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The Medieval Western European and South African Experiences

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The Medieval Western European and South African Experiences i Liberation through Salvation: The Medieval Western European and South African experiences (1860 to 1994) compared through a selection of religious iconography by DUNCAN MALCOLM ARTHUR submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the subject HISTORY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: Mr ND Southey JOINT SUPERVISOR: Professor EJ Carruthers OCTOBER 2007 ii I declare that “Liberation through Salvation: The Medieval Western European and South African experiences (1860 to 1994) compared through a selection of religious iconography” is my own work and that all the sources I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. _________________________ __________________ DUNCAN MALCOLM ARTHUR DATE iii Abstract The medieval period (approximately 800 to 1300 AD) in Western Europe is noted for its rich tradition in religious Roman Catholic iconography. Frequently the only art works to be produced in the period, or to have survived, are religious icons of the period reflecting the dominant nature of the feudal structure of society and the oppressive circumstances that led to their execution. The works can be seen as a means of escape – although in an afterlife – or they might also be interpreted as a protest against the oppressive nature of the condition of the artist. The “rigidity” of a medieval existence and the utilisation of religious art as a means of expressing unhappiness with that existence may, as it is argued here, be interpreted as a means of protest. Rigid and oppressive political structures are not isolated to any particular historical period. South Africa too was an oppressive society where the material and political advancement of the majority of the population was stifled through discriminatory legislation and similar means making meaningful protest difficult, if not dangerous. This dissertation argues that religious art too became a means of protest in a manner intended to reflect the religious viewpoints of the artist but with political intentions and subtext. Similar themes in modern South African iconography (from approximately 1850 to 1994) and medieval prototypes are therefore discernible. iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank sincerely the following people and institutions (in no particular order of preference) for their kind assistance: My wife Linda, for her unwavering affection, patience and support; Nicholas Southey and Jane Carruthers for their excellent, swift and thorough supervision, without which this study would have been abandoned. The Unisa Department of History, especially Julie Pridmore, have been of great assistance; My mother, Louise Holman; My employer, the Standard Bank of South Africa Limited for permission and the freedom to utilise the contents of its art collection and the professional and extremely generous Standard Bank Gallery staff, Barbara Freemantle in particular; Sister Gereon Custodis, CSSR, for her insight into the workings of an iconographer and permission to use her and her team’s material; Brother Richard Maideville, CSSR, for his support and insight into the workings of an iconographer; Lynne Manderson and St Martin’s School for allowing me to photograph the school’s collection and generally make a nuisance of myself – just as I did as a pupil there, but now with work involved; Father J. Mitchell, MSC, for his help in compiling a large number of the icons utilised in the study; Father Anthony Esposito, SSPX, for his insights into Traditional Catholicism. v Sancte Michael Archangele, defende nos in praelio. Contra nequitiam et insidias diaboli esto praesidium. Imperet illi Deus, supplices deprecamur. Tuque princeps militiae caelestis, Satanam aliosque spiritus malignos, qui ad perditionem animarum pervagantur in mundo divina virtute in infernum detrude. Amen. St Michael the Archangel, defend us in the day of battle, Be our safeguard against the wickedness and snares of the devil. May God rebuke him, we humbly pray, And do thou, O Prince of the heavenly host, by the power of God, Thrust into hell Satan and all the other evil spirits who roam through the world seeking the ruin of souls. Amen. vi Table of Contents Declaration ii Abstract iii Acknowledgements iv Table of contents vi List of figures viii Chapter One: Introduction to the study, its Scope and Methodology 1.1 The Study 1 1.2 The origins of Christian iconography 3 1.3 South African art – a manifesto? 4 1.4 Methodology type selected 6 1.5 Sampling Strategy 6 1.6 Selection criteria 10 1.7 Data Gathering 11 1.8 Method of Analysis 11 1.9 Which data are analysed? 12 1.10 How are they defined? 13 1.11 What is the context relative to which the data are analysed? 13 1.12 What are the boundaries of the scope of this study? 14 1.13 Conclusion 14 Chapter Two: Aspects of the histories of the periods and how they contributed to the production of religious iconography 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 Characteristics of the medieval world 17 2.3 Social aspects of the medieval period 19 2.4 South Africa: colonial conquest to 1948 20 2.5 Apartheid South Africa: 1948 to 1994 22 2.6 Catholicism, South Africa and apartheid 25 2.7 Conclusion 27 vii Chapter Three: Iconography Introduced. Icons Celebrating the Old Testament and Roman Catholic Saints 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Characteristics of iconography 29 3.3 Icons & geography 33 3.4 Icons & education 51 3.5 Conclusion 56 Chapter Four: Iconography celebrating the Life of Christ 4.1 Introduction 58 4.2 The icons 58 4.3 Conclusion 85 Chapter Five: Icons reflecting the Crucifixion and Resurrection of Christ 5.1 Introduction 86 5.2 The icons 86 5.3 Conclusion 143 Chapter Six: Icons celebrating the Blessed Virgin Mary 6.1 Introduction 144 6.2 Black Madonnas & black Madonnas 145 6.3 The Blessed Virgin Mary in selected iconography 152 6.4 Conclusion 167 Chapter Seven – Conclusion 168 Bibliography 172 Annexure A: Personal Communications and Interviews 190 viii List of Figures 1.1 Detail from Nativity, Ntshalintshali 8 1.2 The Annunciation, Fra Angelico 9 2.1 Peace Garden, Alexandra, Johannesburg 27 3.1 Main Altar, Catholic Cathedral of Christ the King, Johannesburg 31 3.2 Daniel and Seven Lions, stone carving 37 3.3 Daniel in the Lion’s Den, Ntshalintshali 38 3.4 (a and b) Noah’s Ark and animals, wood carving 45 3.5 St Francis of Assissi, paint on board 46 3.6 St Francis of Assissi, mural 47 3.7 St Francis preaching to the birds, Ntshalintshali 48 3.8 St Francis of Assissi, mural 49 3.9 The Devil’s Party, Segogela 55 4.1 Nativity Scene, carving 59 4.2 Nativity, Master of Salzburg 61 4.3 Adoration of the Magi, stone pillar 62 4.4 Sotho Nativity, Sister Gereon 63 4.5 Zulu Nativity, Sister Gereon 64 4.6 Adoration of the Magi, mosaic 65 4.7 Nativity, painting 65 4.8 Birth of Christ ’77, Muafangejo 70 4.9 Christ the Shepherd, mural 73 4.10 Christ the Shepherd, statue 74 4.11 Christ the Shepherd, Sister Gereon 75 4.12 The Sermon on the Mount, Segogela 76 4.13 Jesus teaching, painting 78 4.14 Christ washes an apostle’s feet, painting 79 4.15 Marriage at Cana, Nxumalo 80 4.16 Last Supper, Ntshalintshali 82 4.17 Last Supper, painting 84 5.1 Risen Christ, Fra Angelico 89 5.2 Risen Christ revealing Sacred Heart, Sister Gereon 90 ix 5.3 Risen Christ, Mukhuba 91 5.4 Risen Christ, Theron 92 5.5 African Risen Christ, Kekana 93 5.6 Christ’s Ascension, painting 94 5.7 Communist Cuban propaganda poster, Morante 97 5.8 Medieval depiction of crucifixion, painting 104 5.9 Crucifix, wood, nails and paint 105 5.10 Crucifix, wood and nails 106 5.11 Crucifixion, Portchie 107 5.12 Crucifixion, painting 108 5.13 Christ on the Cross, Mukhuba 109 5.14 Crucifix, Gcwensa 110 5.15 Crucifix, possibly jarrah wood 111 5.16 (a to g) Stations of the Cross, Linocut on paper 112 5.17 Virgin and Crucified Christ, oil on canvas 121 5.18 Pietà, Michelangelo 122 5.19 Pietà portion of religious sculpture, The Resurrection, Ntshalintshali 123 5.20 The Resurrection, Ntshalintshali 124 5.21 Body of Hector Pieterson, Sam Nzima 125 5.22 Pietà, Brand 126 5.23 Mieliepap Pietà, Botha 127 5.24 Third Station of the Cross, sculptured fresco 134 5.25 Eighth Station of the Cross, Sekgaphane 135 5.26 Black Christ, Harrison 137 5.27 Crucifixion of Nozizwe Madlada-Routledge, Zapiro 138 5.28 Medieval depiction of the entry of Christ into Jerusalem, oil on canvas 141 5.29 African depiction of the entry of Christ into Jerusalem, linocut on paper 142 6.1 Our Lady of Monserrat, wood, nails and paint 147 6.2 Virgin and Child, Sister Gereon 148 6.3 Black Madonna of Soweto, Scully 154 6.4 Black Madonna and Child, wood, nails and paint 155 x 6.5 Virgin and Child, Rathidi 156 6.6 Black Madonna, Yellowwood 157 6.7 Virgin and Child, painting 158 6.8 African Annunciation, batik wood and paint 160 6.9 The Annunciation, painting 161 6.10 The Annunciation, silk fabric 163 6.11 African Madonna, Doyle 165 6.12 Madonna, wood and pigment 166 1 Chapter One Introduction to the study, its Scope and Methodology 1.1 The Study The research question for this study is presented as: "Are aspects of medieval existence, particularly oppression, which resulted in the art characteristic of that age, apparent in modern South African religious art? Can modern South African religious iconography be seen also as a result of oppressive experience?" In this study I have attempted to identify and highlight aspects of modern South African religious art from the nineteenth century until the establishment of the democratic order in 1994 that appear to have themes or other characteristics in common with medieval religious art.
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