DOCSLIB.ORG

The University of Chicago the Pharisees and Figured

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The University of Chicago the Pharisees and Figured THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO THE PHARISEES AND FIGURED SPEECH IN LUKE-ACTS A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE DIVINITY SCHOOL IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY JUSTIN R. HOWELL CHICAGO, ILLINOIS JUNE 2016 TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLES ......................................................................................................................................... vii INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1 PART ONE: CONTEXTUALIZING THE QUESTION Chapter One: Defining Figured Speech ............................................................................. 6 1. Allusion (ἔμφασις) ............................................................................................. 9 2. Discretion (εὐπρέπεια) ..................................................................................... 15 3. Security (ἀσφάλεια) ......................................................................................... 17 4. Freedom of Speech (παρρησία) ....................................................................... 20 5. Irony (εἰρωνεία) ............................................................................................... 21 6. Indirect Speech (ὁ πλάγιος λόγος) ................................................................... 23 7. Figured Speech as an Art (τέχνη) .................................................................... 26 Chapter Two: Methodological Approach ........................................................................ 30 1. Redactional Analysis ....................................................................................... 30 2. Intertextual and Interconceptual Analysis ....................................................... 33 3. Rhetorical and Literary Analysis ..................................................................... 35 4. Historical Analysis ........................................................................................... 41 5. The History of Reception ................................................................................. 49 Chapter Three: Scholarly Perspectives on the Historical Pharisees ................................ 52 1. The Authority of the Pharisees: Political, Religious, Neither, or Both? ......... 54 2. The Pharisees in the Roman Empire ................................................................ 70 Chapter Four: The Provenance of Luke-Acts .................................................................. 81 1. Judea ................................................................................................................ 81 ii 2. Ephesus ............................................................................................................ 84 3. Antioch in Syria ............................................................................................... 86 4. The Question about Diaspora Pharisees .......................................................... 95 Chapter Five: Luke and His Readers ............................................................................. 103 1. Authorship and Date ...................................................................................... 103 2. Luke and Ethnic Perspective ......................................................................... 109 3. God-fearers in Luke-Acts .............................................................................. 117 4. The Question about Pharisaic Readers .......................................................... 127 PART TWO: THE PHARISEES AND THE SUPPRESSION OF FREE SPEECH Chapter Six: From Figured to Free Speech .................................................................... 132 1. Framing the Narrative of Luke-Acts .............................................................. 132 2. The Lukan Pharisees as Spies ........................................................................ 140 3. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 150 Chapter Seven: Paul and Other Former Pharisees ......................................................... 152 1. Paul’s Feigned Ignorance about the High Priest (Acts 23.5) ......................... 153 2. Ananias as Ruler of the People ...................................................................... 162 3. Paul’s Appeals to his Pharisaism (Acts 23.6; 26.5) ....................................... 166 4. The Lukan Paul and his Alleged Roman Citizenship .................................... 176 5. The Other Former Pharisees (Acts 15.5) ....................................................... 179 6. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 186 Chapter Eight: Gamaliel and the God-fighters .............................................................. 188 1. Theudas, Judas, Gamaliel, and Their Respective Followers ......................... 193 2. Obedience to God versus Obedience to Gamaliel ......................................... 197 iii 3. The Sanhedrin among Other God-fighters ..................................................... 200 4. Distinguishing Gamaliel from the Apostles ................................................... 202 5. Theudas, Judas, and Jesus .............................................................................. 205 6. Persecution for (Speech in) the Name ........................................................... 213 7. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 221 PART THREE: LUKE’S MORAL DIAGNOSIS OF THE PHARISEES Chapter Nine: The Initial Symptoms of Illness ............................................................. 224 1. The Pharisees who Remain Seated (Luke 5.17-32) ....................................... 225 2. The Folly of the Scribes and Pharisees (Luke 6.6-11) ................................... 228 3. The Textual Variant at Luke 5.17c ................................................................ 235 4. The Lukan Jesus as a Doctor of the Soul (Luke 4.23; 5.31-32) ..................... 238 5. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 242 Chapter Ten: The Passions of Injustice ......................................................................... 244 1. The Passion for Money .................................................................................. 245 2. The Passion for Glory .................................................................................... 247 3. The Passion for Luxury .................................................................................. 249 4. Passions of Injustice in Moral Philosophical Traditions ................................ 252 5. The Rulers of the Pharisees and the Question of Justice ............................... 261 6. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 269 Chapter Eleven: The Evil Eye and its Cure ................................................................... 271 1. The Pharisees and the Evil Eye of Predatory Greed ...................................... 272 2. Curing the Evil Eye ........................................................................................ 276 iv 3. The “Some” and “Others” in the Beelzebul Controversy .............................. 280 4. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 291 PART FOUR: THE PHARISEES AND THE KINGDOM OF GOD Chapter Twelve: The Kingdom within Reach ............................................................... 294 1. Previous Interpretations of ἐντὸς ὑμῶν (Luke 17.21) .................................... 295 2. The Kingdom “within you” ........................................................................... 298 3. The Governing Part of the Soul ..................................................................... 302 4. The Kingdom “among you” ........................................................................... 307 5. The Lukan Jesus as Kingly Benefactor .......................................................... 309 6. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 313 Chapter Thirteen: Simon the Pharisee and the Feet ....................................................... 315 1. The Repetition of πόδας ................................................................................. 315 2. Psalms of Solomon 8 and Luke 7 ................................................................... 318 3. The Pharisees in Luke 7.24-50 ....................................................................... 323 4. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 328 Chapter Fourteen: The Pharisees and the Abandoned House ........................................ 330 1. Inside and Outside the House (Luke 13.22-14.24) ........................................ 330 2. The Function of ὑμῖν (Luke 13.35a) .............................................................. 337 3. “This Fox” and the Pharisees ......................................................................... 339 4. Conclusions .................................................................................................... 343 Chapter Fifteen: The Pharisees and the Kingly Entrance .............................................
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Lamb of God" Title in John's Gospel: Background, Exegesis, and Major Themes Christiane Shaker [email protected]
    Seton Hall University eRepository @ Seton Hall Seton Hall University Dissertations and Theses Seton Hall University Dissertations and Theses (ETDs) Fall 12-2016 The "Lamb of God" Title in John's Gospel: Background, Exegesis, and Major Themes Christiane Shaker [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarship.shu.edu/dissertations Part of the Biblical Studies Commons, Christianity Commons, and the Religious Thought, Theology and Philosophy of Religion Commons Recommended Citation Shaker, Christiane, "The "Lamb of God" Title in John's Gospel: Background, Exegesis, and Major Themes" (2016). Seton Hall University Dissertations and Theses (ETDs). 2220. https://scholarship.shu.edu/dissertations/2220 Seton Hall University THE “LAMB OF GOD” TITLE IN JOHN’S GOSPEL: BACKGROUND, EXEGESIS, AND MAJOR THEMES A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN THEOLOGY CONCENTRATION IN BIBLICAL THEOLOGY BY CHRISTIANE SHAKER South Orange, New Jersey October 2016 ©2016 Christiane Shaker Abstract This study focuses on the testimony of John the Baptist—“Behold, the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world!” [ἴδε ὁ ἀµνὸς τοῦ θεοῦ ὁ αἴρων τὴν ἁµαρτίαν τοῦ κόσµου] (John 1:29, 36)—and its impact on the narrative of the Fourth Gospel. The goal is to provide a deeper understanding of this rich image and its influence on the Gospel. In an attempt to do so, three areas of concentration are explored. First, the most common and accepted views of the background of the “Lamb of God” title in first century Judaism and Christianity are reviewed.
    [Show full text]
  • Detailed Outlines for Protecting from Satan Series
    Protecting from Satan Detailed Outline Part 1 of 5 Introduction Have you ever watched an animal protect its territory? I once saw a picture of a deer on my parents’ property running off several Canadian geese. Apparently he didn’t want them eating his grass, or messing up the place. What was clear was that he was defending what he considered to be his territory. From the safety of my television screen I have watched a grizzly bear attempt to attack hikers who, in his estimation, had invaded his territory. This helps me understand why Satan is so aggressive in his attacks on Christians. I. Why is Satan So Angry? A. Satan is angry because he is losing his turf. 1. Listen to the words of our Lord in Acts 26 which describe the result of evangelism: 16 “But get up and stand on your feet; for this purpose I have appeared to you, to appoint you a minister and a witness not only to the things which you have seen, but also to the things in which I will appear to you; 17 rescuing you from the Jewish people and from the Gentiles, to whom I am sending you, 18 to open their eyes so that they may turn from darkness to light and from the dominion of Satan to God, that they may receive forgiveness of sins and an inheritance among those who have been sanctified by faith in Me.” (Acts 26:16–18 NASB) a) Paul was called to invade Satan’s territory. He came to various places around the world, with the gospel, proclaiming to those who were in Satan’s bondage the way in which they might have freedom from sin, forgiveness and eternal life.
    [Show full text]
  • Messiah in the Siddur Table of Contents
    Teaching from Zion - Volume 30 - October 2013 - Cheshvan 5774 - Netivyah Bible Instruction Ministry - Jerusalem, Israel Teaching from “...forZion out of Zion shall come forth Torah and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.” -Isaiah 2:3 Messiah in the Siddur Table of Contents Messiah in the Siddur Who Brings Forth the Horn of Salvation - Joseph Shulam - 4 Amfian Gerasimov - A Righteous from Among the Nations - 8 Before All Beginnings - Ammikam Tavor - 12 May Our Eyes Behold Your Return - Elhanan Ben-Avraham - 15 The Institution of the Synagogue and Its Impact on Early Messianic Judaism - Joseph Shulam - 16 Netivyah Building Project - 24 News from Netivyah - 26 Teaching from Zion - Volume 30 - October 2013 - Cheshvan 5774 Published by Netivyah Bible Instruction Ministry, Jerusalem, Israel Editor - Beth Shulam Layout - Shaul Zofef Cover Photo - Ancient Olive Tree, by Patrizio Martorana Disclaimer - The articles printed in this issue of Teaching from Zion are the sole responsibility of their authors Feel free to contact us at: [email protected], or by mail: PO Box 8043, Jerusalem 91080, ISRAEL For more information please visit our website: www.netivyah.org or search for Netivyah on Facebook A Word from the Editor Beth Shulam This issue of Teaching from Zion is Siddur is Jewish life in words. There are surface the hidden messages about the published in the fall of the year 2013. a plethora of Siddur with differences Messiah buried through the centuries. In the Jewish world, this time of year mainly based on the part of the world When we dig deep into our literature traditionally marks the beginning your ancestors are from.
    [Show full text]
  • Paul's Trial Before Felix
    PAUL’S TRIAL BEFORE FELIX Acts 24:1-27 STRUCTURE Key-persons: Paul, Governor Felix, and Jewish leaders from Jerusalem Key-location: Caesarea Key-repetitions: • Accusations against Paul: was a troublemaker (Ac 24:5); stirred up riots among the Jews everywhere (Ac 24:5); was a ringleader of the Nazarene sect (Ac 24:5); tried to desecrate the temple (Ac 24:6). • Paul confessed: went to Jerusalem to worship (Ac 24:11); worshiped God as a follower of the Way (Ac 24:14); believed the Mosaic Law and the prophets (Ac 24:14); believed there would be a resurrection (Ac 24:15); strived to do right (Ac 24:16). • Paul denied: arguing at the temple Ac 24:12); stirring up conflict in the synagogues or the city Ac 24:12); being involved in any disturbance (Ac 24:18). • Injustice against Paul: falsely accused by the Jewish leaders (Ac 24:4-9); Governor Felix left Paul in prison to please the Jews (Ac 24:27). Key-attitudes: • Jewish leaders’ hatred for Paul. • Paul’s confidence in God. • Governor Felix’s inconsistency. Initial-situation: Paul finished his third missionary journey by traveling to Jerusalem. Jews from Asia falsely accused Paul of bringing non-Jews into the temple courtyard. A mob seized Paul and beat him. The Roman commander arrested Paul while the crowd kept shouting, “Kill him!” The day after Paul was arrested, the Roman commander ordered the Sanhedrin Jewish Council to assemble and explain why Paul was being accused. The Sanhedrin Council meeting became violent. The commander ordered his soldiers to take Paul away by force and bring him into the barracks.
    [Show full text]
  • Paul & Philippians Intermediate Kids Camp Workbook 2016
    The Journeys of Paul and his letter to the Philippians “I press toward the mark for the prize of the high calling of God in Christ Jesus” Christadelphian Kids Camp, California 2016 Intermediate Workbook name______________________ parent signature______________________ This section reserved for your counselors who will be reviewing and marking your work. Overall Comments: ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ ☐Bible Marking Completed ☐Project Completed The following questions were not completed or need more work. Please finish them, and return to your counselor. " Let your teacher or counselor know if you need help. Question # Comments Done !a Before You Begin… Plan: Use this chart to set your goals and track your progress. You should be able to complete the workbook with • time to spare by working on it just a bit each day. Dates Goal Actual Don’t wait till the last minute to start. You may not get it done in time, and you definitely won’t get as much out
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Acts 24:1-27, No. 49
    1 Acts 24:1-27, No. 49 “Making the Case” October 16, 2019 The Rev. Dr. Robert S. Rayburn Paul has been taken from Jerusalem to Caesarea for his own safety and for the adjudication of charges made against him by the Jewish leadership in Jerusalem. Text Comment v.2 Isn’t it amazing how similar that world was to ours today? The Jews came to present their charges, but they needed a lawyer to conduct their case. It was the lawyer who did the talking. In the terms we would use today, Tertullus opened for the prosecution. v.3 Lawyers weren’t then, as they are aren’t now, above telling an outright lie in court if it would help their case. The fact was that Jewish/Roman relations had deteriorated during Felix’ governorship, few Jews would have said that he had been a reformer of any kind, and whatever was in the Jewish mind toward Felix it wasn’t gratitude. They despised the man. But in Roman court procedure this opening was commonplace, so commonplace, it had a name, the captatio benevolentiae, an endeavor to secure the judge’s good will. [Peterson, 631n] v.5 “Nazarene” was a term invented by the enemies of the Christian faith to describe the Christians. That Jesus had hailed from Nazareth was common knowledge and the insignificance of the town is what they wished to attach to the reputation of both Jesus and his followers. In other words, “Nazarene” was a slur. What is interesting in Tertullus’ opening gambit is the confirmation it provides for the fact that the Jews in Jerusalem were well aware of how influential Paul had been throughout the diaspora.
    [Show full text]
  • Feast of St. Peter
    Feast of Saints Peter & Paul, Apostles The blessed Peter was from Bethsaida of Galilee; He was the son of Jonas and the brother of Andrew the First-called. He was a fisherman by trade, unlearned and poor, and was called Simon; later he was renamed Peter by the Lord Jesus Christ Himself, Who looked at him and said, "Thou art Simon the son of Jonas; thou shalt be called Cephas (which is by interpretation, Peter)" (John 1:42). On being raised by the Lord to the dignity of an Apostle and becoming inseparable from Him as His zealous Disciple, he followed Him from the beginning of His Preaching of salvation up until the very Passion, when, in the Court of Caiaphas the High Priest, he denied Him three times because of his fear of the Jews and of the danger at hand. But again, after many bitter tears, he received complete forgiveness of his transgression. After the Resurrection of Christ and the descent of the Holy Spirit, he preached in Judea, Antioch, and certain parts of Asia, and finally came to the ancient City of Rome, where he was crucified upside down by the pagan Emperor Nero, and thus he ascended to the eternal habitations about the year 66 or 68 A.D., leaving two catholic (General) Epistles to the Orthodox Church of Christ. Paul, the chosen vessel of Christ, the glory of the Church, the Apostle of the Nations and teacher of the whole world, was a Jew by race, of the tribe of Benjamin, having Tarsus as his home.
    [Show full text]
  • Adam L. Porter
    January 2014 Adam L. Porter Department of Religion 1120 West Lafayette Avenue Illinois College Jacksonville, IL 62650 1101 West College Avenue 269-767-8373 Jacksonville, IL 62650 [email protected] Voice: 919-245-3429 www2.ic.edu/aporter Fax: 919-245-3480 Education: Ph.D., Religious Studies, Duke University May 1999 Major Field: Judaic Studies Minor Fields: Old Testament, Art and Art History Master of Theological Studies, Harvard Divinity School May 1993 Concentration in Western Traditions Bachelor of Arts, Oberlin College May 1988 Major: Economics, Minor: Religion Dean of the Faculty, July 2014 - present Overseeing search and hiring of faculty Assessing faculty performance Associate Academic Dean, July 2013-June, 2014. Leading the team writing Illinois College’s HLC re-accreditation assurance argument Overseeing search and hiring of non-tenure track faculty, as well as meeting with them to discuss their performance Coordinate efforts to improve student retention, serve on college’s Early Intervention Group, student academic advising and progress monitoring Coordinate selecting and brining major speakers to campus as part of Convocation program Special projects and troubleshooting as assigned by the Dean of the College Teaching Experience: Professor, Illinois College, fall 2012-present Associate Professor, Illinois College, fall 2006-spring 2012 Assistant Professor, Illinois College, fall 2000-spring 2006 Courses Taught Abrahamic Religions (fall 2002, 2003, spring 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2010, 2012, 2013) Ancient Near Eastern Religions (fall 2003, 2005) Art and Archaeology of the Ancient Mediterranean (spring 2003, fall 2004, 2006) Biblical Greek (AY 2004-05, AY 2008-09, AY 2010-11, spring 2012, fall 2012, spring 2013) BreakAway: Ancient Greece (spring 2008, 2010) BreakAway: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Medieval Spain (spring 2003) BreakAway: Italy (May 2012) BreakAway: London (May 2013) BreakAway: Morocco (January 2008) BreakAway: Peru, Past and Present - Inca Trail (Spring 2009) Curriculum Vitæ A.
    [Show full text]
  • Gospel of Nicodemus, Évangile De Gamaliel, Évangile De Nicodème, Second Or “Long” Version) in French, Decorated Manuscript on Parchment France, C
    Passion selon Gamaliel (Gospel of Nicodemus, Évangile de Gamaliel, Évangile de Nicodème, second or “long” version) In French, decorated manuscript on parchment France, c. 1450-1500 ii (paper, f. i, marbled) + 70 + ii (paper, f. ii verso, marbled) folios on parchment, original foliation in red roman numerals [cited in this description], center top margin, *ii-vii, *ix-xxx, *xxx bis-lxxii, missing the first and last leaf in the first quire, and an undetermined number of quires at the end (collation, i8 [-1 and -8, f. i and f. viii, with loss of text] ii-ix8), horizontal catchwords copied in the lower margin centered below the second column of text, no leaf or quire signatures, ruled very lightly in lead with the top and bottom horizontal rules full across on some folios and with single full-length vertical bounding lines (justification, 160 x 123-113 mm.), written below the top line in a bold batârde script in two columns of twenty-two lines, a few elaborate cadel initials in the top line of text, majuscules within text carefully touched with pale yellow wash, red folio numbers, alternately red and blue paragraph marks, one- to two-line red initials, slightly cockled, some yellowing and occasional stains, ink slightly smudged on f. xliv, but still legible, overall in excellent condition. Quarter bound in modern leather and marbled paper, separated at front hinge, but otherwise in good condition. Dimensions 257 x 180 mm. This is one of only sixteen manuscripts (all others in public collections) of a French prose version of the apocryphal Gospel of Nicodemus, an account of Christ’s Passion, including his trial, death, Descent into Hell, and Resurrection.
    [Show full text]
  • H.B. Hackett, "Alleged Anachronism in Acts 5: 36
    1848.] Litlny. From Ba'albek to the sea its direct course is nearest 55 geographical miles. It flows at first along the alluvial valley; then breaks through the southern I!purs of Lebanon by a de~p chasm for about 20 miles, much of the way over a rocky bed and with a rushing and foaming stream; and at last flows to the sea with many windings through a broad low tract of meadow land. If now for this 20 milea mcham, we assume an average fall in the mile of 100 feet, or'20oo feet in all, (which Is a very large allowance, greater indeed than the rate of descent at the Little Falls of the Mohawk,) there yet remain. of the elevation Ilt Ba'albek (8;29 English feet) no less than 1729 feet to be distributed along the rest of the course, or 85 geographical miles. This gives an average fall of very nearly 50 feet in a mile, in a course mostly along alluvial vallies. This result, therefore, goet strongly to confirm that found above in the case of the Orontes; and both together would seem to afford decisive proof, that the reported elevation of the BIlU'a must be greatly exaggerated. Let us hope that public attention may be called to the varioaa points referred to in Ihis paper; and that those who have it in their power, will speedily cause these questions to be put at rest forever. ARTICLE II. ALLEGED ANACHRONISM IN ACTS 5: 36 IN RELATION TO Tmt SEDITION OF THEUDAS. TraDlialad fi'om the German loy H.
    [Show full text]
  • The Political and Religious Structure in Jesus' Time
    The Political and Religious Structure in Jesus’ Time In looking at the political and religious structure at the time of Jesus, we could explore countless topics. In this article we look at topics of the structure of the Jewish sects, the practice of taxation and tithing, and the exercising of crucifixion as a means of execution and control. Jewish Sects Just as Christianity today is divided into different groups (Catholics, Methodists, Lutherans, nondenominational evangelical churches), so too ancient Jewish religion had distinct groups or sects. In Jesus’ time in Palestine, three groups were particularly influential. Josephus identifies these groups (he calls them “philosophies”): the Sadducees, the Pharisees, and the Essenes. We should make clear from the start that only a small minority of people actually belonged to these sects, but their strong influence on Jewish society is undeniable. The Pharisees were the largest of the three, consisting of about six thousand members during the time of Herod the Great (out of a total population of perhaps one million people in Palestine). These groups can be compared not only to Christian denominations but also to modern political parties. In ancient Judaism there was no sharp distinction between religion and politics. All three groups were concerned not only with religious behavior but also with the political issues of their day. Sadducees The name Sadducees most likely comes from the name Zadok, a priest who anointed David’s son Solomon as king (see 1 Kings 1:32–40). The descendants of Zadok, the Zadokites, were recognized as the only legitimate priests by Ezekiel (see Ezekiel 44:9–31) and the author of the Book of Chronicles.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 the GOSPELS Mark Written Between 65-75 CE, in Rome Matthew
    1 THE GOSPELS Mark written between 65-75 CE, in Rome Matthew -- in 85, in Antioch Luke (and Acts) -- in 83-90, in Caesarea Maritime John -- ç 100 (?), in Ephesus SOURCES Q When Mark's passages are deleted from Matthew and Luke, some 200 verses remain that are strikingly similar. These are assumed to be from a common source, called Q (from the German quelle, "source.") M Material peculiar to Mark. L Material peculiar to Luke Then when the L source is compared to John, there seems to be more than coincidental affinity, indicating still another source known to both Luke and John. Paul's first letter -- 1 Thessalonians, c 48-49. Last letter -- Colossians, c 62. Paul probably died in 67 (according to Eusebius), so none of the Gospels had been written down at the time of his death. Wm Newell: In Matthew he walks before us as the King of Israel; in Mark as the Servant of Jehovah; in Luke as the Son of Man; in John as the Eternal Word, "the only begotten Son," Creator-God. GOSPEL -- from the Anglo-Saxon "godspell," meaning "good news." Bethesda – House of Grace Bethel – House of God Bethlehem – House of Bread Bethsaida – House of Fishing Eden – delight The parables. Giza Vermes: Only one of the 40 parables foreshadows the cross (wicked tenants in the vineyard (Matt 21:33 et al). That and all other allusions to the role of the Son of Man’s delayed return are later additions to the original central message of Jesus. OT quotes in the gospels: There are 41 quotes from the OT attributed to Jesus in all three synoptic gospels.
    [Show full text]