28.4% 71.6% 100% * 2 missing
7 Proficiency for females (N=300, M=23.2, SD=15.7) compared to males (N=164, M=16.5, SD=13.3; t(383)=4.9, p< .001, η2 =.05). 104 Although far from the 77 varieties in the LASP 2 (2009) national study, these participants spoke a number of languages. Here, as in that study, the majority spoke Chinese. Cantonese (at 26%), Mandarin (16%), Chinese Other (1%) and Korean (12%) accounted for 55% of participants. Those who spoke another language accounted for about 72% including other languages (at about 17%). Other languages included Thai, Sinhalese, Hindi, Cambodian, Bengali, Tagalog, Laotian, Arabic, Czech, Italian, and French. Those participants who spoke no other language were the minority at 28.4%.
4.2. Demographics and the Intention to Continue
An initial question in the demographics questionnaire asked respondents to indicate their current Japanese course using options in a checklist. Respondents were then asked whether or not they intended to continue their Japanese study past their present course.8
Table 4.4. Intention to Continue according to Japanese Course Japanese Plan to Plan to SAMPLE Unsure TOTAL Missing High School Course Continue discontinue TOTAL School Count 141 88 2 231 3 234 Certificate % of Total 31% 19% .4% 51% Beginners Count 26 5 - 31 2 33 % 6% 1% 7% Continuers Count 111 36 1 148 2 150 % 24% 8% .2% 32% Extension Count 30 10 - 40 - 40 % 7% 2% 9% IB Count 3 2 - 5 - 5 % .6% .4% 1% TOTAL Count 311 141 3 455 9* 464 % 68.4% 31% 0.6% 100% 100% * includes 2 missing in Course.
The Intention to continue measure allowed the sample to be divided into two groups according to intention to ‘stay in’ or ‘drop out’ of formal study of Japanese. The
8 Measure of ‘intention to continue’: After you finish this course do you plan to continue formal study of Japanese? (Yes/No). In the context of the survey, ‘course’ referred to their current enrolment e.g. School Certificate, Continuers, Extension, etc. 105 majority in each course intended to continue. Overall, two-thirds (68%) of school participants intended to continue (the ‘stay-ins’), and 31% intended to discontinue (the ‘drop-outs’) as shown in Table 4.4 (bottom row). The figures include three ‘unsure’. Unlike the studies of motivation and persistence by Gardner and Smythe, these senior high school students are not grouped according to whole school grades. They were studying Japanese as an elective subject and grouped accordingly, which means that they may be more interested in Japanese and possibly likely to continue.
Stay-ins proved to be significantly more proficient in Japanese,9 and they had visited Japan on average more than four weeks longer than the drop-outs. Neither proficiency, nor length of stay proved significant in regards to continuation (p >.05). However, an association was found between having visited Japan and persistence [Chi- square with Yates’ correction (1,452)=6.17, p=.01, phi=.12], of a small effect size. Results showed that 63% of males and 72% of females planned to continue (7 missing), but perhaps surprisingly, no significant differences were found between stay-ins and drop-outs on the basis of gender, or previous knowledge of kanji.
Table 4.5. Intention to continue and language spoken Intention to continue study of Japanese Languages Not Yes Count % Spoken continue continue Unsure Total Total Cantonese 22 95 0 117 25.8% Mandarin 20 55 0 75 16.5 Chinese Other 2 3 0 5 1.1 Korean 14 40 0 54 11.9 Vietnamese 8 12 0 20 4.4 Indonesian 1 4 (1) 5 1.1 Italian 1 1 0 2 .4 Arabic 0 2 0 2 .4 Other 20 25 (2) 48 9.9 Sub-Total 88 237 (3) 325 71.6 NIL Language 54 75 (1) 129 28.4 Total 144 312 (3) 454* 100% *10 missing
There was an association found between persistence and whether another language was spoken, although of small effect size (phi=.12). 10 About 72% spoke another language, while 28% did not (see Table 4.5). A rather high proportion of those
9 Proficiency of Stay-ins M=22.9, SD=15.3; Drop-outs: M=17.2, SD=14.4; t(288)=3.9, p< .001, η2 = .03). 10 Chi-square test of independence (Yates’ Continuity Correction) = (1, n=452)=11.7, p=.001, phi=.12. 106 who spoke no other language intended to discontinue (54/129, about 42%). Conversely, about 75% of those with another language intended to continue. (Calculations excluded three unsure, and ten missing.) Those studying another language in addition to Japanese made up 21% of participants, with more than half of that percentage studying Chinese.
Participants were asked to indicate their reasons for continuing or discontinuing Japanese using checklists in the demographic questionnaire. Factors influencing the decision to continue will be discussed initially, then the decision to discontinue in the following section. Everyone gave more than one reason, while most gave a large number of reasons, as they were asked to indicate those that were applicable. Four respondents indicated all 16 reasons to continue. (It’s my major is a reason that applies to the university study, and is not applicable in schools.)
4.2.1. Factors influencing Intention to Continue
Hope to travel to Japan was the predominant factor influencing the intention to continue for high school participants according to frequency analysis, followed by interested in Japanese culture, then, enjoyment of reading in Japanese (see Figure 4.3). As previously mentioned, about 40% of the overall sample had already visited Japan, and 30% of these intended to continue (reflecting the association found between persistence and having visited Japan).
HS Reasons to Continue It's my Major Parental wishes Hope to work in Japan Like the Japanese teacher Like learning kanji Like learning grammar Achieving good marks Hope to study in Japan Like writing in Japanese Useful for future career Like listening to Japanese Enjoy Manga, Anime,… Like learning Jpn words Like reading in Japanese Interested in Jpn culture Hope to travel to Japan 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Figure 4.3. Reasons to Continue (n=312) versus frequency (Multiple answers possible)
107 Being able to go on a school trip or exchange to Japan is known to be an incentive to continue to the year level of the trip (typically Year 10 or 11) “and the experience of such a visit often enhanced motivation to continue on return” (de Kretser & Spence- Brown, 2010:34). Furthermore, language enjoyment “was often enhanced by an interest in Japan or Japanese culture and a desire to be able to access cultural products in the original language, or travel to Japan” (ibid). Hope to travel to Japan, the predominant reason given to continue among stay-ins overall (by 88%), was endorsed by over 80% of stay-ins in each course, by 92% of stay-ins at Continuers level, 81% of Beginners, and all of IB (Table 4.6). Interested in Japanese culture followed with 77% and like reading in Japanese with 72% in frequency (overall).
Table 4.6. Principal Reasons to Continue among stay-ins (n=317) according to Japanese Course
Principal Reasons to Continue Japanese Course School Certificate Beginners Continuers Extension IB Total Hope to travel to Japan Count 126 22 102 25 3 278 % 87% 81% 92% 83% 100% 88% Within Course Interested in Japanese Count 115 16 88 22 2 243 culture % 80% 59% 79% 73% 67% 77% Like reading in Japanese Count 107 17 81 21 2 228 % 74% 63% 73% 70% 67% 72% Like learning Japanese Count 106 16 75 21 3 221 words % 74% 59% 68% 70% 100% 70% Enjoy Manga, Anime, Count 108 15 73 24 0 220 Drama % 75% 56% 66% 80% 0 70% Like listening to Count 92 18 79 19 1 209 Japanese % 64% 67% 71% 63% 33% 66%
A previous study in Australian high schools (Marriott, Neustupny, & Spence- Brown, 1994:90) had found that liking languages and interest in Japanese culture were significant reasons for continuing Japanese. Enhancing my future career was the predominant motivation (73%) in the 1994 survey, which reflected the ‘boom’ years of Japanese in Australia; at a time when the utility of Japanese was promoted, and Japan was emerging as a regional superpower. In the present school study, useful for my future career, rated seventh in priority (61% of the sample overall). 108 The three main reasons to continue were followed closely in frequency by like learning Japanese words (70%) and enjoy reading manga, watching anime and drama (70%) at equal fourth, and then next, at fifth, like listening to Japanese (66%). It is possible that all three reasons are related to enjoyment of J-pop.
4.2.1.1. Language background and continuation The prominence of like reading in Japanese and enjoy reading manga etc. as fourth among reasons given to continue, makes one wonder if there may not be some association between such reasons for continuation and whether respondents already spoke another language, and/or had previous knowledge of kanji. An association was found between speaking an additional language/s (AL) and like learning Japanese words (of small effect size),11 and with Japanese course.12 As previously mentioned, the Beginners course had a very high number of AL speakers, but there were high proportions of AL speakers in every course, excepting IB. There was no association found between previous knowledge of kanji and speaking an AL, which is a little surprising.
Whether another language was spoken was also found to be associated with enjoy reading manga etc.13 This factor was proportionally more often nominated among stay- ins in Extension (80%) and School Certificate (75%) courses than any other course (as seen in Table 4.6). It may reflect the higher proportions of speakers of other languages found in those two courses compared to non-speakers (although School Certificate and Continuers’ had the greatest number of AL speakers).
Among the 88% who nominated hope to travel to Japan as a factor in intending to continue, 68% spoke another language (see Table 4.7). Among the 70% of stay-ins who indicated enjoy reading manga etc. as their reason to continue, about 60% spoke another language. These figures explain the associations found between some reasons for continuation and whether respondents already spoke an additional language. It is noticeable that of those who indicated that they like reading in Japanese (72%), many (55%) already spoke an additional language, with the proportion somewhat higher for enjoy reading manga, watching anime, and drama (59%).
11 [Chi-square (1, N=316)=.03, p=.02, phi=.13] 12 [Chi-square (4, n=462) =18.23, p=.001, Cramer’s V=.20, effect size: small] 13 [Chi-square with Yates’ correction (1, n=316)=29.38, p=.0001, phi=.31, effect size: small] 109 Table 4.7. Main Reasons to Continue according to language spoken Reason to Continue Speak another Language Stay-ins n=317 No (Nil) % Yes % Total percent % Hope to travel to Japan 20.2 68.1 88 Interested in Japanese culture 19.2 58.0 77 Like reading in Japanese 17.4 54.9 72 Like learning J. words 19.9 50.1 70 Enjoy Manga, Anime, Drama 11.0 58.7 70 Like listening to Japanese 14.2 52.1 66 Useful for future career 12.3 49.2 62 Like writing in Japanese 16.4 44.5 61 n=312 Previous Knowledge of kanji Total % No % Yes % Interested in Japanese culture 39.0 38.5 78 Like reading in Japanese 37.5 34.6 72 Like learning J. words 36.9 33.6 71 Enjoy Manga, Anime, Drama 28.8 41.3 70 Like writing in Japanese 33 27.6 61
Previous knowledge of kanji Surprisingly, stay-ins with no previous knowledge of kanji nominated the reasons to continue like reading in Japanese, and like writing in Japanese about as often as those with previous knowledge (see lower section of Table 4.7). 37% of stay-ins with no previous knowledge indicated they like reading in Japanese as a reason to continue, compared to 35% with prior knowledge. Slightly more of those with no previous kanji knowledge indicated like learning Japanese words (37%) compared with (34%) with prior knowledge. Consequently, reasons to continue (including like reading in Japanese) showed no associations with previous knowledge of kanji but with one exception. Enjoy reading manga etc. showed an association with prior knowledge of kanji of moderate size14 as well as with how many kanji were known, albeit of a small effect size [Chi-square (3, n=156)=8.2, p=.04, Cramers V=.23]. As 82% of stay-ins who nominated this reason to continue had prior knowledge of kanji, perhaps this is not unexpected (see Table 4.8). It is difficult to draw conclusions regarding such a result for prior knowledge of kanji, as there was a lack of association with the reason like reading in Japanese. Moreover, the item enjoy reading manga etc. included anime and drama. Nevertheless, one could surmise that knowledge of kanji would be helpful in enjoying reading manga, and/or, that many who enjoy reading manga etc. have previous knowledge of kanji.
14 [Chi-square Continuity Correction (n=316)=29.3, p=.0001, phi=.31]. 110 Table 4.8. Five Reasons to Continue according to Previous knowledge of kanji High Schools: Previous Knowledge: How Many Kanji (n=157)* Reasons to Continue (n=317) More Less than 101-500 501-1000 than 100 kanji kanji kanji 1000 Total % % % % % Enjoy Manga, Anime, Drama 51 15 6 10 82 Interested in Japanese culture 50 11 5 10 76 Like reading in Japanese 44 11 4 9 68 Like learning Japanese words 43 10 5 8 66 Like writing in Japanese 36 9 3 7 55 (*n=157 as one-third had no previous knowledge, and a further one-third were discontinuers).
Finally, with regard to factors influencing the intention to continue, a number of participants took the opportunity to add to the survey their own reasons to continue. Similar reasons were collated to form groupings that included: it’s a requirement (for IB course), family background, to communicate with Japanese, and enjoyment. Their comments elsewhere revealed that at least two learners had a Japanese family background (but were not studying under the Heritage course), whilst two males had Japanese girlfriends. There was also a general sense that knowledge of Japanese, or at least the experience of learning a language, was educationally worthwhile and may enhance both tertiary study and career options. Turning now to the factors that influenced learners to discontinue.
4.2.2. Factors influencing Intention to Discontinue
In the school sample, 141 participants (31%) intended to discontinue. The main factor influencing the intention to discontinue according to frequency was takes too much study time followed closely by too difficult (see Figure 4.4). At senior high school, the university entrance score and how much work the students think they will have to do to achieve a certain level, are often all-important considerations, as de Kretser and Spence- Brown have pointed out. “It is not just a matter of an absolute score – students also weigh up the effort required, as a subject requiring a very high workload will prevent them giving adequate time to their other subjects (or their social lives and jobs). Negative scaling of Japanese raw scores in some states and territories exacerbates this problem” (de Kretser and Spence-Brown, 2010:34).
111 HS Reasons to Discontinue Takes too much study time Too difficult Cannot expect good marks Not useful for career No room in program of study Lost interest Timetable conflict Don't like learning grammar Don't like learning Kanji Don't like Jpn teacher Feel disadvantaged by competition Don't like writing in Japanese Don't like learning Jpn words Don't like reading in Japanese Don't like listening Japanese 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Figure 4.4. HS Reasons to discontinue (n=141). Units show frequency, multiple answers possible.
Too difficult was the second most frequent factor influencing the intention to discontinue, indicated by 39% of discontinuers (see Table 4.9). Then, in decreasing order of frequency, cannot expect good marks (37%) was followed by is not useful for my future career (35%). Accounting for Japanese course, the majority (63% or 88/140) of discontinuers were School Certificate learners. It was noticeable that a large percentage of them gave many reasons for discontinuation, although it was also the largest group. Takes too much study time was the reason given most frequently to discontinue by 42% of discontinuers, 30% of whom were studying the School Certificate.
Table 4.9. Principal Reasons to Discontinue according to Japanese Course Reasons to Discontinue Japanese Course - Discontinuers School Beginners Continuers Extension IB Certific. % % % % % Total * n=88 n=5 n=35 n=10 n=2 n=140 # Takes too much study time 30 .7 10 .7 - 42% Too difficult 29 1 7 .7 .7 39% Cannot expect good marks 29 3 5 - - 37% Not useful for career 21 - 9 4 .7 35% No room in program 20 - 12 - .7 33% Lost interest 27 2 4 - - 33% Timetable Conflict 21 .7 8 - .7 31% Feel Disadvantaged 10 - 4 - - 14% * Students could select as many reasons as applicable. #1 missing.
112 In decreasing order of frequency, 39% of those intending to discontinue indicated the reason too difficult and 37% indicated cannot expect good marks. About a third of discontinuers (33%) indicated they had lost interest, 27% of whom were School Certificate learners. Comments made by participants such as “not enough units”, “other subjects more important” perhaps indicate the low priority of languages. Two issues had a strong influence on attrition according to analysis. About one- third (33%) of discontinuers indicated no room in their program and about one-third (31%) of discontinuers indicated timetable conflict. Beginners and Extension seemed to be least affected as few gave these reasons to discontinue, but few in the two courses were intending to discontinue. “Structural issues in schools such as timetabling of Japanese against more attractive electives, or lack of flexibility in timetabling so that Japanese could not be taken in combination with certain other subjects” can be a significant disincentive for continuing Japanese after it becomes an elective (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:34). There appear to be “two key factors” as to whether students will be able to continue Japanese into their senior high school years. “Firstly, whether separate Year 11 and Year 12 classes are provided (increasingly problematic when enrolments are low) and secondly, the number of subjects they will take overall. This number is largely determined by the structure of the school certificate program, and the calculation of the tertiary entrance score” (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:27). Structures narrowly based on only four subjects make it particularly difficult for students to continue Japanese study. Conversely, structures based on five subjects, and where good students are encouraged to take six, facilitates continuation of Japanese, since languages have traditionally occupied the fifth (or sixth) place in students’ subject choices. Although these issues were not addressed in this study, it is worthwhile to note here that, “Unless such general structural issues are addressed, other improvements to Japanese language teaching itself will be ineffective in achieving higher numbers of Year 12 graduates” (ibid, p. 27).
‘Forced’ Discontinuers The ‘forced’ discontinuers are those affected by timetable conflict and having no room in their study program. Of 19% who had indicated both no room in my program of study and timetable conflict, just five (of 28 participants) indicated only those two reasons to
113 discontinue,15 two of whom added comments. “I believe my high school Japanese level will be sufficient”, wrote a Korean speaker (ID1561) who had spent 40 weeks on exchange in Japan, and achieved a proficiency score of 53/60. A second student commented: “a higher level is not relevant to my career choice and will not greatly benefit me by studying it at a university level.” Both comments do appear to be related to personal priorities rather than structural issues.
Feel disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students In a similar way, the comments of those who indicated they felt disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students did not relate to this reason specifically, but rather to personal priorities. No participants gave only this reason. Comments related to other reasons they had given to discontinue: for example, “Other subjects more important to me” (relates to no room in my study program) and “Requires effort & study on daily basis” (relates to the reason takes too much study time). Three respondents gave nine or more reasons for discontinuing. As Marriott et al. (1994:92) suggested, students were “explaining their negative action – dropping a subject – and can therefore be expected to have assumed a defensive attitude.” Nevertheless, there was an association of small effect size found between feel disadvantaged by competition with Asian students and being monolingual [Yates’ continuity correction (1, n=147)=3.98, p=.046, phi=-.18]. 16 The negative correlation (phi =-.18) indicates that for those who spoke no other language the greater the feeling of being disadvantaged. Feel disadvantaged by competition etc. was also found to have an association of small effect size with each of cannot expect good marks17 and takes too much study time18, but there was no association between the latter two variables. These results may be connected with the popularity of Japanese among Asian background students in Sydney high schools, which has become a noticeably strong trend (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:24). Although 72% spoke another language, 55% of these spoke an East Asian language. However, being linked with not being able to attain good marks, and amount of study time, it could also indicate that competition
15 ID numbers 1847, 1848, 1810, 1440, 1561. 16 Yates’ continuity correction (1, n=147)=3.98, p=.046, phi= -.18 (small effect size). 17 Yates’ continuity correction (1, n=147)=4.29, p=.038, phi= .19 (small effect size). 18 Yates’ continuity correction (1, n=147)=4.5, p=.034, phi= .19 (small effect size). 114 for grades is really the basis of feeling disadvantaged in this study, rather than being of Asian background.
The Desire to learn Japanese informally and ‘I know enough’ Participants could add their own reasons for discontinuing to the survey, and two groupings were the result of collating these participant-generated factors. One grouping of reasons became entitled (somewhat cynically): I know enough. It included, “I am probably going to stay in Australia so Japanese is not going to be extremely useful,” and, from a student with a Japanese proficiency score of zero, “I’ve learnt all I think I would need to know.” Such comments may lend support to what was described as a monolingual attitude prevalent in Australian schools and in the community (LASP 2, 2009, see Ch.2). However, it could also be interpreted that they feel they know enough Japanese to enjoy anime etc., to continue on their own.
There were a number of reasons given that specifically mentioned learning on one’s own, which may indicate a desire to pursue ‘J-pop’ as a hobby. They formed the second grouping entitled the desire to learn Japanese informally. It included reasons such as: “I would like to (continue) but as a leisure activity”, and another, “I will continue reading and learning on my own.”
4.2.3. Learning activities outside the classroom
As part of the overall project, the Chief Investigator had examined the kinds of leisure activities that participants undertake outside the classroom in an autonomy survey, and this data is used here by permission. In decreasing order, the two most frequent activities were watching Japanese TV programs, DVDs or movies, and listening to Japanese songs (see Table 4.10). As an indication of the popularity of J-pop among participants, the mean score (of 3.5) shows an engagement of between monthly and weekly. Reading manga in Japanese appears seventh on this list of activities. As previously mentioned, reading manga, watching anime etc. ranked an equal fourth among reasons to continue overall, although then it was grouped together with watching anime and TV drama. At the other extreme, the least frequent activities undertaken were those that involved writing in Japanese (between ‘never’ and ‘yearly’). It may be that written 115 activities are the most difficult for learners of Japanese, or alternatively, apart from social media (e.g. Facebook) such activities these days are rare anyway among school students.
Table 4.10. Frequency of learning activities outside the classroom Rank Activity Mean# (SD) 1. Watched Japanese TV programs, DVDs or movies. 3.51 (1.21) 2. Listened to Japanese songs 3.40 (1.43) 3. Read Japanese grammar/reference books/ Done Japanese exercises on your own 3.04 (.91) 4. Practiced using Japanese with non-Japanese friends 2.98 (1.21) 5. Read books/magazines/papers in Japanese 2.59 (1.17) 6. Talked to/Practiced using Japanese with Japanese people 2.50 (1.15) 7. Read manga in Japanese 2.48 (1.30) 8. Gone to see your teacher about Japanese study 2.42 (1.06) 9. Done Japanese self-study in a group 2.39 (1.03) 10. Played games (computer games, board games…) in Japanese 2.35 (1.31) 11. Used the Internet in Japanese 2.12 (1.24) 12. Sent/read e-mails in Japanese 2.08 (1.09) 13. Written Japanese letters to friends 1.89 (1.05) 14. Written a diary in Japanese 1.59 (.88) 15. Sent/read text messages in Japanese 1.55 (.88) # Mean score is based on 5-point Likert scale: (1) Never; (2) Rarely e.g., yearly; (3) Occasionally e.g., monthly; (4) Frequently e.g., weekly; (5) Very frequently e.g., daily.
To summarise thus far, the factor most often influencing the intention to continue Japanese study among these senior high school students was the hope to travel to Japan, endorsed by over 80% of participants in each Japanese course. Next in order of frequency was interested in Japanese culture, then like reading in Japanese, followed closely by both like learning Japanese words and enjoy reading manga, watching anime and drama. Perhaps all of these factors are related to enjoyment of J-pop. Lending support to this view, activities that participants pursued most frequently outside class were found to be watching Japanese TV programs, DVDs or movies, and, listening to Japanese songs. Moreover, a number of additional reasons to discontinue indicated a desire to study Japanese informally, which may also be related to J-pop.
The next section examines the differences in motivation and attitudes between those who intended to continue and those who intended to dropout, as a result of analyses of the motivation and attitudes questionnaire data.
116 4.3. The Motivation and Attitudes questionnaire
The Motivation and Attitudes questionnaire consisted of thirty items from a recent version of Gardner’s AMTB. 19 Test items were presented in a 7-point Likert scale format (ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ through to ‘strongly agree’) and were drawn from two of three main sections of Gardner’s Integrative Motive, Motivation and Integrativeness.20 The AMTB items were adapted in wording where necessary and the same items were used in the University study (see Appendix 3, Section 3: Views).
In relation to demographic variables, females had significantly higher Motivation than males 21 but no gender differences were evident for Integrativeness. Those who had visited Japan had significantly higher Motivation and Integrativeness than those who had not visited, although the effect size was small (.03). 22 Perhaps surprisingly, neither ‘previous knowledge of kanji’, nor continuity of Japanese study, showed any significant relationship with Motivation or Integrativeness.
4.3.1. Motivation and Integrativeness - overall
Levels of Motivation and Integrativeness of stay-ins and drop-outs, overall, were compared using t-tests. Firstly, the levels of Motivation of those who planned to continue proved consistently higher than the drop-outs (see Table 4.11). The magnitude of the differences for attitudes to learning Japanese and motivational desire to learn Japanese showed mean differences between stay-ins and drop-outs of ten points. Both scales showed very large effect sizes of 0.26, according to guidelines for interpreting the eta-squared value (Cohen, 1988:284-7, in Pallant, 2007:236).
19 (Gardner, Tremblay & Masgoret, 1997) 20 The third section The Learning Situation was omitted due to time constraints and as similar classroom issues were explored in the Autonomy Questionnaire of the larger overall project (see Chapter 3). 21 Female Motivation (M=132.9, SD=20.7) compared to Male (M=127.3, SD=23.6; t(437)=2.6, p< .05, η2 =.01). 22 Motivation: visited Japan (M = 136.6, SD = 19.4) compared to ‘Not visited Japan’ (M = 126.9, SD = 22.7; t(411) = 4.8, p < .001, η2 = .05). Integrativeness: visited Japan (M = 65.2, SD = 7.5) compared to ‘Not visited Japan’ (M = 62.6, SD = 22.7; t (414) = 3.4, p < .01, η2 = .03). 117 Table 4.11. Motivation and Integrativeness according to Intention to Continue study of Japanese AMTB measures Intention to Intention to Continue Discontinue Effect N=311 N=141 t df size# Mean (SD) Mean (SD) Motivation: Attitudes to learning 35.2 (4.6) 26.8 (7.5) 12.4** 192 0.26 Japanese Motivational Desire 36.2 (5.2) 27.4 (7.5) 12.6** 203 0.26 Motivational Intensity 15.4 (3.2) 12.2 (4.0) 8.3** 227 0.13
Integrative orientation 16.6 (3.3) 13.4 (4.2) 7.8** 222 0.12 Attitudes to the 13.7 (2.0) 12.1 (2.6) 6.3** 223 0.08 Integrativeness: Japanese & teacher Interest in foreign 35.5 (4.6) 33.4 (5.2) 4.2** 447* 0.04 languages Other: Instrumental 14.8 (3.5) 11.7 (4.0) 7.8** 240 0.12 orientation **p < .001; #Eta-squared values >0.14 imply a large effect size, values >0.06 imply a moderate effect size. *Equal variance assumed using Levene’s test for equality (Pallant, 2007:234).
The difference for motivational intensity, although less by comparison at 0.13, was bordering on a large effect size. Stay-ins showed a much stronger desire to master the language, much more positive attitudes towards learning Japanese and greater intensity when learning Japanese than the drop-outs. These findings also agree with studies of motivation and persistence in second language learning by Clement, Smythe, and Gardner (1978), and Ramage (1990), supporting the importance of attitudes and motivation in regard to persistence.
Secondly, the magnitude of differences in relation to Integrativeness and its sub- components was more moderate compared to Motivation (also see Table 4.11). Compared to the drop-outs, stay-ins showed more positive attitudes toward the Japanese and teacher (moderate effect size of 0.08), and stronger interest in foreign languages (0.04). The differences for integrative and instrumental orientations were greater, approaching a large effect (both at 0.12), indicating much stronger integrative and instrumental reasons for learning Japanese among those planning to continue.
‘True’ discontinuers Taking a closer look at those affected by timetable conflicts and no room in their study program, those who could not continue (‘forced’ discontinuers, n=26) were compared to the remainder, the ‘true’ discontinuers (n=113) who apparently could continue but chose not to continue (see Table 4.12). 118
Table 4.12. ‘Forced’ discontinuers group versus ‘true’ discontinuers group ‘Forced’ discontinuers group: ‘True’ discontinuers group: No Room in Program and Timetable conflict Could continue but chose not n=26 n=113 (2 missing) Sig. (2- Effect Mean (SD) Mean (SD) t df tailed) size Motiv Attitudes toward 30.0 (7.9) 26.0 (7.1) 2.5 137 0.01** .04 learning Japanese Motiv Desire 30.0 (8.0) 26.7 (7.2) 2.1 136 0.042* .03 Motiv Intensity 13.6 (4.4) 11.9 (3.7) 2.0 136 0.046* .03 Interest in foreign 34.3 (3.9) 33.2 (5.5) .9 137 ns languages Integrative orientation 15.3 (4.1) 12.9 (4.1) 2.6 135 0.009** .05 Integ- Attitudes toward 7.0 (1.5) 6.9 (1.8) .1 137 ns Japanese Instrumental orientation 13.5 (4.3) 11.3 (3.8) 2.6 136 0.01** .05 **p<.01; *p<.05
Significant differences between these two groups were found on the measures of motivational attitudes (.04), as well as integrative (.05) and instrumental orientations (.05), although effect sizes were small. The ‘true’ discontinuers showed significantly less positive attitudes toward learning Japanese and showed considerably lower integrative and instrumental orientations compared to those who could not continue (the ‘forced’ discontinuers). The latter group also demonstrated greater motivational desire and intensity. A non-significant (ns) outcome for interest in foreign languages and attitudes towards the Japanese community suggested little difference between the two groups on these measures. It indicates perhaps an interest in foreign languages and in the Japanese (L2 community) generally among participants, which may have prompted these discontinuers to take up the language initially.
4.3.2. Motivation, Integrativeness, and Japanese course
Accounting for Japanese course, stay-ins showed higher levels (than drop-outs) on both Motivation and Integrativeness measures in School Certificate, Continuers, Extension, and IB courses. However, the differences failed to reach significance among Beginners (see Table 4.13).
119 Table 4.13. Differences in Motivation and Attitudes according to Japanese Course Plan to continue studying Japanese STAY- DROP- t df Effect INS OUTS size Mean Mean (SD) (SD) School N=139 N=89 Certificate: Motivation Attitudes to learning Japanese 35.0 (4.8) 25.4 (7.6) 10.6** 133 0.46 Motivational Desire 35.5 (5.9) 25.8 (7.6) 10.2** 153 0.40 Motivational Intensity 15.1 (3.2) 11.4 (3.8) 7.5** 160 0.26
Integrative orientation 16.1 (3.4) 13.0 (4.4) 5.7** 148 0.18 Attitudes to the Japanese 13.4 (1.9) 11.6 (2.7) 5.8** 141 0.19 Integrativeness and teacher Interest in foreign languages 35.2 (4.5) 33.0(5.5) 4.2*** 447 0.04 Other Instrumental orientation 14.8 (3.5) 11.7 (4.0) 6.6*** 226 0.16 Continuers: N=111 N=36 Motivation Attitudes to learning Japanese 35.7 (4.3) 29.3 (6.4) 5.7*** 46 0.41 Motivational Desire 37.4 (3.7) 29.8 (7.4) 5.9*** 41 0.46 Motivational Intensity 15.8 (3.0) 13.7 (3.9) 3.4*** 145 0.07 Integrativeness Integrative orientation 17.0 (3.1) 13.9 (3.8) 4.8*** 145 0.14 Attitudes to the Japanese 13.7 (2.2) 12.9 (2.0) 2.0* 145 0.03 and teacher Interest in foreign languages 36.1 (4.1) 34.1 (4.7) 2.5* 144 0.04 Instrumental orientation 15.1 (3.5) 13.1 (4.0) 2.8** 145 0.05 Extension: N=30 N=10 Motivation Attitudes to learning Japanese 36.8 (3.1) 30.1 (7.6) 2.7*** 10 0.42 Motivational Desire 38.3 (3.5) 33.0 (4.1) 4.0*** 38 0.30 Motivational Intensity 16.6 (3.4) 13.6 (4.5) 2.2* 38 0.11 Integrativeness Interest in foreign languages 37.7 (3.6) 34.5 (3.9) 2.4* 38 0.13 Instrumental orientation 15.1 (3.5) 11.4 (4.0) 2.8# 38 0.17 IB: N=3 N=2 ***p<.001; **p<.005; *p<.05; #p<.008.
Firstly, Motivational measures indicated very large effect sizes between stay-ins and drop-outs at School Certificate level, with mean differences of ten points for both motivational attitudes to learning Japanese (0.46) and motivational desire to learn Japanese (0.40). Lower by comparison, the differences in motivational intensity (0.26), nevertheless indicated a large effect. Continuers and Extension courses, too, showed a similar pattern of largest effects for motivational attitudes and motivational desire, followed by a more moderate effect by comparison for motivational intensity. Indeed, the Continuers course showed a lower effect size than in any other course on the measure of motivational intensity (a moderate effect size at 0.07).
120 The IB, a small group, uniformly showed significant differences on every item at p<.001, excepting interest in foreign languages (at p<.002), so IB (and Beginners) were not included in the results in Table 4.13. Secondly, Integrativeness measures showed differences of large effect size between the School Certificate stay-ins and drop-outs for integrative orientation (0.18), attitudes toward the Japanese (0.19), as well as instrumental orientation (0.16). A result that perhaps reflects the loss of interest among School Certificate discontinuers mentioned previously. However, School Certificate and Continuers both showed an equally small effect size for interest in foreign languages (0.04). Extension was the only course to show a somewhat large effect size on that component (of 0.13). This indicated greater interest in foreign languages among stay-ins in the Extension course. To use the wording of the individual test items for this measure, it means that for instance, they would rather see films in the original language with subtitles than dubbed films; they enjoy meeting and mixing with people who speak other languages; and that if they lived in another country they would make an effort to learn the local language. Differences between stay-ins and drop-outs in the Extension course indicated a large effect size for instrumental orientation (0.17) but the differences failed to reach significance for integrative orientation. Therefore, perhaps these participants were learning Japanese to gain a competitive edge, and for career advantage (to use the wording of the instrumental orientation test items). It would appear that at Extension level, learning Japanese was considered useful generally, although not necessarily to become more closely integrated with the Japanese but rather, perhaps, due to Japan’s geographic, cultural and economic position in the East Asian region, and resultant opportunities. Supporting this interpretation is the composition of the Extension cohort, where it was found that among 30 stay-ins, 29 spoke another language, and 26 of these spoke Cantonese, Mandarin, or Korean. On the contrary, at Continuers level, although significant differences were found for all Integrativeness measures, effect sizes were generally small. There was one exception, a large effect size for integrative orientation (0.14). According to the wording of individual test items for this measure, this suggests that stay-ins in the Continuers course were interested in meeting and conversing with more and varied people, and gaining friends among Japanese, rather than such instrumental reasons as gaining a competitive edge or aiming towards a career in Japanese. Compared with
121 differences of large effect sizes (of 0.16) in other courses, the smallest effect size for instrumental orientation was found in the Continuers course (0.05). Continuer stay-ins too, seemed less interested in checking assignments, and working on the language every day, as indicated by lower motivational intensity.
4.4. Chapter Summary
To summarise the findings of this chapter, two thirds of 464 participants intended to continue their formal Japanese study. Females showed significantly higher levels of proficiency than males, but no other significant differences were found between the stay-ins and drop-outs on the basis of gender. Bartley (1969, 1970) found females to be more proficient, while Gardner and Smythe (1975) found males more likely to dropout. Stay-ins showed greater proficiency in Japanese than the drop-outs. About 72% of participants, and the majority in each course (excepting IB) spoke an additional language. An association (of small effect size) was found between persistence and whether another language was spoken. About 55% of participants spoke an East Asian language, that is, Chinese, or Korean (12%). A rather high proportion (about 42%) of those who spoke no other language intended to discontinue. It is commonly thought that those with previous kanji knowledge do better in Japanese. However, prior knowledge of kanji (46% of participants), and whether an East Asian language was spoken (55%) were not associated with proficiency. Moreover, differences between stay-ins and drop-outs failed to reach significance on the basis of kanji knowledge, which suggested no association with persistence. Hope to travel to Japan was the factor given most frequently (by over 80% in every course) as influencing the choice to continue. Having visited Japan was associated with persistence but not the length of visit. Interest in Japanese culture, both overall, and within each Japanese course was second most frequently given as a factor that influenced the intention to continue. Such an interest was confirmed by activities undertaken most often by participants on their own initiative, outside the classroom: watching Japanese TV programs, DVDs or movies and listening to Japanese songs. Based on Susan Napier’s research, Tsutsui noted that, “Enthusiasm for Japanese entertainment products and interest in Japanese language and culture are, it seems, frequently intertwined” (Tsutsui, 2010:43). Apart from J-pop issues, interest in the L2 122 culture has been found to be important in other school studies of persistence (e.g. Ramage, 1990; Marriott, Neustupny, & Spence-Brown, 1994). It was surprising that previous knowledge of kanji seemed to have no bearing on such reasons to continue as like reading in Japanese, like writing in Japanese, and like learning Japanese words. This result may be related to the desire to actually use the language (as found in Lo Bianco & Aliani, 2008). That those without prior knowledge of kanji enjoyed both reading and writing in Japanese as much as those with previous knowledge of kanji was surprising but may be a reflection of enjoyment of reading manga. However, those who indicated enjoy reading manga, watching anime etc. as a reason to continue were more likely to have prior kanji knowledge. As just over half (51%) of those with prior knowledge knew less than 100 kanji, perhaps some of these learners were reading manga etc. to improve their Japanese ability, and/or, perhaps, their learning of Japanese is to enhance their enjoyment of manga.
The predominant factor that influenced the choice to discontinue Japanese study on the other hand was takes too much study time. Then, too difficult was followed closely by cannot expect good marks. Difficulty was the reason given for discontinuing both by the Japanese group and by the overall sample of discontinuers in a national study of languages (Marriott et al., 1994:93). However, it was found that Arabic, Italian, and Spanish were perceived by discontinuing students to be even more difficult than Japanese. Marriott et al. concluded that the curriculum of the subject may be difficult, that is, students are likely to report the difficulty of the subject rather than the difficulty of the language (1994:92).
Although about a third of discontinuers indicated either no room in my program of study or timetable conflict, 19% of them indicated both – but amongst a number of other reasons. Just five learners gave only these two reasons, two of whom “saw no benefit from continuing” their study. It appears from these and other participant comments that the High School learners may interpret no room in my program of study in either of two ways, that Japanese cannot be accommodated in their program due to an institutional reason such as timetable conflict, or due to the subjects they selected or prioritised, a student finds that they no longer have room for any another subject. The subtle difference being that one is institutional based, while the other is personal priority. Nevertheless, as about 45% of discontinuers indicated either, or both reasons for discontinuing, these factors are certainly influential in the decision to dropout. 123 AMTB levels of Motivation and Integrativeness overall, and when accounting for Japanese course, showed significant differences between stay-ins and drop-outs; those who intended to continue were consistently higher. In relation to Integrativeness and its three sub-components, both overall, and among School Certificate, Continuers and IB courses, there were significant mean differences between stay-ins and drop-outs found on all measures. Stay-ins showed higher integrative orientation, more positive attitudes toward the Japanese, and stronger interest in foreign languages, together with higher instrumental orientation. Effect sizes were generally moderate. On the other hand, differences between stay-ins and drop-outs on the measures of Motivation showed large effect sizes. This suggested that stay-ins had a much stronger desire to master the language, much more positive attitudes towards learning Japanese, and greater intensity when learning Japanese than the drop-outs. However, the magnitude of differences (and effect sizes) formed a pattern: motivational attitudes and motivational desire measures showed greater differences with larger effect sizes compared to the measure of motivational intensity, which showed a significant difference nonetheless. The pattern applied to the sample overall, and when accounting for Japanese course. It indicated that there was less difference between the two groups (of stay-ins and drop-outs) on the motivational intensity measure. It may also suggest that the stay-ins expended less effort to learn the language. This issue and others will be investigated further in Chapter 5, the university study.
124 CHAPTER 5
The University Study
The university study is based on data collected in 2009 and 2010 from four universities in the Sydney metropolitan area in two rounds of data collection. Since national reports such as the LASP 123 inform that about one-third of those who begin a language do not go on to the second semester, it was somewhat surprising that in Round I (RI) of this study, 80% of those in First Year Japanese (83% overall) intended to continue their study of Japanese, or had continued until the end of their university sojourn. Twelve months later, a second round of data collection (Round II, or RII) was carried out, and almost all (93%) intended to continue. However, in other studies of ‘foreign language dropout’ the majority in the language classes in question had also intended to continue (Ramage, 1990:199; Bartley, 1970:388). This study has a similar format to the school study but includes three sets of interviews (Interviews 1, 2, and 3). In the first round of data collection (RI) in 2009, 164 university learners of Japanese took part, and 56 in the second round (RII) in 2010. This chapter is made up of three divisions: the RI surveys (5.1), the focus group interviews (5.2), and the RII surveys (5.3). Firstly, the results of the demographic findings and the SPOT24 proficiency test (see Ch. 3) are discussed. RII of the study follows a similar format. The interviews are discussed between the two rounds of surveys. Overall findings are summarised at the end of the chapter. Turning now to the RI data analyses.
23 LASP 1: Beginners’ LOTE in Australian Universities: an audit survey and analysis (2007:15). 24 Simplified Proficiency Oriented Test (SPOT) (Kobayashi, Ford-Niwa and Yamamoto, 1997). 125
5.1. Questionnaires Round I, 2009
5.1.1. Demographic Results and Discussion
5.1.1.1. Participants There were 464 participants in Round I (RI), two-thirds were female, 70% were at a Beginner level (or 1st Year) of Japanese, but 42% were in first year of university, and the greatest number (51%) were majoring in Arts and Social Sciences. About half of the group had been to Japan, and were evenly distributed amongst year of university, and year of Japanese course. Whilst 25% spoke only English, of those (75%) who spoke another language, 68% spoke an East Asian language (Chinese 60%, or Korean 8%). Participant demographic details are summarised in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1. Demographic details for Round I University participants Round 1 2009 Frequency Percent % Gender Female 111 67 Male 52 32 Missing Data 1 1 University 1st 69 42 Year 2nd 53 32 3rd 31 19 4th 6 4 Other 4 2 Missing Data 1 1 Japanese level 1st Year 115 70 2nd Year 33 20 3rd Year 14 9 4th Year and higher 2 1 Major Arts/SocScience 84 51 Bus/Economics 29 18 Science 24 15 Other 22 13 Missing Data 5 3 Other Language Spoken Cantonese 51 31 Mandarin 43 26 Korean 13 8 Other 16 10 Nil Language 41 25 Previous Knowledge Yes 102 62 of Kanji No 60 37 Missing 2 1 Visited Japan Yes 78 48 No 85 52 126
5.1.2. Japanese Proficiency
Proficiency scores of RI participants on the SPOT proficiency test were widely dispersed, ranging from a minimum of one to the maximum possible score of 60 (n=164, Mean=24.6, SD=15.7). This reflects different amount of exposure to Japanese, from those in the first year Beginners’ course upwards (see Figure 5.1).
Figure 5.1. SPOT Test scores
Females showed higher proficiency scores (Mean=26) than males (M=20, SD=14.6; t(161)=-2.3, p<.02). Those who planned to continue (M=25.5) were much more proficient than those who planned to discontinue (M=15.8, SD=11.7; t(161)=3.5, p<.001). Proficiency scores according to Japanese Course (see Table 5.2) show that the greatest variance in scores (229.7) and greatest variation in proficiency was within Second Year (Japanese). Proficiency for Third Year was higher as is expected; the minimum score of 36 was higher than the mean for Second Year (34.4). 127
Table 5.2. SPOT proficiency scores according to Japanese Course Level Course Level N=162 Minimum Maximum Mean (SD) Variance * Score Score SPOT 1st Year 115 1 44 17.5 (10.1) 102.0 2nd Year 33 1 57 34.42 (15.2) 229.7 3rd Year 14 36 60 52.43 (7.3) 53.5 * 2 missing
One would expect that even the least capable beginner, nearing the end of the second semester, could score more than 1 on this SPOT test. It indicates perhaps that they gave up, or was a form of resistance, or that a certain type of learner has difficulty with the format of the SPOT test, as previously discussed in the school study, Chapter 4.
5.1.3. Demographics and the Intention to Continue
An initial question in the demographics questionnaire asked respondents to indicate their prime area of study, as well as the level of their current Japanese course, choosing from items in checklists.25 Respondents were also asked whether or not they intended to continue their Japanese study past their present course.26 The measure of Intention to continue allowed the sample to be divided into those who planned to continue and those who planned to discontinue.
Overall, 136 participants (83%) indicated intention to continue, constituting the ‘stay-ins’. At the first year level of Japanese 81% intended to continue, along with 91% in Second Year Japanese, and all in Third Year (see Table 5.3).
25 Japanese course levels were: 1st year tertiary Japanese course (beginners); 2nd year tertiary course (late beginners); 3rd year tertiary Japanese course (intermediate) etc. [See Appenidx 2(ii)]. 26 Measure of ‘intention to continue’: After you finish this course do you plan to continue formal study of Japanese? (Yes/No). In the context of the survey, ‘course’ referred to their current (semester) enrolment. 128
Table 5.3. Round I Intention to continue/discontinue according to Japanese Course Level Japanese Course Intention to continue Percent Intention to continue Percent Count Level No % Yes % Frequency Frequency 1st Year Japanese 21 19% 92 81% 113
2nd Year 3 9% 30 91% 33 Japanese 3rd Year 0 ____ 14 100% 14 Japanese Total 24 ____ 136 ____ 160* (97%) *4 missing
It seems reasonable to assume that, as students persevere in their language study they have more interest in continuing, if for no other reason than not to waste the time and effort already devoted to learning the language. That is, “among other things, to quit is admitting defeat”.27
Students were then asked to indicate those factors that influenced their decision to continue (or discontinue) their formal study of Japanese from a checklist of possible reasons in the main survey (Appendix 4: Future). Most checked a number of reasons. Their reasons for continuing or discontinuing will be discussed in the following, beginning with factors most frequently given as influencing the choice to continue.
5.1.3.1. Factors influencing Intention to Continue
Hoping to travel to Japan was the factor given most frequently as influencing continuation among the university stay-ins overall, not accounting for Japanese course or university year (n=136). The next most frequently given were interest in Japanese culture and enjoy reading manga, watching anime and drama (see Figure 5.2).
27 R.C. Gardner suggested this justification for continuation in a personal communication by email 30/1/2012. 129
Figure 5.2. Reasons to continue studying Japanese and Frequency (N=136, multiple answers)
Hope to travel to Japan was also the reason given most often by 89% in First Year Japanese (n=93), by 92% of those in first year of university (n=62), and by 70% of those in Japanese Third year-and-above (n=16). The latter group is shown in Table 5.4.
Table 5.4. Reasons for Continuing in Japanese Third Year-and-above
Reasons for Continuing for Count Total Percent 3rd Year Japanese-and-above (n=16) % Like Listening to Japanese 14 88 Interested in Japanese culture 14 82 Enjoy reading manga watching anime and drama etc. 12 76 Hope to Travel to Japan 11 70 Hope to Work in Japan 11 70 Hope to Study in Japan 9 53 Useful for my Career 8 47 It’s my Major 7 41
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Among those in the highest levels of Japanese, Third Year-and-above (n=16), hope to travel to Japan and hope to work in Japan were each indicated by 70% of the group. However, a greater proportion within this advanced group had indicated that they like listening to Japanese (88%), while 82% were interested in Japanese culture, and 76% enjoyed reading manga, watching anime and drama. Since like listening to Japanese could also refer to Japanese pop songs and/or TV drama, the top three options could be said to all involve Japanese popular culture, or J-pop.
Conversely, 47% indicated that Japanese was useful for my career, while for 41% it was their Major. Percentages according to university year, by comparison, showed 70% in first year of university indicated useful for my career as a reason to continue Japanese, 51% in second year and 52% in third year, and 40% in fourth year- and-above. The decreasing percentages might reflect the struggle to find a career path using Japanese, an issue discussed later on.
5.1.3.2. Factors influencing Intention to Discontinue There were 24 participants (14%) who intended to discontinue (the ‘drop-outs’), with a remaining 3% who gave either no response, or yes to both responses, perhaps indicating indecision. The reason given most often for discontinuation was no room in my program of study. Following in decreasing order of frequency was too difficult then requires/takes too much study time (see Figure 5.3).
131
Reasons to Discontinue
Don't like Writing Don't like Reading Don't like Learning Words Don't like Teacher Don't like Listening Don't like Grammar Don't like Kanji Lost Interest Feel Disadvantaged Cannot Get Good Marks Not Useful for Career Timetable Conflict Requires Too Much Time Too Difficult No Room in Program 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Figure 5.3. Reasons to discontinue Japanese (N=24, 1 missing, multiple answers)
Focusing briefly on these 24 discontinuers, two students in Second Year Japanese and 13 students in First Year Japanese gave the reason no room in my program of study (see Table 5.5). Four of them also indicated a timetable conflict, which suggests that the result may be related to structural issues, as briefly discussed in the following sections.
Table 5.5. No room in program cross-tabulated with Japanese Course Level Reason to discontinue: Japanese Course Level Total % of No Room in program of study 1st Year 2nd Year Total Number of Yes indicated 13 2 15 62.5 Number not indicated this reason 8 1 9 37.5 Total number of discontinuers 21 3 24 100%
Late Enrolments
Eleven of the 24 discontinuers were in third year of university or higher, but they were actually enrolled in First Year Japanese. This issue of late enrolments, where the more
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senior students enrol in beginner subjects, was raised in LASP 1 and 2 national reports as leading to attrition. It seems that the structure of Australian university programs in general, contributes to languages being taken up as an elective, but too late, then students find they have no room left in their program, and cannot continue. If impediments are put in place by various faculties with regard to continuing Japanese, or any language, it suggests that there is an interest and demand for languages that is being obstructed (LASP 2, 2009:11).
‘True’ Discontinuers
There were only six discontinuers for whom ‘no room in my program of study’ was not a reason to discontinue, four of whom were in first year (in Arts). They were considered ‘true’ discontinuers in the sense that there were no structural barriers to their continuing study. In fact, continuation is often discussed as though it is a personal choice, but this data suggests that this may be misleading.
Table 5.6. Participant ID for the six ‘true’ discontinuers and their Reasons to Discontinue.
Participant ID 145 * 143* 34* 17* 116** 164** Total
Kanji 1 1
Grammar 1 1
Listening 1 1
Lost Interest 1 1 1 3
Too Difficult 1 1 1 1 1 1 6
Study Time 1 1 1 1 4
Marks 1 1 2
Disadvantaged 1 1
Career 1 1 Total options 7 2 3 2 2 4 20 *1st Year Japanese and 1st Year University except ID17; **2nd Year Japanese & 3rd Year University.
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All six discontinuers indicated that Japanese was too difficult (see Table 5.6, Total column). They also indicated either that Japanese (takes up too much) study time, that they had lost interest, or they cannot expect good marks. The reasons (don’t like learning) kanji, (don’t like learning) grammar, or (don’t like) listening to Japanese, were indicated once each by the four first year students.
Mixed Proficiency
One student (ID 145) appeared generally dissatisfied having given seven options for discontinuing (see Table 5.6). The student commented that feeling disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students was the ‘major reason’ for discontinuing, as not all students in the Beginners’ course were real beginners (but possibly just looking for an easy credit). This feeling of disadvantage was related not to student background but rather, it seems to competition for good grades. Among 115 studying at First Year Japanese level, only 79 had begun Japanese at university (that is 69%), 50 of whom (43%) had begun in First Year. This issue of mixed proficiency was raised in the LASP 2 retention report as contributing to attrition in languages:
“Interestingly, and somewhat alarmingly, a not insignificant number of students confessed to being enrolled in the beginners stream of a language in which they had successfully completed Year 12 studies! It is easy to imagine that this could cause significant morale issues for true beginners, and would be highly likely to affect retention rates” (LASP 2, 2009:12).
The two issues of late enrolments and mixed proficiency were raised in the LASP 2 report as contributing to attrition in languages in Australian universities (2009:11). The report suggests that it is widespread, lending support to the finding here that certain programs of study may prevent further, or any foreign language courses to be undertaken. Placement tests and ‘streaming’ according to student proficiency and learning needs were proposed to help resolve the issue of mixed proficiency in the LASP 2 report. In reality, providing multiple groupings could be unrealistic for programs with small enrolments due to increased financial costs. For programs with large enrolments, making all relevant students take placement tests may prove 134
problematic because it is usual for students to enrol themselves on-line and there are no prerequisites for a beginner level. In a bid to deal with this issue, a new, separate Beginners course for those who had studied HSC Beginners was introduced at one of the universities in Sydney, in 2012. It may be difficult to find a ‘true beginner’ among university age students, as many Australian students are exposed to some learning of Japanese at one time or another in their school career, as mentioned in Interview 2 (see below). Even those who have never taken Japanese at school often have skills developed through anime, manga, drama, and their friends. There are students who, through watching Japanese videos have learned some phrases, or others who have taken one term or semester of a ‘taster’ Japanese course, and they may appear more advanced from the viewpoint of an absolute beginner. Perhaps it is up to the Japanese instructor to explain that differing strengths, skills, and student backgrounds are resources that need to be shared for all to develop more effectively. After all, the real issue here may be competing for grades, not learning the language.
Feeling Disadvantaged
Some teachers (and learners) of Japanese consider cannot expect good marks to be linked with feeling disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students, as well as perhaps, takes up too much study time. The possible advantage that East Asian background students might have with regard to learning Japanese, in terms of grammar, knowledge of kanji and cultural proximity (see Matsumoto, 2009) was raised at a presentation of this material at a recent Australian conference. 28 One among the conference attendees was both a teacher and learner of Japanese herself. She felt that her students from a non-Asian background have a perception of disadvantage due to their background, and there is a lack of feeling of success for students of non-Asian background despite the amount of time they devote to Japanese, which accounts for them not continuing. In her words:
28 Comments from a teacher at Japanese Studies Assoc. of Australia 2011 Conference in Melbourne. 135
It’s not so much that they are competitive, or comparing themselves to another person and that person is doing better. But rather, sitting in the classroom, they see a pattern, a distinct disadvantage due to one’s background. It’s not race based…the Caucasians just drop away (anonymous conference attendee).
This viewpoint was a result of the teacher’s observation of her classes at two different Sydney universities, and her own experience as a learner progressing upward through levels of the worldwide Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT;日本語能力試験, Nihongo Nōryoku Shiken). Iwashita’s study (2012) of the cross-linguistic influence of different language backgrounds on writing and speaking tasks performance in Japanese offers support to this view. Students from Chinese and Korean language backgrounds “received higher scores in both writing and speaking, and showed a richness of content and a variety of forms and structures not evident in the performance of those from English and other L1 backgrounds” (Iwashita, 2012:290). Iwashita suggested that, for high stakes assessment, applying common assessment instruments and scales to assess learners from diverse L1 backgrounds could be questionable (ibid, p. 303).
Conversely, it is true that some Caucasian students have high levels of determination, while Chinese or Korean background students, thinking that Beginner Japanese would be easy, do not last.
Ethnic background was not investigated in this study. However, data on whether participants spoke another language/s besides English, what language(s), and whether they had previous knowledge of kanji was collected. No monolingual university participant had indicated feeling disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students as a reason for discontinuing, although discontinuers were few. The one student (mentioned above in relation to false beginners) spoke Indonesian, with no previous knowledge of kanji, whereas 62% of the overall sample knew kanji previously, and 65% spoke another East Asian language.
Previous knowledge of kanji
The difficulty of learning Japanese and the large amount of time needed to devote to it 136
were both given in this study as reasons to discontinue. There is no doubt that learning the Japanese writing system necessarily requires a long-term commitment for anyone from a non-character-based language background. For such learners it is particularly difficult and challenging to learn hiragana, katakana and kanji on top of a new spoken language. Therefore, in this study, some attention was paid to previous knowledge of kanji among stay-ins and drop-outs. Among those intending to continue, about two- thirds had some prior knowledge, whilst 33% knew no kanji as shown in Table 5.7. The number of kanji known generally fell into one of two extremes: almost one quarter of the sample (24%) knew more than 1000 kanji (21% of whom were intending to continue), whilst 22% knew less than 100 kanji (18% of whom intended to continue).
Table 5.7. Intention to Continue crosstabulated with Previous Knowledge of Kanji
How many Kanji were previously known Nil Less than 101-500 501-1000 More than Total 100 1000 Plan to Continue Count 53 30 12 10 34 139 (Stay-ins) % 33% 18% 7% 6% 21% 85% Plan to Count 9 6 1 3 5 24 Discontinue % 5% 4% 1% 2% 3% 15% (Drop-outs) TOTAL 62 36 13 13 39 163 38% 22% 8% 8% 24% 100%
When accounting for Japanese level, the number of those with previous knowledge of kanji was about twice the number of those without prior knowledge at virtually every level of Japanese. For example, among First Year Japanese stay-ins, 24% had no prior knowledge of kanji, compared to 43% with prior knowledge.
Therefore, it was somewhat surprising to find that prior knowledge of kanji was not associated with persistence. In Beginner classes at university, there is more dependence on hiragana and katakana, and during this early period, kanji background learners do discontinue. Possibly, kanji knowledge really only becomes advantageous when students reach intermediate level. However, those who do have kanji knowledge can move ahead, as they can access meaning (if not pronunciation), giving them a 137
decided advantage with J-pop, for instance. In addition, J-pop translations have been more readily available in Chinese (and Hangul) than in English, which is advantageous to those literate in an East-Asian language. Conversely, non-kanji background learners are restricted to being able to read grammatical endings (in hiragana). In the next section, motivation and attitudes of participants are discussed, and whether the levels of motivation and attitudes of those who intended to continue differ from those who planned to discontinue. Classifying 24 students as discontinuers could be seen to be problematic, as all but six could not continue had they wanted to, but technically nonetheless they are all discontinuers. However, two sets of t-tests were performed as will be seen in the following. If there were some differences on the first set of t-tests, but not on the second set, that would suggest that the students who intended to continue did differ from those who did not, regardless of their reason to discontinue.29
5.1.4. The Motivation and Attitudes questionnaire
The Motivation and Attitudes Questionnaire consisted of the same thirty items from the AMTB (Gardner, Tremblay, & Masgoret, 1997) as used in the school study. Test items were drawn from two of three main sections of Gardner’s Integrative Motive, Motivation and Integrativeness.
Using the Intention to Continue measure, firstly in terms of Motivation, differences between the two overall groups of stay-ins and drop-outs proved to be significant (see Table 5.8). According to Cohen’s guidelines for interpreting the eta- squared value (Cohen, 1988:284-7) quite large effect sizes (.13) were found for two of three sub-components of Motivation: attitudes towards learning Japanese and motivational desire to learn Japanese, and a moderate effect (.07) for motivational intensity. 30 These findings, where stay-ins showed considerably higher levels of
29 R.C. Gardner suggested this strategy in a personal communication by email 30/1/2012. 30 Stay-ins (in the overall sample) showed a significantly higher level of Attitudes towards learning (M=35.6, SD=4.9) compared to the drop-outs group (M=30.2, SD=5.4), t(158)=4.95, p<.001); a significantly higher level of Motivational desire (M=36.1, SD=5.6) compared to the drop-outs group 138
Motivation compared to drop-outs, are consistent with other studies of motivation and persistence (Ramage, 1990; Clement, Smythe, & Gardner, 1978; Gardner & Smythe, 1975a, 1975b; Bartley, 1970).
Table 5.8. Motivation/Attitudes: Differences for University Round 1 stay-ins and drop-outs overall Plan to continue studying Japanese STAY-INS DROP-OUTS N=138 N=24 Mean (SD) Mean (SD) T df Effect size # Motivational Attitudes towards 35.6 (4.9) 30.2 (5.4) 4.95*** 158 0.134 learning Japanese Motivational Desire 36.1 (5.6) 29.9 (5.1) 4.97*** 159 0.134 Motivational Intensity 14.9 (3.1) 12.4 (3.9) 3.49*** 159 0.07 Integrativeness: Integrative 16.7 (3.2) 14.5 (2.8) 3.1** 160 0.06 orientation Instrumental orientation 15.06 (3.2) 13.6 (3.5) 1.98* 160 0.02 ***p<.001; **p<.003; *p<0.05 #Eta-squared values>0.14 imply large effect size; >0.06 moderate effect size (Cohen,1988).
This result suggests that not only motivation but passion too, plays an important role in persistence, as the three Motivational sub-components were also taken to be indicative of levels of Harmonious passion. Nevertheless, it cannot be assumed that a higher level on these measures is the reason for staying in, although it may be so. Notably, the magnitude of differences between stay-ins and drop-outs for the two motivational components of motivational desire and attitudes towards learning was much larger than for motivational intensity, although it was statistically significant. This indicated less difference between the two groups on the measure of intensity. It suggested that stay-ins showed a strong desire to learn Japanese, and positive attitudes towards the learning, yet perhaps less effort towards achieving that goal. In terms of Integrativeness, there were significant mean differences between the
(M=29.9, SD=5.1), t(159)=4.95, p<.001); and greater Motivational intensity (M=14.9, SD=3.1) compared to the drop-outs group (M=12.4, SD=3.9), t(159)=3.49, p<.001). 139
two overall groups of stay-ins and drop-outs for integrative orientation. 31 The differences were more substantial for the Integrativeness subcomponent (effect size of .06) than for instrumental orientation (.02), with stay-ins showing higher levels than drop-outs. The results suggested that stay-ins were much more integratively than instrumentally oriented, meaning that they were concerned with integrative reasons for learning Japanese than instrumental reasons.
Tables 5.9 and 5.10 present the (large) mean differences between stay-ins and drop-outs on the measures of Motivation and Integrativeness, according to university year, and year of Japanese, respectively. Means were all lower for the dropouts group.
Table 5.9. Motivation/Attitude Differences for Round 1 according to Year of University Intention to continue studying STAY-INS DROP-OUTS t df Effect size Japanese # Mean (SD) Mean (SD) 1st Year University N=61 N=6 Motivational Attitudes toward 35.9 (4.0) 27.0 (6.0) 4.9*** 64 0.27 learning Japanese Motivational Desire 36.5 (5.1) 28.2 (4.1) 3.9*** 65 0.19 Motivational Intensity 14.7 (3.3) 10.3 (4.7) 3.0** 64 0.12 Integrative Orientation 17.1 (3.2) 11.8 (2.0) 4.0*** 65 0.19 Instrumental Orientation 15.6 (3.0) 12.0 (3.5) 2.8* 65 0.11 2nd Year University N=46 N=7 Motivational Attitudes toward 35.5 (5.1) 30.8(5.9) 2.2* 51 0.09 learning Japanese Motivational Desire 35.7 (5.9) 30.3 (6.5) 2.3* 51 0.09
Instrumental Orientation 14.7 (3.2) 13.4 (3.3) 0.9 51 0.01
3rd Year University and N=30 N=10 higher Motivational Desire 35.9 (6.5) 30.6 (4.8) 2.3* 38 0.12 Motivational Intensity 14.9 (3.2) 12.3 (4.0) 2.2* 39 0.11 ***p < .001;**p<.004; *p<0.05 #Eta-squared values >0.14 imply a large effect size; >0.06 a moderate effect size (Cohen,1988).
31 The stay-ins overall showed a significantly higher level of integrative orientation (M=16.7, SD=3.2) compared to drop-outs (M=14.5, SD=2.8), t(160)=3.1, p<.003). 140
Large differences showed considerably higher levels of motivation of stay-ins, according to year of university (Table 5.9). 32 Motivational desire was consistently stronger among stay-ins across each year of university, and attitudes towards learning Japanese were more positive in both first and second years of university. Among first year university students in Table 5.9, for example, stay-ins were found to have more positive attitudes toward learning Japanese (a very large effect size of 0.27), stronger desire to learn the language (.19), and greater intensity when learning Japanese (.12) than those who intended to discontinue. This is a stronger result than expected, particularly when considering the small size of the drop-outs sample.
Table 5.10. Motivation/Attitudes Round I: Differences according to Japanese Year Plan to continue studying Japanese STAY-INS DROP-OUTS T df Effect size # Mean (SD) Mean (SD) 1st Year Japanese N=92 N=21 Motivational Attitudes 35.4 (4.0) 30.7 (6.0) 4.9*** 110 0.18 toward learning Japanese Motivational Desire 35.7 (5.4) 30.4 (5.0) 4.1*** 110 0.13 Motivational Intensity 15.1 (3.3) 12.4 (4.0) 3.3*** 110 0.09 Integrative orientation 16.6 (3.2) 14.4 (2.9) 2.9** 111 0.07 Total Integrativeness 60.7 (8.5) 56 (7.6) 2.3* 110 0.05 Instrumental Orientation 14.9 (3.3) 13.9 (3.5) nsig 110 - 2nd Year Japanese N=29 N=3 Motivational Attitudes 34.8 (5.8) 26.7 (7.0) 2.3* 29 0.15 toward learning Japanese Motivational Desire 35.6 (7.0) 26.3 (5.1) 2.2* 30 0.14
Instrumental Orientation 15.5 (3.6) 11.3 (3.1) nsig 30 -
3rd Year Japanese and-above N=17 N=0 - ***p < .001;**p<.004; *p<0.05. #Eta-squared values >0.14 imply a large effect size >0.06 a moderate effect size (Cohen,1988).
32 First Year University stay-ins showed a significantly higher level of Attitudes toward learning (M=35.9, SD=4.0) compared to the drop-outs (M=27.0, SD=6.0), t(64)=4.9, p<.001); a significantly higher level of Motivational desire (M=36.5, SD=5.1) compared to the drop-outs (M=28.2, SD=4.1), t(65)=3.9, p<.001); and greater Motivational intensity (M=14.7, SD=3.3) compared to the drop-outs (M=10.3, SD=4.7), t(64)=3.0, p<.004). 141
On measures of Integrativeness, only integrative orientation showed a significant difference between stay-ins and drop-outs both overall (.06, previously mentioned - Table 5.8) and among first year university students (a large effect size of .19).33 A difference of moderate effect size was found too, at the Beginner (first year) level of Japanese for integrative orientation (.07) shown in Table 5.10. Similar to the sample overall, among Beginners the differences were more substantial for integrative orientation (effect size of .07), while instrumental orientation failed to reach significance. Since integrative orientation refers to reasons for learning a language due to “a sincere and personal interest in the people and culture represented by the other language group” (Lambert, 1974:98), this outcome is likely to be related to the predominance of interest in culture and in J-pop amongst participant reasons to continue. There was a relationship found between integrative orientation and interested in Japanese culture (of small to medium effect) through a Mann-Whitney U test.34
Turning to Instrumental Orientation, between stay-ins and drop-outs in first year of university a significant difference approaching a large effect size (.11) was evident; and differences of small effect sizes were seen in second year of university (.01) and overall (.02). However, the difference did not reach significance for third year of university. On the same measure among first- and second-year students of Japanese (there were no discontinuers in Third Year Japanese) Instrumental Orientation failed to reach significance at any level (see Table 5.10).
Such results for Instrumental Orientation underline the importance of integrative reasons for continuing, particularly, it would seem at higher levels of university. Far fewer among Third Year Japanese-and-above indicated such instrumental reasons for continuing as useful for my career, compared to a majority who indicated integrative reasons such as like listening to Japanese and interested in Japanese culture (in Table 5.8). However, this outcome may be related more to J-pop than to Integrativeness.
33 First Year University stay-ins (M=17.1, SD=3.2) compared to drop-outs (M=11.8, SD=2.0), t(65)=4.0, p<.001). 34 Relationship between Integrative orientation and those indicating interested in Japanese culture (Md=18, n=105) and those who did not indicate it (Md=15, n=33) U=1194, z=-2.7, p=.007, r=.23. The r value indicated small to medium effect using Cohen’s (1988) criteria: .1=small effect, .3= medium effect. 142
In relation to Motivation levels according to Japanese year (Table 5.10), results were similar to previously, showing a large effect size for differences between Beginner stay-ins and drop-outs for attitudes towards learning Japanese (.18), and motivational desire (.13), and a moderate effect size for motivational intensity (.09) as well as for integrative orientation (.07). The aggregate of Integrativeness also showed a significant difference at Beginner level (.05).
With 138 who intended to continue and 24 who did not, results on the first set of t-tests suggested that the students who intended to continue differed from those who did not intend to continue on most measures in relation to motivation and attitudes. A second set of t-tests was carried out between those who had indicated no room in my program of study as a reason to discontinue (the ‘forced discontinuers’) and those considered to be ‘true’ discontinuers. The sample sizes were small, as those in third year of university-and-above were omitted from the analyses. Results showed a significant difference for only one measure, motivational intensity35 (see Table 5.11).
Table 5.11. Motivation/Attitudes: ‘Forced’ discontinuers versus ‘true’ discontinuers Could not continue because No room Could continue but chose not T df Effect in program of study: N=10 (‘True’ discontinuers): N=4 size *
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
Motivational 14.2 (2.9) 9.25 (4.9) 2.4 12 0.32 Intensity *p< .03
The large effect size (.32) reflected the mean difference of five points between the group who could not continue (M=14.2) and the ‘true’ discontinuers (M=9.2), which indicated much less intensity in the latter group. The large number of differences on the first set of t-tests but only the one on this second set, suggests that those who intended to continue did differ from those who intended to discontinue, regardless of the reason.
35 n=10: 14.2 (SD=2.9) and n=4: 9.25 (SD=4.9), p<.03 t(12)=2.4 (Effect size of .32). 143
5.1.5. Questionnaire Summary
In summary, in the Round I questionnaire of the university study there were significant differences found between those who intended to continue and those who intended to discontinue on all three Motivational sub-components (attitudes towards learning Japanese, desire to learn Japanese, and motivational intensity), together with one sub- component of Integrativeness, integrative orientation. This trend was particularly prevalent in first year of university, where motivational attitudes showed a very large effect. Both overall, and when accounting for year of university, stay-ins were found to have much more positive attitudes towards learning Japanese, a much stronger desire to master the language, and much greater intensity when learning Japanese than those who intended to discontinue, no matter what their reason for discontinuing.
Integrative orientation was the only sub-component of Integrativeness where significant differences between university stay-ins and drop-outs were found. The differences overall, and particularly in first year of university were quite large. As stay- ins overall showed greater integrative orientation than instrumental orientation, and an association was found between integrative orientation and interest in Japanese culture, student interest in Japanese culture appeared to out-weigh pragmatic issues.
Turning to those factors most influential in continuation according to frequency: hope to travel to Japan and interest in Japanese culture were the most important both overall, and when accounting for year of university or year of Japanese. However, it was difficult to classify these factors as integrative or instrumental, as, depending upon the individual’s intent they could be either. Similarly, the third most influential factor, enjoy reading manga, watching anime and drama, could be either. It is clearly related to enjoyment of J-pop, and so may the first two factors be related to some degree.
Although the number of discontinuers was small, the most important factor influencing discontinuation in this study was clearly no room in my program of study. It was followed by too difficult and takes too much study time, and all three factors could be linked with institutional issues known to contribute to attrition, such as mixed proficiency, late enrolments, and enforced discontinuation.
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In Round I of the university study there was evidence of a significant relationship between Motivation/attitudes and persistence. This included those who could not continue (the ‘forced’ discontinuers), who showed a higher level of motivational intensity than ‘true’ discontinuers. Without attributing any causal relationship, nonetheless, it seems reasonable to conclude that those who were persistent exhibited greater passion for Japanese.
In the following section of this chapter, motivation, attitudes and persistence are examined from more individual points of view gathered through focus group interviews. Three sets of focus group interviews were undertaken to complement and to triangulate the quantitative data in this study. Interviews 1 and 2 were part of Round I, and carried out as part of the overall project.36 Those sections of the interviews relevant to this study of attitudes and motivation were included here with permission. Interview 3 is the product of a number of interview sessions carried out by this author as part of Round II. Consequently, this set of interviews also performs the function of a bridge in the chapter, connecting first and second rounds of survey data.
36 These two interviews feature in a joint paper published in Japanese Studies, 2012. 145
5.2. Interviews 1, 2, and 3
Focus group interviews 1 and 2 were undertaken as part of Round 1 both to complement and to triangulate the quantitative data. Interview 3 was undertaken as part of Round II.
5.2.1 Interview 1
Interview 1 concentrated on the types of Japanese language activities undertaken by beginner-level participants of their own volition outside the classroom. Eight students in four pairs were involved; all were intending to continue, and were in the beginner Japanese course at the time of the interview. Their details are: • Gender: Males (6); females (2).
• Ages: 18 years old (2); 19 (3); 20 (2); 21 (1).
• Length of Japanese study: 1st year of their study (8).
• Majors: Arts & social sciences (3); Business & economics (2); Science & engineering (2).
• Native languages other than English: Cantonese (3), Arabic (2).
• Have visited Japan: Yes (4), No (4).
The interviews revealed usage of the Japanese language out of the classroom in the following activities:
• Listening/singing songs.
• Watching anime.
• Watching drama.
• Playing computer/video games.
• Reading manga.
• Sending phone text messages.
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• Talking to a (non-native speaker) friend living in Japan.
• Chatting with Japanese customers at the part-time job.
• Talking to classmates of the Japanese class.
• Talking to a sister (who has studied Japanese).
• Playing the Shiritori word game with the sister.
• Writing notes.
• Talking to myself.
• Studying using the Internet Japanese language study pages.
• Doing homework while commuting on the train.
• Reading the textbook.
As seen above, the participants engaged in a variety of activities using Japanese, even though they were in the Beginner Japanese course. However, they recognized only the last four activities (which appear in bold font) as ‘learning activities’ and all others as regular daily activities. For these learners, listening to Japanese songs, watching Japanese drama and so on were not recognised as learning; they were done for enjoyment, and not for the sake of their Japanese language study. Some stated that they watched Japanese drama ‘every spare moment’. Ironically, even though they did not recognize the learning value of these activities, the effect of this out of class study was evident in a verbal role-play test undertaken by these students. Scenarios they had written for the test had noticeably incorporated bits and pieces picked up from outside activities such as watching Japanese drama. This lack of awareness echoes the earlier questionnaire findings, where students apparently were not engaged in autonomous learning activities outside the class as much as in the classroom. They could have been engaged in such activities, but simply did not recognise them as ‘learning’.
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5.2.2 Interview 2
Interview 2 involved six students who were interviewed in two groups in a general discussion format about their journey of Japanese language learning. They were all students who at the time of the interview, had volunteered to come and support learners in the Beginner Japanese course, including one who was currently not studying Japanese (but the following year came back to the Japanese program and re-enrolled in a professional level course). They were students who had persisted with Japanese study to a high level despite some factors along the way, which could have discouraged them from continuing. Their details are: • Gender: Males (5); females (1).
• Length of Japanese study: more than 4 years (6)
• Majors: Arts & social sciences (2); Business & economics (3); Science & engineering (1).
• Have visited Japan: Yes (6).
Of the six students, three (Pam, Keith, Rod, all pseudonyms) began Japanese at university. Pam and Rod had then entered the Honours’ course, which required a fourth year of Japanese language study and research. Keith entered a Diploma course in Japanese after completing a Bachelor’s Degree. The other three (Bob, Jim, Abe, all pseudonyms) had varying degrees of proficiency when they entered the university Japanese program and all progressed into the advanced level. Bob had not continued formal Japanese study after the advanced course, but was still a part of the student volunteer group who supported the Beginner Japanese course. All six students showed a high degree of commitment to the language and to Japanese study.
The interview discussions highlighted the various reasons to get started in the study of Japanese in Australia. For Abe, Japanese was compulsory in Year 7. Pam’s secondary school offered a taster course in Japanese for all students. Bob chose Japanese out of five language choices that were available in his school. Unlike the others who gave institutional reasons for starting Japanese, Rod said that familiarity
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with manga and anime was his reason to learn Japanese. Pam, a student of Chinese background, mentioned that “the history and culture between China and Japan” had aroused her interest. After being initially attracted to study Japanese through anime, Jim stated that it took more than just an interest in anime to continue on:
However, to stay around to studying this level of Japanese, there is a lot more than that. I was interested in the cultural side, traditional side and the complexity of them mixing together. I also found out that my Japanese is a long way from the original goals that I had. (Jim)
Without this extra ‘something’ it is easy to find reasons to discontinue. These learners gave their own reasons for continuing, noting factors that had to be overcome and that had caused other students to discontinue. They also readily offered opinions based on what they had heard from their friends who had discontinued, and their own views on how Japanese is structured in the university.
In her interview, Pam raised timetable conflicts within the university schedule. She said she knew many students who couldn’t continue with Japanese for this reason. Being a science student, she found it particularly difficult to fit the Japanese sequence into her science timetable. She added that it was not that easy for the Arts students either. Jim said that he had friends who discontinued Japanese after high school because they enjoyed Japanese popular culture as their hobby, rather than as something serious that they did at university. This relates to Keith’s remark that because of his parents’ expectations he chose Commerce rather than an Arts degree that would have enabled him to major in Japanese. Coming from an academically selective high school, his parents didn’t want him to ‘waste’ his high score on an Arts degree, let alone language study. He ended up studying Japanese under the Commerce degree, but many others in similar situations went into more professionally oriented degrees, leaving Japanese as their hobby. Rod pointed out that he had not thought of Japanese as a career-path.
There is also a tug-of-war between the students’ professional orientations and their attraction to Japanese popular culture. Many start Japanese because they think that J-pop is ‘fun’ and ‘cool’. They like to be able to watch anime without subtitles, not having to wait for a dubbed Australian release (Jim). The Beginner level Japanese
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course caters to this audience, and includes J-pop related materials. As beginner students progress with their study, however, course materials concentrate more on professional topics. Those interested in J-pop find the professional material uninteresting, while those who would like to use Japanese professionally find the J-pop material irrelevant, as it is not linked to specific career paths (Bob).
These advanced students, who can be considered at the ‘top’ of the stay-in group, appear to have visions of a future that includes Japanese, which lends support to Dörnyei’s concept that an L2 learner can develop an identity as a speaker of the L2. This identity may be linked with having an image of one’s Ideal Self as a speaker of Japanese. Pam found herself a career path in science research in Japan that she would like to pursue. Abe changed his major from International Studies to Linguistics and Japanese, and foresees a teaching career. Jim also, after completing a Commerce degree thereby fulfilling his parents’ wish just as in Keith’s case, wants to go on to postgraduate study in either interpreting or teaching, which would enable him to use Japanese. Keith, on the other hand, plans to go to Japan on a Working Holiday visa.
Developing a ‘language identity’ and developing a passion seem to be related. These students refused to allow ‘no room in my program of study’ become a valid reason to discontinue. Instead they overcame obstacles, and for example by changing majors, they maneuvered the system to continue with their study.
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5.2.3 Interview 3
Focus group interviews were held as part of Round II of data collection in late September 2010 (towards the end of the Australian academic year), and took the form of a general discussion. There were 29 students who took part in one of a number of sessions spread over several days depending upon their availability, so the date of the interview accompanies any quotations. The details of Interview 3 participants are:
• Gender: Males (9); females (20).
• Japanese level: 1st Year (11); 2nd (2); 3rd (5); 4th (5); other (1); missing (5).
• Majors: Arts & social sciences (6); Business & economics (5); Science (1); International Studies (5); other (1); missing (11).
• Native languages other than English: Cantonese (14); Mandarin (6); Korean (1); Other (2); Nil language spoken (4); missing (2).
Interview 3 data was analysed with regard to motivation and attitudes, and continuation or discontinuation of Japanese. The following section (5.2.3.1) focuses upon factors that participants viewed as influencing continuation, and reflects the open discussion format of Interview 3 sessions. A number of students voiced their opinions on what motivates learners to continue. Many of their comments confirmed the survey findings and previous reasons given for continuing, and consequently, determined the structure of the chapter.
In the section that follows (5.2.3.2), discussion focuses upon discontinuation, and participants’ comments offer reasons why others (or themselves) intended to discontinue Japanese study. The structure is determined by the factors that affected their choice, in descending order of frequency. Learner comments where quoted, are exactly as spoken in the interview without grammatical/spelling corrections, in an effort to keep the linguistic characteristics of the speaker intact.
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5.2.3.1. Factors influencing continuation With regard to what motivates them to continue, participants in interview 3 often mentioned a desire to travel around Japan, perhaps “even stay for a couple of years.” They anticipated that the Japanese they had learnt would prove useful there. Although their comments indicated more than a mere visit, this is consistent with the questionnaire data where hope to travel to Japan was the main reason given for continuing. Darren, a student who was studying Commerce and finishing First Year Japanese, commented:
Darren: Personally I like listening and speaking because I watch a lot of anime. I’m not too interested in writing fluently. I’m more interested to be able to converse to be able to backpack around and communicate with locals. (28/09/2010).
The second and third reasons given most frequently to continue in questionnaires related to interest in Japanese culture, and to J-pop, and many comments in interview 3 pertained to this interest. One student (Michelle), in 4th year of a Bachelor of Science had begun Japanese in 2nd year, and continued to ‘sit in on’ Japanese classes, as she had used up all her Japanese units. She described herself as having “too much motivation,” and “loves the Japanese culture and the food, and just wants to learn more.” The reason driving her to “speak and listen really fluently” as she put it, was to be able to watch Japanese drama and to read manga without having problems:
Michelle: Originally, I had no interest in Japanese culture, didn’t even know it existed, in a sense, but then my friend introduced me to manga, anime, pop culture, drama, and because I started to watch that in the first year, oh, I just loved it so much, that the 2nd year, I had to study Japanese to the point where I have to be able to watch these things, listen to these things, read these things without having to rely on other peoples’ translations. I want to translate myself. I think you enjoy it more if you understand it just by listening. So I thought, I’ll push myself and learn Japanese…So it’s just out of interest…I just want to learn more. (20/09/2010).
Michelle’s comments highlight the passionate enjoyment of J-pop and of learning Japanese ‘just out of interest’, which is an indicator of intrinsic motivation. It may also indicate integrativeness, as Gardner pointed out, “Individuals high in integrativeness may simply find learning a second language stimulating and enjoyable” (2010:223). Vanessa (mentioned previously), proficient in Japanese, had attained Level 2 in the
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Japanese Language Proficiency Test (JLPT). She had studied Beginners’ Japanese in Years 11 and 12 in high school, and liked it, and admitted that J-pop was the motivation: “You just want to understand the drama and anime yourself, you don’t want to wait for a week or two weeks for other peoples’ translation.” Vanessa had been to Japan on a working holiday during the summer vacation annually for the past four years, aiming to boost her language skills through spending time there. She was disappointed by the few chances to improve her Japanese ability the year she worked at Hakuba ski resort being surrounded by ‘foreigners’ as her work-mates, not Japanese. “It was quite boring. Locked up in a snowy mountain for 3 months. And you’re working with a lot of foreign people.” She particularly enjoys watching Japanese variety shows - talk shows and comedians; “they’re extremely funny”. Consequently her listening is good compared to other students she thinks, because basically she can understand those TV shows without any subtitles.
Vanessa is indicative of an integratively motivated individual, actively involved in learning Japanese, and, in J-pop. “A basic tenet” of Gardner’s SE model is that the Integrative Motive facilitates L2 acquisition “because it reflects an active involvement in language study” (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1991:59). That is, these learners are not only more actively successful in language learning but more active in class, more likely to interact with the other cultural community when given the opportunity, and less likely to drop out of language study in subsequent years (according to findings in Gardner, 1983). More recently, Gardner noted that, “Integratively motivated individuals are more active learners, both in the classroom and outside, are more resistant to language attrition (largely through the mediating effects of language use), are more persistent, more likely to seek out innovative programs, and can learn the material more quickly” (Gardner, 2010:54).
Perhaps a reflection of their strong interest in things Japanese, stay-ins, in survey data showed higher levels of integrative orientation than instrumental orientation. Although there was a significant difference found between stay-ins and drop-outs for instrumental orientation overall, and for the first two years of University. Participants in Interview 3 often mentioned that their motivation to study Japanese was
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due to their interest in J-pop, although this interest may by either orientation, depending upon intent. It could be either intrinsically or extrinsically motivated too. Careers using Japanese might not be easily seen as Rod mentioned (Interview 2). However, those in Interview 3 who were from various stages of Japanese learning were somewhat more positive about careers using Japanese. In the words of one First Year Japanese student (reminiscent of Pam, Interview 2) who had a clear direction:
Nerida: I think another reason (for continuing) is because I came from China…So I was thinking that maybe in the future I could do some kind of comparative study between Japanese and Chinese culture. But first I have to master the language. Then, I see that the countries are now having some misunderstandings between each other, so I’d like to work on that… I want to promote the culture of both countries. (12/10/2010).
Quite a few of those studying Commerce/Business studies/Economics could see the value of Japanese for getting a good job, particularly those who spoke Chinese or Korean. Some learners recommended studying Japanese as part of a double degree, in combination with for example, Commerce, to improve career prospects. Yvonne remarked:
Yvonne: I think Japanese is very useful for me, because I do Commerce with Major in International Business…Japan has close trading relationship with other countries, like China, Korea, East-South Asia and other European Countries. I think it’s beneficial for me if I can learn other country’s culture, for my future’s career. (28/09/2010).
The most recent developments in motivation and (SLA) second language acquisition concern the concept of “self”, where to learn a second language is to take on a new identity. Dörnyei amongst others has called for a re-interpretation of Gardner’s Integrativeness, in terms of the learner’s own identity, or ‘vision’ of themselves as a second language speaker. A comment by Zac, a student in Third Year Japanese related to such a vision involving Japanese when he remarked:
Zac: I know it’s (Japanese) relevant to my vision, because a lot of company-jobs people have bilingual, tri-lingual skills. I plan to work in the Asia Pacific region, so that will help I think in the future... I speak Mandarin, so I’m motivated by that aspect. (15/10/2010).
This comment indicates a mixture of instrumental and integrative reasons for learning Japanese. Zac’s comment might also be seen as a wider interpretation of Integrativeness as it relates to a region, rather than a specific country or language. It expresses the 154
intention to learn Japanese for career advantage, not due to a particular interest in the Japanese (although the student may have such an interest), but rather, the geographical position in the Asian-Pacific region. Integrativeness consists of two other sub- components besides an Integrative orientation: an interest in foreign languages, and positive attitudes towards the L2 community. Both are apparent in Zac’s statement, which may partially explain the higher levels of integrative orientation among participants in this university study. However, Zac is focused upon a possible career in the Asian region, which indicates an underlying instrumental orientation, perhaps linked with the high proportion (75%) of those in Round I who spoke Chinese or Korean.
5.2.3.2. Factors influencing discontinuation Turning now to discontinuation, and why learners might opt-out of Japanese. Many students in Interview 3 mentioned fulfillment of General Education (Gen. Ed.) requirements (two semesters of a subject outside one’s own faculty) as the reason for discontinuing Japanese. Often students enrol in one semester ‘just out of interest’, then change courses for the second semester. “Meeting the requirements” is how Ramage described the discontinuers overall in her study, characterized by an interest in language learning “as a means to other goals” (1990:211). According to Interview 3 comments, some students either did not take Japanese seriously or, on the other hand, those who did want to continue often found no room in their program of study. The difficulty of Japanese and the amount of study time needed to learn it were also mentioned.
Yvonne: Some people might think Japanese is easy to learn, it’s not a big deal, take Beginners without much considerations. Then the further they go into Japanese they may think… Oh, it’s difficult. Others might think I just take it for my Gen Eds…not pay much attention to this subject. So they don’t see it seriously. (28/09/2010).
Students who take up a language as an elective are unlikely to continue their studies far “because of the constraints imposed by their home faculties” (LASP 1, 2007:17), which contributes to attrition in languages according to the report. Indeed, the factor that influenced discontinuation most often here according to questionnaire data was no room in my program of study. As Pam had commented (Interview 2), Mark
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also pointed out that it is difficult to accommodate Japanese in one’s study program.
Mark: If you’re in a very labour intensive course like Engineering where you have to do up to 24 hours/week of learning there’s not much time to slot in a Japanese class here or there. (28/09/2010).
It seems that degrees in the areas of commerce, finance, economics, fine arts, arts, and architecture allow for a relatively large number of electives to be taken. On the other hand, degrees in the area of engineering, most science-related programs, law, and medicine have a much more rigid program structure and often require electives to be taken within the faculty. One constraint was timetabling where, for example, one level of a language is only offered in one semester, not both. Another constraint is late enrolment, where even if they would like to continue Japanese, students find no room in their schedule, as Janice and Yvonne remarked:
Janice: A lot of people start late, and they graduate before they can continue with the 3rd and 4th year (of Japanese). They didn’t start off in their first year, but start off in the 2nd year and then don’t have enough credits.
Yvonne: I really desire to continue, but I can’t. Because my degree, I finish in next year, November. I only have one more year. I can only take Japanese 2A and 2B. [2A and 2B refer to first and second semesters of 2nd Year Japanese.] (28/09/2010).
Another side to this issue of having no room in one’s program is a student such as Vanessa, who transferred from an Arts degree majoring in Japanese, to a Bachelor of Commerce with Arts, which she thought allowed better career opportunities. She explained in Interview 3:
Vanessa: So I’m just doing all my commerce units now, and I don’t really have any units left for Japanese anymore. I’m in 4th Year now. I will be still here next year as a combined degree usually goes for 5 years. (20/09/2010)
The second most frequent factor leading to discontinuation given by participants in university questionnaires was too difficult, while takes too much study time ranked as third. To illustrate, excerpts from Interview 3 follow. The first two students had no background in kanji and expressed the difficulty of learning kanji for students such as themselves, problems of memory overload, and trying to keep up with the number of kanji to be learnt.
Roz: I’m finding that all my time of studying Japanese is just trying to learn kanji… 156
Darren: The only reason I might not (continue) is kanji, it’s a bit daunting. The number you have to know increases exponentially. At the end of 1A we’re supposed to know about 25, at the end of 1B about 140, something like that. Depending on what I hear about 2A if it’s too much, I might not (enrol). But I probably will. Just out of interest. (28/9/2010).
Yvonne is a student with a background in kanji, and commented: Yvonne: I do know quite a few friends who failed 1A (1st semester Beginner Japanese) and they dropped out. They actually wanted to major in Japanese. I think a lot of people have a false impression that it’s going to be fun, watching anime and about Japanese manga culture, and also they underestimate the difficulty and the amount of work that you have to do as well…There is a lot of work compared to other subjects…Language is so different to other subjects. It’s not like Math. You need to do it everyday. (28/09/2010).
Learning a language is a lot of work, requiring constant and concentrated study outside of class. As reported in LASP 1: “many students are unaware that the sequential learning process is demanding and difficult. They are not prepared or able to put in the time needed to reach the high marks they would like” (LASP 1, 2007:15). High marks may well be the issue for many who discontinue, related to how much study time is required to get the high marks.
The issue of mixed proficiency may be about competition for grades as far as the students are concerned, but it may result from “inadequate resourcing” (LASP 2, 2009:19). That the fundamental value of languages is not seen as a core part of Australian education by the relevant authorities, contributes to an attitude that languages are a “desirable but optional ‘add-on’”(ibid). Participants too, commented that languages are seen merely as extras, which contributes to fewer advanced learners of Japanese.
Sandy: Most people think that language is something extra, it’s not perceived as a main career...It’s more just like, Ok I’m going to study business, so having Japanese adds extra points to it. If I’m doing something unrelated to language, it would add points just in general. They don’t really think that with Japanese it can take you to all these places...They just think it is something extra. Maybe that’s one reason why they aren’t really too interested in pursuing a career in Japanese or even just studying further. (28/9/2010).
Janice: People… have fear for language course, because they think it’s so hard, but they didn’t see the attractiveness of the course. University should promote the attractiveness of these courses, invite some Japanese people (from outside the university) to come to school, and do some speech or something, that might help (as promotion). (28/9/2010).
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5.2.4 Interviews Summary
Interview 1 investigated the activities undertaken by Beginner (First Year) Japanese learners outside class. Listening to/singing Japanese songs was especially popular among them, followed by watching anime, Japanese TV drama, and playing computer/video games, then reading manga. These J-pop activities were regular daily activities, self-initiated, and seemingly not related to classroom learning. J-pop is fun and cool. To be able to watch anime with no subtitles means not having to wait for the Australian dubbed version. Comments made by Michelle and Vanessa (Interview 3), for example, showed considerable effort and strong desire to learn Japanese, and an enjoyment of learning. This reflected the motivational components of Gardner’s SE model: “How much effort the individual expends to learn the language, how much the individual wants to learn the language, and how much the individual enjoys learning the language” (Gardner, 2010:121). These three aspects can be related not only to the learning of Japanese but also perhaps to Vanessa and Michelle’s enjoyment of J-pop. Their comments revealed their passionate interest in J-pop, and possibly many other participants in this study felt the same. The advanced level students interviewed in Interview 2 explained that they had to find for themselves a path to continue Japanese. It took more than an enjoyment of J- pop to keep going. They overcame difficulties that had caused others to drop out, including inflexible university programs, impossible timetables, and the lack of obvious career paths. It confirmed that institutional policies can have a direct effect on continuation, as timetable conflicts and no room in a program of study were the reasons most often given for discontinuing. Most participants in interviews mentioned a desire to travel around Japan, and that knowledge of Japanese would prove useful. Quite a few of those studying Commerce/Business studies/Economics could see the value of Japanese for getting a good job, particularly those who spoke Chinese or Korean, as well as English. Learning Japanese was perhaps, not only part of belonging to the Asia-Pacific region, but more importantly it may contribute to their vision of themselves as multi-lingual.
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Turning now to Round II of the University quantitative study. A common problem with longitudinal studies is the low rate of returnees, and this study is no exception. In the second round, 56 students took part, with 27 students from Round I who completed questionnaires and the proficiency test.
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5.3. The University study Round II
In Round II of the university study there were 27 students from Round I who completed questionnaires and the proficiency test in both rounds. Another 29 students participated in Interview 3. While 24 of the 29 took part in focus interviews only, five learners also completed questionnaires and the proficiency test. Round II of the study opens with the proficiency test. Then, in a similar format to Round I, findings from the Demographic questionnaire are followed by the Motivation and Attitudes questionnaire, and lastly, the chapter conclusion.
5.3.1. Round II ‘SPOT’ Proficiency test
The minimum score on the SPOT test in Round II was 31. Taking Japanese Course into account, the range of scores for Second Year, 31-56 (of possible 60), and Third Year, 38-60, were quite similar (see Table 5.12). The two students in Fourth Year Japanese attained high scores of 55 and 56.
Table 5.12. SPOT proficiency scores in Round II according to Japanese Course Japanese N=27 Minimum Maximum Mean (SD) Course Level Score Score Proficiency 1st Year 1 46 46 46 scores Round II 2nd Year 12 31 56 46 (8.5) 3rd Year 9 38 60 51 (8.1) 4th Year 2 55 56 55
When SPOT scores for both rounds of data collection were compared, a statistically significant increase in proficiency of large effect size37 (r=.56) was found. The mean score of 33 in Round I (and median of 33), and 45 in Round II (median of 49), both signified increased familiarity with Japanese. Many students had improved their test score by about ten points (out of 60) having spent another year studying the language.
37 Wilcoxin Signed Ranks test where z=-4.155, p<.001, n=27, with a large effect size (r=.56). 160
5.3.2. Round II Demographic Questionnaire
The demographic details of all participants are summarized in Table 5.13, although some figures did not apply or, in relation to Interview 3, were unknown. Firstly, among the 27 Round II questionnaire participants, 63% were female, and 37% male. There were 56% in second year of university and 33% in third year; 45% were in Second Year Japanese and 34% in Third Year. The prime areas of study were: Arts/Social Sciences 50%, 19% Commerce, 12% Science; and the majority had been to Japan.
Table 5.13. Round II survey and Interview 3 demographics Round II 2010 Round II Survey Interview 3 Count Percent % Count Gender Female 17 63 20 Male 10 37 9 University 1st - - / Year 2nd 15 56 / 3rd 9 33 / 4th 1 4 / Other 2 7 / Year of 1st 2 7 11 Japanese 2nd 12 45 2 3rd 9 34 5 4th 2 7 5 Other - - 1 Missing Data 2 7 5 Major Arts/SocScience 13 50 6 Bus/Economics 5 19 5 Science 3 12 1 Internat. Studies - - 5 Other 5 19 1 Missing Data - - 11 Language Cantonese 13 48 / Spoken Mandarin 4 15 / Korean 1 4 / Other 5 18 / Nil 4 15 / Visited Yes 16 59 / Japan No 11 41 /
In regard to languages spoken, about 15% spoke no other language, and amongst the remaining 85%, 83% of them spoke a language from East Asia, with the remaining 17% from elsewhere. As previously in Round I, the majority in Round II spoke Cantonese (about half of the group), and although it does not show in the previous Table 5.13, 30% of them also spoke Mandarin as an additional language.
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With regard to prior knowledge of kanji, 37% knew no kanji previously. The 63% who had previous knowledge of kanji were all Chinese speakers (one spoke another Chinese language) as shown in Table 5.14.
Table 5.14. Previous kanji knowledge according to Other Languages Spoken Previous kanji Other Languages Spoken Total knowledge Chinese Cantonese Mandarin Other How Many Less than 100 4 2 1 7 Kanji 101-500 1 1 0 2 501-1000 1 1 0 2 More than 1000 5 1 0 6 Total 11 5 1 17
Mandarin speakers all had previous knowledge of kanji and most Cantonese speakers (11/13), a number of whom also spoke Mandarin. Seven students in total knew less than 100 characters before taking up Japanese, while six knew more than 1000, which, similar to Round I, polarised most students at either extreme.
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5.3.3. Round II Intention to Continue
These 27 participants had participated in surveys both in 2009 and 2010 in this study, and 25 intended to continue their studies. As in the Round I survey, they were asked to indicate what factors influenced them to decide to continue with their Japanese study. Students were not asked to rank the importance of their reasons, and could give multiple reasons for continuing. Participants in the Round II survey indicated the same three major reasons for continuing as those in Round I, except that enjoy manga, anime and drama headed the list as the main reason (see Figure 5.4). Overall, 92% indicated this reason to continue. Hope to travel to Japan was followed by interest in Japanese culture as second and third main reasons, respectively.
Figure 5.4. Round II University Reasons to Continue (n=26, 1 missing).
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Although survey numbers were small, the highest-ranking reason, enjoy manga, anime and TV drama, was given by 24/26 participants (1 missing) as their reason to continue; interested in Japanese culture (by 22/26), and hope to travel to Japan (by 21/26 participants). When accounting for Japanese course, 11 out of 12 Second Year Japanese students and 7 of 9 Third Year students indicated the reason interested in Japanese culture. On the other hand, useful for my future career (17/26) was indicated by 65% altogether, and 27% overall indicated that they were majoring in Japanese. There were two students in the Round II group who intended to discontinue. They gave just one reason, no room in my program of study (see Figure 5.5). Both students were in Third Year University and Third Year Japanese; their prime areas of study being Commerce and Social Science.
Round II UNIV Discontinue Reasons Don't like Grammar Don't like Writing No Room in Program
0 1 2 Figure 5.5. Round II UNIV Discontinue Reasons
There was a third student who gave two reasons to discontinue: don’t like learning grammar, and don’t like writing in Japanese (see Figure 5.5). This student indicated an intention to continue - also giving two reasons for continuing (accounted for previously in Figure 5.4), namely, interested in Japanese culture, and enjoy reading manga etc. Although appearing undecided, it seems that the learner was indicating what factors influenced the choice to continue, as well as factors that could have influenced discontinuation. An advanced learner, this student (ID 61) gained 50/60 in Round I of the proficiency test and 60/60 in Round II, started Japanese in Year 11, although had not studied continuously, knew less than 100 kanji, but spoke Mandarin. The student had visited Japan twice, firstly in 2007 for 12 weeks on a working holiday, and then for a two-week holiday in 2009. Perhaps travel explains the level of proficiency, or perhaps it can be attributed to interest in culture and J-pop enjoyment, but unfortunately the
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learner gave no additional clues or comments.
Nonetheless, the top three reasons for continuing in Round 2 were found to be the same as in Round 1, although in a different order. The most important factor among participants was the enjoyment of J-pop, that is, reading manga, watching TV drama etc. In the next section, differences in attitudes and motivation are discussed in relation to Round II as well as Round I of the Motivation and Attitudes Questionnaire.
5.3.4. Round II Motivation and Attitudes questionnaire
When levels of motivation and attitudes of the 27 in Round II were compared to their former levels in Round I, the pairs of scores were virtually identical; no significant mean differences were found. Seven pairs of aggregated AMTB scores are shown in Figure 5.6.
Round I and Round II Means 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Mean total… Total interest… R2_INT_Tattit Total INT_attit.… Total total_InstruMot Total integrative… Total R2_TMOT_Intens R2_TMOT_Desire total instru. motiv R2_INT_InterestFor… R2_TMOTAttit_tolea… total motiv. intensity total desire to learn J R2_INT_TintegOrient Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4 Pair 5 Pair 6 Pair 7
Figure 5.6. Comparing RI and RII on 7 measures of Motivation and Integrativeness
These are aggregates of each of the three Motivational subcomponents, of three Integrativeness subcomponents, and of instrumental orientation. For example, Pair 2 shows that the participants’ mean scores for total motivational desire were similar, namely, in Round I at 37.3, and in Round II, at 37.0. Also noticeable are the much 165
higher levels of motivational desire, and attitudes to learning Japanese (two Motivational subcomponents), together with interest in foreign languages (an Integrativeness subcomponent).
Then, when comparing the Round I mean scores of the 27 continuers with the remainder in Round I (n=137) there were significant differences for levels of Motivation and Attitudes (see Table 5.15). Motivational desire showed the most significant difference, with a moderate-to-large effect size (.12), followed by interest in foreign languages (.08). The findings also suggested that the group of 27 held more positive attitudes toward learning, and showed greater intensity when learning the language (although of small effect sizes of .02 and .03 respectively).
Table 5.15. Motivation/attitudes of 27 ‘continuers’ compared to other RI participants Motivation/attitude Round I RI (RII) continuers components N=137 N=27 Mean Mean (SD) T df Effect (SD) size Motivational attitudes 34.4 36.6 1.92* 159 .02 toward learning Japanese Motivational desire 34.8 37.4 2.64*** 51.5 .12 Motivational Intensity 14.3 15.7 2.06** 160 .03 Integrativeness: Interest in 33.5 35.6 2.1** 49.2 .08 Foreign Languages ***p<.05, ** p<.04, *p<.05
These findings lend support to the pattern of particularly strong motivational desire among those who persisted in their study of Japanese found in this study. When compared to the discontinuers, the continuers were not only more persistent, but also more passionate about learning Japanese. These results also perhaps suggest that the 27, who were willing to take the survey twice, were more motivated initially than the remainder of the sample.
5.3.5 Chapter Summary
In summary, the levels of motivation and attitudes of those who intended to continue in both Rounds (I and II) of data collection were significantly higher than of those
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intending to dropout. Moreover levels remained constant over twelve months for those in Round II. When the levels of motivation and integrativeness of the 27 Round II continuers were compared to the remainder in Round 1, the 27 continuers showed much greater desire to learn Japanese and significantly more interest in foreign languages. Their attitudes towards learning Japanese were also more positive, and they put greater effort (intensity) into learning compared to others in Round I. Stay-ins generally showed higher levels of integrative orientation than instrumental orientation, perhaps a reflection of their strong interest in Japanese culture. However, results indicated less difference between stay-ins and drop-outs on the measure of motivational intensity. This possibly suggested lower levels of effort exerted by stay-ins compared to their levels of desire to learn Japanese, and attitudes towards the learning. The three main factors that influenced the intention to continue in Round I were hope to travel to Japan followed by interested in Japanese culture and then enjoy reading manga, watching anime and drama. In Round II, continuers indicated the same factors but enjoy manga, anime and TV drama ranked highest, followed by hope to travel to Japan then interested in Japanese culture. In Round II, 92% of continuers indicated enjoy manga, anime and TV drama compared to 65% for useful for my career as a reason to continue, which seems to underline the popularity of J-pop. Enjoyment of J-pop was a prime reason for continuing among university learners. Some stated that they began learning Japanese due to enjoyment of J-pop, and to better appreciate J-pop. It might be argued that consumers of J-pop are also consuming Japanese language learning, and in a kind of cycle, the learning improves their J-pop experience, which can also improve their language learning. They like to be able to watch anime without subtitles, not having to wait for a dubbed Australian release (Jim). Beginner Japanese courses often cater to this interest and include J-pop related materials. As beginner students progress with their study, however, course materials concentrate more on professional topics. Those interested in J-pop perhaps find the professional material uninteresting, while those who would like to use Japanese professionally may find the J-pop material irrelevant, as it is not linked to specific career paths (Bob). 167
Although J-pop activities were widely enjoyed, it seems that beginners often did not see their learning value, just the enjoyment (Interview 1). Enjoyment is central to the concept of ‘flow’ (Csikszentmihalyi), the state in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter. When highly intrinsically motivated learners also develop a passion for J-pop, they may experience a sense of ‘flow’ (see Ch. 2). Flow, the optimal experience, may partly explain the popularity of J-pop, and the desire to speak in Japanese. Regularly engaging in activities that are enjoyable may lead to a passion towards these activities, which can become incorporated into a person’s identity. Vanessa (Interview 3) was actively involved in learning Japanese, and, in J-pop. She showed a strong desire to learn Japanese, positive attitudes towards learning, and expended considerable effort, in support of Gardner’s concept of motivation. Both Vanessa and Michelle were not only passionate about learning Japanese, but also about J-pop. However, J-pop may be a factor in both attrition and retention of learners of Japanese.
The advanced students in Interview 2, considered at the ‘top’ of the stay-in group, had visions of a future that includes Japanese. This lends support to the concept of an L2 learner developing a self-identity as a speaker of the L2, as Dörnyei has proposed. Perhaps the self-defining aspect of a passionate activity such as learning Japanese develops with respect to an Ideal L2 Self (or Ought-to L2 Self) as detailed in the L2 Motivational Self-System (2005). Nonetheless, a passionate activity can become an inherent part of an individual’s identity (Vallerand, 2012).
This chapter provided a snapshot of university learners of Japanese and what keeps many of them studying Japanese, and to a lesser extent (due to the small number of drop-outs), was able to portray some factors that influence their intention to discontinue. Learner levels of motivation and attitudes were discussed in relation to persistence, using questionnaire and interview data.
In Chapter 6 Discussion, these and other issues will be addressed.
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CHAPTER 6
Discussion
This chapter compares and contrasts the main findings from both the university study (Chapter 5) and the high school study (Chapter 4). The chapter consists of five divisions that address the aims of the study, which form a three-tiered arrangement. On the lowest tier are the two research questions used to guide the investigation, and the format of the first part of the chapter follows those results. The first question investigates factors influencing the choice to continue, or discontinue (Sections 6.1 and 6.2). The second sought to differentiate between the motivation and attitudes of those who intended to continue, and those who intended to discontinue (Sections 6.3 and 6.4). Attention was also paid to the possible influence of demographic and external factors on persistence, such as language background and prior knowledge of kanji. As some results were similar among both universities and schools, they will be referred to henceforth as one study unless there is a reason to distinguish between them.
The overall aim in this study was to explore whether the potential exists to synthesise four existing L2 motivational models as proposed in Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System. The main aim of the study, however, was to enhance understanding of L2 motivation and attitudes in regards to persistence (with Japanese study). The final structural division of the chapter (6.5) draws together the results of the study in the light of motivational theories and concepts and offers some interpretations. Conclusions will not be drawn in this chapter, but rather are left to the following chapter (Chapter 7).
Turning now to the first division and the first research question.
169 Research question 1:
What factors most often influence the intention to continue (or discontinue) the study of Japanese among senior high school and university participants?
6.1. Factors influencing the Intention to Continue
This section discusses the findings of the first research question that relates to factors that influence the choice to continue as indicated by the Intention to continue/discontinue measure (see Ch.3). It will be followed by factors influencing the choice to discontinue.
6.1.1. Hope to travel to Japan – Let’s speak!
In both high school and university studies, the factor that most often influenced the choice to continue Japanese was the hope to travel to Japan. This desire has previously been reported to motivate Australian high school students to ‘stay-in’ until the year of the school trip (generally Year 11) by de Kretser and Spence-Brown (2010). They noted that it provides a ‘real purpose’ for learning, both leading up to and after the trip. Possibly in a similar way, the end-of-year musical performance provides a purpose in the school music department. The majority of students in each course in the school study indicated hope to travel to Japan as a reason to continue, although responses were particularly strong amongst students in First Year Japanese.
Why so keen to travel to Japan, one wonders? Perhaps the answer to this lies in students’ eagerness to speak the target language. “It’s a really great feeling when you say something that’s completely foreign to you, and to have someone know what you are saying” (noted a student on a language excursion, Gardner, 1976:212).
The desire to learn to speak another language was the individual reason given most frequently for continuing in the Ramage study (1990:208). In Lo Bianco’s study, students called for an overhaul of Japanese teaching to focus on much more active use of the language (‘Let’s Use It’), even making this a condition of their continuation (Lo
170 Bianco 2009:335). Speaking skills were the most highly valued skills in the LASP 2 (2009) study. The top priority amongst all languages in that study including Japanese was speaking, then understanding in terms of student interest and language improvement.
Interview 3 involved 29 university learners of various levels. When asked what might motivate learners to continue, participants often mentioned a desire to travel around Japan, a situation where the language they had learnt would prove useful. Many envisaged a working holiday there perhaps “even stay for a couple of years” (as did Keith, Interview 2). In Interview 3, some bewailed the fact that at university, higher- level Japanese courses were more lecture-like, with few opportunities for interaction in Japanese, unlike Beginners’ courses.
Travel to Japan indicated a desire to be immersed in the language and culture, the one place where one would have to speak Japanese. Vanessa (Interview 3) who had spent four summer university vacations in Japan went there to improve her language skills. She was disappointed by the few chances to improve her Japanese ability the year she worked at Hakuba ski resort, being surrounded by ‘foreigners’ as her work-mates, not Japanese. Michelle (Interview 3) too showed a real desire to speak the language, but felt that perhaps the only way she would use Japanese would be to travel to Japan.
Learners in this study were perhaps aware that they have few opportunities for output in Japanese. The activities in which learners most often engaged out of class tended to be receptive activities such as watching Japanese TV programmes, DVDs or movies, and listening to Japanese songs. Productive activities such as writing activities and going to see the teacher were less frequent (according to the Activities autonomy questionnaire). The most popular J-pop activities provide little opportunity for Japanese language output.
6.1.2. Interest in Japanese culture
The second-most important factor (according to frequency) influencing the intention to continue was interest in Japanese culture, both according to each overall university and school sample and when accounting for Japanese course in each study. Interest in Japan or Japanese culture often enhances enjoyment of learning the language, according to a national report on Japanese in schools (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:33). Liking languages and culture was found to provide motivation to continue Japanese in an 171 earlier national survey by Marriott, Neustupny and Spence-Brown (1994:90). The interest in Japanese culture was thought to be an important factor in the persistence of Western-background university learners of Japanese, despite their larger cultural/linguistic distance in Matsumoto’s study (2009). As Matsumoto pointed out (2009:10.6), this is quite different to results found by Svanes (1987) who concluded that closer cultural distance is advantageous for successful language acquisition (also see Iwashita, 2012).
Interest in the L2 culture and in attaining language proficiency characterised the continuers in Ramage’s (1990) study, which to Ramage indicated ‘intrinsic motives’. Using the Language Learning Orientations Scale (LLOS; Noels et al., 2000) these interests would most likely be related to the Intrinsic Motivation (IM) subtypes of Accomplishment and Knowledge (shown previously in Table 2.1).
6.1.3. Previous kanji knowledge
Previous kanji knowledge might be thought to influence student continuation in Japanese but this was not supported in this study. Somewhat surprisingly, there was no significant association found between persistence and prior knowledge of kanji. Those without prior knowledge of kanji enjoyed reading (and writing) Japanese as much as, or slightly more than those with previous knowledge. Like reading in Japanese was the third most frequent reason given for intending to continue among high school participants. Yet no association was found between previous kanji knowledge and like reading in Japanese (they may have had kana in mind when selecting this option). On the other hand, as one might expect, there was an association found in the high school study between previous knowledge of kanji and enjoyment of reading manga etc. Over 80% of those who indicated this reason to continue had prior knowledge of kanji. Perhaps this is connected with the increasingly ready availability of translations of manga (particularly in Chinese) on the Internet.
No matter how many kanji were known previously, high school respondents liked learning Japanese words. This reason ranked an equal fourth with enjoyment of reading manga etc. as a reason to continue among high school stay-ins. For University participants, however, like learning Japanese words was much lower in priority (at eighth) overall. This result perhaps reflects vocabulary overload among university learners at early stages of Japanese learning (70% of participants were in First Year 172 Japanese). Stay-ins at Beginners’ level in schools also gave this reason to continue less often than stay-ins at other school levels. Like learning Japanese words might be linked more to enjoyment of speaking an L2 rather than to previous knowledge of kanji.
6.2. Factors influencing the Intention to Discontinue
The main reasons that university students do not continue their study of languages beyond a semester or two, according to the LASP 1 (2007) government report were: firstly, that many students take up a language as an elective in a later stage of their university career for fun, or out of interest, then discover they have no room left in their program even if they would like to continue; secondly, the demanding nature of language study and frustration with slow progress; and finally, that many experience timetable conflicts with their main study area and “limits on the number of units they can take outside their main course” (LASP 1, 2007:15). The overwhelming reason amongst those who had decided to curtail their language study according to the later LASP 2 (2009) analysis of retention strategies was the high workload. These reasons also applied to the discontinuers in this study. Nevertheless, those who intended to discontinue in the present study, no matter what their reason, were found to be less motivated than those who planned to continue.
It is clear from interviews and surveys that no room in their program of study was the principal reason for discontinuing in the university study, although learners may have wanted to continue. As many discontinuers were primarily studying Japanese for one or two semesters to fulfil General Education course requirements, their situation was similar to the one outlined in the study by Ramage (1990), seen in Chapter 2. Many indicated they would have continued their study but found no room in their schedule. This, to Ramage, indicated the low priority accorded to foreign language study (Ramage, 1990:212).
Institutional factors, such as timetable conflicts created by the university schedule, also prevented students from continuing with Japanese. About 19% of university discontinuers indicated both no room in their study program, and timetable conflict as reasons to discontinue. Being a science student, Pam (Interview 2) said that she found it particularly difficult to fit the Japanese sequence into her science timetable, and added
173 that it was not easy for Arts students either.
In the school study, a third of discontinuers said they had no room in their program of study. However, their comments often reflected personal priorities rather than inability to continue due to institutional reasons such as timetable clash. About half of high school discontinuers were either studying Japanese for the NSW School Certificate or were in Year 12. Around the time of participation in the survey, from May to July 2009, they would have been choosing subjects to study in Year 11, or were focused on entering university. Perhaps it is not surprising that some students chose to point to structural barriers to continuation as part of a defensive attitude.
Students can easily realise that their L2 ability is limited just by comparing it to their first language. Furthermore, students’ parents/siblings may have spoken of failure at learning Japanese (suggested by Lo Bianco, 2009:332). Gardner theorised that Cultural Context (or social milieu) has an important effect on student motivation to learn a language. A student’s family, peers, and the broader community, together with their views on developing bi- or multi-lingual skills interact with and influence a number of individual difference variables including motivation (Gardner, 2010:45). A common perception among Canadians that Europeans are more successful language learners than they are (Gardner, 2007:13) could also apply to Australians.
Following no room in one’s study program, in the university study the reasons given most frequently for discontinuing were that Japanese takes too much study time, and is too difficult. In the school study, these two reasons topped the list for discontinuation. Perhaps this is because patience and persistence are qualities “that are in sharp contrast to present day instant and immediate gratification” (Zammit, 1992:54). Perhaps those brought up in either a monolingual or even a bilingual situation are likely to underestimate the amount of work that is involved in learning a language, and its sequential nature (LASP 1, 2007:15). In the present study, 75% in the university study spoke another language; in schools 72% spoke another language. It might be said that patience and persistence are qualities “that are in sharp contrast to present day instant and immediate gratification” (Zammit, 1992:54). It is just as likely that ‘digital natives’ (Prensky, 2001) view learning differently.
6.2.1. Effort - ‘deliberate practice’
There is undoubtedly a lot of effort involved to learn an additional language. As Vanessa 174 (Interview 3) put it, “language is so different to other subjects. It’s not like Math. You need to do it every day.” There is evidence that level of expertise is directly related to the amount of ‘effortful practice’ (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993). Ericsson et al. researched elite performance by investigating three levels of high-achieving musicians, and the highest level consistently practised about twice as much as moderate achievers, over long periods of childhood, adolescence and early adulthood. They concluded that, “the most effective learning requires a well-defined task with an appropriate difficulty level for the particular individual, informative feedback, and opportunities for repetition and corrections of errors” (Ericsson, 1996:23). The term deliberate practice was used to characterise training activities when all those elements are present. “Evidence from several domains shows that elite performance is attained gradually and around ten years of intense preparation are necessary to attain international-level performance in traditional domains” (Ericsson, 1996:12). (Also known as ‘the 10,000-hour rule’ of practice before the age of twenty, Gladwell, 2009:39.) Similar findings in other domains such as chess and sport have been obtained (see Ericsson, 1996).
Ericsson has drawn attention to ‘play’ in comparison to deliberate practice. An example given was a tennis player who misses a backhand volley. In a situation of ‘play’, it might be several matches before a similar volley opportunity arises, but a tennis coach could give the player several hundred opportunities to gradually perfect that shot in a single lesson (Ericsson, 1996:21). Consequently, the quantity and quality of deliberate practice is related to the level of performance attained (Ericsson et al., 1993). It appears that deliberate practice is more related to the formal learning of Japanese (although being one in a class is hardly as focused as being one-on-one with a coach), whereas ‘play’ and ‘flow’ seem to tie in with J-pop activities, perhaps explaining some of the almost passionate interest.
Learning the Japanese writing system necessarily requires a long-term commitment for anyone from a non-character-based language background. As such a learner myself, without a background in kanji it is incredibly difficult to progress to such an advanced level of Japanese that would enable one to work as a general translator for example, as abstract concepts rely heavily on the knowledge of endless kanji combinations. Therefore, it was surprising that no association was found between previous knowledge of kanji and persistence in either the university or high school 175 study. However, this may be accounted for by the high proportion of participants at intermediate level or lower, where prior kanji knowledge is not emphasised. At the other extreme, those with knowledge of 1000 kanji or more may have gained little advantage since kanji is not emphasised in beginner levels of Japanese. It seems that kanji knowledge would have an effect on persistence at advanced levels of Japanese, as it enables the grasping of meaning rather than just grammatical endings (of kana). Personally, I found kanji fascinating from the very beginning.
An issue related to the perceived difficulty of Japanese is one of gender and identity as involving a ‘third space’ (Otsuji & Thomson, 2009), as discussed in Chapter 2. The authors suggested a need for female learners of Japanese to negotiate their identity somewhere between a native Japanese woman and a non-native woman. However, textbooks generally provide no models to allow them “to learn to speak like a Japanese female” (Otsuji & Thomson 2009:12). Aside from issues of identity, this adds another layer of difficulty for learners of Japanese as they advance in the language that perhaps is unexpected among speakers of English (as a non-gender specific language).
6.2.2. Feeling disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students
Perhaps the difficulty of learning Japanese and how much study time is required to get the high marks that students would like are really of the greatest importance to them. Among teachers of Japanese some have expressed the opinion that feeling disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students is likely to be linked with cannot expect good marks, as well as takes up too much study time. Some have expressed concern at having noticed their classes filled with more Asian faces as their students progressed to more advanced levels of Japanese. As learners of Japanese themselves sitting the (international) Japanese Language Proficiency Test they couldn’t help but notice the same situation as they sat progressively higher levels. They argued that this situation contributes to the attrition of many learners of Japanese in Australia, as these learners feel disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students. Indeed, the popularity of Japanese with Asian background students in some Sydney high schools has become a strong trend, according to de Kretser and Spence-Brown (2010:24).
In this study, this issue could only be investigated in relation to whether students 176 already spoke another language before commencing Japanese, or were monolingual (who may be Caucasians but some Chinese-heritage students too were monolingual). Indeed, there was an association found between being monolingual and the variable feeling disadvantaged by competition with Asian students in the school study (although a small effect size). Those who spoke no other language appeared to have greater feelings of disadvantage. Further, associations were found between feeling disadvantaged… and each of cannot expect good marks and takes too much study time, although no association between the latter two variables themselves was found.
In the university study, one student indicated feeling disadvantaged… as a reason for discontinuing, and there was no association found between the two variables. The student, who already spoke Indonesian, commented that it was her main reason to discontinue, but made it clear that the disadvantage related to mixed proficiency levels in the Beginners course. This issue of mixed proficiency was raised in the LASP 2 retention report as contributing to attrition, as quite a significant number admitted that they enrolled in the beginners’ stream of a language that they had successfully completed in Year 12. Understandably, it “could cause significant morale issues for true beginners, and would be highly likely to affect retention rates” (LASP 2, 2009:12).
On the other hand, comments made by participants who had indicated feeling disadvantaged… (who were mostly in School Certificate or Continuers courses) were more relevant to other reasons they gave to discontinue, in particular, no room in their program or takes too much study time. None of their comments or others in the high school study related specifically to feeling disadvantaged, nor did participants give only this reason, or indicate in any way that Asian background was an issue.
Turning now to the second research question and outcomes related to the question.
Research question 2:
What are the differences in motivation and attitudes between those who intend to continue and those who do not intend to continue their formal study of Japanese? Do the differences indicate evidence of a significant relationship between intention to continue and motivation/attitudes?
6.3. Motivation and attitudes
177 On all three subcomponents of Motivation (from Gardner’s AMTB) those who intended to continue showed significantly higher levels of motivation and attitudes than those intending to drop out. The stay-ins showed a much stronger desire to learn Japanese (motivational desire), much more positive attitudes towards learning the language (motivational attitudes), and greater effort (motivational intensity).
The levels of Motivation overall were consistently higher among school participants who planned to continue than those who planned to discontinue. The magnitude of differences between stay-ins and drop-outs showed a large effect size (.26) on the measures of attitudes to learning Japanese and motivational desire. Markedly less by comparison, the magnitude of difference on the measure of motivational intensity nevertheless approached a large effect size (.13).
Differences between the stay-ins and drop-outs overall in the university study in terms of Motivation echoed those of the school study, although the differences were not quite so dramatic. The magnitude of differences between stay-ins and drop-outs on the measures of attitudes towards learning Japanese and motivational desire to learn Japanese both approached a large effect size (.13). On the measure of motivational intensity however, the differences indicated a moderate effect size (.07), markedly lower by comparison yet nonetheless significant.
These outcomes, where stay-ins showed considerably higher levels of motivation and attitudes compared to those who would dropout, are consistent with other studies of motivation and persistence, such as Clement, Smythe, and Gardner (1978), Ramage (1990), Gardner and Smythe (1975), and Bartley (1970).
When analyses took Japanese course into account, stay-ins in the school study showed significantly higher levels of both Motivation and Integrativeness in School Certificate, Continuers, Extension, and International Baccalaureate (IB) courses, but the differences failed to reach significance among Beginners. The IB, a small group, uniformly showed significant differences on every item (p<.001). At the School Certificate level, mean differences of ten points between stay-ins and drop-outs for both motivational attitudes to learning Japanese (.46) and motivational desire (.40) indicated very large effect sizes. As previously, the magnitude of difference for motivational intensity was much lower by comparison with the other two motivational sub- components, but nevertheless showed a large effect (.26). Continuers’ and Extension
178 courses, too, showed a similar pattern of largest effects for motivational attitudes and motivational desire, followed by a more moderate effect by comparison for motivational intensity. Actually, Continuers showed less motivational intensity (a moderate effect size at .07) than those in any other course.
Differences between stay-ins and drop-outs on measures of Motivation (and Integrativeness) were analysed according to both year of university and level of Japanese in the university study. When taking year of university into account, large differences indicated that stay-ins were considerably more motivated. Motivational desire was consistently stronger among stay-ins across each year of university, and attitudes towards learning Japanese were more positive in both first and second years of university. Among first year university students, for example, the differences indicated that stay-ins had more positive attitudes towards learning Japanese (a large effect size of .27), stronger motivational desire (.19), and greater motivational intensity (.12) than those who intended to discontinue. This was a stronger result than expected, particularly when considering the small sample size of the university drop-outs group.
Motivation results in the university study according to Japanese course were similar to those involving year of university and overall. The magnitude of differences between stay-ins and drop-outs for attitudes towards learning Japanese showed a large effect size (.18), while motivational desire (.13) and motivational intensity (.09) indicated more moderate effect sizes. There were also significant differences found when comparing the (Round I) mean scores of the 27 in Round II with the mean scores of the remainder of university learners in Round I. Motivational desire showed the most significant difference (the magnitude indicated an effect size of .12). Analyses involving the group of 27 also indicated more positive attitudes towards learning Japanese and higher motivational intensity when compared to those in Round I, although effect sizes of .02 and .03 respectively were smaller.
Finally, there were further analyses carried out comparing those who apparently could continue but chose not to (the ‘true’ discontinuers) and those who could not continue due to no room in their program of study and timetable conflict, that is the ‘forced’ discontinuers. The ‘true’ discontinuers in the school study showed significantly less positive attitudes towards learning Japanese (.04), motivational desire (.03), and motivational intensity (.03). In the university study, a mean difference of five points was
179 found between those who could not continue (M=14.2) and the ‘true’ discontinuers (M=9.2) but only on the measure of motivational intensity. The magnitude of differences indicated a very large effect size (.32), suggesting much lower motivational intensity in the latter group. The larger number of differences on the first set of t-tests but only the one on this second set, suggested that those who intended to continue did differ from those who did not intend to continue, regardless of their reason for discontinuation.
While stay-ins in all courses scored higher on the three Motivation measures indicating higher motivation, whether motivation was or was not the cause of continuation was not established. Correlation studies such as this one cannot indicate causality. It is likely that when students know they are going to continue they are more highly motivated and engaged, while the opposite may be true for the discontinuers, since they know they will not continue. Due also to the small numbers of discontinuers in the university study, definitive conclusions proved difficult. However, participants who could not continue did show greater motivational intensity than the ‘true’ discontinuers despite knowing they were unable to continue.
6.3.1. Passion
In seeking to explain the motivational findings in the present study, a striking similarity was noticed between the definitions of Motivation (Gardner) and of Harmonious Passion (HP; Vallerand). The three Motivational subcomponents were found to bear a strong resemblance to the three elements that define a passionate activity (see Figure 2.5). HP has been defined as a strong inclination toward a self-defining activity that people enjoy (or even love), that they find important (valuable), and in which they regularly invest time and energy (Vallerand et al., 2003:756).
Motivation, as measured in the AMTB was used in this study as the measure of the three components of passion, and Intention to Continue as the measure of persistence. The findings in this study suggest that it is passion that distinguishes the stay-ins. The stay-ins exhibited a greater passion for learning Japanese than those intending to dropout. Two findings support this interpretation.
The first is the quantitative results as just outlined: the much stronger motivational
180 desire, much more positive motivational attitudes, and greater motivational intensity. All three measures showed significant differences between those who intended to continue and those who did not.
The second finding that supports the interpretation comes from university interview data. The advanced learners (in Interview 2) had to find their own paths to continue, which for some meant changing courses, or taking a double degree, or trying to satisfy their parents’ wishes as well as their own. They overcame the same obstacles that had caused others to drop out, yet persevered. Further support was found among learners generally in Interview 3 data. Two in particular are worth mentioning: Michelle who was particularly passionate about J-pop and about learning Japanese, and Vanessa who travelled to Japan each summer vacation and seemed especially motivated and actively involved in becoming proficient in Japanese. Interestingly, one teacher who has been using a range of Japanese products such as manga, anime, and television dramas in his Japanese language classrooms at university for about ten years has been “intrigued by students’ seemingly intense and often passionate interest in them” (Armour, unpublished draft paper, p.1).
Inherent in HP is the notion of self-identity, as a passionate activity of its very nature is a self-defining activity. Both learning Japanese and engaging in J-pop as a hobby seem to qualify as passionate activities, if they reach the level of becoming a self-defining activity. This pre-supposes some level of proficiency, as well as persistence. Moreover, HP has been found to contribute to feelings of wellbeing (Vallerand, 2012), which may explain in part the intense interest in J-pop that is found not only among students of Japanese. There seems to be no reason that the self-defining aspect of passion in respect to learning Japanese is not related to the possible selves on which Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System is based.
6.3.2. ‘Effortless’ effort
A pattern emerged regarding levels of Motivation in both the school and university studies. The mean difference and the magnitude of difference (between stay-ins and drop-outs in each study) were much larger for the two motivational sub-components of motivational desire and attitudes toward learning Japanese, compared to a lower, although nonetheless significant difference on motivational intensity, the third sub- component. This indicated that there was less difference between stay-ins and drop-outs 181 on the latter measure. Such a result may be partly attributable to the AMTB motivational intensity measure itself. The items that made up the measure in this study covered more traditional ‘homework’ activities, to which it seems, both stay-ins and drop-outs devoted a similar amount of effort (to pass the course). Perhaps, there is another explanation, a more Japanese-specific reason for the different levels found between components.
The Motivational outcome implied that the stay-ins expended comparatively little effort yet indicated a strong desire to learn Japanese, and very positive attitudes towards the learning. However, other findings indicated that stay-ins devoted quite a lot of spare time to J-pop activities. Results from the Habits (autonomy) survey in both schools and universities, revealed that students were indeed engaged in watching DVDs and listening to J-pop music out of class, but seemed to not consider them ‘proper’ learning activities. However, learning did take place, as verified by role-plays among university beginners who had noticeably incorporated phrases from activities such as watching Japanese drama. Furthermore, university interview data (Interview 3) revealed that interest in J-pop was almost taken for granted, and that beginner-level participants (Interview 1) considered watching Japanese drama and so on as ‘nothing special’ but as a normal part of their lives. It was for enjoyment, not for the sake of their Japanese language study.
J-pop, apparently, is so much fun that learners did not identify it as effort (or as a learning activity), suggesting a kind of ‘effortless effort’. Normally, successful learning in Gardner’s SE model is associated with exerting more effort, that is, the higher the score on the motivational intensity measure, the greater the effort. Effortless effort may be a reversal of the effort measure, yet may represent no lessening of intensity. Furthermore, by its very nature effortless effort implies successful learning.
‘Effortless effort’ ties in with research from motivational psychology that has revealed an enjoyable state of ‘flow’, or ‘optimal experience’, when adults are completely immersed in a skilled activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Flow is “a deep, spontaneous involvement with the task at hand” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997:82) that leads to improved performance. “Flow can be seen as a heightened level of motivated task engagement, leading to improved performance on a task; in many ways it is the optimal task experience” (Dörnyei, 2005:82).
182 In a study of the role of flow in foreign language classrooms, Egbert (2003) suggested that computer-based tasks support flow. It follows by extension, that J-pop activities might too. Csikszentmihalyi has stressed the importance of concentration, which “is usually possible because the task undertaken has clear goals and provides immediate feedback” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990:49). Thorne (2003:53) explained that “absorption in the activity, rather than a self-conscious focus on an eventual product” results in what Csikszentmihalyi described as “a harmonious rush of energy… which comes as close as anything can to what we call happiness” (1993, pp.xiii-xiv, in Thorne, 2003:53). In Thorne’s (2003) study (see Ch.2), conversing through (AOL IM) online texting “helped create the conditions for interpersonal communicative possibility” that fit with Csikszentmihalyi’s description of ‘flow activity’ (Thorne, 2003:53). Engaging in J-pop perhaps enables the kind of concentration and immediate feedback necessary for a flow experience.
Csikszentmihalyi’s research of inherent enjoyment has found that individuals seek out experiences of flow. This may account for the desire to speak Japanese as it may result in flow-like experiences in certain situations (such as, whilst visiting Japan). Skilled performers might enjoy and seek out flow experiences as part of their domain- related activities, according to Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer (1993:25). Flowlike states “may occur during practice alone because practice alone will never consist entirely of deliberate practice” (Ericsson et al., 1993:25). However, such experiences would not occur during deliberate practice, which, Ericsson notes, demands the monitoring of explicit goals and feedback and opportunities for error correction that are not consistent with the characteristics of flow (ibid).
6.3.3. Interest in J-pop
The interest in J-pop was acknowledged in The Japan Foundation’s latest survey (2011) for the first time. The third most popular purpose of Japanese language study (among about 14,000 participants worldwide) was learning about manga, anime, etc. It was also third among about 3,000 learners in Higher Education (The Japan Foundation, 2011:9). This appears to be the first survey to investigate the popularity of J-pop.
A strong interest in J-pop was similarly found in this study. Firstly, enjoy reading manga, watching anime and TV drama ranked highest in frequency among the Round II ‘continuers’ (at 92%) as the reason for intending to continue. Useful for my career, in 183 comparison, ranked eighth in importance. The third most frequent reason overall in RI of the university study was enjoy reading manga, watching anime and TV drama, followed by like reading in Japanese (fourth priority) and like listening to Japanese (fifth priority). All three could be said to involve ‘J-pop’. Among those studying Japanese in Third Year-and-above, although admittedly a small group, the top three options are all likely to involve J-pop (namely, like listening to Japanese, interested in Japanese culture and enjoy reading manga etc.). In the school study, enjoy reading manga etc. was the fourth priority, together with like reading in Japanese.
Moreover, the ‘Activities’ (learner autonomy) questionnaire indicated that activities in which high school and university participants most frequently engaged outside the classroom (on their own initiative) were those involving J-pop. Watching Japanese TV programs, DVDs or movies, and listening to Japanese songs were the most frequent, and registered mid-way between weekly and monthly in frequency.
The reasons for the popularity of J-pop appear to be diverse. However, J-pop’s “obvious quality, stylistic and thematic complexity, insistent difference from Western pop conventions” is attractive to global consumers according to Tsutsui (2010:46). Also, a substantial part of the appeal of not only anime, but also manga, sci-fi cinema, and much popular fiction is “its subversive edge, its tenacious unwillingness to embrace the Hollywood happy ending” (Tsutsui, 2010:47).
Interestingly, Napier found that the ‘Japaneseness’ of anime and manga “was an essential aspect of the media’s appeal to many fans…the number of fans who study Japanese, read up on Japanese history, and travel to Japan (or wish they could) is surprisingly high” (Napier, 2007:210). Napier added that although anime and manga contain ‘Japanese elements’ they are separated from reality even more than traditional movies. For example, the characters are both ‘Japanese’ and ‘nationless’. “Thus, when a non-Japanese enjoys or identifies with a character, he is identifying within a highly distinctive fantasyscape that combines elements of ‘real’ Japan within a cartoon imaginary” (Napier, 2007:210). Swenson (2007:104) found that J-pop was the reason for initial interest in Japanese culture among American college students, although that did not necessarily mean that they were interested in learning Japanese language. In Swenson’s study, many of those interviewed apparently had extensive knowledge of anime, and once an initial interest had been established they were motivated to find out
184 more about Japan.
In this study, learners of Japanese were interested in J-pop, whether they were continuing or not, and whether they spoke another language or not; and not just the more advanced learners of Japanese, nor those with previous knowledge of kanji. The interest in J-pop activities motivated many participants to take up Japanese and also to continue studying (Interview 3). Generally, quite a few participants in interviews commented that they prefer to try to understand the Japanese versions than to wait for English ‘dubbed’ versions (e.g. Vanessa, Matt, Interview 3).
Motivation is very hard to separate from the person, the activity and the context, it seems. The learner exists and the learning exists when, and only when, the learner decides they will exist. The learner has control to a certain extent; to create and identify their own goal and the activities that will help reach the goal. J-pop activities are indicative of students taking control of their own learning. The motivation of J-pop appears to be the activity itself, the inherent enjoyment. But perhaps it is more than this; perhaps it is related to self-identity. The discussion will return to this point of J- pop, identity and learning Japanese, a little later (in Section 6.5).
6.4. Integrativeness and attitudes
Not only significantly higher levels of Motivation, but also higher levels of Integrativeness were found among stay-ins when compared to the drop-outs in both universities and schools. In the school study on the three Integrativeness subcomponents, both overall, and according to Japanese course, stay-ins showed higher integrative orientation, more positive attitudes toward the Japanese community, and stronger interest in foreign languages. However, the magnitude of differences found for measures of Integrativeness was more moderate than that for Motivation. In the school study, overall, stay-ins showed more positive attitudes toward the Japanese (differences showed a moderate effect size of .08), and stronger interest in foreign languages (.04) compared to those who intended to dropout. The difference for integrative orientation was greater, approaching a large effect size (.12), indicating much stronger integrative aims for learning Japanese among those intending to continue.
185 On measures of Integrativeness in the university study, only integrative orientation showed a significant difference between stay-ins and drop-outs both overall (.06) and among first year university students (a large effect size of .19). Similar to the sample overall, at first year (Beginner) level of Japanese the magnitude of differences between stay-ins and drop-outs for integrative orientation was moderately substantial (effect size of .07). Round II participants when compared to others in Round I showed significant differences only on the Integrativeness measure of interest in foreign languages, which indicated an effect size of .08.
The ‘true’ discontinuers in the school study showed considerably lower integrative orientation (and instrumental orientation) compared to those who could not continue. A non-significant outcome for interest in foreign languages and attitudes towards the L2 community suggested little difference on these measures between those who could and those who could not continue. Therefore, perhaps an interest in foreign languages, and positive attitudes towards the Japanese (L2) community, prompted these discontinuing learners to take up the language initially. In the school study, when accounting for Japanese course, the largest differences between those intending to continue/discontinue were among School Certificate learners. A large effect size was found on two measures of Integrativeness: integrative orientation (.18) and attitudes toward the Japanese (.19) between School Certificate stay-ins and drop-outs. However, the magnitude of differences between stay-ins and drop-outs on the measure of interest in foreign languages showed a small effect size (.04) for School Certificate and Continuers courses. This outcome indicated less difference between stay-ins and drop-outs on this measure, although nonetheless significant. The School Certificate stay-ins appeared to be interested in Japanese specifically but less interested in foreign languages generally. This may reflect a concentration of focus upon Japanese specifically and achieving the School Certificate in the near future (as data collection was October 2009). On the other hand, Extension was the only school course to show differences of a somewhat large effect size (.13) between stay-ins and drop-outs on interest in foreign languages. This indicated that stay-ins in Extension, the most demanding school course, had greater interest generally in foreign languages. Using the words of the individual test items for this measure, it means for instance, that they would rather see films in the original language with subtitles than dubbed films; that they enjoy meeting and mixing
186 with people who speak other languages; and that if they lived in another country they would make an effort to learn the local language. At Continuers level, although there were significant differences found on all Integrativeness measures, effect sizes were generally small, but for one exception. For the measure of integrative orientation, the magnitude of differences between stay-ins and drop-outs indicated a large effect size (0.14). According to the individual test items for this measure, this suggests that stay-ins in the Continuers course were interested in meeting and conversing with more and varied people, and gaining friends among Japanese, rather than having instrumental reasons such as gaining a competitive edge or aiming toward a career in Japanese.
6.4.1. Instrumental orientation
Turning to instrumental orientation, a significant difference between stay-ins and drop- outs of large effect size (.11) was found among first year university students. There was also a difference of small effect size (between stay-ins and drop-outs) for second year students (.01), and overall (.02). However, the difference did not reach significance for third year of university. When taking into account the year of Japanese rather than of university study, differences between stay-ins and drop-outs on instrumental orientation failed to reach significance at any level (there were no discontinuers in Third Year Japanese). Such results perhaps underline the importance of integrative reasons for continuing. In addition, far fewer at higher levels of Japanese (Third Year-and-above) indicated such instrumental reasons to continue as useful for my career (47%) and it’s my major (41%) compared to, for example, 88% who gave like listening to Japanese as a reason for continuing. Although this outcome may be related more to J-pop than to Integrativeness, these findings do appear to underline the importance of integrative reasons for continuing. In the school study, the magnitude of differences between stay-ins and drop-outs in the Continuers course showed the lowest result for instrumental orientation (a small effect size of .05) compared with large effect sizes (of .16) on that measure in other school courses. Conversely, differences between stay-ins and drop-outs in the Extension course indicated a large effect (0.17) for instrumental orientation, but failed to reach significance for integrative orientation. It would appear that at Extension level, learning
187 Japanese was considered useful, but not necessarily to become closer to the Japanese. Of 30 who intended to continue in the Extension cohort, 29 spoke another language; 26 spoke Cantonese, Mandarin, or Korean. Therefore, the pragmatic value was possibly Japan’s geographic, cultural and economic position in the East Asian region, and the resultant opportunities. Many university learners took Japanese to satisfy General Education course requirements, which indicates that they were taking Japanese as an enrichment subject, unrelated to their career aspirations or gaining a competitive edge. This could explain the non-significant results in instrumental orientation in relation to Japanese course. The non-significance might appear to be at odds with students’ concern for gaining good marks. Being a form of external reward to the individual, achieving good marks has perhaps become associated with ‘instrumentality’. However, it was not one of the test items in the measure of instrumental orientation in this study, nor has it been part of that measure in the AMTB (or the Orientation Index that pre-dated it). Achieving good marks may be a kind of External Regulation, the least self-determined form of extrinsic motivation (i.e. performance due to a reward).
In summary, when outcomes for the measures of integrative and instrumental orientations are compared, the magnitude of differences found between stay-ins and drop-outs (overall) was greater in the school study than (overall) in the university study. Both measures in the school study showed an effect size of .12 for the overall sample, indicating much stronger integrative and instrumental aims for learning Japanese among those planning to continue. However, when accounting for Japanese course, the result in the school study was not quite so straightforward. The stay-ins in Extension appeared to be more instrumentally oriented, while those in all other school courses showed higher levels of integrative orientation. The ‘true’ discontinuers in the school study showed considerably lower integrative and instrumental orientations than the ‘forced’ discontinuers, those who could not continue. In the university sample, overall, there were significant mean differences found between stay-ins and drop-outs for both orientations. However, the differences were more substantial for integrative orientation (effect size of .06), than instrumental orientation (.02). This suggested that stay-ins were more concerned with integrative reasons for learning Japanese than instrumental reasons. They also showed higher levels of both orientations compared to drop-outs.
188
6.4.2. Orientation Issues
Stay-ins generally demonstrated greater integrative than instrumental orientation in this study. Nonetheless, an individual who sees the value of learning an L2 in terms of integrative reasons such as social interaction may also see the instrumental value of the language (MacIntyre, Mackinnon & Clement, 2009a: 51), as Gardner has long maintained. Lamb (2004) in Indonesia had difficulty in separating integrative and instrumental orientations, since some factors, such as studying and travelling abroad, were associated with English as an international language. As such, English perhaps more easily meets both integrative and instrumental needs of learners than do other languages such as Japanese.
The main reasons given to continue Japanese in this study, namely, hope to travel to Japan and interested in Japanese culture were also difficult to classify as either integrative or instrumental, as they could be either, depending on the individual’s intent. For example, if the reason for travel is “to meet with the people and to enjoy their cultural ways”, it might indicate an integrative orientation, as opposed to simply having a holiday and experiencing new sights (Gardner, 2010:16). According to Gardner, an orientation refers to a general inclination, not a specific reason for learning the language (ibid:17). Despite having identified 67 ‘orientations’ in research investigations involving orientations (see Gardner, 2010:14), Gardner noted that many of them could nevertheless be classified as reflecting either an integrative or an instrumental orientation. Consequently, perhaps, these two remain the only orientations measured in the AMTB. The language still has to be learnt, and it is the motivation that is important.
6.4.3. Integrativeness or Openness
In Gardner’s SE model, language achievement is directly facilitated by motivation and aptitude (see Figure 2.2). Integrativeness supports Motivation, along with Attitudes toward the Learning Situation, forming the three main components of the Integrative Motive in the model. Integrative motivation has long been linked with persistence (e.g. Gardner & Smythe, 1975; Baldauf & Heike, 1990). Integrativeness refers to an 189 affective characteristic of the individual L2 learner, and involves a general openness to adopting characteristics of other cultural communities, as explained in the following:
Thus, while in the classroom, students are engulfed in the ever-present cultural background in which they live as well as their immediate family background. These give rise to personality and value-based characteristics of the individual that define what we refer to as integrativeness (Gardner, 2010:85).
Some researchers see the ‘integrative concept’ as untenable in World English contexts (see Dörnyei, 2009:6) without a broader interpretation. Integrativeness, in a more recent interpretation by Gardner, involves “an openness to other cultural groups in general and a willingness or ability to adopt features of the other language group” (Gardner, 2010:85). This interpretation seems to take into account the sense of belonging to a global community felt by learners of World English; that is, a general international outlook among Japanese learners of English that Yashima (2000:57) referred to as an ‘international posture’. Consequently, it would appear that Integrativeness is equally applicable to the global community and to an L2 community.
Learning English has been connected with a sense of belonging to a worldwide community where the language is the uniting factor. Perhaps a similar sense of community applies to the J-pop global fan community, particularly among anime and manga enthusiasts. The enjoyment of J-pop unites the community (that includes many learners of Japanese as found in this study) but possibly among the ‘digital natives’ generation (Prensky, 2001), the Internet itself is the language used. Anime and manga might have remained a ‘niche phenomenon’ outside of Japan had it not been for the Internet which has allowed “transcultural flows around the globe” (Napier, 2007:137).
Block acknowledged that use of the Internet could transform the target language (TL) from being a distant native culture, to an international resource within reach of learners. Similar to the learners in the USA “chatting” with French speakers in France (Thorne, 2003), where geographical distance becomes irrelevant, J-pop may fulfill a similar function. J-pop too, may play a role among learners of Japanese in developing a sense of identity as a Japanese speaker. The French speakers were able “to forge TL- mediated identities, albeit somewhat ephemeral ones” (Block, 2009:144).
190 6.5. J-pop, identity & learning Japanese
The popularity of J-pop among learners of Japanese may be linked with a developing sense of self-image and identity as a speaker of Japanese. Perhaps J-pop is one of those few preferred activities which, engaged in on a regular basis, turns out to be passionate (Vallerand, 2012:3). Michelle and Vanessa (in Interview 3) were highly motivated to learn Japanese in Gardner’s terms of desire, intensity, and positive attitudes. Michelle was motivated to learn Japanese as a result of her passion for J-pop, while Vanessa used J-pop both for enjoyment and as a tool for learning Japanese. Those considered among the most advanced learners (in Interview 2) also appeared to be developing a self- identity as a speaker of Japanese, as their vision of the future entailed Japanese. Their developing sense of identity as a speaker of Japanese may possibly be linked with their higher levels of motivation. Statistically, the subcomponents of Motivation have been associated with passion in this study. Passion may also be connected with the interest in Japanese culture among stay-ins and their desire to travel to Japan, the most prominent reasons for intention to continue.
Learners form their own ‘imagined identity’ as part of a learner’s ‘imagined community’, and in a study of Canadian immigrants, this can include their own classroom (Norton, 2001:166). As an extension of the idea of an imagined community perhaps, in some cases, Japanese classes have evolved into a kind of Asian club in certain schools in Sydney, as the majority is of Asian background. The Japanese class might provide a bi-lingual/multi-lingual-style community within large multicultural schools, or universities in Sydney, with languages other than English as a feature in common. There was a strong interest in foreign languages found among stay-ins in the majority of school courses. Moreover, a significant relationship was found between Japanese course and whether one spoke another language. In the school study, 32 out of 33 Beginners spoke another language, and the presence of friends in the Japanese class was found to influence enrolments in the subject in Australian universities (LASP 2, 2009:15).
For many women around the world, learning English is a way of liberating themselves from the confines of patriarchy (Kobayashi, 2002). McMahill (2001) argued that young Japanese women see English “as intrinsically linked to feminism and thus are motivated to learn it as a language of empowerment” (Pavlenko & Norton, 191 2007:677). McMahill pointed out that every Japanese woman (in the English class that was the focus of her study) “felt they were a different person when speaking English” (McMahill, 2001:333). For example, using subject pronouns such as “I” and “you” constantly (whereas in Japanese they are often omitted) allowed them to speak more assertively in English. (One wonders whether such features of English have any connection with it being considered a ‘gender-neutral’ language, in Dörnyei’s (2001) Hungarian study, as mentioned in Chapter 2).
Learning Japanese as an adult at university possibly means few if any, opportunities to learn through experiencing the language (as one would if learning in Japan) compared to an L1. Also, perhaps no ‘critical experiences’ (Block, 2002a:4). Quite probably this means that there is only time to amalgamate what will fit (easily) into one’s sense of identity. While some learners have difficulty with, for example, humble language, for others the challenge of this feature of Japanese could almost amount to an identity crisis. This could also mean that learners might choose to reject (in fear of overload) those aspects that don’t easily fit into their perception of what will be usable in the foreseeable future (e.g. economic or political vocabulary). This would be linked with what each individual’s ideal self might be, connected to his or her Ideal L2 Self (Dörnyei, 2005). This would be likely to vary according to context, as well as the individual.
Identity is constructed within established contexts and may vary from one context to another (Omoniyi & White, 2006:2, in Norton, 1997). Katerina’s position as an English user in Norton’s (2000) study of immigrant women in Canada was often dependent upon the interlocutor’s competence in English (understandably, if feeling intimidated, her confidence level would drop). The study suggested that identities of the L2 users could fluctuate (Norton, 2000:11). Ushioda argued for a view of the language learner as situated in particular cultural and historical contexts (Ushioda, 2009:216). On a broader scale, Kramsch (1993) identified a ‘third place’ identity that moved in between local, national and global cultures. These findings are a reversal of the notion that “language displays its speakers’ identity” (Coulmas, 2005:171); a well-known idea connected with the character Eliza Doolittle from ‘My Fair Lady’. “As we speak, we reveal who we are, where we grew up, our gender, our station in life, our age, and the group we want to belong to” (Coulmas, 2005:173).
192 Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2005) is based on the notion that the L2 learner develops an individual identity or self-concept as a speaker of the L2. Findings in the university study, particularly among advanced learners in Interview 2, lent support to Dörnyei’s theory (discussed below in Section 6.5.1).
6.5.1. Visions of their future
The most advanced university learners (in Interview 2) had to find their own paths to be able to continue their Japanese study. They persisted despite the same obstacles that led others to discontinue, including inflexible university programs and timetables, as well as unclear career paths. For example, Keith persisted with Japanese within a Commerce degree rather than in an Arts degree due to his parents’ pressure. Some of the advanced students transferred courses; others were studying double degrees to not only increase their career prospects but to be able to continue Japanese (such as Vanessa, Interview 3). The students in Interview 2 had all completed third year of Japanese. Three of them proceeded to an Honours course, requiring a fourth year of Japanese language study and research. They were all part of the student volunteer group who supported the Beginner Japanese course, and showed a high degree of commitment to the language and to Japanese study.
It seems that at this level of competence, seeing themselves as Japanese speakers had become integral to their vision of the future. Pam became interested in pursuing a career path in science research in Japan. Abe envisaged a teaching career after changing his major from International Studies to Linguistics and Japanese. Jim also, after completing a Commerce degree and thereby fulfilling his parents’ wish as in Keith’s case, wanted to go on to postgraduate study in either interpreting or teaching, which would enable him to use Japanese. Keith, on the other hand, planned to go to Japan on a working holiday.
These advanced students who can be considered the ‘top’ of the continuers group, seemingly had visions of their future that includes Japanese, lending support to Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self-System with its concept of a language learner’s identity. If being proficient in the language is truly part of one’s ‘ideal’ or ‘ought-to self’, it will act as a powerful motivator to learn the language in order to reduce the discrepancy between the current self and the possible self (Dörnyei, 2009:4).
193 The following section will compare the main concepts, and then outline the models very briefly. Finally, it will point to the need to expand existing L2 motivational theories to incorporate passion and ‘effortless effort’.
6.6. Expanding L2 motivational concepts
There are numerous concepts of L2 motivation, and it is hard to imagine that there would be no conflict among them. However, the potential to synthesise four existing L2 motivational theories as proposed in Dörnyei’s (2005) L2 Motivational Self System (Figure 2.1) has highlighted the features in common in the models. Linked in a tripartite arrangement, Gardner’s broad concept of motivation is connected (in the L2 Self System) with Dörnyei’s concept of L2 Self and language identity (the Ideal L2 Self, the Ought-to L2 Self etc.), and it is linked with Noels’ Orientations Model (2003), and Ushioda’s Dimensions Model (2001).
The literature review (Chapter 2) presented the research behind the four models using a framework provided by three chronological phases of L2 motivational history. These periods in L2 motivational research might also be seen as forming a three-tiered (vertical) arrangement (as do the aims of this thesis). These three tiers reflect the similarities between the motivational models and yet maintain their differences of focus. Such an arrangement also adds support to Dörnyei’s proposal of the possible synthesis of the models in the L2 Motivational Self System.
Centered upon individual differences in learning a second language, Gardner’s research dominated the social psychological period. This period is characterized by its broad ‘bird’s-eye’ view of L2 motivation (Dörnyei, 2005:74), and is seen as forming the over-reaching, third tier of L2 motivational research. The cognitive-situated period that followed in the 1990s forms a second (middle) tier, when the research approach narrowed to the actual learning situation such as the foreign language classroom. In the 2000s, the research focus contracted yet further to pinpoint the individual learner. Being primarily about individuals, the process-oriented period represents the first (lowest) tier of L2 motivation research. In this tier is Dörnyei’s L2 Self concept, which focuses inwardly to the learner’s own self-concept and ‘language identity’. The tightening focus of L2 motivational research over the decades illustrates that the
194 differences between the models are principally ones of focus. This uniting factor provides support for the possible synthesis of the four models.
Research by Gardner and his associates, the Socio-Educational Model of SLA and its accompanying AMTB (Gardner, 1985) established a firm scientific basis for research studies that followed. Much L2 motivational research has built upon Gardner’s concept, was influenced by, or was measured against it, as indeed is the present study.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) identified two types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic. Intrinsic Motivation consists of three subcomponents of Knowledge, Accomplishment, and Stimulation, all of which were linked with the intention to continue (Noels et al., 2000:50). Intrinsic motivation, due to the inherent pleasure and interest in the learning activity is suggestive of Gardner’s concept of motivation as a total state of the individual. In this sense, Vallerand’s concept of passion shares some similarity with both Intrinsic Motivation and Motivation.
Gardner’s SE model however, includes an inter-group aspect (Integrativeness) that is not taken into account by Self-Determination Theory. Therefore, integrative orientation forms a separate motivational substrate to intrinsic/extrinsic orientations according to Noels (2001). This is consistent with Gardner’s original concept that learning a second language takes place within Educational and Cultural contexts.
The integrative concept itself, coincidentally, falls into a three-tiered arrangement in terms of focus. The broadest focus is that of a non-specific yet global community, which relates to the ‘imagined community’ (Norton, 2003). Then an external target language group, or L2 community as proposed by Gardner, and finally, the contemporary notion of self and identity as the internal domain of an individual (Dörnyei). As a large amount of research has been undertaken in language identity in recent years, it tends to have different shades of meaning to different researchers (see Ch.2). These include a learner’s ‘imagined’ identity and the sense of belonging to an ‘imagined L2 community’ (Norton); and the learner as an agent who is part of, yet shaping their own context (Ushioda).
195 The notion of self-imagery and possible selves that forms the basis of Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System faces both challenges of measuring the underlying constructs and in defining what is meant by ‘self’. The development of an instrument capable of measuring the ‘self’ still remains somewhat distant, although there has been a start in this direction by MacIntyre et al. (2009), with a recent self-report scale to measure possible selves (available too late for use in the present study). However, it may not be possible to develop measures that approach the scientific standards of Gardner’s AMTB, due to problems related to definition of and cultural variations in the concept of self.
196
CHAPTER 7
Conclusion
7.1. Passion & Persistence: A study of motivation among learners of
Japanese in Australia
This study was undertaken in response to a worrying trend, namely, the noticeable decline in the number of learners of Japanese in recent years. The learner population in Japanese in the 1990s almost overwhelmed the education system, yet disturbingly few learners continue to an advanced level of the language, such as being capable of professional negotiation and business. The project of which this study is a part sought to uncover what keeps some learners going while so many others give up along the way. While the study focused on motivation and attitudes, the project also encompassed learner autonomy and autonomous learning skills. Motivated learners with a combination of autonomous learning skills and strategies have been linked with successful language learning (e.g. Dickinson, 1995) while motivation and attitudes have been connected with persistence (e.g. Gardner & Smythe, 1975).
Contrary to expectations, a large percentage of participants in this study intended to continue, which is not ‘typical’, but may be explained by the voluntary nature of the study, where discontinuers are less likely to participate. Moreover, volunteers might be more interested in Japanese, and perhaps more likely to continue. Nevertheless, these learners provided a unique opportunity to explore what keeps them in a Japanese program, and, to a lesser extent, why others drop out.
197 The study consists of two separate but related studies undertaken in universities and in senior high schools. Two rounds of data collection were undertaken in the university study (Round I and Round II), and one round in the high school study. The aims of the study formed a three-tiered (vertical) arrangement. The lowest tier consists of two research questions that guided the investigation. The main aim, the middle tier, was to enhance understanding of motivation and attitudes in relation to persistence of formal Japanese study. The third and highest tier, represents the overall aim namely, to explore motivation through the possibility of the synthesis of four major L2 motivational models as proposed by Dörnyei (2005). These models provided a theoretical framework for the study. Research of L2 motivation and persistence has involved learners of a number of languages (French, Spanish, English) in various situations, and countries. Studies of motivation and persistence have often made use of the Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB; Gardner, 1985), as did the present study involving learning Japanese. The study used a mixed methods research approach. Some of the most illuminating findings were those arising from the focus group interviews, and so at times, the university learners ‘speak’ for the high school students since interviews were only undertaken in the university study. Nevertheless, the outcomes from surveys and the AMTB measures in particular, provided an objective foundation for qualitative interpretations to be made.
This chapter consists of three main divisions with a number of sections. The first division (7.1) ties together the threads of investigation undertaken in the study. The second division (7.2) addresses the significance of the study, along with its limitations, and then gives suggestions for future directions of research. Brief concluding remarks (7.3) bring the chapter to a close.
7.1.1. Intention to Continue
The factors that most often influenced participant intention to continue learning Japanese in this study were: hope to travel to Japan and interest in Japanese culture. The hope to travel to Japan appeared to be related to the desire to speak the language. Students in interviews seemed to think that the one place where they would have to speak Japanese (and enjoy it) would be in Japan. The desire to speak the L2 is supported in the literature (see 6.1.1) but the message is nowhere more strongly put across than in the emphatic “Let’s use it!” by language learners in an Australian study by Lo Bianco
198 (2009). The hope to travel to Japan may arise from participants’ interest in J-pop, which often motivates fans to find out more about Japan (Swenson, 2007:104; Napier, 2007:210).
Interest in the L2 culture has been found to be important in other studies of motivation and persistence (e.g. Ramage, 1990) and among learners of Japanese (Marriott, Neustupny, & Spence-Brown, 1994). As Japan’s cultural influence since the nineteenth century (e.g. on art) has been extensive (see Napier, 2007), the interest in Japanese culture in the present study is presumably not related to J-pop culture alone. For myself at least, the interest springs from the mix of modern and ancient that is characteristic of Japan. These two extremes were found in this study. For example, in Interview 3, one student expressed a “really huge interest” in learning to make traditional Japanese sweets (wagashi); another considered an interest in Japanese to be relevant to his future in software engineering.
However, an interest in J-pop was particularly prominent among participants in the university study where enjoy reading manga, watching anime and TV drama was the third most-frequently-given reason to continue (and fourth in the school study). It is also likely to be the case that the reasons like reading in Japanese and like listening to Japanese (fourth and fifth priority among university learners) are connected with J-pop. Among those in Third Year Japanese (and above), the top three options could all be said to involve J-pop. Furthermore, enjoy reading manga, watching anime and TV drama headed the list as the main reason to continue among Round II participants.
It is not surprising that knowledge of kanji would be helpful in reading manga, or watching anime or TV drama that contains sub-titles. Indeed, an association was found in the school study between enjoying reading manga etc. and not only previous knowledge of kanji, but how many kanji were known as well. For example, 82% of those who nominated enjoy reading manga etc. as a reason to continue also had prior knowledge of kanji in the school study. Nonetheless, in both studies, about half of the stay-ins with prior knowledge indicated that they knew less than 100 kanji. This might mean that even limited knowledge when combined with the increasingly ready access to translations on the Internet enables the learner to gain enjoyment or satisfaction in terms of time spent.
199 The incentives and disincentives for continuing are generally in agreement with earlier, more comprehensive studies undertaken both in schools (e.g. Marriott et al., 1994; de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010) and in universities (e.g. LASP 1, 2007; LASP 2, 2009). Participants have clearly indicated reasons that influence their intention to continue or discontinue learning Japanese. Whether such reasons are taken into consideration at higher levels, such as curriculum formulation and planning, remains to be seen.
7.1.2. Orientations - the overall purpose
Integrative and instrumental orientations are no longer seen as opposing forces at opposite ends of a continuum. Rather, orientations are the overall purpose or direction, and/or goal of learning a second language (Gardner, 2010:16). Those who intended to continue, the stay-ins, generally seemed to be more integratively oriented than instrumentally oriented. This suggested for example, that they were more interested in gaining friends among the Japanese, than gaining a competitive edge. The dominant reasons for continuing in this study (hope to travel to Japan and interest in Japanese culture) point to a strong interest in things Japanese among stay- ins. However, it is difficult to state whether they indicate an integrative or an instrumental orientation. They could be either, as it depends on the individual’s intent. Integrative orientation showed significant differences between stay-ins and those who intended to drop out in first-year Japanese in the university study, with higher levels among the stay-ins. Among university participants who already spoke another language, 75% indicated that Japanese could be of practical benefit to their career, which implies an underlying instrumental component to their Japanese study.
This result echoes the findings of an earlier study of motivation and persistence by Ramage (1990). Continuers were characterized as continuing for intrinsic reasons such as aiming towards proficiency, with an interest in learning the culture of the target language, but with an underlying (extrinsic) motive of the usefulness of the language. In a detailed study of intrinsic motivation (IM) and orientations, Noels (2000) found that persistence correlated with IM’s three subtypes of Knowledge, Accomplishment, and Stimulus, yet the strongest correlation was with Identified Regulation, based on the Language Learning Orientations Scale as discussed in Chapter 2 (see Table 2.1).
200 This more self-determined form of Extrinsic Motivation indicated that learners were motivated to continue learning the language because it was useful, for example, in pursuing hobbies or interests. This suggests that J-pop activities (as the primary hobbies/interests among participants in this study) may also be a form of Identified Regulation (Extrinsic Motivation).
7.1.3. Motivation & Integrativeness
Those who intended to continue showed considerably greater motivation than those who intended to discontinue on the three measures of Motivation. Stay-ins showed much stronger motivational desire, much more positive motivational attitudes toward learning Japanese, and greater motivational intensity. When accounting for Japanese course or among overall samples, a similar pattern emerged in both the school and university studies: large differences between stay-ins and drop-outs on the measures of motivational attitudes and motivational desire were found, but more moderate differences by comparison on motivational intensity. This indicated considerably less difference between the two groups on the last measure. Other findings however, indicated that stay-ins exerted quite a lot of time and effort engaged in J-pop, as discussed in Chapter 6. One possible explanation for the lower result was that the motivational intensity measure did not account for such a Japanese-specific type of effort.
Another explanation involves ‘effortless effort’, which is proposed as a new idea. Effortless effort represents successful learning that was seemingly effortless to participants (discussed in Chapters 2 and 6). This reverses the AMTB motivational intensity component of Motivation, where less effort becomes more. Engagement in J- pop activities is apparently so enjoyable that participants did not identify the learning that did take place as effortful. Effortless effort ties in with research from motivational psychology that has revealed an enjoyable state of ‘flow’ when adults are completely immersed in a skilled activity, mentioned further in section 7.1.4.
Integrativeness consisted of three measures, integrative orientation, interest in foreign languages and attitudes towards the L2 community. These measures indicate the learner’s “openness to the other language group and other groups in general” (Gardner, 2010:223). Stay-ins in the school study showed higher levels on all three measures of 201 Integrativeness when compared to the drop-outs both overall, and according to Japanese course. However, the magnitude of differences in relation to Integrativeness and its sub- components was more moderate compared to Motivation. The more moderate results found may imply that stay-ins were driven more by their desire to learn Japanese, and by their positive attitudes toward learning Japanese, than willingness to interact with the Japanese. This may be connected with the popularity of J-pop among learners of Japanese, or the pragmatic value of learning Japanese due to Japan’s geographic, cultural and economic position in the East Asian region, and the resultant opportunities.
In the university study, only integrative orientation among the Integrativeness measures showed significant differences between stay-ins and drop-outs. These differences were found among the overall sample, among first-year Japanese, and among first year university students where they were particularly strong. This result is likely to be related to the strong interest in Japanese culture and in J-pop as reasons to continue in the university study. The finding also lends support to the long history of association between persistence and integrative orientation (Gardner & Smythe, 1975; Gardner et al., 1976).
7.1.4. Passion and persistence
Motivation and attitudes have shown the strongest relationship with persistence in a number of other L2 motivational studies, such as Gardner and Smythe, 1975; Gardner et al., 1976, Clement et al., 1978 (see Chapter 2). The stay-ins in those studies also showed a stronger desire to learn Japanese (motivational desire), more positive attitudes toward learning the language (motivational attitudes), and exerted greater effort (motivational intensity).
During this investigation into L2 motivation and persistence among learners of Japanese, it has been proposed as an idea that the three AMTB subcomponents of Motivation provide a measure of not only Motivation but also of Harmonious Passion. This proposal was prompted by the striking similarity between the subcomponents of Motivation and the three elements that define Harmonious Passion (HP). Passion was therefore expressed in terms of motivation (see Figure 2.5), as:
[Passion = Motivation + Identification].
202 HP is defined as “a strong inclination toward a self-defining activity that people like (or even love), find important (valuable), and in which they invest time and energy on a regular basis” (Vallerand et al., 2003:756). Leaving aside the self-defining aspect for the moment, having positive motivational attitudes toward learning (Japanese) seems comparable with a ‘strong inclination toward an activity that people love’ element that defines HP. Similarly, an activity in which ‘time and energy is given regularly’ was equated with motivational intensity; and an activity considered to be ‘important (valuable)’ with motivational desire. Consequently, this thesis suggested that the higher levels of Motivation found among those who intended to continue, could also be considered to indicate higher levels of passion toward (the activity of) learning Japanese.
Inherently, the definition of a passionate activity involves a degree of proficiency and therefore a certain amount of persistence. Indeed, there were higher levels of proficiency (on the SPOT test) found among those who intended to continue in this study than for the drop-outs. However, more importantly, those who had continued and had achieved the highest levels of proficiency in this study (in Interview 2) also appeared to have a passion for Japanese. Passion and persistence can be identified in the career paths of these ‘top’ learners, and in their visions for the future that includes Japanese. The way in which they had persisted despite obstacles that had discouraged other learners, perhaps exemplifies the self-defining aspect of passion. If the passionate activity is dear to people, they are likely to persist.
7.1.4.1. Enjoyment Vallerand’s research has connected HP with ‘wellbeing’, which includes general happiness and self-realisation/personal growth (Vallerand, 2012:6). Enjoyment implies a degree of persistence. Gardner has long referred to the motivated individual as one who enjoys learning the L2 (among other characteristics). Perhaps not surprisingly, a number of studies of L2 motivation and persistence featured in this thesis have raised the issue of enjoyment.
The enjoyment of language learning was one of the two main motivating factors in the LASP 2 (2009) study of retention reviewed in Chapter 2 (‘travel’ being the other). Language-related enjoyment/liking was the reason most often nominated for learning French in Ushioda’s (2001) study, and formed a predominant motivational dimension
203 together with ‘positive learning history’. Initially, Noels thought that a third type of inter-related orientation could entail whether the learning was “fun, engaging, competence enhancing” (2001a: 98). Conceptually, passion and intrinsic motivation are similar as they both involve interest and liking toward the activity, while there is a fundamental difference with extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic-Stimulation, one of three Intrinsic Motivation subtypes, refers to the simple enjoyment of the aesthetics of an activity, which Noels (ibid) pointed out, is characterised by a sense of ‘flow’.
7.1.4.2. ‘Flow’ Flow theory involves a sense of deep enjoyment. Individuals seek out experiences of flow for that reason and for the optimal experience, according to Csikszentmihalyi’s research, discussed in Chapters 2 and 6. The inherent enjoyment and value of flow as the optimal experience could at least partially account for the appeal of J-pop.
Flow may be a consequence of passion (Vallerand, 2008:3). If a person enjoys and engages in a highly valued activity regularly, at some point it may lead to a passion toward the activity, and thereby it will be incorporated into the person’s identity. It is in this way, through its self-defining aspect, that HP seems linked with the L2 motivational concept that an individual develops a ‘language identity’. The Ideal L2 Self, and Ought- to L2 Self in Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (2005) provide a way to illustrate and specify the self-defining aspect of passion.
7.1.4.3. Language identity The desire to reduce the discrepancy between one’s actual (present) self and one’s ideal self, who, for example, is fluent in Japanese, can result in an individual being powerfully motivated to learn Japanese. In contrast to this Ideal L2 self, the Ought-to L2 Self provides the motivation to avoid possible negative outcomes (such as preparing for a test to reduce the risk of failing). It seems that there is a link between the L2 Self (as a form of language identity) and persistence.
Persistence and the Ideal L2 Self may also be connected through the integrative concept. Integrative motivation has been linked with persistence in L2 research since the study by Gardner & Smythe (1975). Dörnyei has suggested that if the Ideal L2 Self, that is, the person we would like to become, were seen to be proficient in the L2, this would indicate “an integrative disposition” (Dörnyei, 2005:102). The integrative concept is linked with possible selves since the learner’s openness to features of the
204 target language (TL) and community would be involved in becoming proficient.
One of the distinguishing features of the most advanced, and therefore, the most persistent learners who featured in Interview 2 (Chapter 5) was that they envisaged their future as being involved in Japanese. They apparently had reached a stage where they defined themselves (at least partially) as speakers of Japanese. As a self-defining activity is fundamental to HP, this indicates that the learners may consider the learning of Japanese to be a passionate activity. It would also implicate both passion and persistence in the learning of Japanese to an advanced level.
7.1.5. J-pop and learning Japanese
The large number of learners in First Year Japanese in the university study underlines what seems to be a substantial interest in learning Japanese. Unfortunately, it was outside the scope of this study to propose ways of sustaining that interest, or the motivational implications in the classroom, or to inform teachers.
However, it seems clear that the enjoyment of J-pop might be implicated at least partially in both retention and attrition. J-pop provides the motivation to learn Japanese initially in many cases, and also to continue. It has been argued elsewhere (Northwood & Thomson, 2012) that the learning of Japanese itself may have become another way of consuming things Japanese. Then, resultant Japanese skills are used to further consume J-pop items in a circular fashion. This means that learning Japanese is another way of consuming things Japanese, similar to the way in which Japanese videos and J-pop songs etc. are consumed. Consequently, it may also be the case that once appetites for language consumption are satisfied, or that study of Japanese reaches the point where learners can consume J-pop without language help, or that their appetites for formal learning have been met, some learners could abandon formal study of Japanese at a relatively early stage
Both consuming J-pop and learning Japanese have been linked in this thesis with Harmonious Passion (HP). Characteristics of HP match the interest in J-pop that was expressed by many participants (e.g. Interview 3). Therefore, the connection between J- pop and HP is perhaps not surprising. However, that a possible connection exists between persistence in learning Japanese and passion is a new idea, and is not as obvious.
205 7.2. Contributions to the Field
This study has contributed to the field of Japanese linguistics and L2 motivation in two main ways. Firstly, it has revisited L2 motivational theories and concepts, linking them to current trends. Secondly, it has explored the Japanese language-learning situation in a number of institutions in and around Sydney, which should prove useful to practitioners. The use of four major motivational models as the theoretical framework of the study and the mixed-methods research design permitted a breadth of investigation and a depth of complexity needed to accommodate a three-tiered aim. This allowed the study outcomes to be related to those four major models for interpretation, which many previous studies have overlooked, supporting one model or theory rather than another. The study has made some original contributions to L2 motivational theory and, as a result, to a fuller understanding of L2 motivation and attitudes in relation to persistence of Japanese study.
There are two areas worthy of mention as original contributions to the field. The study has found a need to expand the existing L2 motivational theories to accommodate the notion that learning an L2 can be a passionate activity, in line with the Dualistic Model of Passion (DMP; Vallerand et al, 2003). As the three components of HP were found to closely resemble the three AMTB measures of Motivation (Gardner, 1985), it strongly suggests that the subcomponents of Motivation might be equated with passion. This means that the much higher levels of Motivation found among the participants who intended to continue (the stay-ins), could be equated with much higher levels of passion too. However, it was clear that self-identity is inherent to HP since a passion for playing the piano, for example, can eventually come to define the individual as a pianist. In the same way, it is proposed that a passion for learning Japanese can lead the individual to develop a ‘language identity’ as a speaker of Japanese. ‘Language identity’ ties in with the theory of possible selves, the Ideal L2 Self, and Ought-to L2 Self in Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (2005). Analyses linking the theories of identity and self with the AMTB measures led to a proposal that connects L2 motivation and passion to persistence.
The second area worthy of mention is that a new component of ‘effortless effort’ was proposed as an idea. Learning another language involves considerable effort, yet despite spending quite a lot of time regularly engaged in J-pop activities, the stay-ins 206 did not identify the subsequent learning that took place as effortful. The learning was so much fun that it seemed effortless. Indeed, the results on the motivational intensity component indicated much less effort exerted by stay-ins in comparison to their levels on other Motivational measures.
In its essence, effortless effort implies successful learning. It is possibly connected with the concept of ‘flow’, the ‘optimal experience’, and deep involvement in a task that leads to improved performance (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). Engaging in J-pop perhaps enables a flow experience, and flow may be a consequence of passion (Vallerand, 2008:3). This connection with J-pop, as well as the learning of Japanese, has provided an added dimension to previous research into ‘flow’. Flow theory may also be connected with the influence of J-pop on learner motivation and persistence, and it may at least partially explain the worldwide interest in J-pop.
The mixed-methods research design allowed various approaches to both data collection and analysis to be used in the present study. It allowed both qualitative and quantitative data to be collected, and then to be analysed in different ways. Other L2 motivational studies of persistence have used either one method or the other; the combination here yielded outcomes that either one alone would not have produced. The involvement of both university and high school participants in the one study too is rare. Even government-funded large-scale studies that featured in the literature review were undertaken either in schools or in universities. In L2 motivational research longitudinal data collection is unusual, as is tracking both continuers and discontinuers in the one study. The dual approach of investigating learner reasons for continuing or discontinuing, and the AMTB measures, then combined with group focus interviews, resulted in a more complete view of the learners: on an individual level, as well as in a broad overview based on statistical analyses.
7.2.1. Limitations of the study
Some limitations in the present study must be noted. In some ways it resembles a case study, as the situation in other Australian states or cities was not investigated here. Case studies provide a meagre basis for scientific generalisation. However, the strength of this study is that it establishes a point of reference from which others can investigate the situation in their own institutions. There is a need for further research to get a more overall picture, and a number of issues raised might be verified in further studies. 207 This study set out to investigate the high rates of attrition among learners of Japanese in Australia. However, a large proportion of the 164 university participants, and 464 senior high school participants, intended to continue Japanese, which challenged the premise of the investigation. The large number of continuers was attributed to the voluntary nature of the study, particularly in the university study where participants took part as individuals, not in class groups. Methodologically, neither institutions nor participants were randomly selected. A random sample of students in general (whether they had studied Japanese or not) would have uncovered a greater proportion of discontinuers. However, that would have been not only logistically problematic; it would perhaps also be meaningless to test individuals not involved in studying Japanese since many of the attitude measures, and the proficiency test would be irrelevant to them.
Methodologically, this study has limitations in generalisability. Results cannot be statistically representative of the populations of senior secondary schools or universities. Here, triangulation was relied upon to maximise the internal and external validity. In relation to statistical procedures, earlier studies of motivation and persistence reported in the literature review generally involved much more complex statistical procedures than were used here. However, the purpose of the earlier research was different. Gardner and Smythe were not only investigating persistence but also were heavily concerned with establishing which components were relevant to the (developing) SE model, and the validity and reliability of the model. Seeking to predict which students would continue or discontinue their studies after a certain level of attainment (as with Ramage), or establishing which components were most relevant to development of a new motivational model, were not purposes that applied in the present study.
Another limitation in this study is its correlational design, which does not permit attribution of causation. Results cannot indicate if higher levels of motivation or passion influenced students to continue, or whether continuing led to higher levels of motivation and passion. Rather, correlations are limited to investigating relationships between variables. However, as there may be, and often is, a causal relationship between intercorrelated variables, the correlation analysis can suggest directions for further research.
208 The struggle to learn kanji as an adult learner is ongoing, due to the non-reliance on kanji for daily use. Although this study has made mention of the difficulty of learning kanji, and the possible relationship of prior knowledge of kanji with other variables, discussion was not based on research tied to kanji teaching. Similarly, although language identity has featured in this study, the coverage of identity here was not intended to offer a review of the wide range of issues that relate to identity.
Round II respondents seemed more passionate (more motivated) about learning Japanese, and more interested in foreign languages generally than other university participants. How much their decision to continue was affected by their interest in other languages, by their being bilingual, or by their higher motivation was beyond the scope of this study. This study also did not attempt to address the motivational aspects of the ‘hump’ that needs to be overcome to move from intermediate to advanced level of a language. This issue is often raised anecdotally as a reason for giving up language study as, despite effort, some students cannot seem to progress beyond the hump to advanced level.
Finally, institutional and social factors may have a stronger influence on the decision by learners of Japanese to continue or discontinue than was found in this study. That is, these factors in the learners’ decision-making may have a strong effect, yet not be prominent in the results. Whether students had timetable conflicts, or whether their school had a culture of promoting study of languages, could act as the key factor in their decision-making (Hurley, 2008), no matter how motivated or how proficient they are in Japanese.
7.2.2. Suggestions for Further Research
Primarily, there is a need for further investigation of issues raised in this study to be undertaken in other institutions in other Australian States. Some suggestions for future research have already been mentioned earlier in this chapter. However, among the findings of this study, there are three areas that stand out as directions for further research as well as a number of other areas.
Two of these areas are those that were put forward as ideas in this thesis. One is the definition of Harmonious Passion (HP) and its compatibility with that of Motivation. The second is ‘effortless effort’, which appears to be a totally new issue in L2 motivational research. It requires a more detailed investigation than was carried out 209 here. Thirdly, there is a need to further investigate the theory of flow and its application to second language learning.
The L2 Motivational Self System (Dörnyei, 2005) helped shine different lights on the motivation of learners and their developing L2 selves, particularly in the interview data. The potential strength of the L2 Self formulation is that it takes the self as the starting point (MacIntyre, Mackinnon & Clement, 2009a:50), which is an entirely different focus compared to previous L2 motivational research. Quantitative research needs to be undertaken, perhaps using the scale recently developed by MacIntyre et al. (2009b). Such research would benefit from the point of view of Ushioda’s ‘person-in- context’ concept, which involves qualitative methods. Consequently, a mixed methods approach would be strongly recommended, as was used in this study.
The process by which an individual learner changes their view of self as they acquire a new language or as they progress to an advanced level, if it was possible to track, would not only be an interesting area of research but could contribute towards increasing student motivation.
Structural factors such as timetable conflicts, late enrolment, and mixed proficiency were mentioned in some detail as detrimentally affecting student choice to continue. It underlines a need for further research into the impact of structural factors on persistence. As 96% of learners of Japanese are in schools, and only about 4% in universities, it is important to turn attention towards the pool of potential students in schools. Research and action are urgently needed to counter the growing trend in some Australian states (notably South Australia) to reduce the number of subjects in the HSC (tertiary entrance qualification) to four, as mentioned in Chapter 4, which will negatively impact upon Japanese (de Kretser & Spence-Brown, 2010:73).
That Japanese is too difficult or takes up too much time were among the most common reasons given for discontinuing in this study undertaken in NSW. However, the provision in Victoria of a measure of compensation for the perceived difficulty of Japanese (such as being able to take up to six subjects towards tertiary entrance scores) has apparently contributed to relatively high enrolments in Year 12 Japanese there (see Ch. 4). Research to measure the benefits (if any) of such compensation is needed as a basis for pressing for similar strategies in other Australian states.
210 7.3. Concluding remarks
The high attrition rates in Japanese programs may be attributable partly to Japanese- specific issues. However, institutional policies have a direct effect on continuation, as corroborated by the appearance of no room in my program of study and timetable conflict as major reasons for not continuing. Clear policies are required at both government and institutional levels that stress the fundamental value of languages as a core part of the Australian education process. As long as this is not the view of relevant authorities, most students cannot be expected to see languages as other than a desirable but optional ‘add-on’, or something they might try as the spirit, or fashion, moves them (LASP 2, 2009:19). There is clearly a need for a serious commitment at the upper levels of Australian educational institutions to promote languages.
Only a few activities in a lifetime end up becoming ones we feel passionate about. This may provide the answer to the fundamental question underlying this study, which asked why so few learners of Japanese reach an advanced level of the language. Previous research has indicated a link between L2 motivation, attitudes, and persistence. This link needs to be extended according to the outcomes of this study to accommodate passion and ‘effortless effort’. The very nature of Harmonious Passion, and ‘effortless effort’, indicates at the very least a certain level of persistence.
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220 APPENDIX 1(i): PARENT/CAREGIVER INFORMATION
Approval No 2008236 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND THE JAPAN FOUNDATION
PARENT/CAREGIVER INFORMATION SHEET Tackling the issues of low numbers of Australian advanced learners of Japanese: Reasons and strategies
Your child is invited to take part in a study that is being conducted by Dr Chihiro Thomson, Associate Professor of Japanese Studies, University of NSW. It is a part of the Australian Research Council Linkage-Project being supervised by Dr Thomson. We are asking you if you will allow your child to take part in this study, a three-year study of their Japanese language study activities, habits and attitudes. We are trying to find reasons for continuation/discontinuation of Japanese language study by Australian students. Your child was selected as a possible participant in this study because he/she is currently learning Japanese. The information from the study will be used to provide students with effective learning strategies, and a website to support learning. Teachers will be provided with professional development based on the study. We will ask your child to take a simple language test and a set of questionnaires to understand his/her study activities, habits and attitudes. This will take about 40minutes. Some of the participants might be further invited to answer questions arising form the questionnaire in a focus group interview. Participation is voluntary and your child will only take part if both you and your child agree. If you do decide not to take part, it will not affect your child’s results or progress at school. If you or child change you mind about taking part, even after the study has started, just let the researcher know and any information already collected about your child will be destroyed. No-one will be able to identify you or your child from the results of the study. Only the researchers will have access to this information, except when students are identified as being at risk of harm from themselves or others. In this case, the names of these students will be given to the school principal. If you give us your permission by signing this document, we plan to discuss and publish the results at research conferences and academic journals. In any publication, information will be provided in such a way that your child cannot be identified. Any information that is obtained in connection with this study will remain confidential and will be disclosed only with your permission, except as required by law. All data will be kept on the premises of the University of NSW and will only be accessible by the chief investigator, partner investigator and the PhD student of the study. All data will be destroyed after a 5 year period. Some audio recordings may be made as part of this study. These recordings will be • Collected on the day of the survey on a date agreed to by your child’s school • Stored in University of NSW, School of Languages and Linguistics Department, for a 5 year period, and then will be destroyed. • Only the chief investigator, partner investigator and the PhD student will be able to hear the recordings. • We will use the recordings to analyse the data collected If you would like to check the information or recordings from the study, or you do not agree to recordings being made public after the study, you need to contact Dr Thomson by email. When you have read this information Dr Thomson will be available to answer any questions you may have. If you would like to know more at any stage, please feel free to contact: Dr Chihiro Thomson Associate Professor of Japanese Studies, University of New South Wales Ph: 9385 3753 Fax: 9385 1190 Email: [email protected]
Angela O’Connell Program Co-ordinator The Japan Foundation, Sydney Ph: 8239 0083 Fax: 9222 2169 Email: [email protected]
This information sheet is for you to keep. Your child has also been given information about this project.
221 APPENDIX 1(ii): PARENT/CAREGIVER CONSENT
Approval No 2008236 THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES AND THE JAPAN FOUNDATION
PARENT/CAREGIVER CONSENT FORM
Tackling the issues of low numbers of Australian advanced learners of Japanese: Reasons and strategies
I (print name)………………………………………………………………………………………………………… give consent to the participation of my child………………………………………………………………………… in the research project described below.
Project: Tackling the issues of low numbers of Australian advanced learners of Japanese: Reasons and strategies
Chief Researcher: Dr Chihiro Thomson Associate Professor of Japanese Studies University of New South Wales Ph: 9385 3753 Fax: 9385 1190
Co-Researcher: Cathy Jonak Language Consultant The Japan Foundation, Sydney Ph: 8239 0081 Fax: 9222 2169 Email: [email protected]
In giving my consent I acknowledge that: • 1. The procedures required for the project and the time involved have been explained to me and any questions I have about the project have been answered to my satisfaction. • 2. I have read the Parental Information Sheet and have been given the opportunity to discuss the information and my child’s involvement in the project with the researchers. • 3. I have discussed participation in the project with my child and my child consents to their participation in this project. • 4. I understand that my child’s participation in the project is voluntary; a decision not to participate • will in no way affect their academic standing or relationship with the school and they are free to withdraw their participation at any time. • 5. I understand that my child’s involvement is strictly confidential and that no information about my child will be used in any way that reveals my child’s identity. • 6. I understand that audio recordings may be made as part of the study. These recordings will take • place if your child is later asked to participate in a focus group.
…………………………………………………… Signature of Parent/Guardian
…………………………………………………… Date…………………………. (Please PRINT name)
Complaints may be directed to the Ethics Secretariat, The University of New South Wales, SYDNEY 2052 AUSTRALIA (phone 9385 4234, fax 9385 6648, email [email protected]). Any complaint you make will be investigated promptly and you will be informed out the outcome.
222 APPENDIX 2(i): DEMOGRAPHICS SURVEY - Schools
UNSW-Japan Foundation Linkage Project Background questionnaire for high school students
Please PRINT your name and email address clearly:
1. Name ______2. Email ______
Please tick boxes where appropriate:
3. School: (Alphabetical list)
4. Grade: ☐Yr 10 ☐Yr 11☐Yr 12
5. Sex: ☐Male ☐Female
6. What course are you taking in Japanese?
☐School Certificate ☐Beginners ☐Continuers ☐Extension ☐Background Speakers
7. Indicate the years you studied Japanese (Tick boxes for all years you studied/studying)
☐Kindergarten ☐ Yr 1 ☐ Yr 2 ☐ Yr 3 ☐ Yr 4 ☐ Yr 5 ☐ Yr 6 ☐ Yr 7 ☐ Yr 8 ☐ Yr 9 ☐ Yr 10 ☐ Yr 11 ☐ Yr 12
8. Did you have previous knowledge of kanji characters before taking Japanese?
☐Yes ☐No If yes, how many? ☐Less than 100 ☐101-500 ☐501-1000 ☐More than 1000
9. What other language(s), if any, do you speak? (Tick more than one box if relevant)
☐Arabic ☐Chinese (Cantonese) ☐Chinese (Mandarin) ☐Chinese (Other) ☐Greek ☐Indonesian ☐Italian
☐Korean ☐Vietnamese ☐Other: Please specify______
223 10. What other language(s), if any, are you studying? (Tick more than one box if relevant)
☐Chinese ☐French ☐German ☐Indonesian ☐Italian ☐Korean ☐Russian ☐Spanish ☐Other: Please specify______
11. Have you been to Japan? ☐Yes ☐No If yes, for how long and why? Please write as in the example below:
When: April - December 2005 How long: 9 months Why: Exchange/homestay When: July 2003 How long: 2 weeks Why: Travel with my family
Trip 1 When: ______How long: ______Why: ______12. Trip 2 When: ______How long: ______Why: ______13. Trip 3 When: ______How long: ______Why: ______*If more than three trips, please list three longest stays. Please add up all stays for the total length below.
14. Total length: ( ) year(s) ( ) month(s) ( ) week(s) ( ) day(s)
224 APPENDIX 2(ii): DEMOGRAPHICS SURVEY – Universities
UNSW-Japan Foundation Linkage Project Background questionnaire for university students
Please PRINT your name and email address clearly:
1. Name ______Email ______
Please tick boxes where appropriate:
2. University:
3. Sex: ☐Male ☐Female
4. Year of university
☐1st year ☐2nd year ☐3rd year ☐4th year ☐5th year ☐6th year ☐Other: Please specify______
5. Primary area of study: (Tick more than one box if relevant)
☐Architecture ☐ Arts ☐ Commerce/Business ☐ Design ☐ Engineering ☐ Fine Arts ☐ Law ☐ Medicine ☐ Science ☐ Social Sciences ☐Other: Please specify______
6. What level course are you taking in Japanese?
☐1st year tertiary Japanese course (beginners) ☐2nd year tertiary Japanese course (late beginners) ☐3rd year tertiary Japanese course (intermediate) ☐4th year tertiary Japanese course (advanced) ☐Other: Please specify______
7. Indicate the years you studied Japanese (Tick boxes for all years you studied/studying)
☐Kindergarten ☐ Yr 1 ☐ Yr 2 ☐ Yr 3 ☐ Yr 4 ☐ Yr 5 ☐ Yr 6 ☐ Yr 7 ☐ Yr 8 ☐ Yr 9 ☐ Yr 10 ☐ Yr 11 ☐ Yr 12
8. Did you have previous knowledge of kanji characters before taking Japanese?
☐Yes ☐No If yes, how many? ☐Less than 100 ☐101-500 ☐501-1000 ☐More than 1000
225
9. What other language(s), if any, do you speak? (Tick more than one box if relevant)
☐Arabic ☐Chinese (Cantonese) ☐Chinese (Mandarin) ☐Chinese (Other) ☐Greek ☐Indonesian ☐Italian ☐Korean ☐Vietnamese ☐Other: Please specify______
10. What other language(s), if any, are you studying? (Tick more than one box if relevant)
☐Chinese ☐French ☐German ☐Indonesian ☐Italian ☐Korean ☐Russian ☐Spanish ☐Other: Please specify______
11. Have you been to Japan? ☐Yes ☐No If yes, for how long and why? Please write as in the example below:
When: April - December 2005 How long: 9 months Why: Exchange/homestay When: July 2003 How long: 2 weeks Why: Travel with my family
Trip 1 When: ______How long: ______Why: ______Trip 2 When: ______How long: ______Why: ______Trip 3 When: ______How long: ______Why: ______*If more than three trips, please list three longest stays. Please add up all stays for the total length below.
Total length: ( ) year(s) ( ) month(s) ( ) week(s) ( ) day(s)
226 APPENDIX 3: MAIN SURVEY
UNSW-Japan Foundation Linkage Project Main Questionnaire
We are interested in your experiences and views as a Japanese language learner. There is no right or wrong answer. Don't waste time thinking about each statement. All that is important is that you give your true feeling. We ask that you be honest and accurate, as the success of this investigation depends upon it.
There are four sections in the main questionnaire. When you finish one section, please go on to the next section. Please do not go back to the section you have already completed. Thank you.
Section 1: Habits
When you are engaged in learning of Japanese IN and OUT of your regular school/university classrooms, do you do the following?
Please tick one each in both IN and OUT boxes: [Never, Rarely, Sometimes, Often, Always]
Never Rarely Some- Often Always times 1. Identify my strength and weakness in IN 1. learning the Japanese language OUT 2. Decide what I aim to learn in a given IN 2. situation OUT 3. Choose what tasks/activities I should do IN 3. to achieve my aim OUT 4. Select what materials (books, web pages, IN 4. advertisements, menus, worksheets…) to OUT use in the task/activity 5. Create materials (activity sheets, IN 5. questions, dialogues…) to use in the OUT task/activity 6. Choose who I should work with in the IN 6. task/activity OUT 7. Engage myself in the task/activity to IN 7. successfully finish it OUT 8. Evaluate how well I am doing in the IN 8. task/topic/course/against my aim OUT 9. Plan and study to prepare for the future IN 9. learning opportunities to come OUT 10. Use memory strategies to learn words IN 10. and expressions (flash cards, word OUT maps...) 11. Systematically practice Japanese to learn IN 11. well (daily planner, your own grammar OUT charts...) 12. Use strategies to overcome shortcomings IN 12. in reading, writing, communicating, and OUT practicing (guessing, using body language...) 227 13. Manage my emotion (cope with anxiety, IN 13. cheer up myself…) to learn efficiently OUT 14. Work with others well (ask questions, IN 14. practice together…) to learn effectively
OUT
228 Section 2: Activities
As a student of Japanese, how often have you done the following, on your own initiative (that is, not required by your teacher), OUTSIDE of your regular classes in the past?
Please tick one box from: [Never; Rarely (e.g., yearly); Occasionally (e.g., monthly); Frequently (e.g., weekly); Very Frequently (e.g., daily)]
Never Rarely Occasionally Frequently Very Frequently 15. Read Japanese grammar/reference books/ Done Japanese exercises on your own 16. Done Japanese self-study in a group
17. Written Japanese letters to friends
18. Sent/read e-mails in Japanese
19. Sent/read text messages in Japanese
20. Written a diary in Japanese
21. Read books/magazines/papers in Japanese
22. Read manga in Japanese
23. Watched Japanese TV programs, DVDs or movies. 24. Listened to Japanese songs
25. Talked to/Practiced using Japanese with Japanese people 26. Practiced using Japanese with non- Japanese friends 27. Used the Internet in Japanese
28. Played games (computer games, board games…) in Japanese 29. Gone to see your teacher about Japanese study
30. Other: Please specify activities and frequency.
229 Section 3: Views
Following are a number of statements with which some people agree and others disagree. There are no right or wrong answers since many people have different opinions. We would like you to indicate your opinion about each item by circling the number which best indicates the extent to which you disagree or agree with that statement.
Please circle the number which best fits your opinion: [STD (Strongly Disagree)=1; MD (Moderately Disagree)=2; SLD (Slightly Disagree)=3; N (Neutral)=4; SLA (Slightly Agree)=5; MA (Moderately Agree)=6; STA (Strongly Agree)=7]
STD MD SLD N SLA MA STA
31. The more I get to know the Japanese language, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the more I want to be fluent in the language. 32. I really enjoy learning Japanese. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 33. When I finish this current course, I will give up 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 the study of Japanese entirely because I am not interested in it. 34. I want to learn Japanese so well that it will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 become second nature to me. 35. Studying Japanese is important because it will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 give me an edge in competing with others. 36. I haven't any great wish to learn more than the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 basics of Japanese. 37. I often wish I could read newspapers and 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 magazines in another language. 38. I would rather see a foreign film dubbed in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 English than see the film in its original language with English sub-titles. 39. Studying Japanese is important because it will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 make me appear more cultured. 40. I can't be bothered trying to understand the more 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 complex aspects of the Japanese language. 41. Studying Japanese can be important for me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people. 42. I keep up to date with Japanese language by 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 working on it almost every day. 43. The more I learn about the Japanese people, the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 less I like them. STD MD SLD N SLA MA STA
230 STD MD SLD N SLA MA STA
44. I plan to learn as much Japanese language as 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 possible. 45. I like my Japanese teacher. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 46. Studying Japanese can be important to me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 because I think it will someday be useful in getting a good job. 47. To be honest, I really have little desire to learn 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Japanese. 48. Learning Japanese is a waste of time. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
49. If I planned to stay in another country, I would 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 make a great effort to learn the language even though I could get along in English. 50. I find the study of Japanese very boring. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 51. Studying Japanese is important because it will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 allow me to gain good friends more easily among Japanese people. 52. Most foreign languages sound crude and harsh. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 53. I don't bother checking my corrected 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 assignments in my Japanese courses. 54. Because Australia is in the Asian region, I think 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 that all Australian schools should teach Japanese. 55. I wish I were fluent in Japanese. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 56. Knowing the Japanese language isn't really an 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 important goal in my life. 57. I enjoy meeting and listening to people who 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 speak other languages. 58. Seeing that Australia is relatively far from 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 countries speaking other languages, it is not important for Australians to learn foreign languages. 59. Studying Japanese is important because it will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 enable me to better understand Asian ways of life and culture. 60. I would like to learn as much Japanese as 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 possible. STD MD SLD N SLA MA STA
231 Section 4: Future
After you finish this course, do you plan to continue your formal study of Japanese?
61.☐ YES ☐NO If Yes, please go to Question A. If No, please go to Question B.
Please tick more than one box below if relevant:
62. A. If you are going to continue Japanese study, indicate reason(s) 1☐Like the Japanese teacher 2☐Like learning Kanji 3☐Like learning Japanese words 4☐Like learning grammar 5☐Like reading in Japanese 6☐Like writing in Japanese 7☐Like listening to Japanese 8☐Interested in Japanese culture 9☐Useful for my future career 10☐Enjoy reading manga, watching anime, drama 11☐Parental wishes 12☐Achieving good marks 13☐Hope to travel to Japan 14☐Hope to study in Japan 15☐Hope to work in Japan 16☐It’s my major 63.☐Other: Please specify______
64. B. If you are going to discontinue Japanese study, indicate reason(s) 1☐Don’t like the Japanese teacher 2☐Don’t like learning Kanji 3☐Don’t like learning Japanese words 4☐Don’t like learning grammar 5☐Don’t like reading in Japanese 6☐Don’t like writing in Japanese 7☐Don’t like listening to Japanese 8☐Lost interest in Japanese 9☐Too difficult 10☐Timetable conflict 11☐No room in my program of study 12☐Takes too much study time 13☐Cannot expect good marks 14☐Feel disadvantaged by competition with Asian background students 15☐Is not useful for my career 65.☐Other: Please specify______
232 66. Would you be willing to participate in a focus group discussion or an interview?
☐ YES ☐NO
67. If you wish to express anything else in regards to your Japanese learning experiences, please do so here.
Thank you very much for your help.
-End of survey-
233 APPENDIX 4: AMTB ITEMS
(adapted from Gardner, Tremblay & Masgoret, 1997) MOTIVATION is measured by three scales: 1. DESIRE TO LEARN JAPANESE: I want to learn Japanese so well that it will become second nature to me. I would like to learn as much Japanese as possible. I wish I were fluent in Japanese. Knowing Japanese isn't really an important goal in my life. To be honest, I really have little desire to learn Japanese. I haven't any great wish to learn more than the basics of Japanese.
2. ATTITUDES TOWARD LEARNING JAPANESE: I really enjoy learning Japanese. I plan to learn as much Japanese as possible. Because Australia is in the Asian region, I think that all Australian schools should teach Japanese. I find the study of Japanese very boring. Learning Japanese is a waste of time. When I finish this course, I will give up the study of Japanese entirely because I am not interested in it.
3. MOTIVATIONAL INTENSITY: I keep up to date with Japanese by working on it almost every day. I don't bother checking my corrected assignments in my Japanese courses. I can't be bothered trying to understand the more complex aspects of Japanese.
INTEGRATIVENESS is measured by three scales: 1. INTEREST IN FOREIGN LANGUAGES: I often wish I could read newspapers and magazines in another language. If I planned to stay in another country, I would make a great effort to learn the language even though I could get along in English. I enjoy meeting and listening to people who speak other languages. Seeing that Australia is relatively far from countries speaking other languages, it is not important for Australians to learn foreign languages. Most foreign languages sound crude and harsh. I would rather see a foreign film dubbed in English than see the film in its original language with English sub-titles.
2. ATTITUDES TOWARD THE JAPANESE: The more I get to know the Japanese, the more I want to be fluent in their language. The more I learn about the Japanese, the less I like them. I like my Japanese teacher
3. INTEGRATIVE ORIENTATION: Studying Japanese can be important for me because it will allow me to meet and converse with more and varied people. Studying Japanese is important as it will allow me to gain good friends more easily among Japanese. Studying Japanese is important as it will enable me to better understand Asian ways of life and culture.
Other: INSTRUMENTAL ORIENTATION: Studying Japanese is important because it will make me appear more cultured. Studying Japanese is important because it will give me an edge in competing with others. Studying Japanese can be important to me because I think it will someday be useful to get a good job.
234 APPENDIX 5: PARTICIPATING SCHOOLS & UNIVERSITIES
2008 Linkage-Project
Survey Total School Date Yr 10 Yr 11 Yr 12 Total % Chester Hill High School 30-4-09 33 0 11 44 9 Fort Street High School 25-5-09 22 10 10 42 9 Hornsby Girls High School 13-5-09 29 14 11 54 12 Killara High School 21-6-09 25 0 7 32 7 Kirrawee High School 28-5-09 21 13 15 49 11 North Sydney Boys High School 26-5-09 44 12 21 77 17 Randwick Girls High School 19-6-09 24 23 15 62 13 Sydney Girls High School 25-6-09 35 18 12 65 14 Gosford High School 07-7-09 10 0 0 10 2 Central Coast Grammar School 23-6-09 13 10 6 29 6 Totals 256 100 108 TOTAL 464
Survey Total University Date 1st Yr 2nd Yr 3rd Yr 4th Yr Other Total % UNSW Oct-09 16 21 6 2 1 46 28 USYD Oct-09 51 28 16 4 0 99 61 UTS Oct-09 0 3 6 0 2 11 7 UWS Oct-09 1 1 3 0 0 5 3 Totals *69 53 31 6 *4 161 99% TOTAL 164 100% *some missing data
235 APPENDIX 6: CONTINUUM OF LEARNING FOR JAPANESE STAGE 6
Japanese (HSC) Stage 6 Continuers syllabus
Stages 1–3 Human Society and Its Environment
Stages 4–5 Languages (mandatory 100 hours)
Stage 5 Languages elective courses, including Japanese
Stage 6
Stage 6 Japanese Stage 6 Japanese Beginners Background Speakers Japanese Continuers Preliminary Preliminary Preliminary HSC HSC HSC Japanese Extension
Workplace University TAFE Other
2009 Copyright Board of Studies NSW for and on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South Wales.
Japanese (HSC) Stage 6 Continuers syllabus
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The New South Wales curriculum provides opportunities for students to study a language or languages from Stages 1 through to Stage 6. In the K–6 (Stages 1–3) Human Society and Its Environment key learning area, students develop an awareness of languages and may learn about the world through the study of a language such as Japanese. In Years 7–10, a language is a mandatory component of the School Certificate, with students being required to complete 100 hours of language study. Elective study in Stages 4–5 in Japanese builds upon the mandatory study. Stage 6 offers the opportunity to continue the study of Japanese at Continuers level or Background Speakers level as appropriate. An Extension course is also available for the student at Continuers level. Students may also begin the study of Japanese in Stage 6.
Japanese (HSC) Stage 6 Continuers syllabus pp.7-8 www.boardofstudies.nsw.edu.au/.../japanese-continuers-st6-syl/ accessed
23March2013
237 APPENDIX 7: Ethics Approval - Schools
238
239 APPENDIX 8: Ethics Approval – Universities, 2009; 2010
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