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Delicate Issues in Mission Part I: Explaining the Biblical Term ‘(s) of ’ in Muslim Contexts by Rick Brown

The Problem for Muslims n some languages and people groups, sonship terminology is used almost exclusively for direct biological relationships, i.e., it means the same as I ‘offspring’ in English. In Classical Arabic, for example, the counterparts for ‘son’ and ‘father’ mean biological son and biological father. These terms were not used metaphorically for other interpersonal relationships, not even for a nephew, a step-son, or an adopted son.1 One did not normally call someone else ibnî “my son” as a term of endearment, because it could suggest a claim of paternity, with all that this entailed.

The Arabic usage contrasts signifi cantly with the situation in Hebrew and Aramaic (and Akkadian), where one could address his son, grandson, nephew, son-in-law, and neighbor’s son as bnî / brî ‘my son’ and the female counter- parts as bittî / bratî ‘my daughter’. (The plural of ‘son’ was gender inclusive.) The disciples of a prophet, , or craftsman could be called his “.” The citizens of a kingdom could be called the king’s “sons,” and a paramount king could refer to his vice-regent or viceregal king as his “son.” Speaking through the prophets in language the people could understand, God called his people his “son” and his faithful servants his “sons.” He was their king and the king of kings, so when he set over them has his viceregal king, he called David his “son,” and similarly with King Solomon and a King he said would arise from their lineage. The king’s appointment is described as begetting a son.2

There is a remarkable disparity between the breadth of usage of sonship terms in the Hebrew tradition and the narrowness of the usage in Classical Arabic. So it is not surprising that these Hebrew idioms were misunderstood by the Arabs in classical times, even by some Arab Christians, as referring to biologi-  cal descent. The Qur’an treats this idea as blasphemy. It criticizes Christians who claim they are God’s offspring (5:18), who claim that the prophets of old were God’s offspring (21:26; 9:30), and who claim that was born from a sexual union between God and a woman (6:101). This claim of biological Rick Brown is a scholar and mission strategist. He has been involved in descent from God is condemned in the Qur’an as being so insulting to the outreach to the Muslim world since 1977. majesty of God as to almost cause the heavens to burst and the earth to International Journal of Frontier Missions 22:3 Fall 2005•91 92 Part I: Explaining the Biblical Term ‘Son(s) of God’ in Muslim Contexts Rick Brown 93 contexts will continue to activate the eekers and believers from Muslim backgrounds previous synaptic connections and meanings. If the synaptic connections regularly single out the term ‘’ as the were strong (i.e., deeply entrenched), biggest obstacle to reading . then the former meaning will come to mind for a long time, even if the reader Ssplit and the mountains to collapse often diffi cult to fi nd Muslim voice wishes to forget it. So while some (19:88-92). Against this claim the actors who are willing to dub parts Muslims are able to accept explana- Qur’an asserts that God has neither in the Jesus fi lm which require them tions of the Bible’s use of divine sonship a female consort nor a child (72:3; 6: so say the words ‘son of God’. Most terminology to the extent that they can 101), that he is unbegotten and does Muslims are willing to say every- continue reading the Gospel, many not beget others (112:3). It solemnly thing in the script, whether they others refuse to continue reading or lis- warns that anyone who even calls agree with it or not, except for that tening or watching. As a result they get Jesus “son of God” is an infi del against phrase. They know that the Qur’an no opportunity to know and consider whom God will fi ght (9:30) Thus (9:30) pronounces damnation on the claims of . A literal transla- the distorted view of divine sonship anyone who even says that Jesus is tion of the term simply cuts them off which these ancient Arab Christians the son (ibn) of God. from the message of before held has been enshrined in the Qur’an, Not surprisingly, seekers and believers they have had a chance to hear it. and from there it has been conveyed to from Muslim backgrounds regularly Persistent meaning, however, is just Muslims throughout the world. single out the term ‘Son of God’ as part of the problem. Most Muslims are As a result, Muslims everywhere have the biggest obstacle to reading the also suspicious of the explanations that been taught that Christians believe Gospel. Some will not even touch a Christians provide. They have grown this blasphemous biological claim, Bible because they fear this blasphe- up being taught to revere the Qur’an namely that Jesus is the offspring mous term is in it. So obviously it is and that to question its veracity is apos- of a sexual union between God and important to explain what the phrase tasy. And the Qur’an declares that this a woman, although only Mormons means and what it does not mean. phrase is a damnable insult to God. actually teach such a doctrine. Unfortunately, explanations do not So Muslims are hesitant to believe Muslims have been repeatedly taught remove the nasty connotations of Christian explanations of the term that this claim insults God so gravely the phrase; they just mitigate them. that confl ict with the Qur’an. Some that he curses and damns to hell Even Muslim background believ- accept the sincerity of the explanation anyone who attributes offspring to ers (MBBs) are reluctant to say the but still fear to say the phrase for fear him or dares to call anyone his “son.” phrase because of its repulsive con- of insulting God or scandalizing their Their teachers often present this notations. One put it this way: friends. Others, however, suspect that “blasphemous” teaching as the main You could prove to me that ‘son of the explanation is a trick to get them evidence proving that a bitch’ was a title of great distinc- to blaspheme. There is a widespread and its Bible are corrupt and should tion in Hebrew, but I would still be belief that infi dels try to trick Muslims be avoided. So when Muslims hear unable to call Jesus “a son of a bitch” into insulting God so they will be sent Christians call Jesus or themselves in my own language. to hell, and some Muslims imagine “,” they are horrifi ed. If What this shows is that the phrase duplicity in even the most unlikely Muslims are given a Bible or booklet retains its negative affective meaning places. In 1997, for example, Nike to read and accidentally read aloud the (i.e., its repulsive effect) in their own introduced a line of air-sole shoes with phrase ‘son of God’, they can become language, even if the semantic mean- a fi ery ‘AIR’ logo on the heel. Muslim quite angry. Some of them fear that ing of the original Hebrew has been fi rebrands claimed it was really a they have blasphemed God and explained to them. stylized version of the name ‘’, endangered their souls. Sometimes The biological meaning of this phrase designed to cause people to commit they will throw the book down or tear and its blasphemous connotations are mortal by stepping on God’s it up as an act of contrition. In some so deeply entrenched in the minds of name. A similar claim was made with cases they may attack the person who most Muslims that it is impossible regard to the tire treads introduced by gave it to them, hoping that acts of simply to erase it from their minds Yokohoma Rubber Company in 1992, righteous anger will gain them God’s and hearts. From a neurolinguistic namely that the tread said ‘Allah’. forgiveness. perspective, we know that one cannot There was no truth to these claims, When a cable television service in one easily break the neural connections but in both cases the companies were country played the Jesus fi lm on one which encode lexical meaning and forced to change their product line of its channels at Easter, with ‘son of word associations. Additional con- and recall the products which they had God’ translated literally, over a third nections can be added to encode new already released. of the clients cancelled their cable meanings when they are learned, So whether they believe the explana- subscriptions in outrage. In fact, it is but the use of the word in suitable tion or not, most Muslims recoil from International Journal of Frontier Missions 22:3 Fall 2005 92 Part I: Explaining the Biblical Term ‘Son(s) of God’ in Muslim Contexts Rick Brown 93 the phrases ‘Son of God’ and ‘children your God” (Deut. 14:1a) for ever; and of his kingdom of God’. This is the case whether the “for in Christ Jesus you are all there will be no end” (Luke term is in reference to Jesus, prophets, sons of God, through faith” 1:32). , kings, or the saints. The phrase (Gal. 3:26). “Nathanael answered him, presents a linguistic stumbling block to “Rabbi, you are the Son of them, and most of them stumble over See also Deut. 14:1; Isa. 43: 6; 63:8; Jer. 3:19; ITP; : God! You are the King of it. It is not our fault, of course, if people 12; 12:36(?); Rom. 8:14, 16, Israel!” (John 1:49). stumble over the truth, but if they 19; 9:6, 8; Gal. 3:26; Phil. stumble because of our stubbornness, See also Isa. 9:6–7 (cf. John 3: 2:15; 1 John 3:1, 2, 10; 5:2; because we insist on using a phrase 16); prophetic interpretations Heb. 12:6; cf. Mark 2:5; 5:34. that evokes the wrong meaning and is of 2 Sam. 7:14 (cf. Heb 1:5), Psalm 2; 89:27 (cf. Rev. 1:5); deemed insulting to God, then it might disciple of God, godly person ITP literature; NT passim. be better if a millstone were hung “But love your enemies, and around our necks and we were thrown do good, and lend, expecting God’s eternal Word incarnate as into the depths of the sea (Luke 17:2)! nothing in return; and your God’s vice-regent, who alone reward will be great, and you reveals God to mankind Some exegetical notes “And the Word became fl esh on ‘Son of God’ and lived among us, and we This is not the place to rehearse the have seen his glory, the glory scholarly literature on the subject It is not our fault, as of a father’s only son, full of divine sonship terminology. For of grace and truth” (John 1:14 that one can consult contemporary of course, if people NRSV). academic commentaries or academic stumble over the “No one has ever seen God; the Bible dictionaries.3 But the principal only Son, who is in the bosom senses of the phrase ‘son(s) of God’ truth, but if they of the Father, he has made him can be summarized as follows: stumble because of our known” (John 1:18). person created by God “And we know that the Son of God has come and has given “the son of…, the son stubbornness . . . us understanding, to know him of God” (Luke 3:38) who is true” (1 John 5:20). See also Isa. 45:11?; Luke 1: “… no one knows the Son 35?; Acts 17:28; cf Deut. 32: will be sons of the Most High; except the Father, and no one 6; Isa. 64:8; Mal. 2:10. for he is kind to the ungrateful knows the Father except the and the selfi sh” (Luke 6:35). inhabitants of heaven, supernatural Son and any one to whom the beings See also the ITP literature; Son chooses to reveal him.” “Now there was a day when Mat 5:9, 44–45; Mark 15:39 (Matt. 11:27) (= Luke 23:47). the sons of God came to See also Luke 10:22; John 1: present themselves before the leaders of God’s covenant people 1–18; 10:35–36; 17:1–8; cf. LORD, and also came See Ps. 82:6; Eze. 21:10; ITP John 14:9; 2 Cor. 4:4–6; Col. among them” (Job 1:6) literature. 1:15, 19. “for they cannot die any more, God’s chosen vice-regent over his In most of the occurrences in which because they are equal to people and the nations ‘Son of God’ is used for Jesus, the angels and are sons of God, usage is Messianic, meaning the “I will be his father, and he being sons of the resurrection” shall be my son” (2 Sam. 7:14, focus is on Jesus’ role as Lord and (Luke 20:36). originally of Solomon). Savior. But as Jesus progressively See also Job 2:1; 38:7; Ps. 29: reveals what it means to be the See also 1 Chron. 17:13; Ps. 1; 89:6; ITP4. Christ, this concept enlarges to 2; Ps. 89:26–27. God’s covenant people (collectively) divine proportions. The is the Messiah: God’s holy and eternal revealed to be the eternal Word and “Thus says the LORD, Israel is vice-regent who saves his people my fi rst-born son” (Ex. 4:22b) Wisdom and Image of God incarnate as and rules the nations Lord of all and Savior of the world. But See also Ex. 4:23; Deut. 32:18; “He will be great, and will be let’s look at some key passages. Ps. 80:15; Jer. 31:9; Hos. 11:1. called the Son of the Most The royal and messianic ‘son of God’ High; and the Lord God will God’s covenant people (individually passages in the OT are applied to give to him the throne of his or plurally) Jesus in the NT. 2 Samuel 7:14 (=1 father David, and he will “You are the sons of the Lord Chronicles 17:13) is applied to the reign over the house of Jacob International Journal of Frontier Missions 22:3 Fall 2005 94 Part I: Explaining the Biblical Term ‘Son(s) of God’ in Muslim Contexts Rick Brown 95 Messiah in the ITP literature and must have been adequate to carry the 14:61 par.; John 11:27; 20:31) where is applied to Jesus in :5. semantic content of ‘Son of God’. we fi nd the extended title ‘the Christ Psalm 89:27 is refl ected in Rev. 1:5, the Son of God’. From a linguistic and Isaiah 9:6 is refl ected in John 3:16 In Luke 4:41, Luke quotes the phrase perspective, both noun phrases must and elsewhere. The sonship verse at ‘Son of God’ literally in a quotation but have the same sense in this usage, Psalm 2:7 is applied to the Messiah in immediately paraphrases it as meaning i.e., they are fairly synonymous. (The Jewish literature and to Jesus in many ‘the Christ’. From a linguistic per- doubling serves to give linguistic NT passages, including the baptism spective, this demonstrates that Luke prominence to the phrase, show the and transfi guration.5 The begetting wanted his audience to understand importance of the statement, and also mentioned in Psalm 2:7 is quoted that the meaning of ‘the Son of God’ to highlight multiple components of in Acts 13:33 and Hebrews 1:5 and is included within the meaning of the meaning.) Jesus accepted this title at 5:5 as having been fulfi lled in the term ‘the Christ’. Again, this is enough his trial, and the subsequent com- resurrection, ascension, and heavenly to establish that they are synonyms. ments show that it was understood as enthronement of Jesus. Romans 1:1–4 Acts reports the early proclamation Messianic. “And they began to accuse says much the same thing but without of Jesus, usually as the Christ and the him . . . [of] saying that he himself quoting the psalm. Lord. Besides the quotation of Psalm is Christ a king” (Lk. 23:2), which There are also passages in various seg- Pilate understood to mean “King of ments of the intertestamental literature the Jews” (Lk 23:3; Mk 15:2; Mt which show that the Jews were using 27:11; Jn 18:33), as did his soldiers the term ‘Son of God’ for the Messiah (Mark 15:18 and parallels). This is and his “begetting” for his empower- Paul rarely uses ‘son the charge they posted on the cross ment. Many passages in the NT refl ect (Mark 15:26), and the chief this as well. In the passage at Luke 1: of God’, and never themselves taunted him with it, “Let 31–33, for example, the the Christ, the King of Israel, come says that Jesus will be called “Son of in high Christological down now from the cross, that we the Most High” because he will fulfi ll passages may see and believe” (Mark 15:32). the role of the awaited Messiah. Paul rarely uses ‘son of God’, and As it happens, there are also some never in high Christological passages, biblical passages that demonstrate lin- but he provides us with a passage that guistically that Jesus and the Apostles shows that he sees the term as synony- mous with ‘the Christ’: used ‘the Son of God’ as a synonym for 2:7, Jesus is referred to as Son of God . . . the gospel which was preached ‘the Christ’ (regardless of the mean- only once, where it is a paralleled by ing). The three by me is not man’s gospel, . . . but ‘the Christ’: it came through a revelation of highlight Peter’s confession of Jesus at And in the synagogues immediately Jesus Christ. . . . [God] was pleased Caesarea Philippi. Matthew, writing he proclaimed Jesus, saying, “He is to reveal his Son to me, in order to a Jewish audience, recorded Peter the Son of God ” . . . . proving that that I might preach him among the saying in full, “You are the Christ, the Jesus was the Christ. (Acts 9:20, 22) Gentiles, (Galatians 1:11-16) Son of the living God” (Matt. 16:16). This shows that proving that Jesus The paralleling of ‘Son of God’ with Jesus agreed and then told the disciples other Messianic titles underlines this “to tell no one that he was the Christ.” is the Christ is adequate to proclaim him to be the Son of God. point, as in John 1:49: “Rabbi, you From a linguistic point of view, Jesus are the Son of God! You are the King must have intended the term ‘the The title ‘Son’ occurs more often in of Israel!” Christ’ to include the full meaning John’s Epistles than in the rest of the of ‘the Christ the Son of the Living , 24 times, largely Over the centuries, of course, God’. This establishes that Jesus and because John uses it in place of the Christians have come to use both Matthew saw these as synonyms. title ‘Lord’, which never occurs in his these terms with narrowed mean- Epistles. Nevertheless, he makes it ings different from those employed in What about Mark and Luke? As we the Scriptures, so that ‘Son of God’ saw earlier, Mark and Luke translate clear that it is synonymous with ‘the Christ’: is often treated as though it were Peter’s whole confession with simply primarily ontological or relational Every one who believes that Jesus is ‘the Christ’ or ‘the Christ of God’. (depending on the tradition) and From the perspective of canonical exe- the Christ is a child of God . . . . Who is it that overcomes the world but he ‘Christ’ is treated as a mere name. In gesis, which acknowledges the divine who believes that Jesus is the Son of the original languages and culture, inspiration and intertextuality of the God? (1 John 5:1,5) however, and in the Bible itself, both Gospels, these expressions must all be of these terms have equivalent ethical, semantically equivalent. So ‘the Christ’ There are additional passages in John and the Synoptics (Matt. 16:16; Mark functional, relational, and ontological components of meaning. These mean-

International Journal of Frontier Missions 22:3 Fall 2005 94 Part I: Explaining the Biblical Term ‘Son(s) of God’ in Muslim Contexts Rick Brown 95 orse yet, many Muslims are so frightened of forever and to be their advocate), and this term that they refuse to read or listen to ● ontological (he is pre-existent, eternal, and consubstantial with any text that asserts it. God8). W These are all elements of the term ings could easily be explained in the 2. What the term does mean in the introduction, notes, and glossary of a context concerned. ‘Messiah/Christ’. They are also Bible or Gospel. In passages where the term is used components of the term ‘Son of God’ messianically with regard to Jesus, it in its Messianic sense. Similarly the Explaining the meaning can be reassuring to Christian readers term ‘Word of God’ needs to be So we see that the term ‘son(s) of if a third point is added to the foot- explained, along with ‘Wisdom of God’ has a broad range of mean- note, affi rming the of Jesus: God’ and ‘Image of God’. These are ings. For most Muslims, however, biblical terms for the second person of 3. Who Jesus is, i.e., God’s eternal the prior to the , this term has one meaning only, and Word (John 1:1; Rev 19:13),7 that is God’s offspring by a sexual but they also have some functional through Whom he created the components, particularly ‘Word’, union. Worse yet, many Muslims are world (John 1:3,10; 1 Cor. 8: since God creates and intervenes so frightened of this term that they 6; Col 1:16; Heb 1:2; 11:3) refuse to read or listen to any text that and who was born as a human through his Word and reveals truth asserts it. Thus they lose the oppor- being (John 1:14; 8:42; Col. 2: and wisdom through his Word. tunity to read the Gospel accounts of 9; Phil. 2:5–7; Rev 22:13) to Jesus, even though the Qur’an com- reveal God’s holy characteris- Note on the deity of Jesus mands them to believe in the Gospel tics to mankind (Matt. 11:27; It is worth bearing in mind that the (4:136; 3:3). Luke 10:22; John 1:18; 14:9; 2 doctrine of the deity of Jesus is not Cor. 4:6; Col 1:15a; Heb 1:3). based primarily on his being called Many believers and evangelists simply Of course, one does not need to list any of these titles nor on his being avoid using the term ‘Son of God’ in all of these verses; perhaps just two or called “God”, although these are their descriptions of Jesus. This avoids three from books by the same author. supporting factors. Rather it is based putting people off and thereby grants This can also be discussed in the intro- on what Jesus revealed about him- them time to study the duction or in an introductory mini- self, supported by what the Apostles and build confi dence in the Bible. But article, as in Mazhar Mallouhi’s recent revealed about him, all of which was all Muslims have heard that Christians commentaries on Luke and John. confi rmed by the miracles which call Jesus the “offspring of God”, and Jesus and the apostles did. Most of this has been presented to them repeat- It is equally important to explain all it is the self-revelation of Jesus edly as exhibit A in the case against the meaning of ‘Christ/Messiah’. which has proven convincing to Christianity and its “corruption” of the Whereas ‘Son’ is used of Jesus quite people through the ages. Jesus does 6 Bible. So there is a dire need to correct sparingly in the New Testament, unique miracles: he heals the deaf these misunderstandings and to invali- except in John’s writings, the term and mute, he restores sight to those date the accusation in a timely manner. Christ/Messiah is used over 500 born blind, he walks on water, he This can be done in communications of times. This is a term that is accepted stills the storm, and he rises from the every sort, but by all means it should be by Muslims as a unique title that dead with an immortal body. These done in the Scriptures. applies to Jesus alone, but they do not signs confi rmed Jesus’ statement, “I know its unique meaning. They will It is helpful if the Gospels or the proceeded forth and have come from pick up some of the meaning as they New Testament have an introductory God” (John 8:42 NASB; cf. 13:3; hear or read how the term is used in section that explains the most vital 16:28; 17:8). “For the very work that the Bible (if it is translated as a title and misunderstood key terms, as well the Father has given me to fi nish, and not just as a name), but explana- as mentioning them in the glossary. and which I am doing, testifi es that tions are helpful as well. The glossary If portions of the New Testament the Father has sent me” (John 5: can list components of this term’s 9 are recorded, then this part of the 36 NIV). Jesus further declares meaning in four domains: introduction can be recorded as well. his status above all men and angels It is also helpful to provide a footnote ● ethical (he is righteous and holy, (Mark 13:32 = Matt. 24:36) and explaining ‘son(s) of God’ in most exhibiting the moral character- his position between the Father and places where it occurs. It is helpful to istics of God), the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). Thus the audience if the explanation tells ● relational (he is close to God, Jesus declares his consubstantiation them at least two things: beloved of God, and the way to with God. God), 1. What the term does not mean, i.e., Of particular signifi cance is the fact ● functional (he is appointed by biological offspring of God. God to rule and save his people that Jesus does things that no normal God-fearing man would dare to do,

International Journal of Frontier Missions 22:3 Fall 2005 96 Part I: Explaining the Biblical Term ‘Son(s) of God’ in Muslim Contexts The NT authors affi rm a messianic inter- he fact that Jesus performs the functions and prerogatives pretation of these passages.  9 For a fuller development of this of God seems to pass over the heads of many Western theme, see Rick Brown, Presenting the Deity of Christ from the Bible, Interna- readers, but it is not lost on Muslim readers. tional Journal of Frontier Missions 19(1): T 20–27 (2002). See especially Richard because they belong to God alone: G. Reid (eds.), Dictionary of Paul and His Bauckham, God crucifi ed: Monotheism and Letters (Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity He creates matter from nothing, he (Exeter: Press, 1993); Fuller, Reginald, ‘Son of in the New Testament controls the forces of nature, he orders Paternoster, 1998) and also Millard J. God’, in Paul J Achtemeier (ed.), Harper’s angels, he issues commandments, Erickson, The Word Became Flesh (Grand Bible Dictionary (San Francisco: Harper, he reads thoughts and hearts, he Rapids: Baker, 1991). 1985); Evans, Craig A., ‘Son of God’, in judges the nations, he forgives , he Craig A. Evans and Stanley Porter (eds.), bestows eternal life, and he condemns Dictionary of New Testament Back- to hell—all on his own authority! He ground: A Compendium of Contemporary even accepts worship and prayer. If Biblical Scholarship (Downers Grove: Jesus were not God, then he would be a InterVarsity Press, 2000); Thayer, Joseph blasphemer to do such things, but if he Henry, Thayer Greek-English Lexicon of the were a blasphemer he would be unable New Testament, Complete and Unabridged to do such miracles! “We know that (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University God does not listen to sinners… If this Press, 1889). 4 man were not from God, he could do ‘ITP’ stands for the Jewish literature nothing” (John 9:31, 33 NIV). of the intertestamental period. This body of 660 works provides important evidence The fact that Jesus performs the func- for the usage of terms like ‘Son of God’, tions and prerogatives of God seems to ‘Messiah’, ‘Son of Man’, etc. pass over the heads of many Western 5 Scholars agree that part of Psalm 2:7 readers, but it is not lost on Muslim is quoted at the baptism and transfi gura- tion of Jesus, along with Isa. 42:1.  readers. They are astonished to dis- 6 cover that Jesus reveals himself to be so There are other exhibits as well, much more than a prophet! IJFM such as the accusation that Christians claim that Mary and Jesus are Editor’s note: Part II of this paper will alongside Allah, objections against the appear in the next issue of IJFM. statement that Allah is Jesus, objections against Paul’s perceived antinomianism, offense at biblical passages that describe Endnotes sexual misbehavior or which attribute sin 1 to the prophets, as well as other differences The frozen phrase ibn sabîl ‘son of the road’ was used for born travelers like of doctrine and fact between the Bible and Islamic teaching, such as the death of Jesus gypsies. In modern Arabic, ibn al-nîl ‘son of the Nile’ is used for someone born near on the cross, his resurrection, his atone- the Nile. But neither phrase denotes an ment for sin, his bestowal of salvation, and his lordship over all. interpersonal relationship, and both of 7 them involve a place of biological birth. There are additional Word/Wisdom 2 Ps. 2:7 (cf. Acts 13:33; Heb. 1:5); identifi cations in Matthew, Luke, John, Ps. 110:3 (some versions); Isa. 9:6. Refer- Hebrews, and the Epistles of Paul, John, ences substantiating the other claims are and Peter, but the identifi cations are too subtle for citation in a footnote. provided in the course of this article. 8 3 See especially Jarl Fossum, ‘Son First-century Jews had a well- defi ned concept of the living Word of of God’, in David Freedman (ed.), The God and various concepts of the Messiah. Anchor Bible Dictionary (Vol. 6; New York: Doubleday, 1992), 128–137; also J. W. There is no evidence, however, that they Drane, ‘Son of God’, in R. P. Martin & P. expected the Messiah to be God’s Word H. (eds.), Dictionary of the later incarnate, so this was not part of the New Testament and its Developments meaning of ‘Messiah’ as they used it until (InterVarsity Press: Downers Grove, Jesus revealed as much. Nevertheless there IL, 1997); D. R. Bauer, ‘Son of God’, in are Old Testament hints of this (Isa 55: Joel Green and Scot McKnight (eds.), 10–13) and many passages that talk as if YHWH or his “arm” would be the one to Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels, (Down- ers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 1992); L. come as the Savior-King (Ps. 45:6; Isa. W. Hurtado, ‘Son of God’, in Gerald F 24:21-23; 40:3–11; 52:10; 53:1; 59:16; Hawthorne, Ralph P Martin, and Daniel Eze. 34:11-17; Micah 4:6-7; Zech. 14:5, 9; Mal. 3:1; 4:5; Dan. 7:13 (LXX text). International Journal of Frontier Missions