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Nativity of

For other uses, see (disambiguation). will of God, undoing the damage caused by the fall of The nativity of Jesus or birth of Jesus is described the first man, . The artistic depiction of the na- tivity has been an important subject for Christian artists since the 4th century. Since the 13th century, the has emphasized the of Jesus and promoted a more tender image of him, as a major turning point from the early “Lord and Master” image, which has had an effect on the basic approaches of Christian pastoral ministry.[2][3][4] The nativity plays a major role in the Christian . Christian congregations of the Western tradition (including the , the Anglican Commu- nion, and many Protestants) begin observing the season of four Sundays before , the traditional feast-day of his birth, which falls on . Chris- tians of the observe a similar season called the "" during the forty days leading up to Christmas, which for them falls on January Adoration of the Shepherds by Gerard van Honthorst, 1622 7 as a result of Orthodox churches continuing to follow the calendar, rather than the modern day .[5]

1 Date of birth

See also: Date of birth of Jesus of and § Historical_birth_date_of_Jesus

The date of birth for Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC.[6] The historical evidence is too ambiguous to allow a definitive dating,[7] but the date is estimated through two different approaches - one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the .[8][9]

Medieval miniature painting of the Nativity by the Master of 2 Place of birth Vyšší Brod, c. 1350 The Gospels of both Matthew and Luke place the birth in the gospels of Luke and Matthew. The two accounts of Jesus in .[10][11] Although Matthew does not agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem in the time of explicitly state Joseph’s place of origin or where he lived to a betrothed whose name was [12][13] [1] to the birth of Jesus, the account implies that Mary. the family lived in Bethlehem, and explains that they later In the nativity marks the settled in Nazareth.[14] However, :26–27 clearly of Jesus as the second Adam, in fulfillment of the divine states that Mary lived in Nazareth before the birth of Je-

1 2 3 NARRATIVES

Altar in the , Bethlehem

sus, at the time of the .[13] The of Luke states that Mary gave birth to Jesus and placed him in a “because there was no place for them in the inn”, but does not say exactly where Jesus was born.[15] The Greek word kataluma may be trans- Nativity of Jesus, by Botticelli lated as either “inn” or “guestroom”, and some scholars have speculated that Joseph and Mary may have sought to stay with relatives, rather than at an inn, only to find the house full, whereupon they resorted to the shelter of a room with a manger. This could be a place to keep the sheep within the Bethlehem area, called "Migdal Eder" (“tower of flock”) as prophesied by prophet Micah in :8.[16] In the 2nd century, stated that Jesus had been born in a cave outside the town, while the Protoevangelium of James described a legendary birth in a cave nearby.[17][18] The Church of the Nativity inside the town, built by St. Helena, contains the cave-manger site traditionally venerated as the birthplace of Jesus, which may have originally been a site of the cult of the god Tammuz.[19] In 1.51, , who from around 215 travelled throughout Palestine, wrote of the “manger of Jesus”.[20] The Quranic birth of Jesus, like the Gospels, places the in Bethlehem.[21][22][23] (The Quran code of Rashad Khalifa sees numerological significance in the birth of Muhammad (ca 570) occurring 570 years after the traditional birthdate of Jesus.[24])

A page from an 11th-century showing 3 New Testament narratives :21

3.1 Gospel of Matthew child Jesus, because he would save his people from their . Joseph awoke and did all that the commanded. “This is how the birth of Jesus the came about": Chapter 1 of Matthew’s Gospel recounts Jesus’ birth and Mary, the mother of Jesus, was betrothed to Joseph, but naming [25] and the beginning of chapter 2 reveals that Je- was found to be pregnant through the Spirit. Joseph sus was born in Bethlehem during the time of Herod the intended to divorce her quietly, but an angel told him in a Great. Magi from the east came to Herod and asked him that he should take Mary as his wife and name the where they would find the King of the , because they 3

had seen his star. Advised by the chief priests and teach- to God who had sent his . Joseph and Mary then ers, Herod sent the Magi to Bethlehem, where they wor- returned to Nazareth. There “the child grew and became shiped the child and gave him gifts. When they had de- strong, and was filled with wisdom, and the grace of God parted an angel appeared to Joseph in a dream and warned was on him.” Each year his parents went to to him to take the child and his mother and flee to , for celebrate the , and when Jesus was twelve years Herod intended to kill him. The remained old they found him in the Temple listening to the teach- in Egypt until Herod died, when Joseph took them to ers and asking questions so that all who heard him were Nazareth in for fear of Herod’s son who now ruled amazed. His mother rebuked him for causing them anxi- in Jerusalem. “So was fulfilled what was said through the ety, because they had not known where he was, but he an- prophets, that he would be called a .” swered that he was in his Father’s house. “Then he went down to Nazareth with them and was obedient to them, but his mother treasured all these things in her heart, and 3.2 Jesus grew in wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and man.” See also: Visitation of Mary In the days when Herod was king of , God sent 4 Themes and analogies

4.1 Thematic analysis

Angel 's Annunciation to Mary, by Murillo, c. 1655 Gospel of Matthew, 1700.

the angel Gabriel to Nazareth in Galilee to announce to a Helmut Koester writes that while Matthew’s narrative was virgin named Mary, who was betrothed to a man named formed in a Jewish environment, Luke’s was modeled to Joseph, that a child would be born to her and she was appeal to the Greco-Roman world.[26] In particular, ac- to name him Jesus, for he would be the and cording to Koester, while shepherds were regarded neg- rule over Israel forever. When the time of the birth drew atively by Jews in Jesus’ time, they were seen in Greco- near the Roman Emperor commanded a census of all the Roman culture as “symbols of a golden age when gods and world, and Joseph took Mary to Bethlehem, the city of humans lived in peace and nature was at harmony”.[26] C. , as he was of the House of David. So it came to T. Ruddick, Jr. writes that Luke’s birth narratives of Je- pass that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, and as there was sus and John were modeled on passages from Genesis: no room in the town the infant was laid in a manger while 27–43.[27] Regardless, Luke’s nativity depicts Jesus as a announced his birth and shepherds worshiped him savior for all people. His genealogy goes back to Adam, as Messiah and Lord. demonstrating his common humanity, as do the lowly cir- In accordance with the Jewish law his parents presented cumstances of his birth. Luke, writing for a au- the infant Jesus at the Temple in Jerusalem, where the dience, portrays the infant Jesus as a savior for righteous and gave thanks as well as Jews.[28] Matthew uses quotations from Jewish 4 5 CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY

scripture, scenes reminiscent of ’ life, and a numer- ical pattern in his genealogy to identify Jesus as a son of David, of God, and of . Luke’s prelude is much longer, emphasizing the age of the and the arrival of a savior for all people, Jew and Gentile.[29] Mainstream scholars interpret Matthew’s nativity as de- picting Jesus as a new Moses with a genealogy going back to Abraham,[30][31] while Ulrich Luz views Matthew’s de- piction of Jesus at once as the new Moses and the in- verse of Moses, and not simply a retelling of the Moses story.[32] Luz also points out that in the massacre narra- tive, once again, a fulfilment quotation is given – , the ancestral mother of Israel, weeping for her dead chil- dren (2:18)[33] Scholars who see Matthew as casting Jesus in the role of being a second Moses argue that, like Moses, the infant Jesus is saved from a murderous tyrant; and he flees the country of his birth until his persecutor is dead and it is safe to return as the savior of his people.[34] In this view, the account in Matthew is based on an earlier narrative A page from the . patterned on traditions about the birth of Moses. Moses’ birth is announced to Pharaoh by Magi; the child is threat- ened and rescued; the male Israelite children are similarly put to death by an evil king.[30][34] The statement in :23 “he will be called a Na- According to Ulrich Luz, the beginning of the narrative zorean” does not mention a specific passage in the Old of Matthew is similar to earlier biblical stories, e.g., the Testament, and there are multiple scholarly interpreta- [37] Annunciation of Jesus’ birth (1:18–25) is reminiscent of tions as to what it may refer to. B. Aland and other the biblical accounts of the births of , and scholars consider the Greek Ναζωραιος used for Na- [38] (Genesis 16:11, 17;19; Judges 13:3,5), and it re- zorean of uncertain etymology and meaning, but M. calls the Haggadic traditions of the birth of Moses. Yet Menken states that it is a that refers to an “in- [39] in Luz’s view the contours appear, in part, strangely over- habitant of Nazareth”. Menken also states that it may [40] lapped and inverted: “Egypt, formerly the land of sup- be referring to Judges 13:5, 7. Gary Smith states that pression becomes a place of refuge and it is the King of Is- may mean one consecrated to God, i.e. an as- [41] rael who now takes on the role of Pharaoh...[yet] Matthew cetic; or may refer to 11:1. The Oxford is not simply retelling the Moses story..Instead, the story Commentary states that it may be word-play on the use of Jesus really is a new story: Jesus is at once the new of “nazirite,” “Holy One of God,” in Isaiah 4:3, meant Moses and the inverse of Moses.”[32] to identify Jesus with the Nazoreans, a Jewish sect who differed from the only in regarding Jesus as the Messiah.[34][42] The Swiss theologian Ulrich Luz, who lo- 4.2 parallels cates the Matthean community in Syria, has noted that Syrian also called themselves Nazarenes.[43] Scholars have debated whether Matthew 1:22 and Matthew 2:23 refer to specific Old Testament passages. The statement in Matthew 1:22: “All this happened to fulfil what had spoken by the prophet” does not mention the prophet Isaiah in 4th-century documents such as the Codex Sinaiticus, but some 5–6th-century 5 Christian theology manuscripts of Matthew, such as , read “Isaiah the prophet”.[35] The statement in Matthew 1:23 “Behold the virgin shall be with child” uses the Greek The theological significance of the Nativity of Jesus has term “parthenos” as “virgin” as in the Isaiah, been a key element in Christian teachings, from the early while the much older Masoretic Isaiah uses the Hebrew to 20th century theologians.[44][45][46] “”, which may mean “maiden,” “young woman,” The theological issues were addressed as early as Apostle or “virgin.”[36] Raymond Brown states that the 3rd cen- Paul, but continued to be debated and eventually lead to tury BCE translators of the Septuagint may have under- both Christological and Mariological differences among stood the Hebrew word “almah” to mean virgin in this Christians that resulted in early within the context.[36] Church by the 5th century. 5.1 Birth of the new man 5

cussing the uniqueness of the birth of Jesus and the en- suing events of his life. The Nativity of Jesus thus began to serve as the starting point for “cosmic ” in which the birth, life and have uni- versal implications.[51][53][54] The concept of Jesus as the “new man” repeats in the cycle of birth and rebirth of Je- sus from his Nativity to his Resurrection: following his birth, through his morality and obedience to the Father, Jesus began a new harmony in the relationship between and man. The Nativity and Resurrection of Jesus thus created the author and exemplar of a new humanity.[55] In the 2nd century Church Father writes:

“When He became incarnate and was made man, He commenced afresh the long line of hu- man beings, and furnished us, in a brief, com- prehensive manner, with salvation; so that what we had lost in Adam – namely to be according to the image and likeness of God- that we might recover in Jesus.”[45][46]

Irenaeus was also one of the early theologians to use the Nativity at Night, by , c. 1490. analogy of “second Adam and second Eve”. He suggested the Virgin Mary as the “second eve” and wrote that the Virgin Mary had “untied the knot of bound up by 5.1 Birth of the new man the virgin Eve” and that just as Eve had tempted Adam to disobey God, Mary had set a path of obedience for He is the image of the invisible God, the the second Adam (i.e. Jesus) from the Annunciation to firstborn of all creation. For by him all things so that Jesus could bring about salvation, undo- were created, in and on earth, visible ing the damage of Adam.[56] and invisible. In the 4th century, this uniqueness of the circumstances — Colossians 1:15–16 regards the birth of related to the Nativity of Jesus, and their interplay with [47][48][49][50] Jesus as the model for all creation. the mystery of the incarnation became a central element in both the theology and hymnody of . For him, the uniqueness of the Nativity of Je- viewed the birth of Jesus as an event sus was supplemented with the sign of the Majesty of the of cosmic significance which brought forth a “new man” Creator through the ability of a powerful God to enter the who undid the damage caused by the fall of the first man, world as a small newborn.[57] Adam. Just as the Johannine view of Jesus as the in- In the the birth of Jesus as the second Adam carnate proclaims the universal relevance of his came to be seen in the context of Saint Augustine's Felix birth, the Pauline perspective emphasizes the birth of a [51] culpa (i.e. happy fall) and was intertwined with the popu- new man and a new world in the birth of Jesus. Paul’s lar teachings on the fall from grace of .[58] eschatological view of Jesus counter-positions him as a Augustine was fond of a statement on Nativity by Saint new man of morality and obedience, in contrast to Adam. and he quoted in five times: “Venerate Unlike Adam, the new man born in Jesus obeys God and [51] the Nativity, through which you are freed from the bonds ushers in a world of morality and salvation. of an earthly nativity”.[59] And he liked to quote: “Just as In the Pauline view, Adam is positioned as the first man in Adam all of us died, so too in Christ all of us will be and Jesus as the second: Adam, having corrupted him- brought to life”.[59][60] self by his disobedience, also infected humanity and left The theology persisted into the Protestant , it with a curse as inheritance. The birth of Jesus, on and second Adam was one of the six modes of atone- the other hand, counterbalanced the fall of Adam, bring- ment discussed by .[61] In the 20th century, ing forth redemption and repairing the damage done by [52] leading theologian continued the same line of Adam. reasoning and viewed the Nativity of Jesus as the birth of In patristic theology, Paul’s contrasting of Jesus as the a new man who succeeded Adam. In Barth’s theology, in new man versus Adam provided a framework for dis- contrast to Adam, Jesus acted as an obedient Son in the 6 5 CHRISTIAN THEOLOGY fulfilment of the divine will and was therefore free from tifying Jesus as “God with us” and in later developing sin and could hence reveal the righteousness of God the the Emmanuel characterization of Jesus at key points Father and bring about salvation.[44] throughout the rest of his Gospel.[71] The name Em- manuel does not appear elsewhere in the New Testament, but Matthew builds on it in :20 (“I am with 5.2 Christology you always, even unto the end of the world”) to indi- cates that Jesus will be with the faithful to the end of the age.[71][72] According to Ulrich Luz, the Emmanuel motif brackets the entire Gospel of Matthew between 1:23 and 28:20, appearing explicitly and implicitly in several other passages.[73] A number of ecumenical councils were convened in the 4th and 5th centuries to deal with these issues. The Council of Ehesus debated hypostasis (co-existing natures) versus (only one nature) ver- sus (two natures united as one) versus (disunion of two natures).[74][75] The 451 was highly influential and marked a key turning point in the Christological debates that broke apart the church of the Eastern Roman Empire in the 5th century. In Chalcedon the was de- , namely that Jesus is both fully divine and fully hu- man, making this part of the creed of Orthodox Chris- tianity.[76][77][78][79] In the 5th century, leading Church Father Leo I used the nativity as a key element of his theology. Leo gave 10 sermons on the nativity and 7 have survived, the one on December 25, 451 demonstrates his concern to increase the importance of the feast of nativity and along with it emphasize the two natures of Christ in defense of the In Summa Theologiæ, (1471 copy shown here) Christological doctrine of hypostatic union.[80] Leo often addressed many of the open Christological questions regarding used his nativity sermons as an occasion to attack oppos- the Nativity of Jesus. ing viewpoints, without naming the opposition. Thus Leo used the occasion of the Nativity feast to establish bound- The nativity of Jesus impacted the Christological issues aries for what could be considered a regarding the about the Person of Christ from the earliest days of Chris- birth and nature of Christ.[64] tianity. Luke’s Christology centers on the dialectics of In the 13th century Saint Thomas Aquinas addressed the the dual natures of the earthly and heavenly manifesta- Christologocal attribution of the nativity: Should it be at- tions of existence of the Christ, while Matthew’s Chris- tributed to the person (the Word) or only to the assumed tology focuses on the mission of Jesus and his role as the human nature of that person. Aquinas treated nativity savior.[62][63] in 8 separate articles in each posing The belief in the of Jesus leads to the ques- a separate question, e.g.: “Does Nativity regard the na- tion: “was Jesus a man to be born of a woman or was ture rather than the Person?", “Should a temporal Nativ- he God born of a woman?" A wide range of hypothe- ity be attributed to Christ?" “Should the Blessed Virgin be ses and beliefs regarding the nature of the nativity of Je- called Christ’s Mother?", “Should the Blessed Virgin be sus were presented in the first four centuries of Chris- called the Mother of God?", “Are there two filiations in tianity. Some of the debates involved the title Christ?", etc.[81] To deal with this issue, Aquinas distin- (God bearer) for the Virgin Mary and began to illustrate guishes between the person born and the nature in which the impact of on Christology. Some of these the birth takes place.[82] Aquinas thus resolved the ques- viewpoints were eventually declared as , others tion by arguing that in the hypostatic union Christ has led to schisms and the formation of new branches of the two natures, one received from the Father from eternity, Church.[64][65][66][67] the other from his mother in time. This approach also re- The salvific emphasis of Matthew 1:21 later impacted solved the Mariological problem of Mary receiving the ti- the theological issues and the devotions to Holy Name tle of Theotokos for under this scenario she is the "Mother [82] of Jesus.[68][69][70] Matthew 1:23 provides the only key to of God". the Emmanuel Christology in the New Testament. Begin- During the Reformation, John Calvin argued that Jesus ning with 1:23, Matthew shows a clear interest in iden- 6.1 Feasts and liturgical elements 7 was not sanctified to be “God manifested as Incarnate” feast on January 6 in the year 361.[88] (Deus manifestatus in carne) only due to his Virgin Birth, but through the action of the Holy Spirit at the instant of his birth. Thus Calvin argued that Jesus was exempt from because he was sanctified at the moment of birth so that his generation was without blemish; as gen- eration has been blemishless before the fall of Adam.[83]

6 Impact on

6.1 Feasts and liturgical elements

Christmas Eve Nativity at Resurrection Lutheran Church, Fred- Nativity scene in Baumkirchen, Austria. ericksburg, Virginia

In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the Lord’s Day (Sunday) The Chronography of 354 illuminated manuscript com- was the earliest Christian celebration and included a piled in Rome includes an early reference to the celebra- number of theological themes. In the 2nd century, the tion of a Nativity feast. In a sermon delivered in Resurrection of Jesus became a separate feast as on December 25, c. 386, Saint pro- and in the same century began to be celebrated vides specific information about the feast there, stating in the Churches of the East on January 6.[84] The celebra- that the feast had existed for about 10 years.[88] By around tion of the feast of the Magi on January 6 may relate to 385 the feast for the birth of Jesus was distinct from that a pre-Christian celebration for the blessing of the in of the and was held on December 25 in Con- Egypt on January 5, but this is not historically certain.[85] stantinople, Nyssa and Amaseia. In a sermon in 386, The festival of the Nativity which later turned into Christ- Gregory of Nyssa specifically related the feast of Nativity mas was a 4th-century feast in the Western Church no- with that of the martyrdom of , celebrated tably in Rome and North Africa, although it is uncertain a day later. By 390 the feast was also held in Iconium on exactly where and when it was first celebrated.[86] that day.[88] The earliest source stating December 25 as the date of established a feast of the “Mystery of Incarna- birth of Jesus was (170–236), writ- tion” in the 5th century, in effect as the first formal feast ten very early in the 3rd century, based on the assump- for the Nativity of Jesus. Pope Sixtus III then instituted tion that the conception of Jesus took place at the Spring the practice of just before that feast.[89] In equinox which he placed on March 25, and then added the 6th century, Emperor Justinian declared Christmas to nine months.[87] There is historical evidence that by the be a legal holiday.[90] middle of the 4th century the Christian churches of the East celebrated the birth and on the In the 14th and 15th centuries, the theological importance same day, on January 6 while those in the West celebrated of the Nativity of Jesus, was coupled with an emphasis on a Nativity feast on December 25 (perhaps influenced by the loving nature of Child Jesus in sermons by figures such the ); and that by the last quarter of the as Jean Gerson. In his sermons Gerson emphasized the loving nature of Jesus at his Nativity, as well as his cosmic 4th century, the calendars of both churches included both [91] feasts.[88] The earliest suggestions of a fast of Baptism of plan for the salvation of mankind. Jesus on January 6 during the 2nd century comes from By the early part of the 20th century, Christmas had be- , but there is no further mention come a “cultural signature” of Christianity and indeed of of such a feast until 361 when Emperor Julian attended a the Western culture even in countries such as the United 8 6 IMPACT ON CHRISTIANITY

States which are officially non-religious. By the begin- and others, the image of Jesus began to be sup- ning of the 21st century these countries began to pay more plemented with a more “tender image of Jesus”, and the attention to the sensitivities of non-Christians during the Franciscan approach to popular piety was instrumental in festivities at the end of the calendar year.[92] establishing this image.[97]

6.2 Transforming the image of Jesus

Nativity scene at the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Cathedral.

The 13th century witnessed a major turning point in the development of a new “tender image of Jesus” within Christianity, as the began to emphasize the humility of Jesus both at his birth and his death. The construction of the Nativity scene by Saint Francis of As- sisi was instrumental in portraying a softer image of Je- sus that contrasted with the powerful and radiant image at the Transfiguration, and emphasized how God had taken a humble path to his own birth.[2] As the raged Paper on wood Nativity scene from 1750, , presenting a in Medieval , two of Franciscans tender image of Jesus. and Dominicans helped the faithful cope with tragedies. One element of the Franciscan approach was the empha- Early Christians viewed Jesus as “the Lord” and the word sis on the humility of Jesus and the poverty of his birth: Kyrios appears over 700 times in the New Testament, [93] the image of God was the image of Jesus, not a severe referring to him. The use of the word Kyrios in the and punishing God, but himself humble at birth and sacri- Septuagint Bible also assigned to Jesus the Old Testament [3] [93] ficed at death. The concept that the omnipotent Creator attributes of an omnipotent God. The use of the term would set aside all power in order to conquer the hearts of Kyrios, and hence the Lordship of Jesus, pre-dated the men by love and that he would have been helplessly placed Pauline , but Saint Paul expanded and elaborated in a manger was as marvelous and as touching to the be- on that topic.[93] lievers as the sacrifice of dying on the cross in Calvary.[4] Pauline writings established among early Christians the Thus by the 13th century the tender joys of the Nativ- Kyrios image, and attributes of Jesus as not only referring ity of Jesus were added to the agony of his Crucifixion to his eschatological victory, but to him as the “divine and a whole new range of approved religious emotions image” (Greek εἰκών eikōn) in whose face the glory of were ushered in, with wide ranging cultural impacts for God shines forth. This image persisted among Christians centuries thereafter.[4] The Franciscans approached both as the predominant perception of Jesus for a number of [94] ends of this spectrum of emotions. On one hand the in- centuries. More than any other title, Kyrios defined the troduction of the Nativity scene encouraged the tender relationship between Jesus and those who believed in him image of Jesus, while on the other hand as Christ: Jesus was their Lord and Master who was to be himself had a deep attachment to the sufferings of Jesus served with all their hearts and who would one day judge [95] on the Cross and was said to have received the their actions throughout their lives. as an expression of that love. The dual nature of Fran- The lordship attributes associated with the Kyrios image ciscan piety based both on joy of Nativity and the sacri- of Jesus also implied his power over all creation.[96][97] fice at Calvary had a deep appeal among city dwellers and Paul then looked back and reasoned that the final lordship as the Franciscan travelled, these emotions spread of Jesus was prepared from the very beginning, starting across the world, transforming the Kyrios image of Je- with pre-existence and the Nativity, based on his obedi- sus to a more tender, loving, and compassionate image.[4] ence as the image of God.[98] Over time, based on the in- These traditions did not remain limited to Europe and fluence of , soon spread to the other parts of the world such as Latin 7.3 , music and performances 9

America, the Philippines and the United States.[99][100] According to this transfor- mation, accompanied by the proliferation of the tender image of Jesus in and Child paintings made an important impact within the Christian Ministry by allow- ing Christians to feel the living presence of Jesus as a lov- ing figure “who is always there to harbor and nurture those who turn to him for help.[101][102]

7 Hymns, art and music

7.1 appearing in Luke

Luke’s Nativity text has given rise to four well known canticles: the Benedictus and the Magnificat in the first chapter, and the Gloria in Excelsis and the in the second chapter.[103] These “Gospel canticles” are now an integral part of the Christian liturgical tradition.[104] The parallel structure in Luke regarding the births of and Jesus, extends to the three canticles Bene- dictus (Song of Zechariah), the Nunc dimittis and the Magnificat.[105] The Magnificat, in Luke 1:46–55, is spoken by Mary and Annunciation by Nesterov, 19th century, Russia. is one of the 8 most ancient Christian hymns and perhaps [106] the earliest Marian . The Benedictus, in Luke to specific , e.g. to the : “The 1:68–79, is spoken by Zechariah, while the Nunc dimit- Virgin today bringeth forth the Transubstantial, and the [107] tis, in :29–32 is spoken by Simeon. The tra- eart offereth a cave to the Unapproachable....”[112] In ditional Gloria in Excelsis is longer than the opening line many Eastern of Nativity (often accompanied by presented in Luke 2:14, and is often called the “Song of matching hymnody) two basic elements are emphasized. the Angels” given that it was uttered by the angels in the First the event portrays the mystery of incarnation as a [108] Annunciation to the Shepherds. foundation for the Christian faith, and the combined na- The three canticles Benedictus, Nuc Dimittis and the ture of Christ as Divine and human. Secondly, it relates Magnificat, if not originating with Luke himself, may the event to the natural life of the world, and its conse- have their roots in the earliest Christian liturgical services quences for humanity.[112] in Jerusalem, but their exact origins remain unknown.[109] 7.3 Hymns, music and performances 7.2 Visual arts See also: and Main article: Nativity of Jesus in art Like Jews, early Christians rejected the use of The earliest artistic depictions of Nativity of Jesus were in the and on sarcophagi in Rome. As Gentile visitors, the Magi were popular in these scenes, repre- senting the significance of the arrival of the Messiah to all peoples. The ox and ass were also taken to symbolize the Jews and the Gentiles, and have remained a constant since the earliest depictions. Mary was soon seated on a throne as the Magi visited.[110] Depictions of the Nativity soon became a normal com- ponent of cycles in art illustrating both the Life of Christ and the . Nativity images also carry A card, Boston, 1880. the message of redemption: God’s unification with mat- ter forms the mystery of the Incarnation, a turning point [111] musical instruments in religious ceremonies and instead in the Christian perspective on Salvation. relied on chants and leading to the use of the In the Eastern Church icons of Nativity often correspond term (in the chapel) for these chants. 10 8 HISTORICAL ANALYSIS

not come about until church music assimilated opera in the 17th century. But thereafter there was a torrent of new music, e.g. Heinrich Schutz's 1660 The Christmas Story and Bach's in the 18th century. And Lisz’s , etc.[117] 's classic 1629 poem Ode on the Morning of Christ’s Nativity was used by John McEwan in 1901.[117]

8 Historical analysis

See also: , Massacre of the Innocents, and

8.1 Traditional views

The Nativity depicted in an English liturgical manuscript, c.1310- 1320

One of the earliest Nativity hymns was composed by Saint in Milan in the 4th century. By the beginning of the 5th century, the Span- ish poet had written “From the Heart of the Father” where the ninth stanza focused on the Nativity and portrayed Jesus as the creator of the universe. In the 5th century the Gallic poet Sedulius composed “From the lands that see the Sun arise” in which the humility of the birth of Jesus was portrayed.[110] The Magnificat, one of the 8 most ancient Christian hymns and perhaps the ear- liest Marian hymn is based on the Annunciation.[106][107] Saint Romanus the Melodist had a dream of the Virgin Mary the night before the feast of the Nativity, and when he woke up the next morning, composed his first hymn “On the Nativity” and continued composing hymns (per- haps several hundred) to the end of his life.[113] Re- enactments of Nativity which are now called Nativity plays were part of the hymns in the of Churches, from St. Sophronius in the 7th century.[114] By the 13th century, the Franciscans had encouraged a strong tradition of popular Christmas songs in the native languages.[115] Christmas carols in Beginning of a Byzantine copy of of Luke, 1020. English first appear in a 1426 work of John Awdlay, a Shropshire chaplain, who lists twenty-five “caroles of Many historical scholars maintain the traditional view Cristemas”.[116] that the two accounts are historically accurate and do not contradict each other, pointing to the similarities between The largest body of musical works about Christ in which the two accounts,[118] such as the birthplace of Bethlehem he does not speak are about the Nativity. A large body of and the virgin birth. George Kilpatrick and, separately, , as well as a great deal of para-liturgical Patella state that a comparison of the nativity texts, Carols and folk music exist about the Nativity of accounts of Luke and Matthew show common elements Jesus. The Christmas Carols have come to be viewed as [117] in terms of the virgin birth, the birth at Bethlehem, and a cultural-signature of the Nativity of Jesus. the upbringing at Nazareth, and that although there are Most musical Nativity narrations are not biblical and did differences in the accounts of the nativity in Luke and 8.3 Massacre of the Innocents 11

Matthew, a general narrative may be constructed by com- pothesized locations as far away as .[141] Bruce bining the two.[119][120] Chilton and archaeologist Aviram Oshri have proposed a Neither Luke nor Matthew claims their birth narratives birth at , a site located seven miles [121] from Nazareth at which remains dating to the time of are based on direct testimony. James Hastings and, [142][143] separately, Thomas Neufeld have expressed the view that Herod the Great have been excavated. Armand the circumstances of Jesus’ birth were deliberately kept P. Tarrech states that Chilton’s hypothesis has no sup- restricted to a small group of early Christians, and were port in either the Jewish or Christian sources, although kept as a secret for many years after his death, thus Chilton seems to take seriously the statement in Luke 2:4 that Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city explaining the variations in the accounts in Luke and Matthew.[122][123] of Nazareth, into Judaea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem.[144] Daniel J. Harrington expresses the view that due to the scarcity of ancient records, a number of issues regarding Sanders considers Luke’s census, for which everyone re- the historicity of some nativity episodes can never be fully turned to their ancestral home, not historically credible, determined, and that the more important task is deciding as this was contrary to Roman practice; they would not what the nativity narratives meant to the early Christian have uprooted everyone from their homes and farms in communities.[124] the Empire by forcing them to return to their ancestral cities. Moreover, people were not able to trace their own lineages back 42 generations.[135] 8.1.1 Harmonization Many scholars do not see the Luke and Matthew nativity stories as historically factual.[134][135][145] Many view the A number of biblical scholars, such as Bernard Orchard, discussion of historicity as secondary, given that gospels have attempted to show how the text from both narratives were primarily written as theological documents rather can be interwoven as a to create one ac- than chronological .[146][147][148][149] count that begins with a trip from Nazareth to Bethlehem, For instance, Matthew pays far more attention to the where Jesus is born, followed by the flight to Egypt, and name of the child and its theological implications than ending with a return to Nazareth.[125][126][127][128][129] the actual birth event itself.[150] According to Karl Rah- ner the evangelists show little interest in synchronizing 8.2 Critical analysis the episodes of the birth or subsequent life of Jesus with the secular history of the age.[151] As a result, modern scholars do not use much of the birth narratives for his- Many modern scholars consider the birth narratives un- torical information.[130][136] Nevertheless, they are con- historical because they are laced with theology and sidered to contain some useful biographical information: present two different accounts.[130][131] For instance, they Jesus being born near the end of Herod’s reign and his point to Matthew’s account of the appearance of an an- father being named Joseph are considered historically gel to Joseph in a dream; the wise men from the East; plausible.[130][152] the massacre of the innocents; and the flight to Egypt, which do not appear in Luke, which instead describes the appearance of an angel to Mary; the Roman census; the birth in a manger; and the choir of angels.[132] 8.3 Massacre of the Innocents Most modern scholars accept the hypoth- esis, that the Luke and Matthew accounts are based on the Main article: Massacre of the Innocents , but that the birth narratives come from the evangelists’ independent sources, known as According to Paul L Maier, most modern biographies of for Matthew and for Luke, which were added [153] [133] Herod do not believe the massacre took place. Steve later. Mason argues that if the massacre had taken place as Scholars consider the accounts in Luke and Matthew described in Matthew, it would have been strange for as explaining the birth in Bethlehem in different ways, not to mention it, and that the massacre may giving separate genealogies of Jesus and probably not hence be non-historical.[154] E. P. Sanders characterizes historical.[130][134][135][136][137] While Géza Vermes and Josephus’ writing as dwelling on Herod’s cruelty, thus E. P. Sanders dismiss the accounts as pious fiction, suggesting that Josephus would probably have included Raymond E. Brown sees them as having been con- the event if it had occurred.[135] Sanders states that faced structed from historical traditions which predate the with little historical information, Matthew’s account is Gospels.[138][139][140] According to Brown, there is no uni- apparently based on the story in which an infant Moses form agreement among scholars on the historicity of the is endangered by the Pharaoh in order to kill infant He- accounts, e.g., most of those scholars who reject the his- brews and that such use of scripture for telling the story toricity of the birth at Bethlehem argue for a birth at of Jesus’ birth was considered legitimate by contempo- Nazareth, a few suggest , and other have hy- rary standards.[135] 12 10 REFERENCES

There are writers who defend the historicity of the mas- [8] Paul L. Maier “The Date of the Nativity and Chronology sacre. R. T. France states that the massacre was a low of Jesus” in Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chrono- magnitude event of a nature that would not have de- logical studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi manded the attention of Josephus but was in line with 1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pp. 113–129 Herod’s character.[155] Paul L. Maier argues that Bethle- [9] New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 hem was small, and the massacre would have been too IBN 0-310-31201-9 pp. 121–124 small for Josephus to have heard of it given that it al- legedly took place over 40 years before his own birth.[156] [10] Matthew 2:1. Paul Barnett and, separately, Craig L. Blomberg also state that Bethlehem was a very small village with few [11] Luke 2:4. inhabitants, and the massacre would have involved too [12] Virgin Birth of Chris by J Gresham Machen 1987 ISBN few children to have been recorded by historians in 0-227-67630-0 p. 193 general.[157][158] [13] Matthew by David L. Turner (Apr 15, 2008) ISBN 0801026849 page 98

9 See also [14] Joseph F. Kelly (2008). The Birth of Jesus According to the Gospels. Liturgical Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8146- • Adoration of the shepherds 2948-2.

• [15] Brown, Raymond Edward (1977). The Birth of the Mes- siah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew • Life of Jesus in the New Testament and Luke. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. p. 401. ISBN • Marian art 0-385-05907-8. • [16] Migdal Eder and the Lord’s first coming in the Book of Micah. This teaching by Rabbi Mike L Short. • Nativity of John the Baptist [17] Taylor, Joan E. (1993). Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 99–102. ISBN 0-19-814785-6. 10 References [18] Protoevangelium 18; Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho; cf. Origen, Contra Celsum 1.2. 10.1 Citations [19] Taylor, Joan E. (1993). Christians and the Holy Places: [1] Robinson et al. Robinson, p. 111} There are, however, The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins. Oxford: Clarendon major differences. Matthew has no census, annunciation Press. pp. 99–100. ISBN 0-19-814785-6. to the shepherds or presentation in the Temple, implies that Jesus’s parents’ home is Bethlehem, and has him born [20] Eerdmans Dictionary of 2000 ISBN 90-5356- in a house there, and has an unnamed angel appear to 503-5 p. 173 Joseph to announce the birth. In Luke there are no Magi, no flight into Egypt, or Massacre of the Innocents, Joseph [21] The Everything Jesus Book by Jon Kennedy 2006 ISBN is a resident of Nazareth, the birth appears to take place in 1-59337-712-6 p. 20 an inn instead of the family home, and the angel (named as Gabriel) announces the coming birth to Mary.{sfn. [22] What You Need to Know about and Muslims by George W. Braswell 2000 ISBN 0-8054-1829-6 p. 108 [2] The image of St Francis by Rosalind B. Brooke 2006 ISBN 0-521-78291-0 pp. 183–184 [23] Islam and the destiny of man by Gai Eaton 1986 ISBN 0-88706-163-X p. 108 [3] The tradition of Catholic prayer by Christian Raab, Harry Hagan, St. Meinrad Archabbey 2007 ISBN 0-8146-3184- [24] Rashad, Khalifa (1989). Quran – The Final Testa- 3 pp. 86–87 ment: Authorized English Version of the Original. Dr. Rashad Khalifa (published 2010). p. 299. ISBN [4] The vitality of the by George Finger 9780557680139. Retrieved 2013-12-23. [...] the lunar Thomas 1944 ISBN 0-8369-2378-2 pp. 110–112 year (1710) & the solar year (2280) are divisible by 570 [5] http://www.timeanddate.com/holidays/us/ (19x30), the number of years from the birth of Jesus to orthodox-christmas-day the birth of Muhammad[.] Thus, the birth date of Jesus is a marker. [6] Dunn, James DG (2003). “Jesus Remembered”. Eerd- mans Publishing: 324. [25] Matthew 1:18-24

[7] Doggett 1992, p579: “Although scholars generally believe [26] Helmut Köster, “Ancient Christian gospels: their history that Christ was born some years before AD 1, the histor- and development”, Continuum International Publishing ical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating”. Group, (2004). pp. 307–308 10.1 Citations 13

[27] C. T. Ruddick, Jr. (1970) “Birth Narratives in Genesis [46] A History of the Christian Church by Williston Walker and Luke” Novum Testamentum 12(4):343–348. 2010 ISBN 1-4400-4446-5 pp. 65–66

[28] Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: [47] The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by Geof- Mayfield. 1985. “Luke” pp. 297–301 frey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0-8028-3785-9 page 308

[29] “Jesus Christ.” Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary [48] An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University by Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff 2007 ISBN 0- Press. 2005 8146-5856-3 p. 238

[30] Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: [49] Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger Mayfield. 1985. “Matthew” pp. 272–285 Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 p. 712

[31] Brown, Raymond Edward (1977). The Birth of the Mes- [50] Basic Theology: by Charles Caldwell Ryrie 1999 ISBN siah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew 0-8024-2734-0 p. 275 and Luke. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. pp. 104–121. ISBN 0-385-05907-8. [51] , Volume 2 by Wolfhart Pannenberg 2004 0567084663 ISBN pp. 297–303 [32] Ulrich Luz, The Theology of the Gospel of Matthew, ISBN 0-521-43576-5 p. 24/25 [52] An exposition of the of Saint Paul to the Philippians by Jean Daille 1995 ISBN 0-8028-2511-7 pp. 194–195 [33] Ulrich Luz, Theology of the Gospel of Matthew, ISBN 0- 521-43576-5 p. 28 [53] Christ in Christian Tradition: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon by , John Bowden 1975 ISBN [34] and Muddiman, John, “The Oxford Bible Commentary”, 0-664-22301-X pp. 15–19 (Oxford University Press, 2001) p. 850 [54] The Witness of Jesus, Paul and John: An Exploration in [35] See Aland, op.cit., p. 3. by Larry R. Helyer 2008 ISBN 0-8308- [36] Brown, Raymond E.; Achtemeier, Paul J. (1978). Mary in 2888-5 p. 282 the New Testament: A Collaborative Assessment by Protes- [55] Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi tant and Roman Catholic Scholars. Paulist Press. p. 92. by 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 pp. 474 and ISBN 0-8091-2168-9. 1434 [37] Matthew’s Bible: the Old Testament text of the evangelist by M. J. J. Menken 2004 ISBN 90-429-1419-X p. 161 [56] Burke, Raymond L.; et al. (2008). Mariology: A Guide for Priests, , Seminarians, and Consecrated Persons [38] Aland, Barbara; Aland, Kurt; Martini, Carlo M.; ISBN 978-1-57918-355-4 pp. 613–614 Karavidopoulos, Johannes; Metzger, Bruce M. (Decem- ber 1983). Novum Testamentum Graece Et Latine— [57] The Early Christian World, Volumes 1–2 by Philip Francis Greek/Latin New Testament. American Bible Society. p. Esler 2004 ISBN 0-415-33312-1 p. 452 5. ISBN 3-438-05401-9. [58] Handbook to life in the medieval world, Volume 1 by [39] Matthew’s Bible: the Old Testament text of the evangelist Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones 2008 ISBN by M. J. J. Menken 2004 ISBN 90-429-1419-X p. 164 0-8160-4887-8 p. 329

[40] Menken, Maarten J. J. “The Sources of the Old Testa- [59] Orthodox readings of Augustine by George E. Dema- ment Quotation in Matthew 2:23” Journal of Biblical Lit- copoulos, Aristotle Papanikolaou 2008 ISBN 0-88141- erature120:3 (451–68), 467–8. 327-5 pp. 92–96

[41] Smith, Gary (2007-08-30). The New American Commen- [60] 1Corinthians 15:22 tary: –33, Vol. 15A (New American Commen- tary). B&H Publishing Group. p. 268. ISBN 0-8054- [61] The theology of John Calvin by Charles Partee 2008 ISBN 0115-6. 0-664-23119-5 p. 159

[42] Oxford ONline: Nazoreans [62] Theology of the New Testament by Georg Strecker 2000 ISBN 0-664-22336-2 pp. 401–403 [43] Ulrich Luz, the Theology of the Gospel of Matthew, Cam- bridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43576-5 p. 18 [63] Matthew by Grant R. Osborne 2010 ISBN 0-310-32370-3 lxxix [44] Church dogmatics, Volume 4, Part 1 by Karl Barth, Geof- frey William Bromiley, Thomas Forsyth Torrance 2004 [64] Toward the origins of Christmas by Susan K. Roll 1995 ISBN 0-567-05129-3 pp. 256–259 ISBN 90-390-0531-1 pp. 208–211

[45] An introduction to the early history of Christian doctrine by [65] McGrath, Alister E. (2007), Christian theology: an intro- James Franklin Bethune-Baker 2005 ISBN 1-4021-5770- duction, Malden, Mass.: Blackwell, p. 282, ISBN 1-4051- 3 p. 334 5360-1 14 10 REFERENCES

[66] Ehrman, Bart D. (1993), The Orthodox corruption of [85] The journey of the Magi: meanings in history of a Christian scripture: the effect of early Christological controversies story by Richard C. Trexler 1997 ISBN 0-691-01126-5 p. on the text of the New Testament, New York: Oxford Uni- 9 versity Press, ISBN 978-0-19-510279-6 [86] in Reformed Churches past and present [67] Mary and the by James P. Campbell 2005 by Lukas Vischer 2002 ISBN 0-8028-0520-5 pp. 400– 0829417257 pp. 17–20 401

[68] All the Doctrines of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 1988 [87] Mills, Watson E.; Edgar V. McKnight; Roger Aubrey ISBN 0-310-28051-6 p. 159 Bullard (1990). Mercer Dictionary of the Bible. Mercer University Press. p. 142. ISBN 0-86554-373-9. Re- [69] Matthew 1–13 by Manlio Simonetti 2001 ISBN 0-8308- trieved July 10, 2012. 1486-8 p. 17 [88] Aspects of the liturgical year in Cappadocia (325–430) by [70] Matthew 1-2/ Luke 1–2 by Louise Perrotta 2004 ISBN 0- Jill Burnett Comings 2005 ISBN 0-8204-7464-9 pp. 61– 8294-1541-6 p. 19 71

[71] Matthew’s Emmanuel by David D. Kupp 1997 ISBN 0- [89] Sacred Christmas Music by Ronald M. Clancy 2008 ISBN 521-57007-7 pp. 220–224 1-4027-5811-1 pp. 15–19 [90] The Feast of Christmas by Joseph F. Kelly 2010 ISBN 0- [72] Who do you say that I am?: essays on Christology by 8146-3325-0 pp. 331–391 Jack Dean Kingsbury, Mark Allan Powell, David R. Bauer 1999 ISBN 0-664-25752-6 p. 17 [91] and in the theology of Jean Gerson by Dorothy Catherine Brown 1987 ISBN 0-521-33029-7 p. 32 [73] The theology of the Gospel of Matthew by Ulrich Luz 1995 ISBN 0-521-43576-5 p. 31 [92] The Feast of Christmas by Joseph F. Kelly 2010 ISBN 0- 8146-3325-0 pp. 112–114 [74] Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, 2nd series, Vol XIV p. 207, translated edition by H.R. Percival. http://www. [93] Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger fordham.edu/halsall/basis/ephesus.html Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 pp. 520–525

[75] The Seven Ecumenical Councils of the Undivided [94] Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity Church, trans H. R. Percival, in Nicene and Post-Nicene by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0-8028-3167-2 pp. 113 Fathers, 2nd Series, ed. P. Schaff and H. Wace, (repr. and 179 Grand Rapids MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1955), XIV, pp. [95] II Corinthians: a commentary by Frank J. Matera 2003 192–242 ISBN 0-664-22117-3 pp. 11–13

[76] The acts of the Council of Chalcedon by Council of Chal- [96] Philippians 2:10 cedon, Richard Price, Michael Gaddis 2006 ISBN 0- 85323-039-0 pp. 1–5 [97] Christology: Biblical And Historical by Mini S. Johnson, 2005 ISBN 81-8324-007-0 pp. 74–76 [77] The creed: the apostolic faith in contemporary theology by Berard L. Marthaler 2007 ISBN 0-89622-537-2 p. 114 [98] Christology: Biblical And Historical by Mini S. Johnson ISBN p. 211 [78] Essential theological terms by Justo L. González 2005 ISBN 0-664-22810-0 p. 120 [99] La vida sacra: contemporary Hispanic sacramental the- ology by James L. Empereur, Eduardo Fernández 2006 [79] Doctrine and practice in the early church by Stuart George ISBN 0-7425-5157-1 pp. 3–5 Hall 1992 ISBN 0-8028-0629-5 pp. 211–218 [100] Philippines by Lily Rose R. Tope, Detch P. Nonan- [80] Leo the Great by Pope Leo I, Bronwen Neil 2009 ISBN Mercado 2005 ISBN 0-7614-1475-4 p. 109 0-415-39480-5 pp. 61–62 [101] Christology: Key Readings in Christian Thought by Jeff [81] Summa Theologica, Volume 4 (Part III, First Section) by Astley, David Brown, Ann Loades 2009 ISBN 0-664- St. Thomas Aquinas 207 Cosimo Classics ISBN 1-60206- 23269-8 p. 106 560-8 pp. 2197–2211 [102] Williams, Rowan Ponder these things 2002 ISBN 1- 85311-362-X p. 7 [82] Aquinas on doctrine: a critical introduction by Thomas Gerard Weinandy, John Yocum 2004 ISBN 0-567-08411- [103] An Introduction to the Bible by Robert Kugler, Patrick 6 p. 98 Hartin ISBN 0-8028-4636-X p. 394

[83] Calvin’s Catholic Christology by E. David Willis 1966 Pub- [104] Mercer dictionary of the Bible by Watson E. Mills, Roger lished by E.J. Brill, Netherlands, p. 83 Aubrey Bullard 1998 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 p. 396

[84] An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies [105] Sanctity of time and space in tradition and modernity by by Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff 2007 ISBN 0- Alberdina Houtman, Marcel Poorthuis, Joshua Schwartz 8146-5856-3 p. 237 1998 ISBN 90-04-11233-2 pp. 61–62 10.1 Citations 15

[106] The History and Use of Hymns and Hymn-Tunes by David [127] The horizontal line synopsis of the Gospels by Reuben J. R Breed 2009 ISBN 1-110-47186-6 p. 17 Swanson 1984 ISBN 0-87808-744-3 page xix

[107] Favourite Hymns by Marjorie Reeves 2006 ISBN 0-8264- [128] Gospel Parallels by Burton H. Throckmorton 1992 ISBN 8097-7 pp. 3–5 0-8407-7484-2 pp. 2–7

[108] All the music of the Bible by Herbert Lockyer 2004 ISBN [129] Steven L. Cox, Kendell H. Easley, 2007 Harmony of the 1-56563-531-0 p. 120 Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8 pp. 289–290

[109] Music of the Middle Ages, Volume 1 by Giulio Cattin, F. [130] The New Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible: Volume 3 Alberto Gallo 1985 ISBN 0-521-28489-9 p. 2 Abingdon Press, 2008. pp. 42, 269–70.

[110] The Feast of Christmas by Joseph F. Kelly 2010 ISBN 0- [131] Brown, Raymond Edward (1999-05-18). The Birth of the 8146-3325-0 pp. 22–31 Messiah: A Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke (The Anchor Yale Bible Ref- [111] The mystical language of icons by Solrunn Nes 2005 ISBN erence Library). Yale University Press. p. 36. ISBN 0- 0-8028-2916-3 p. 43 300-14008-8.

[112] The meaning of icons by Leonide Ouspensky, Vladimir [132] Crossan, John Dominic; Watts, Richard J. (October Lossky 1999 ISBN 0-913836-77-X p. 157 1999). Who Is Jesus?: Answers to Your Questions About the . Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John [113] Church Fathers and Teachers: From Saint Leo the Great Knox Press. pp. 11–12. ISBN 0-664-25842-5. to by Pope Benedict XVI 2010 ISBN 1- 58617-317-0 p. 32 [133] Funk, Robert W. and the . The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus. HarperSan- [114] Wellesz, Egon (1947). “The Nativity Drama of the Francisco. 1998. “Birth & Infancy Stories” pp. 497–526. Byzantine Church”. Journal of Roman Studies. Soci- ety for the Promotion of Roman Studies. 37: 145–151. [134] Vermes, Géza (2006-11-02). The Nativity: History and doi:10.2307/298465. JSTOR 298465. Legend. Penguin Books Ltd. p. 64. ISBN 0-14-102446- 1. [115] Miles, Clement, Christmas customs and traditions, Dover 1976, ISBN 0-486-23354-5, pp. 31–37 [135] Sanders, E. P. The historical figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993. Sanders discusses both birth narratives in detail, [116] Miles, Clement, Christmas customs and traditions, Dover contrasts them, and judges them not historical on pp. 85– 1976, ISBN 0-486-23354-5, pp. 47–48 88.

[117] Jesus in history, thought, and culture: an encyclopedia, [136] Jeremy Corley New Perspectives on the Nativity Contin- Volume 1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003 ISBN 1-57607- uum International Publishing Group, 2009 p. 22. 856-6 pp. 631–635 [137] Wright, Tom (March 2004). Luke for Everyone. Lon- [118] Mark D. Roberts Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating don: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 39. ISBN 0-664- the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John Good 22784-8. News Publishers, 2007 p. 102 [138] Vermes, Géza (2006-11-02). The Nativity: History and [119] The Origins of the Gospel According to St. Matthew by Legend. Penguin Books Ltd. p. 22. ISBN 0-14-102446- George Dunbar Kilpatrick 2007 ISBN 0-86516-667-6 p. 1. 54 [139] Sanders, Ed (1993). The Historical Figure of Jesus. [120] The Gospel according to Luke by Michael Patella 2005 London: Allen Lane. p. 85. ISBN 0-7139-9059-7. ISBN 0-8146-2862-1 pp. 9–10 [140] Hurtado, Larry W. (June 2003). Lord Jesus Christ: Devo- [121] Lord Jesus Christ by Larry W. Hurtado 2005 ISBN 0- tion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Grand Rapids, Mich.: 8028-3167-2 p. 322 W.B. Eerdmans. pp. 319–320. ISBN 0-8028-6070-2.

[122] A Dictionary of Christ and the Gospels: Volume II by [141] The birth of the Messiah by Raymond Brown 1993 ISBN James Hastings 2004 ISBN 1-4102-1788-4 p. 805 0-385-47202-1 p. 513

[123] Recovering Jesus: the witness of the New Testament [142] Oshri, Aviram (November–December 2005). “Where Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld 2007 ISBN 1-58743-202-1 pp. was Jesus Born?". Archaeology. Archaeological Institute 116–123 of America. 58 (6). Retrieved 24 November 2012.

[124] Daniel J. Harrington 1991 The Gospel of Matthew ISBN [143] Chilton, Bruce (2006), “Recovering Jesus’ Mamzerut”, in 0-8146-5803-2 pp. 45–49 Charlesworth, James H., Jesus and Archaeology, William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, pp. 95–96, ISBN [125] The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia by 9780802848802 Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1988 ISBN 0-8028-3785-9 p. 685 [144] Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus edited by [126] John Bernard Orchard, 1983 Synopsis of the Four Tom Holmen and Stanley E. Porter (Jan 12, 2011) ISBN GospelsISBN 0-567-09331-X pp. 4–12 9004163727 pages 3411–3412 16 10 REFERENCES

[145] , 'The Meaning of the Birth Stories’ in Mar- • Balch, David L. (2003). “Luke”. In Dunn, cus Borg, N T Wright, The Meaning of Jesus: Two Vi- James D. G.; Rogerson, John William. Eerdmans sions (Harper One, 1999) page 179: “I (and most mainline Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. ISBN scholars) do not see these stories as historically factual.” 9780802837110.

[146] Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and The- • Beaton, Richard C. (2005). “How Matthew Writes”. ology by Timothy Wiarda 2010 ISBN 0-8054-4843-8 pp. In Bockmuehl, Markus; Hagner, Donald A. The 75–78 Written Gospel. Oxford University Press. ISBN [147] Jesus, the Christ: Contemporary Perspectives by Brennan 978-0-521-83285-4. R. Hill 2004 ISBN 1-58595-303-2 p. 89 • Boring, M. Eugene (2012). An Introduction to [148] The Gospel of Luke by Timothy Johnson 1992 ISBN 0- the New Testament: History, Literature, Theol- 8146-5805-9 p. 72 ogy. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 9780664255923. [149] Recovering Jesus: the witness of the New Testament Thomas R. Yoder Neufeld 2007 ISBN 1-58743-202-1 p. • Buckwalter, Douglas (1996). The Character and 111 Purpose of Luke’s Christology. Cambridge Univer- [150] Matthew by Thomas G. Long 1997 ISBN 0-664-25257-5 sity Press. ISBN 9780521561808. pp. 14–15 • Burkett, Delbert (2002). An introduction to the New [151] Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi Testament and the origins of Christianity. Cam- by Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN 0-86012-006-6 p. 731 bridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00720-7.

[152] Bruce M. Metzger, Michael D. Coogan, The Oxford Guide • Carroll, John T. (2012). Luke: A Commen- to People & Places of the Bible. Oxford University Press tary. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN US, 2004. p. 137 9780664221065.

[153] “most recent biographies of Herod the Great deny it en- • Casey, Maurice (2010). Jesus of Nazareth: An Inde- tirely.” Paul L. Maier, “Herod and the Infants of Bethle- pendent Historian’s Account of His Life and Teach- hem”, in Chronos, Kairos, Christos II, Mercer University ing. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-567-64517-3. Press (1998), p. 170 • Charlesworth, James H. (2008). The Historical Je- [154] Josephus and the New Testament by Steve Mason 2003 ISBN 1-56563-795-X p. 160 sus: An Essential Guide. Abingdon Press. ISBN 9781426724756. [155] The Gospel of Matthew by R. T. France 2007 ISBN 0- 8028-2501-X pp. 43 and 83 • Clarke, Howard W. (2003). The Gospel of Matthew and Its Readers. Indiana University Press. ISBN [156] Paul L. Maier, Herod and the Infants of Bethlehem in 978-0-253-34235-5. “Chronos, Kairos, Christos 2” by Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman ISBN 0-86554-582-0 pp. 169–179 • Collins, Adela Yarbro (2000). Cosmology and Es- chatology in Jewish and Christian . [157] Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-11927-7. Testament Times by Paul Barnett 2002 ISBN 0-8308- 2699-8 p. 85 • Davies, W.D.; Allison, D.C. (2004). Matthew 1–7. [158] Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey by T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-08355-5. Craig L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN 0-8054-4482-3 p. 244 • Davies, W.D.; Allison, D.C. (1991). –18. T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-08365-4.

10.2 Bibliography • Davies, W.D.; Allison, D.C. (1997). – 28. T&T Clark. ISBN 978-0-567-08375-3. • Allen, O. Wesley, Jr. (2009). “Luke”. In Pe- tersen, David L.; O'Day, Gail R. Theological Bible • Duling, Dennis C. (2010). “The Gospel of Commentary. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN Matthew”. In Aune, David E. The Blackwell Com- 9781611640304. panion to the New Testament. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-0825-6. • Aune, David E. (ed.) (2001). The Gospel of Matthew in current study. Eerdmans. ISBN 978- • Dunn, James D.G. (2003). Jesus Remembered. 0-8028-4673-0. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3931-2.

• Aune, David E. (1988). The New Testament in its • Ehrman, Bart D. (1999). Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet literary environment. Westminster John Knox Press. of the New Millennium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-664-25018-8. ISBN 978-0-19-512474-3. 10.2 Bibliography 17

• Ehrman, Bart D. (2012). Did Jesus Exist?: The • Kupp, David D. (1996). Matthew’s Emmanuel: Di- Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth. Harper- vine Presence and God’s People in the First Gospel. Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-220460-8. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521- 57007-7. • Ehrman, Bart D. (1996). The Orthodox Corruption of Scripture : The Effect of Early Christological Con- • Keener, Craig S. (1999). A commentary on the troversies on the Text of the New Testament. Oxford Gospel of Matthew. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028- University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510279-6. 3821-6.

• Ehrman, Bart D. (1999). Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet • Levine, Amy-Jill (2001). “Visions of kingdoms: of the New Millennium. Oxford University Press. From Pompey to the first Jewish revolt”. In Coogan, Michael D. The Oxford History of the Biblical • Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). Lost Christianities: The World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19- Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. 513937-2. Oxford University Press. • Levison, J.; Pope-Levison, P. (2009). “Christol- • Ellis, E. Earl (2003). The Gospel of Luke. Wipf and ogy”. In Dyrness, William A.; Kärkkäinen, Veli- Stock Publishers. Matti. Global Dictionary of Theology. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 9780830878116. • Evans, Craig A. (2011). Luke. Baker Books. • Lincoln, Andrew (2013). Born of a Virgin?: Recon- • Fuller, Reginald H. (2001). “Biblical Theology”. In ceiving Jesus in the Bible, Tradition, and Theology. Metzger, Bruce M.; Coogan, Michael D. The Ox- Eerdmans. ISBN 9780802869258. ford Guide to Ideas & Issues of the Bible. Oxford University Press. • Lössl, Josef (2010). The Early Church: History and Memory. Continuum. ASIN 0567165612. ISBN • France, R.T (2007). The Gospel of Matthew. Eerd- 978-0-567-16561-9. mans. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-8028-2501-8. • Luz, Ulrich (2005). Studies in Matthew. Eerdmans. • Gamble, Harry Y. (1995). Books and Readers in the ISBN 978-0-8028-3964-0. Early Church: A History of Early Christian Texts. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-06918-1. • Luz, Ulrich (1995). The Theology of the Gospel of Matthew. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978- • Green, Joel (1995). The Theology of the Gospel of 0-521-43576-5. Luke. Cambridge University Press. • Luz, Ulrich (1992). Matthew 1–7: a commentary. • Green, Joel (1997). The Gospel of Luke. Eerdmans. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-9600-9.

• Hagner, D.A. (1986). “Matthew, Gospel According • Luz, Ulrich (2001). Matthew 8–20: a commentary. to”. In Bromiley, Geoffrey W. International Stan- Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-6034-5. dard Bible Encyclopedia, Vol. 3: K-P. Wm. B. Eerd- mans. pp. 280–8. ISBN 978-0-8028-8163-2. • Luz, Ulrich (2005). –28: a commentary. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-0-8006-3770-5. • Harrington, Daniel J. (1991). The Gospel of Matthew. Liturgical Press. ISBN 9780814658031. • McDonald, Patricia M. (2009). “Resemblances Be- tween Matthew 1-2 and Luke 1-2”. In Corley, • Holladay, Carl R. (2011). A Critical Introduction Jeremy. New Perspectives on the Nativity. Blooms- to the New Testament: Interpreting the Message and bury. ISBN 9780567613790. Meaning of Jesus Christ. Abingdon Press. • McMahon, Christopher (2008). “Introduction to • Hurtado, Larry W. (2005). Lord Jesus Christ: De- the Gospels and ”. In Ruff, votion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity. Eerdmans. Jerry. Understanding the Bible: A Guide to Reading ISBN 978-0-8028-3167-5. the Scriptures. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780884898528. • Johnson, Luke Timothy (2010). The New Testa- ment: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University • Miller, Philip M. (2011). “The Least Orthodox Press. Reading is to be Preferred”. In Wallace, Daniel B. Revisiting the Corruption of the New Testament. • Kowalczyk, A. (2008). The influence of Kregel Academic. ISBN 9780825489068. and texts of the Old Testament on the redaction of Matthew’s Gospel. Bernardinum. ISBN 978-83- • Morris, Leon (1990). New Testament Theology. 7380-625-2. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0-310-45571-4. 18 10 REFERENCES

• Morris, Leon (1992). The Gospel according to • Scholtz, Donald (2009). Jesus in the Gospels and Matthew. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-85111-338-8. Acts: Introducing the New Testament. Saint Mary’s Press. • Nolland, John (2005). The Gospel of Matthew: A Commentary on the Greek Text. Eerdmans. ISBN • Senior, Donald (2001). “Directions in Matthean 0802823890. Studies”. The Gospel of Matthew in Current Study: Studies in Memory of William G. Thompson, • Peppard, Michael (2011). The Son of God in the S.J. ISBN 0802846734., in Aune, David E. (ed.) Roman World: Divine Sonship in Its Social and Po- (2001). The Gospel of Matthew in current study. litical Context. Oxford University Press. ISBN Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-4673-0. 9780199753703. • Senior, Donald (1996). What are they saying about • Perkins, Pheme (1998). “The Matthew?. PaulistPress. ISBN 978-0-8091-3624-7. and the Acts of the Apostles: Telling the Christian Story”. In Barton, John. The Cambridge companion • Stanton, Graham (1993). A gospel for a new people: to biblical interpretation. Westminster John Knox studies in Matthew. Westminster John Knox Press. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-48593-7. ISBN 978-0-664-25499-5. • Perkins, Pheme (2009). Introduction to the Synoptic • Strecker, Georg (2000). Theology of the New Testa- Gospels. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-6553-3. ment. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-0-664-22336- • Powell, Mark Allan (1998). Jesus as a Figure in His- 6. tory: How Modern Historians View the Man from • Tuckett, Christopher Mark (2001). Christology and Galilee. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-664-25703-3. the New Testament: Jesus and His Earliest Fol- • Powell, Mark Allan (1989). What Are They Saying lowers. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN About Luke?. Paulist Press. 9780664224318. • Robinson, Bernard P. (2009). “Matthew’s Nativ- • Turner, David L. (2008). Matthew. Baker. ISBN ity Stories: Historical and Theological Questions for 978-0-8010-2684-3. Today’s Readers”. In Corley, Jeremy. New Perspec- • Twelftree, Graham H. (1999). Jesus the miracle tives on the Nativity. Bloomsbury. worker: a historical & theological study. InterVar- • Ryken, Leland; Wilhoit, James C.; Longman, Trem- sity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-1596-8. per (2010). “Birth stories”. Dictionary of Biblical • Imagery. InterVarsity Press. Van de Sandt, H.W.M. (2005). "Introduc- tion". Matthew and the : Two Docu- • Strelan, Rick (2013). Luke the Priest - the Authority ments from the Same Jewish-Christian Milieu ?. of the Author of the Third Gospel. Ashgate Publish- ISBN 9023240774., in Van de Sandt, H.W.M, ed. ing. (2005). Matthew and the Didache. Royal Van Gor- cum&Fortress Press. ISBN 978-90-232-4077-8. • Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1998). The histori- cal Jesus: a comprehensive guide. Eerdmans. • Vermes, Geza (2006). The meaning of the Dead Sea scrolls: Their significance for understanding the • Thompson, Richard P. (2010). “Luke-Acts: The Bible, , Jesus, and Christianity. Penguin UK. Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles”. In ISBN 9780141912615. Aune, David E. The Blackwell Companion to The New Testament. Wiley–Blackwell. p. 319. • Wansbrough, Henry (2009). “The Infancy Stories of the Gospels Since Raymond E. Brown”. In Corley, • Tremmel, Robert (2011). The Four Gospels. Xlib- Jeremy. New Perspectives on the Nativity. Blooms- ris. bury. ISBN 9780567613790. • Saldarini, Anthony (2003). “Matthew”. Eerdmans • Weren, Wim (2005). “The History and Social Set- commentary on the Bible. ISBN 0802837115., in ting of the Matthean Community”. Matthew and Dunn, James D.G.; Rogerson, John William (2003). the Didache: Two Documents from the Same Jewish- Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans. Christian Milieu ?. ISBN 9789023240778., in Van ISBN 978-0-8028-3711-0. de Sandt, H.W.M, ed. (2005). Matthew and the Di- • Saldarini, Anthony (1994). Matthew’s Christian- dache. Royal Van Gorcum&Fortress Press. ISBN Jewish Community. University of Chicago Press. 978-90-232-4077-8. ISBN 978-0-226-73421-7. • Brown, Raymond E. The Birth of the Messiah: A • Sanford, Christopher B. (2005). Matthew: Christian Commentary on the Infancy Narratives in Matthew Rabbi. Author House. and Luke. London: G. Chapman, 1977. 19

• Calkins, Robert G. Illuminated Books of the Middle Ages. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1983.

• Carter, Warren. Matthew and Empire. Harrisburg: Press International, 2001.

• France, R.T. The Gospel According to Matthew: an Introduction and Commentary. Leicester: Inter- Varsity, 1985. • Ghose, Tia (December 22, 2014). “A Christmas Tale: How Much of is True?". LiveScience.

• Gundry, Robert H. Matthew a Commentary on his Literary and Theological Art. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1982.

• Gundry, Robert H. “Salvation in Matthew.” Society of Biblical Literature – 2000 Seminar Papers. At- lanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000. • Hill, David. The Gospel of Matthew. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981 • Jones, . The Gospel According to St. Matthew. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1965. • Levine, Amy-Jill. “Matthew.” Women’s Bible Com- mentary. Carol A. Newsom and Sharon H. Ringe, eds. Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998. • Schaberg, Jane. Illegitimacy of Jesus: A Feminist Theological Interpretation of the Infancy Narratives (Biblical Seminar Series, No 28) Sheffield Academic Press (March 1995) ISBN 1-85075-533-7 • Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to Matthew. Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975 • Vermes, Geza The Nativity: History and Legend. Penguin (2006) ISBN 0-14-102446-1

11 External links

• Icons of the Nativity (mostly Russian) 20 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text

• Nativity of Jesus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus?oldid=768901952 Contributors: JeLuF, SimonP, Mkmcconn, Patrick, Liftarn, Tgeorgescu, Vzbs34, Samw, JASpencer, Jengod, Emperorbma, Charles Matthews, EmphasisMine, Wik, Zoicon5, Joy, Wetman, Dimadick, Robbot, Rossnixon, Moriori, RedWolf, Rursus, Carlj7, Dominick, Smjg, Elf, Cattac, Tom harrison, Martijn faassen, Brian Kendig, Zigger, Everyking, Dsmdgold, Mboverload, Utcursch, SoWhy, Andycjp, Litalex, JoJan, MisfitToys, Kaldari, JimWae, Xan- dar, Bodnotbod, ScottyBoy900Q, Icairns, Histrion, Danarmak, The stuart, Ta bu shi da yu, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Silence, Bender235, Jnestorius, Violetriga, Bennylin, Gnomz007, Lima, Remember, MPS, Ogg, Viriditas, Pschemp, Jonathunder, Wayfarer, Tom Yates, Alansohn, Richard Harvey, Mr Adequate, Carbon Caryatid, JohnAlbertRigali, TZOTZIOY, Ross Burgess, Wtmitchell, Velella, An- dreasPraefcke, NicholasJones, Versageek, SteinbDJ, Iustinus, LukeSurl, Phi beta, RyanGerbil10, Woohookitty, Frtillman, Pol098, M412k, Pictureuploader, Ashmoo, Graham87, Mendaliv, Koavf, SchuminWeb, Nihiltres, Mark J, RobyWayne, Str1977, Terrx, Mhking, Gdrbot, Bgwhite, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Kauffner, Hede2000, Pi Delport, Cornelius, Welsh, Doctorindy, Ari89, Zwobot, Elkman, Bantosh, FF2010, CQ, Tesseract501, Ephilei, Samuel Blanning, Yvwv, Veinor, Remiel, SmackBot, PiCo, MegamanXplosion, Rbreen, Delldot, Es- kimbot, Hardyplants, ServantKing2005, Gilliam, Hmains, Carl.bunderson, Wigren, Chris the speller, Master Jay, Bluebot, Timbouctou, Donnie Love, Yanksox, VirtualSteve, Mladifilozof, Dethme0w, Ilya L, Metallurgist, Alphathon, Onorem, Clinkophonist, Homestarmy, Jerodgers1, Huon, LoveMonkey, Andrew c, DMacks, StThomasMore, Chaldean, Scott English, Euchiasmus, J 1982, Number36, Ck- atz, Slakr, Freder1ck, Hyenaste, Neddyseagoon, Dejitaru Davis, BranStark, Igoldste, Gerfinch, Courcelles, Bgmack, Xander314, JFor- get, Van helsing, Pseudo-Richard, Outriggr (2006-2009), Yopienso, Pewwer42, FilipeS, George cowie, Themightyquill, Jonathan Tweet, Mike Bags, Goldfritha, Amandajm, Sweetmoose6, Gimmetrow, Epbr123, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Roger Pearse, Smile a While, A3RO, Leon7, Signaleer, Radio Guy, MostExcellentTheophilus, Escarbot, Majorly, Lostcaesar, QuiteUnusual, Just Chilling, Fayenatic london, Dhrm77, Epeefleche, Ahrarara, Magioladitis, VoABot II, Froid, SparrowsWing, JMyrleFuller, JaGa, Simon Peter Hughes, Wassupwest- coast, FisherQueen, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, J.delanoy, Just nigel, Nev1, Huey45, Bogey97, 72Dino, TrueCRaysball, Ian.thomson, John- bod, McSly, JBFrenchhorn, DjScrawl, Spinach Dip, Plasticup, Jwh335, Juliancolton, MishaPan, IceDragon64, Joanee Woolee, WLRoss, Exciteops, CardinalDan, Jrgullett, Themasterofalquotesl, X!, Elemaki, ColdCase, Jeff G., Indubitably, Majoreditor, Bobbacon, Philip Trueman, Hecman111, RRKennison, Kww, Sally sally sally sally, Anna Lincoln, John Carter, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Ziounclesi, Cremepuff222, RadiantRay, Spookey, VanishedUserABC, Vchimpanzee, Bluedenim, Doktorspin, - tSR - Nth Man, Radagast3, Rober- toreggi, StAnselm, Ttonyb1, Jauerback, Mungo Kitsch, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn, MaynardClark, Arbor to SJ, Oxymoron83, Hobartimus, BenoniBot~enwiki, Vanished user ewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, EveryDayJoe45, Randy Kryn, James2c19v, Twinsday, Martar- ius, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Kumagoro-42, The Thing That Should Not Be, LotusElite, Kafka Liz, EoGuy, Polyamorph, 1NosferatuZodd1, Bo- ing! 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12.2 Images

• File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MarkusMark • File:1880_Christmas_Osgood.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/1880_Christmas_Osgood.png Li- cense: Public domain Contributors: American Broadsides and Ephemera, Series 1 Original artist: Osgood • File:8452_-_Milano_-_S._Marco_-_Londonio_-_Presepe_(ca_1750)_-_Foto_G._Dall'Orto_-_14-Apr-2007.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/8452_-_Milano_-_S._Marco_-_Londonio_-_Presepe_%28ca_1750%29_ -_Foto_G._Dall%27Orto_-_14-Apr-2007.jpg License: Attribution Contributors: Own work Original artist: G.dallorto • File:Annunciation_nesterov.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Annunciation_nesterov.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: bibliotekar.ru Original artist: Mikhail Nesterov • File:BambergApocalypse06LargeInitialE.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/ BambergApocalypse06LargeInitialE.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Scan from the original work Original artist: ? • File:Bartolomé_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_023.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Bartolom%C3% A9_Esteban_Perez_Murillo_023.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD- ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Bartolomé Esteban Murillo • File:Botticelli_Nativity.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Botticelli_Nativity.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: [1], 2011-06-21 Original artist: 12.3 Content license 21

• File:Byzantinischer_Maler_um_1020_003.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Byzantinischer_ Maler_um_1020_003.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Byzantinischer Maler um 1020 • File:Codex_of_Sinay.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Codex_of_Sinay.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: anonimus • File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi- nal artist: ? • File:Dorfkrippe_Baumkirchen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Dorfkrippe_Baumkirchen.jpg Li- cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Haneburger • File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by- sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:Geertgen_tot_Sint_Jans,_The_Nativity_at_Night,_c_1490.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/ Geertgen_tot_Sint_Jans%2C_The_Nativity_at_Night%2C_c_1490.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Gallery Original artist: Geertgen tot Sint Jans (circa 1460-circa 1488) • File:Gerard_van_Honthorst_-_Adoration_of_the_Shepherds_(1622).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/ commons/0/05/Gerard_van_Honthorst_-_Adoration_of_the_Shepherds_%281622%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Google Art Project Original artist: Gerard van Honthorst • File:Liturgical_year.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Liturgical_year.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: James E. Scarborough • File:Matthew’{}s_Gospel_-_British_Library_Add._MS_59874_Ethiopian_Bible.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/ wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Matthew%27s_Gospel_-_British_Library_Add._MS_59874_Ethiopian_Bible.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Library Ethiopic Bible Selections Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Meister_von_Hohenfurth_002.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Meister_von_Hohenfurth_ 002.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN 3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Master of Vyšší Brod, Mistr Vyšebrodský • File:Nacimiento_BsAs.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/Nacimiento_BsAs.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Elemaki • File:Nativity_01.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Nativity_01.jpg License: CC0 Contribu- tors: National Library of Wales Original artist: Unknownwikidata:Q4233718 • File:Nativity_Church15.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Nativity_Church15.jpg License: CC BY- SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Darko Tepert Donatus • File:NativityofJesus.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/NativityofJesus.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Photographed with iPad Previously published: Published on www.resurrectionpeople.org Original artist: Kittelendan • File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ? • File:SummaTheologiae.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/SummaTheologiae.jpg License: Public do- main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

12.3 Content license

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