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Home , Ahmad, Apostle, Jesus in Christianity, Jesus in Islam, Logos (Islam), Messiah

in Amar Djaballah

Amar Djaballah is Professor of Introduction as a powerful from . Frequently, they voice a reproach, and Dean of the Faculté As a , a , a culture, and a that appears to be quite valid from de Théologie Évangélique (affiliated with political system, Islam presents a number their perspective, to : Acadia University) in Montréal, Canada. of challenges to the world. Of all these, the “Why don’t you give any hearing or consideration to our prophet He is the author of numerous books and most important to the Christian commu- Muhammed, when accept the articles in French, including a New Tes- nity (and perhaps to the world in general) status and teachings of Jesus?”1 tament Greek grammar. Dr. Djaballah has may be the spiritual one. At any rate, none Hence, serious consideration of could at least open the written a book on the parables to be is more fundamental. To face it successfully, possibility of a dialogue with a reli- published in English (Eerdmans, forth- we need, as Christians, to be involved in gion that otherwise is reputed to harbor and faith coming) and a short English monograph prayer and witness, and mis- that are diametrically opposed to the on Islam. sion; we need also serious theological Christian ones. refection and understanding of Muslim (4) Christians need to be acquainted with (or ‘Issa as he faith and practices. It is vital that we is respectfully called in the Qur’an develop creative ways to make known our and Muslim tradition) because of the faith and to communicate genuine con- very respect shown to him in this religion. Some may find it thought cerns to . Within such a program, provoking that the Quranic under- a careful consideration of Jesus in Islam standing of Jesus is closer to classi- may help us to better understand Islam and cal than many teachings on him in contemporary university Muslims; it may also act as a catalyst for departments and renewing our own thinking about some of seminaries across North America and Europe.2 the issues relating to (5) A Christian principle is at stake and in the world. One thinks, of course, of here: “Do unto others…” If Chris- the plethora of contemporary images of wish that Muslims avail them- selves of the opportunity to ponder Jesus (from the sweet Saviour to the super- over the biblical portrait of , star, from Jesus “down in my heart” to that they may find it very difficult not to of the famous “”). For a num- take the first step. Dialogues are notoriously difficult and delicate, ber of , the topic “Jesus in Islam” they may err on both extremes and repays serious study: degenerate either into empty polite exercises or into practices of decep- tion; however, reciprocity is the (1) Jesus, in his person and ministry, name of the game. Genuine dialogue is central to Christian faith and life; and debates are possible, and they foundation for the first, source for should be welcomed and encour- the second. aged. Sincerity and respect in these (2) To a large extent, Jesus is looked endeavours may not exclude con- upon favorably even in a society that version itself; why should it?3 disdains the . His figure com- (6) The last 30 years or so witnessed mands respect among non-believers; a renewed interest in the life, minis- some of his teachings are valued by try and teaching of the historical non-Christians and others are part Jesus, at a level perhaps never of general culture, albeit at a super- reached before (with the possible ficial level. exception of the end of the nine- (3) The topic has a strategic impor- teenth century and early twentieth tance for evangelism. Muslims claim century). The “Third Quest of the to respect Jesus and to receive him 14 ,” after the timid and down and later compiled into a book, insufficient renewal encouraged by Bultmann’s disciples in the mid-fif- under , the first khalif (632-34). ties, seems to open new possibilities During the reign of the third khalif, of truly understanding Jesus in his ‘Uthman (644-56), and due to the existence historical context. Yet the results are mitigated: some are insightful and of several different recitations, a single may prove to be lasting (see the version was made, and an order was given writings of J. D. G. Dunn, N. T. to destroy all other copies.5 Muhammed, Wright, and B. Witherington on the topic); others will probably be short the final messenger and prophet of God, is lived (most of the Jesus Seminar’s in fact the seal of . Through conclusions). There are clear paral- his mediation, the Qur’an, God’s final lels between some of these and Muslim conceptions of Jesus’ iden- and manifestation of truth, has tity and ministry, suggesting that a been given to Muslims and through them comparative study may be useful. For example, the conclusions of the to all mankind. Jesus Seminar, well known by now, As God’s ultimate revelation, the are strangely reminiscent of Islamic Qur’an completes, corrects, and thus convictions. According to both, Jesus was truly human, but not divine; he supersedes all previous revelation, includ- was a teacher not a ; he did ing the particular revelations granted by not die an atoning (I will God through , , , and suggest below that in the Islamic denial of Jesus’ death on the cross Jesus. Quranic correction is deemed the expiatory dimension is mostly at necessary because, according to Muslim stake); his teaching was useful for understanding and apologetics, previous his time and may have contempo- rary applications. Scriptures had been misunderstood, abrogated, and/or falsified by and The present aspires only to con- Christians. This belief, though difficult to tribute some basic elements to the discus- substantiate historically or critically, plays sion. In this undertaking, I suggest to focus an important role in Islamic conceptions first on understanding and explanation, relating to the and its portrait of before turning to comparison, confronta- Christ and his ministry; it also has bearing tion, and criticism.4 So I propose an exer- on the place of Jesus (or the lack thereof) cise in understanding; although, such in Muslim piety, devotion, and spiritual- requires proper criticism. ity. For in all vital issues and areas of con- tention between Islam and other , The Muslim Conception Muslims turn to the Qur’an as the final of the Qur’an authority. Christians are sometimes discon- In order to understand the Islamic certed to find that the same applies to Jesus’ conception of Jesus adequately, one must person, status, and ministry. For Muslims, begin with the Muslim’s conception of the the only adequate and authoritative pre- Qur’an. The vast majority of Muslims sentation of Jesus is the one given in the conceive of the Qur’an as the uncreated Qur’an (to which they may add clarifica- and eternal Word of God. As such, it reveals tions gathered from the and the the Truth and all truths. Historically, it Sunna, the authoritative traditions). The “descended” to Muhammed in the form status of the Qur’an is enough not of revelations, within a period of some 23 to turn to except when the latter years (ca. 610-632), before being written justifies or corroborates the Quranic pre- 15 sentation.6 verses, Muhammed accuses the people of Though space precludes adequately the previous books of voluntarily mis- developing this question here, the charge representing the meaning of their Scrip- should not go unchallenged.7 Christians tures: “They have changed words from should not let Muslim apologetics (espe- their contexts, and they have forgotten cially at the scholarly level) get away with what was revealed,” (or “part of what was the accusation that our Scriptures (Old and revealed”) (5:13; see 4:46; 5:14). In another ) had been changed context, Jews are accused of listening to to the appearing of the Qur’an. Historical the Word without integrity—without the and textual studies prove beyond reason- intention of obeying it (5:41). Two main able doubt that they have not been “cor- points seem to be at issue: (1) The denial rupted” as Muslims so easily charge.8 that Muhammed was a prophet (whereas, Aside from historical and critical studies, according to the Qur’an, both the Jewish one is reminded of an argument from sheer and Christian Scriptures predicted his com- logic, pointed out by Augustine and Pascal. ing) and (2) certain ethical issues. On the They remarked that in the first matter, Muhammed believed that both Scriptures, Jews had preserved testimony Jews and Christians wrongly interpreted against themselves. For, though they did not their Scriptures. On the second matter, the welcome the Messiah, they did faithfully Jews were accused of misrepresenting transmit God’s logia entrusted to them ethical issues, such as the question of including the prophetic predictions that whether the demands stoning for announce the Messiah’s coming and the adultery. The Hadith charges that the Jews manner of his coming. The very proof of attempted to deceive Muhammed with their disobedience is the evidence for the respect to the adequate punishment for the veracity of the testimony they transmitted.9 of adultery.11 Muhammed’s trust in the The argument can be expanded and previous Scriptures is evidenced in the applied to the Christian books. If Christians encouragement he receives from the falsified their Scriptures, they did a very Qur’an to find of his own poor , for they left intact the most dam- mission in theses same Scriptures (“If you aging parts, the parts that condemn with are in doubt concerning what we have the sharpest severity sinful behaviour and revealed to you, ask those who have read disobedience. the Book before you,” 10:94). There is, however, another answer that The Muslim accusation, then, that Chris- is perhaps better still. The Qur’an itself may tians have corrupted their Scriptures does have never intended to affirm textual cor- not seem to have a Quranic warrant. Aside ruptions or falsifications of previous Scrip- from apologetic purposes, it may depend ture. The relevant passages in the Qur’an rather on the Muslim concept of revelation (the number of clear instances is surpris- transposed from the Qur’an and applied ingly limited [ 2:75-81; 4:46-47; 5:12- to the biblical text (more on this below). 15; 5.41-47], and they are aimed mostly at Hermeneutical problems are at stake, and the Jews, having been written during they should be dealt with as such. Mus- Muhammed’s ministry in Medina10) may lims should thus be invited to study the imply a distortion in interpretation, not tex- Jewish and Christian Scriptures which they tual alterations. In other words, in these claim to accept as coming from God and 16 to dialogue with Christians on their proper Muslim tradition holds the prophet to have interpretation, “in the best possible way,” been an ‘ummî, unlettered, who could nei- as the Qur’an suggests (29:46). This would ther read nor write.16 He could not have be similar to common studies of the produced something with the majestic by Jews and Christians.12 poetry, the literary and religious qualities Christians may encourage Muslims to of the inimitable Qur’an. This conception study the New Testament in particular and verifies a Muslim axiom that needs to be be challenged by its own formulations and scrutinized and criticized as it applies to structure. One does not encounter Truth inspiration, the person of Christ, and the without consequences! doctrine of God. The axiom could be thus There is a second foundational point. expressed: Less to man, more to God, or the The Qur’an’s (and Muslims’) conception more an activity is divine, the less it is human.17 of revelation and inspiration (held as a This is a paradox in Islam. For the Qur’an basic presupposition) is so foreign to bibli- to be the Word of God, it must have nothing cal practice and sensitivity that “attempt human in it. Clearly, serious consequences must be made to clarify the confusions and ensue from such a position. Among them, surmount the contradictions.”13 Important God reveals only his will; he does not questions of revelation and inspiration, of reveal himself. This may be the cause for God’s authority and man’s instrumental- which , associationism, is considered ity under God, must be explored from a the most heinous sin: God and man may Christian perspective for the benefit of have nothing in common.18 Muslims, if we wish to convince them to The Bible does not sanction this perspec- give a fair hearing to the biblical message tive. We might actually turn the axiom on and to listen to narratives that are no less its head. The more an act is divine, the more divine because the human so permeates it is human, because it is less affected by them. Only then can Jesus’ proclamation sin and disobedience. The reality of man’s of and God’s rule reach them creation in God’s image suggests that without the strangeness they experience so “God’s employment of human agency often when they read portions of the Bible …enhance[s], harness[es] and fulfil[s] the for the first time (We need some sort of human potential;”19 it does not diminish or New Testament introduction for Muslims, hinder it. To reveal his will and himself, as Cragg suggests).14 Muslims are con- God does not need to limit, less still to vinced that the Qur’an is God’s literal rev- negate, man’s participation in the process. elation; inspiration is tanzîl, the descending The presence of man’s personal marks in of God’s Word from to earth. In Holy Writ is an indication of God’s power concrete terms, it is a dictation, given and intimate knowledge of the human through angelic mediation in explicit agents he uses, as B. B. Warfield points to Muhammed, who ensures its out.20 Divine revelation is what humans “protection from even slips of the tongue,” (the inspired and ) do by rehearsing it anew and having it best, as human beings. Think of the bold- recorded and memorized by his follow- ness of the Paul citing God’s Holy ers.15 For orthodox Islam, this is the only Word and writing, “ is bold to say…” God performed through Muham- (Rom 10:20)!21 med. It is the more extraordinary that There is a sign here. In spite of its strong 17 emphasis on God’s sovereignty, Islam dis- presented as historical research written by plays a strange unwillingness to let God someone not directly acquainted with freely interact with man. If Muhammed Jesus, and that respond to particu- receives the Word of God, he must be com- lar occasions and people, their reaction is, pletely passive; his intelligence, will, and “How can this be divine revelation?” We personality do not consciously participate need patience, care, wisdom, and literal in the process (hence the Muslim under- Christian love, Christ-like love, to under- standing of ’ummî, as applied to him, an stand and answer; but answer we must illiterate who can neither read nor write; if we care for Muslims to have a proper see 7:157-8). From a Christian point of view, understanding of the of Christ. man is not a foreign or threatening prin- Now, we are ready to inquire about the ciple to God, for he is God’s own creation, Muslim Jesus—Jesus in Islam. made in the image of the Creator. When God acts on and in his creation, his conde- The Quranic Portrait of Jesus scension contributes to his glory; it does I propose to start with the Quranic not diminish it. He is, therefore, able to use presentation of Jesus. There are elements all human resources (with the exception of that have connections with the canonical sin) to reveal his will and manifest him- (and with some apocryphal writ- self. Ultimately the of the eter- ings, the proto-evangelium of James and nal hinges on this capacity. The the infancy narratives of Pseudo-Mat- sign leads to a question (that cannot be thew). Four aims are in view: First, to satisfactorily answered here). Could the understand the Quranic picture of Jesus; basic difference between Islam and Chris- second, to underscore the commonalities tianity be that the former sees God and and to point out the differences between man as rivals? Hence the extreme difficulty the Qur’an and the apostolic interpretation (perhaps impossibility) to maintain strict in the Gospels and epistles (the Qur’an is, and genuine interaction in many instances, closer to the biblical between God and his creation. account than suspected); third, to assess At any rate, Christian and Muslim con- and clarify misunderstandings; and finally, ceptions of inspiration and revelation are to inquire whether the Quranic Jesus is quite different.22 If we keep this fact in amenable to the biblical elements that give mind, we may understand, without accept- Jesus uniqueness and centrality in the ing, the following reaction of a Muslim Christian faith. scholar at the reading of the Bible: “From There are some 93 verses that refer the point of view of Islam, although west- directly to Jesus in the Qur’an. References ern Christianity is based on revelation, it are mostly grouped in chapters (), is not a revealed religion in the sense that namely 2 (vv. 87, 136, 253), 3 (vv. 33-55, 59), Islam is,” because there is no “revealed 4 (vv. 156-159, 171-172), 5 (vv. 46, 78, 110- Law (Shari‘ah) in the teachings, sayings and 117) and 19 (Mary, vv. 2-34). A few other model actions (i.e. ) of Jesus” as scattered verses include 32:50; 43:63; 57:27; recorded in the New Testament writings.23 61:6; 66:12.24 Other Quranic passages, with- When Muslims are presented with a copy out referring explicitly to Jesus, have some of the New Testament, containing four bearing on the Muslim conception of him, Gospels (not one), a historical narrative including passages that reject forms of the 18 doctrine of the (or what Muslims , read the as an attempt understand under that label) and those at injury, for to refer to a man through his that condemn idolatry in the form of mother and not through his father (as is associationism (ascribing to mere the general Arabic custom) suggests impro- creatures or to idols; see 5:117 and 112:2-4). priety. The criticism is unwarranted, for the Qur’an and Islam show the highest respect Quranic Names and of Jesus for both Mary, the blessed one, and her ‘Issa is the proper name of Jesus in the .27 The narrative of the birth of Qur’an (used about 25 times) and that by Jesus, among the most detailed passages which Muslims generally refer to him. This on Jesus and Mary, leaves no doubt in the name is absent from the Bible and Chris- mind of the reader. Jesus was miraculously tradition and seems to be unknown conceived when God’s Spirit breathed into outside of Islam. Muslims and non-Mus- his mother’s womb. After the birth, God lims have speculated concerning its origins. instructs Mary to name him “son of Mary.” Some Western scholars explained it as a God’s vindication is proof that the baby corruption of “Esau” (starting with Pautz was conceived supernaturally, through Otto and others in the nineteenth cen- God’s direct creative act (see 3:45-46). The tury25), due to misinformation given to virgin birth however does not entitle Jesus Muhammed by the Jews, whose hostility to be the “.” If God created him to Jesus brought about this deception. miraculously, he did so with too. In According to another proposal, Muham- fact, the Qur’an warns the Jews of Jesus’ med inversed the Hebrew consonants of time not to “commit excesses” in their reli- the redemptive name (Yesu‘ah means gion by saying “Trinity,” for Jesus is only “ saves”). This explanation seems the son of Mary (4:171). forced, as a simple inversion of the letters Jesus is a prophet (nabî) of God (together does not produce ‘Issa. Yet, another expla- with Abraham, , , and nation is that ‘Issa is an Arabic derivation— Moses; 2:136; 3:84) and God’s messenger (or though unusual—from the Greek rather apostle, rasûl) to whom God gave a revela- than the Hebrew, combined with imitation tion— (4:157, 171; 5:75; 57:27). of Muss‚ (Moses). It is difficult to be asser- As an apostle, Jesus confirms the Torah tive; any explanation must be harmonious entrusted to Moses. He “announces good with the fact that the Qur’an fosters a tidings of a messenger who comes after me, genuine esteem for Jesus and his mother.26 whose name is Praised one []. When At any rate, ‘Issa bears none of the biblical [Jesus] came to the with clear connotations associated with Jesus (“God proofs, they said: It is mere ” (61:6). saves”), the Saviour, because he is Emman- Jesus is portrayed as announcing the com- uel, “God with us” (see Matt 1:21, 23, quot- ing of Muhammed, in a fashion similar to ing Isa 7:14). the Old Testament prophets announcing Son of Mary is the most common title the the coming of the Messiah.28 As a prophet, Qur’an uses to refer to Jesus (2:87; 2:253; Jesus was instructed in wisdom, in the 3:45; 4:171; 5:17, 72, 75, 78, 110, 112, 114, 116; Torah, and in the gospel (3:48; 5:113). 9:31; 21:91; 23:50; 33:7; 43:57; 52:27; 61: 6,14; Jesus is frequently called the Messiah see also Surah 19 (entitled “Mary”), vv. 16- (al-Masîh; cf. Hebrew Mashiâh) in the 33). Christian apologists, especially in the Qur’an: “And remember when the 19 said: ‘Behold! Mary! God gives you glad from God’s creative command (compared tidings of a Word coming from him, whose to that of Adam: “The likeness of Jesus with name is the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, God is as the likeness of Adam. He created illustrious (highly honoured) in this world him of dust, then He said unto him: Be! and the hereafter, and one of those brought And he is,” 3:59), or because he proclaimed near (unto) God’” (3:45; see 4:75; 4:171-72). the Word of God with power, accompanied Muslim explanations of the word are many. by many signs. Neither of the explanations The most common seems to link the word is satisfying. To the first, one may retort, in Arabic to “wander” or “travel afar,” for “Why is Adam not called Word of God, Jesus had an itinerant ministry and was in since his birth was similar to Jesus’,” and some ways a wanderer who had “nowhere to the second, “Why was Muhammed not to lay his head.” Others relate the word to called Word of God, for his preaching was the verb for “touch” or “anoint,” since Jesus also powerful?” It is likely that the source anointed the sick and the lepers (he passed of this usage is to be found in the writings his hand over them) to heal them. The of John (:1-18; 1 John 1:2); Jesus is word was also understood as passive in called the “Word of God” because he is the form. As “anointed,” Jesus was “ aside eternal Logos of God who “tabernacled” by God and for his service,” or perhaps among us, full of grace and truth and “chosen” by God. None of the explanations revealing God. It is interesting to notice explicitly display a redemptive meaning that, for Muslims, the eternal Word of God for the word. It has nothing of the histori- has been sent down in the form of a book; cal and redemptive development associ- whereas in the Bible the Word has become ated with its counterpart in the biblical incarnate. If the first is acceptable to the record. It has no history of that Muslims, why should they not consider the comes to fulfillment in Jesus, son of Mary veracity of the second?30 and son of , but also son of David Elsewhere, the Qur’an uses another title and Son of God. Two additional meanings, to describe Jesus—Servant (or slave) of “king” and “righteous,” mentioned by God: “He is nothing but a slave on whom Razi,29 would have made it easier to con- we bestowed favour, and we made a nect the Arabic al-Masîh to the “Messiah” example for the children of ” (43:59; and its biblical history from God’s prom- see 4:172). The Arabic word properly ises to David (2 Sam 7; see also Ps 2; 110; means “slave” (see Hebrew ‘ebed). The Isa 7; 9; 11) to their fulfilment in the New New Testament applies the title to Jesus, Testament. Alas, “the Messiah, Jesus Son for he saw in Isaiah’s (42:1- of Mary, was only a messenger of God and 9; 49:1-13; 50:4-11; and 52:13-53:12) Scrip- his Word conveyed unto Mary, and a spirit tures that applied to and were fulfilled by from him” (Surah 4:171). him. Thus the New Testament uses the title In fact, Jesus is even called Word of God “Servant” of Jesus within a historic and (“Jesus the Messiah, son of Mary, was an redemptive context. His servanthood is apostle of God, and His Word,” 4:171) and essential because it was the means through Word from God (in angelic messages to which he expressed his solidarity with his Zechariah and Mary; see 3:39, 45). Muslims people. He identified completely with explain the expression as applied to Jesus humanity in order to accomplish a substi- in two ways, either because his birth results tutionary atoning work on their behalf, as 20 the representative of his people (Isa 52:13- man, nor was your mother a woman unchaste.” Mary pointed to the child 53:13; Matt 3:17; 17:5; :45; see Phil then; but they said, “How shall we 2.6-11, which has the Greek doulos, equiva- speak to one who is still in the cradle, to the Hebrew ‘ebed). In Islam, the title a little child?” He said, “I am indeed God’s servant; “Servant” underlines the creature status of God has given me the Book, and Jesus (see Surah 3:39). Yet, there is some- made me a prophet. Blessed he has thing unique in his perfect obedience, even made me, wherever I may be; and He has enjoined me to pray, and to according to the Qur’an. The New Testa- give the alms, so long as I live, and ment sees in it the supreme (for it likewise to cherish my mother; He has not made me arrogant, or mis- led him to the cross), the highest expres- erable: Peace be upon me the day I sion of love, and the means of humanity’s was born, and the day that I die, and salvation. the day that I shall be raised up to life [resurrected]” (19:27-33). In summary, the titles of the Quranic Jesus show him to be a highly esteemed This first prophetic proclamation of prophet and apostle, with a uniqueness Jesus in the Qur’an is extremely instruc- that Muslim tradition is not able to explain tive. What does it show? (1) Jesus is God’s satisfactorily. Only Jesus is born of a virgin slave. Muslims hear these words in the (the parallel with Adam is really far- mouth of Jesus as an early refutation of fetched). He alone is Spirit and a Word of the Christian claim that he is divine. In spite God. He alone is without sin and praised of his miraculous birth, Jesus testifies to in unique ways. Yet Jesus is human, like being merely a human being, chosen by all the other prophets; he is God’s creature God’s free and sovereign grace to be His and his servant. This Quranic portrait falls servant and do his biding. (2) Jesus short of the testimony of the Gospels where received the Scripture from God. Aside Jesus is indeed a prophet and messenger, from the question of the feasibility of a but more than both. He is the eternal Word, baby receiving God’s Word (discussed by the uncreated Son, incarnated among us. Muslims), the words show that God had His servanthood is genuine; he is the Ser- given his revelation to Jesus while he was vant of Yahweh whose perfectly obedient still in his mother’s womb. God’s call could service lead him to secure the salvation of not be more sovereign and Jesus’ servant- his people from their . hood (and humanity) more patent in its passivity.31 (3) Jesus is a prophet (nabî)— Jesus’ Conception of Himself he reveals God’s existence and uniqueness according to the Qur’an to his people—and an apostle (rasûl)— The Qur’an relates Jesus’ own under- God’s messenger who receives a revelation standing of himself and his mission. from God, condemns idolatry, fosters the Shortly after his birth, while still in the practice of good, and discourages the prac- cradle, Jesus intervenes to protect his tice of . (4) Jesus is blessed. This special mother, who was accused of adultery by blessing (understood in different ways by her people: Muslim) sets him apart. Faithful to God throughout his ministry, he was kept in the Then she brought the child to her people, carrying him: and they said: Truth and honoured by God when he was “O Mary! Truly, you have commit- taken up to heaven. The blessing may also ted a monstrous thing! Sister of , your father was not a wicked refer to Jesus’ ability to perform , 21 heal the sick, and help the needy. (5) The fulfill them. Truly, I tell you, until message received by Jesus is basic mono- and earth disappear, not the smallest let- theism. The gospel, according to this verse, ter, not the least stroke of pen, will by any is to observe prayer and give alms, two of means disappear from the Law until the five fundamental pillars of Islam. Lack- everything is accomplished” (Matt 5:17- ing from this list (when compared with the 18). The Christ of the Bible has a ministry Qur’an), are the confession of faith, fast, of continuity—to fulfill or bring to com- and pilgrimage to , which are proper pletion what the Law and the Prophets to Islam.32 announced and expected.34 The Quranic Jesus confirms a limited Jesus’ Message and Ministry amount of Old Testament revelation. There According to the Qur’an is only one God who is creator, all power- Since God’s revelation to Muhammed ful and universal legislator. He speaks supersedes all the previous ones, it was not through the prophets, and he rewards necessary to repeat in great detail what had mankind according to works on the day of been previously revealed. To rehearse judgment. In other words, Jesus preaches God’s message to Jesus and his mission the monotheistic doctrines of Islam avail- would have had only a historical value. able to him. Hence the sketchy and repetitive charac- The Qur’an fails to perceive radical ter of the Qur’an’s protrayal of Jesus. Jesus redefinition of basic biblical categories by was sent to the people of Israel to bring Jesus in the New Testament. Monotheism God’s message to them. Quranic interest is upheld, yet deepened and enriched: “In seems to be limited to the nativity scene the beginning was the Logos, and the and some miracles (some of which were Logos was with God, and the Logos was performed during Jesus’ infancy).33 This God” (John 1:1); “No one has ever seen has truly precluded a genuine attention to God, but the one and only Son, who is him- the actual , his proclama- self God and is in closest relationship with tion of the Rule of God, his teaching in the Father, has made him known” (1:18); parables, his theology and ethics epito- “… that they may be one as we are one…” mized in the , and (17:22; see also the trinitarian monotheism his self-consciousness as the King-Servant, articulated by the apostles, e.g. 1 Cor 8:4- Son of God, and . What do 6). It is paradoxical that the Muslim Jesus, we find? who came to enlighten his people “with clear proofs, with wisdom, and to make Confirmation of Previous Scriptures clear to you some of that concerning which Jesus confirms to the Jews what God had you differ” (Surah 43:63), brings so little already revealed in the Torah. This confir- by way of new truth and wisdom. Razi mation is not a simple rehearsal of the thought that the wisdom referred to in the Torah; in fact, parts of the Torah are left out, passage is knowledge of God’s essence, as Jesus brings new truth (the gospel). The attributes, and actions. Muslim readers Quranic Jesus is not ready to assert with would have to turn to the New Testament the Matthean Jesus, “Do not think that I Scriptures to have access to these. have come to abolish the Law or the proph- ets; I have not come to abolish them, but 22 Jesus’ Ministry and Death are full of doubts. They have no knowledge but follow only conjec- Jesus’ ministry in the Qur’an would ture. Assuredly, they killed him not. appear rather limited to readers of the Gos- On the contrary, God raised him to pels. After his virgin birth, one finds himself, and God is all-powerful, all- wise. And there are none of the miracles (very few are detailed; Jesus spoke , who will not from the cradle and had access to knowl- believe in him before his death. On edge and information beyond human the Day of the Resurrection he [Jesus] will be a witness against capacities), healing (expressed in general them (4:157-59). terms: “the sick and the lepers”), and resurrection of the dead (with little con- A fair reading of the passage would lead crete detail) by God’s leave and power. to the conclusion that, in spite of their boast Moreover, Jesus preached the gospel and to have overcome the Messiah, the Jews enjoined on his people to worship the were not able to kill him or crucify him. unique God, eschew idolatry, perform God has vindicated him and caused him prayers, and give alms. to ascend to the heavens.35 Yet, it is pos- The topic of the death, resurrection, and sible to read it otherwise. Before offering (together with his divin- that suggestion, the other texts will be ity) takes us to the heart of the debate quoted. between Christians and Muslims. What is The second text states, at issue more precisely is Jesus’ death on the cross. Three preliminary remarks will And remember when God said: “O Jesus! I am gathering you [tawaffa, help situate the problem: “causing you to die”] and causing you to ascend unto Me [I will exalt (1) For Islam in its entirety, Jesus did you to Myself], and cleansing you not die an atoning death. Aside from of the unbelievers and am setting Christ’s divinity, nothing is denied those who follow you above those with equal vehemence (and some- who disbelieve until the Day of the times violence). Resurrection. Then unto Me ye will (2) Yet, some Quranic texts seem (at return, and I shall judge between least on a possible reading) to affirm you as to what wherein ye used to Jesus’ death. differ.” (3:55) (3) The Muslim reasons for denying Jesus’ death are problematic at best and must be examined. Here, non-Muslim readers of the Qur’an point out that the verb tawaffa, which Four Quranic texts must be studied to means literally “to receive,” “to take back,” understand the Muslim perspective. The “has become the most common verb in traditional Muslim denial of Jesus’ death Arabic to express the action of ‘causing 36 is based on the following text (which someone’s death.’” According to this responds to Jewish boasting that they have reading, God allowed Jesus to die, but he overcome the Messiah): vindicated him by “causing him to ascend unto Him” through the resurrection. The They claim, “We killed the Messiah other two passages are read in a similar Jesus, son of Mary, the Apostle of fashion. God.” But they killed him not, nor did they crucify him. They were In the third text, on the day of judgment, under the illusion that they had (But God asks Jesus about his teaching during so it was made to appear to them). his lifetime: Those who differ about this matter 23 God said “Jesus, son of Mary, did thought they did, but they were you say to people, ‘Worship me and under an illusion, for God saved his my mother as in disregard of servant, cleared his name of guilt God Himself’?” He will say: “Glory and justified him by raising him to you, never would I say what I had from the dead and lifting him up to no right to.… I said to them only what be with himself.37 you commanded me to say, namely ‘Worship and serve God, my Lord and your Lord.’ As long as I was If such an interpretation is possible, it among them I bore witness to them may establish from the Qur’an, that the and when you took me to Yourself, it prophet Jesus was faithful to God unto was you who were over them. For you are a Witness to all death and that God somewhat vindicated things” (5:116-117). him by resurrection and ascension. How- ever, it would not prove that such a death The fourth text is found in Surah 19, was redemptive. Jesus’ elevation to God which contains an account of the birth of would not really be vindication, for resur- , followed by the annun- rection and ascension were not, in this sce- ciation and the birth of Jesus (19:16-33). nario, public. While in the cradle, Jesus expresses the blessing granted to him by God in these A Christian Response words: “Peace be upon me the day I was Any self-consistent Christian response born, the day that I die, and the day that I will discern major truths in the Quranic shall be raised up to life” (19:33). The same portrait of Jesus, some serious Muslim mis- formula (using the third person singular) understandings of Christian doctrine and is used in the case of the Baptist in v. 15: interpretation, and ultimately irreconcil- “Peace on him the day he was born, the able differences between the two faiths. In day that he dies, and the day that he will dialoguing with Muslims, Christians be raised up to life.” If John the Baptist was should acknowledge shared beliefs, clarify put to death (Mt 14: 3-12), should the same Muslim misunderstandings, and think meaning not be attributed to the phrase through possible bridges from Islam to the used of Jesus—that he would be put to gospel. death? First, in regard to shared beliefs, Chris- These Quranic texts, at least when taken tians and Muslims hold in common impor- at face value, seem to suggest that even tant truths that should be emphasized in from a Quranic point of view, Jesus died. the face of easily erected barriers. Two Moucarry, who thoroughly studied these examples will suffice. (1) Both Christians texts, reaches the conclusion that the and Muslims affirm the humanity of Jesus. Qur’an does recognize Jesus’ death and Jesus’ humanity is a central truth of the proclaims God’s vindication of his servant New Testament Scriptures (see the synop- through the resurrection. He interprets the tic narratives; John 1:9, 14; Heb 2:14, 17; difficult verses in 4:157-59 in light of the 5:7-81) and . Christian other three passages: faith and salvation are in no way dimin- ished by fully and gratefully acknowledg- The Jews wanted to subject Jesus to ing Jesus’ humanity. The spirit that denies such a shameful death [death by hanging, which falls under the curse that Christ has come in the flesh is of the of Dt 21:22-23] (cf. Matt 27:20-23). (1 :3-4). The of Did they succeed? They certainly (Christ only “appeared” to be 24 human), which arose before the birth of ably related to historic assertions of Mono- Islam, must be declared as heretical in physist Christianity between the fifth and Christian-Muslim dialogue. Furthermore, the seventh centuries. The affirmation of from a Christian viewpoint it must be Cyrillian Christianity that Jesus had only stated even stronger: Jesus’ humanity is one nature, coupled with a developing seen as a clear demonstration of God’s awe- devotion to Mary, ended in her being some love for his creatures. The apostles declared , “God’s bearer” or the marvel that the Creator so loved His “mother of God.” Since in , , and creatures that He became one of them Arabia, Christianity was represented in the (Phil 2:5-8; Heb 2:10-16). That the Creator form of Monophysism, it was probably this becomes creature and suffers and dies is formulation that influenced Muhammed’s the supreme expression of love and might. understanding. (2) Both Christians and Muslims affirm (2) Though the confusion has been monotheism and reject tri-theism. The denounced many times, we need to confession of the Torah, “Hear O Israel, The emphasize that Jesus’ sonship is not Lord our God, is one” (Deut 5:4), “.” The divinity of Jesus is not is the Christian confession. Belief in the the result of God taking to himself a human Trinity does not imply belief in three gods, being, Jesus the son of Mary who would as Muslims falsely accuse us of affirming become God’s son. The language of “beget” (more on this below). In fact, on this point, and “begotten” (to translate monogenes) is one who truly values God’s transcendence partly at fault here.38 The eternal Son of God and his mystery will find it difficult to became man. Without renouncing his understand the Muslim insistence, itself divinity he acquired a human nature, so as based on the Qur’an, that God must be one to become truly and fully human.39 Part of and unique. Whence this necessity? Should the misunderstanding stems from pre- God not be allowed, especially if we seri- Islamic in Arabia, when ously affirm these attributes, the freedom believed that God could have a wife or to be as he reveals himself to be? The ques- wives (72:3) and (2:116; 6:100-101) or tion itself points to the arrogance, perhaps daughters (16:57; 17:40; 37:149-153). the idolatry of doing otherwise. (3) The Christian understanding of the Second, a genuine interest in Muslims cross must also be clarified. Jesus’ death is will lead us to clear up any misunderstand- not evidence of God’s failure, but instead, ings of which we may be aware. Let there it is the very wisdom and power of God be no other skandalon—no other stumbling rooted in the plan of God before the foun- block—but that of the cross of Jesus the dations of the world to save his people Christ (cf. 1 Cor 1:23). Believers should from their sins (cf. Acts 2:22-23; 4:27-28; Mt attempt to dispel Muslim confusion con- 1:21). The Muslim rejection of the reality cerning several Christian doctrines. Three of the cross is often backed by objections examples will be given. such as, “How could God allow his faith- (1) As mentioned above, The Trinity is ful prophet (let alone his Son!) to be killed not tri-theism; Christians do not believe in in so unjust and degrading a manner? Why three gods. A particular Muslim confusion was he not rescued?” The Quranic consen- is that the “Trinity” consists of the Father, sus and Muslim misconception declare, Son, and Mary. The problem here is prob- “To Jesus at the cross, death did not hap- 25 pen. . . . It need not happen, and, more- will be seen to rest upon a convic- tion characteristic of all three Semitic over, it should not happen. It did not, his- faiths, namely, that God can be torically, it need not redemptively, and it known by man only in conjunction should not, morally, happen to Jesus.” The with the human situation. The for- mula . . . has always to be: ‘God Christian testimony, however, is that “it and…’ . . . . In , the central did, necessarily, and it ought—however ‘association’ by which God is disconcertingly—to happen.”40 God could believed and known is peoplehood and —‘God and His have rescued Jesus from death on the cross, people’. In Islam, that which ‘associ- but that, in light of God’s plan of redemp- ates’ God with humanity is prophethood, and supremely the tion, would have been a defeat. According prophethood of Muhammed. The to Hebrews 5:7, “During the days of Jesus’ Christian faith has the same trust in life on earth, he offered up prayers and God’s ‘relationality’ to man and his- tory but locates it finally and inclu- petitions with fervent cries and tears to the sively in Jesus—in Jesus not simply one who could save him from death, and as the spokesman of a message, but he was heard”—not to be rescued from also as the ‘event of grace’ in which divine love is known in action.41 death, but to die in order to destroy death and its power in a glorious resurrection. strives to show Third, in regard to potential bridges that, if monotheism is to retain its sense, it from Islam to the gospel, one example will must be trinitarian; otherwise it risks be mentioned here. The Sonship of Jesus degenerating either into some form of in the New Testament may be compared dualism (God and man, God and creation, to the relation between God and his Word God and matter, God and power), or a form in the Qur’an: God’s Word is eternal and of pantheism. Trinitarian monotheism uncreated, yet distinct from God. It has ensures that there is a valid distinction “descended” on Muhammed and found between God and his creatures and pro- verbal expression in the Qur’an, yet, it vides the foundation for it in Christ. Dual- remains in heaven. Muslims lack consis- istic and pantheistic tendencies have been tency when they accuse Christians of poly- shown to grow on the soil of strict (unitar- theism for believing something that is ian) monotheism (Al-Hallâdj is reported to structurally parallel. The eternal Logos of have said, “I am God, I am the ultimate God did not come to us in the form of a Reality—or truth”: Ana’l-Haqq).42 Trinitar- book, but as the God-man, the Lord who ian monotheism, manifested concretely in took the condition of a servant. In Chris- the Lord Jesus Christ, the God-man, is the tian-Muslim dialogue this potential bridge foundation for all saving religion and genu- needs to be explored further. ine monotheistic religion.

Conclusion ENDNOTES In the end, what do Christians find 1See Kateregga’s rejoinder to Shenk’s pre- distinctive in the teaching of the New Tes- sentation of Jesus in B. D. Kateregga and tament? In a sentence—God is in Christ D. W. Shenk, Islam and Christianity: A reconciling the world to himself. As Cragg Muslim and a Christian in Dialogue (Grand notes perceptively, the meaning of “God Rapids: Eerdmans, 1981) 132. The point in Christ” for Christians may have to be conceded. Christian ideas, almost always negative, about 26 Muhammed are often formed with- tians. The reasons are not far to seek; Scriptures: “Ibn ‘Abbas noticed that out any serious reading of the for, as they see it, a sad reduction- some Muslims had talks with Jews Qur’an or Muslim tradition. If a ism has occurred. By New Testa- on religious issues. He was con- number of books have been written ment criteria the Quranic Jesus is a cerned about the outcome of these on Islam (fewer on Muhammed) by very attenuated figure. Many of his relations and sought to deter Mus- Christians (especially after Septem- most cherished deeds and sayings lims from engaging in such discus- ber 11), few have sought truly to un- are left to silence, and what the sions. ‘Muslims! How do you ask derstand. Among the exceptions are Qur’an does with the final climax the people of the Scriptures, though C. G. Moucarry, The Prophet and the of Jesus’ ministry … has desolating your Book [i.e. The Qur’an] which Messiah: An Arab Christian’s Per- consequences for Christianity” (K. was revealed to his Prophet is the spective on Islam and Christianity Cragg, Jesus and Islam, 4). One can most recent information from God (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity feel some of this desolation even in and you recite the Book that has Press, 2002); K. Cragg, The Call of the scholars otherwise sympathetic to not been distorted? …’ And Ibn Minaret, (New York: Oxford Uni- Muslim concerns. See for example ‘Abbas added: ‘Isn’t the knowledge versity Press, 1956, 1964); idem, Geoffrey Parrinder, Jesus and the revealed to you sufficient to prevent and the Christian: A Ques- Qur’an (New York: Oxford Univer- you from asking them?” (as quoted tion of Response (New York: Orbis, sity Press, 1977); and R. Arnaldez, in Moucarry, 58). This state of affairs 1984); and idem, Jesus and Islam: An Jésus dans la pensée musulmane (coll. shows a non-Quranic attitude, for Exploration (London: George Allen « Jésus et Jésus-Christ »; Paris: the Qur’an encourages Muslims to and Unwin, 1985). Desclée, 1988). On the other hand, turn to the Jewish and Christian 2After I finished writing this article, genuine dialogue means for Chris- Scriptures if they have questions or I came across Tarik Khalidi, ed. and tians “not comparing the ideals of doubts about God’s revelation trans., The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Christianity with the reality of (Surah 10:94; 16:43). Moreover, by Stories in Islamic Literature (Cam- Islam, radical Muslims with mod- not considering seriously the bibli- bridge: Harvard University Press, erate Christians, or mainstream cal record on Jesus and the devel- 2002), who seeks to offer a portrait Christianity with Islamic sects” opments of , of Jesus from Islamic tradition: (Moucarry, 17). Islam ended up with an extremely ascetic, mystical, and spiritual. The 5The story is reported in the Hadith impoverished portrait of Jesus. hundreds of quotations gathered (see Bukhari, Sahih, Arabic-English Even Mystics and Sufis, more sen- paint a portrait that is faithful to ed. in 9 vol. [Beirut: Dar al-arabia, sitive and less hindered by dog- Islam and may be challenging to 1985] 6:477-481), as quoted in Mou- matic considerations, did not avail Christians. carry, 38-39. Very competent sum- themselves of truths that could have 3If Muslim attempts at understand- maries are found in R. Blachére, transformed not only their vision of ing Jesus (few and far between Introduction au Coran, 2nd ed. (Paris: Christ, but their own spiritual pil- today) are mostly aimed at contro- Maisonneuve et Larose, 1991); and grimage. On this question, see versy and apologetics (yet, see A. Jeffery, Materials for the History of R. Arnaldez, Jésus dans la pensée Khalidi’s book), there are better the Text of the Qur’ân (Leiden: E. J. musulmane, 242ff. examples from the past. Brill, 1937). 7See the excellent treatment of Mou- 4“There is a Christian constituency 6The “Prophetic tradition” (Hadith) carry, 25-79. to educate in the significance of the sometimes alludes to this phenom- 8These questions are dealt with in place Jesus occupies in the belief enon. The reliable Bukhari (870) any reasonably good introductions and devotion of Muslims. The sta- reports the following narrative that to the Old and New Testaments. tus he enjoys there has often been shows why Muslims, in general, are One may also turn to Roger Beck- neglected or discounted by Chris- dissuaded from reading previous with, The Old Testament Canon of the 27 New Testament Church (Grand Rap- are both God’s Word, Torah and textual criticism of the Qur’an, ids: Eerdmans, 1986); Bruce M. Gospel have been protected by God Muslims’ efforts are timid or non- Metzger, The Canon of the New Testa- and passed down through safe and existent to date. Mostly, Quranic ment (Oxford: Oxford University trustworthy means of transmission textual critical endeavors have Press, 1987); and F. F. Bruce, The (in spite of minor changes they may been attempted by non-Muslim Canon of Scripture (Downers Grove, have suffered). Hence, Razi inter- scholars. See R. Bell, Introduction to IL: IVP, 1988) for detailed informa- prets almost all the Quranic pas- the Qur’an (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, tion. Misguided and radical biblical sages relevant to our discussion as 1953); R. Blachére, Introduction au criticism has at times fuelled Mus- referring to misleading interpreta- Coran; Jeffery, Materials for the His- lim opposition to the Gospels. tions, not to textual corruptions. See tory of the Text of the Qurân; and 9Augustine and Pascal both ap- Moucarry, 44-53, for citations from idem, Foreign Vocabulary of the pealed to forms of this argument. Razi’s commentary. Qur’an (Baroda: Oriental Institute, See Augustine, 18.46, 12See the attempt by Christians and 1938). vol. 2, The Nicene and Post-Nicene Muslims to read each other’s 16This interpretation of the word Fathers, Series 1, ed. Philip Schaff Scriptures documented in The Chal- ‘ummî has been disputed by a num- (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1956); lenge of the Scriptures: The Bible and ber of western scholars (such as , Pensees: Notes on Reli- the Qurân, Muslim-Christian Régis Blachére) who understand the gion and other Subjects, ed. Louis Research Group, trans. Stuart E. word to mean rather “prophet of Lafuma, (Aldine Press, 1960) 474, Brown (Maryknoll: Orbis, 1989). the Gentiles.” Muhammed had been 502. There is a very competent sum- 13Cragg, Jesus and the Muslim, 6. sent to a pagan people, who had not mary of this question in P. Sellier, 14Ibid., 7. Such an introduction would previously received a revelation Pascal et Augustin (Paris: Arm- retranslate the New Testament from from God (See Blachére, 6-8). and Colin, 1970), 483ff. Greek categories to more Semitic Muhammed’s illiteracy may have 10Muhammed’s relations with the and oriental ones. The exercise is been advanced for apologetic rea- Jews in started on a posi- surely justified, for the New Testa- sons. Since the prophet could not tive note, but deteriorated when the ment background, and in particu- have read the previous Scriptures, Jews refused to acknowledge him as lar Jesus’ ministry and teaching, is the Qur’an must have come directly a prophet. For the Qur’an asserts utterly Semitic. from God. that the coming of Muhammed was 15Ibid., 8 (see also 191). This mode of 17The latter is Cragg’s formulation in predicted in both Torah and Gospel revelation applies to all prophetic Muhammad and the Christian, 84. In (7:157; 61:6). Jews found no such revelation: “The Prophet receives this perspective, adds Cragg, indications in their Scriptures (nei- verbatim the given content in the “God’s recruitment of personal ther did Christians in theirs); the given words. Subsequent inscribing powers requires an abeyance of doctrine of the falsification of is the exact reiteration of what their due exercise in reason, emo- Scriptures by Jews (and Christians) was divinely mediated to his lips” tion and love” (84). “Less to man, has to do with events surrounding (Ibid.). As a matter of fact, we know more to God” is the more succinct Muhammed’s life. On predictions of that there have been different col- formulation by Henri Blocher, Muhammed in the Torah and Gos- lections of the Qur’an and that it “L’Évangile et l’Islam : Relever le pel, see Cragg, Jesus and the Muslim, required interventions of the kali- défi théologique,” Fac-Réflexion 32 260-76; and Moucarry, chapter 20. phates to bring about unity and (1994) 4-17. 11This seems to be the regular inter- uniformity. The third Khalif, ‘Uth- 18See ibid., 8. pretation of most classical Muslim man, insured that all copies that did 19Cragg, Muhammad and the Christian, theologians, such as the venerable not conform to the editio princeps 84. Razi (1149-1209). For him, since they were destroyed. On matters of 20See B. B. Warfield, The Inspiration and 28 Authority of the Bible, edited by New Testament and the Islamic posals to the biblical record (see ref- G. Craig (reprint, with an Jesus of the Qur’an. Two names, if erences in Moucarry, 179-180). introduction by C. Van Til, Phillips- remotely cognate, for one persona: 30The Qur’an calls Jesus a Spirit from burg, P&R, 1948). one persona divergently revered God (21:91; also in 4:171). In spite 21As noted by Blocher, 7. and received.” of some claims by Muslims, the 22A fact recognized by serious parties 27“And (remember) her who guarded word does not seem to refer to concerned. See Kateregga and Shenk, her chastity; We breathed into her . Though the source of the 32-33, 117. of Our Spirit, And We made her expression is difficult to ascertain, 23See Syed Muhammad al-Naquib al- and her son a Sign for all peoples” it may be connected to 1 Cor 15:45 ‘Attas, Islam and Secularism (Kuala (21:91; cf. 66:12). The sending of where the risen Christ is called “life- Lumpur, Malaysia: Muslim Youth Jesus into the world is a manifesta- giving Spirit.” Movement of Malaysia, 1978) 127f., tion of God’s to the peoples. 31See R. Arnaldez, Jésus, fils de Marie, as quoted in Cragg, Jesus and the Together with Mary, Jesus is the prophéte de l’Islam, 134f., 145f. Muslim, 8-9. For this Muslim writer, recipient of a special favour from 32Muslim theologians observe that this is clear proof that contemporary God (23:50; 5:113). As an apostle Jesus could not have recited the Christianity is different from the sent to Israel, Jesus was made an Islamic confession (“I believe that religion founded by Jesus and example (43:57). there is no other god but God, and authorized by God. 28The “Praised one” is in Arabic that Muhammed is his Messen- 24Books on Jesus in Islam usually Ahmad, a grammatical form of ger”), for Muhammed was not yet quote at length the Quranic mate- Muhammed. Muslims correlate this born. Fast during the month of rial. See S. M. Zwemer, The Muslim verse with made by commemorates the giv- Jesus (Edinburgh: Oliphant, Ander- Jesus of a comforter, a “,” ing of the Qur’an and, thus, was not son & Ferrier, 1912), (see chapters whom the Father would give after part of Jesus’ mission. Pilgrimage to 1-3 in particular); H. Michaud, Jésus Jesus’ departure (:16). The Mecca, because of its historical selon le Coran (Neuch‚tel: Delachaux Greek form, parakletos, is said by relation with Abraham through et Niestlé, 1960); E. Hahn, Jesus in popular Muslim apologetics to Ishmael, is proper to the Meccan Islam: A Christian View (Hyderabad: have been substituted to periklytos, prophet. So, the only two com- Henry Martyn Institute of Islamic meaning the “praiseworthy one,” mandments that define monothe- Studies, 1975); G. Parrinder, Jesus in roughly equivalent to the Arabic ism during Jesus’ time are prayer the Qur’an (New York: Oxford Uni- Ahmad. In truth, such an interpreta- and almsgiving, and these were versity Press, 1977); R. Arnaldez, tion is practically impossible to central to Jesus’ religion. One Jésus, Fils de Marie, Prophéte de l’Islam defend. See Cragg, Jesus and the should notice the emphasis on (Paris: Desclése, 1980); Cragg, Jesus Muslim, 262-4; and Moucarry, 246ff. Jesus’ love for his mother. Every- and the Muslim, 17-40; and Mou- 29Razi lists ten different interpreta- where else, the Qur’an enjoins on carry, The Prophet and the Messiah. tions of the word. In addition to children to respect both parents 25See Zwemer, 34. those mentioned above, al-Masîh (2:83; 4:36; 6:151; 17:23). To single 26Unsatisfied with the attempts at was explained as attributed to Jesus out Mary for respect is a proof of explanation, Cragg (Jesus and the (1) because he was pure; (2) because his miraculous birth. See Arnaldez, Muslim, 38) suggests, with his usual Gabriel touched him with his wing Jésus, Fils de Marie, prophéte de l’Islam, irenism, “to leave possible techni- at birth to protect him from ’s 136-37. cal explanations … to silence and harm; (3) because he had sacred oil 33As Cragg observed, if the Gospels simply allow the puzzle to symbol- put on him at birth. The meanings are sometimes said to be passion ize the deep distinction obtaining al-malik, “king,” and al-siddik, “the narratives with extended introduc- between the Christian Jesus of the righteous one,” are the closest pro- tions, the Jesus’ cycle in the Qur’an 29 is “nativity narrative with attenu- nation but adoptionism, itself a ated sequel” (Jesus and the Muslim, heresy. . . . The operative term is 26). ittikhadh (cf. 17:111, 19:35, 25:2, 39:4). 34 Notice that the writing and collect- God’s not taking to himself a son ing of the New Testament did not does not in itself deny, what the gos- do away with the Old Testament pel means by ‘the Word became documents. They are truly part of a flesh’ and the by ‘the only unique Book, from beginning to begotten Son’” (Ibid., 38-39, note 7). end. Would that Muslims had 40Ibid., 178. included all the previous Scriptures 41Ibid., 11-12. “Jesus is, for Christian with the Qur’an, to allow all those faith, the warrant for confidence who are interested to read and com- that God is love, but only because pare. the warrant originates from God’s 35Muslims explain the phrase, “They own initiative” (13). were under the illusion that they 42Blocher, 16. had (But so it was made to appear to them),” to mean that God made someone ( or someone else) to look like Jesus. Such a per- son was crucified, and Jesus himself was lifted up to heaven. For some of the theological and ethical prob- lems raised by such a proposal, see Cragg, Jesus and the Muslim, 170ff.; and Moucarry, 133-137. 36Ibid., 131. 37Ibid., 138. 38Cragg writes: “ … ‘adoptionism’ and ‘docetism’ do betray their pres- ence in what the Qur’an has to say about ‘errors’ concerning Jesus the prophet-servant, for which Chris- tians were responsible.” (Jesus and the Muslim, 28) 39Cragg confirms this point despite (or, better still, because of) his sym- pathetic reading of Islam and the Qur’an: “One example of the need for mutual sympathy here in Muslim/Christian discussion lies in the fact that technically, where the Qur’an remonstrates against Christian faith on Jesus’ incarnation, what it in fact accuses is not incar- 30