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26 Achaemenian Persian Empire, 19, 24, 25 Acheson, Dean, 72, 7 Index Abrahamian, Ervand, 43, 47, 51, 64, 76, ARAMCO, 61 136n29 Aristotle, 20 Abu Bakr (caliph), 26 arms-for-hostages. See Iran-Contra scandal Achaemenian Persian Empire, 19, 24, 25 art cinema, 25 Acheson, Dean, 72, 73n26 Ashura, 27 adalat (divine justice), 152, 173 assassinations of Iranian dissidents, 148 adaptability, as element of Iranian character, Atabaki, 48 23–24 Attlee, Clement, 72 Afghanistan, 155, 165, 177, 179 authority, establishment of, 162–63 Ahmadinezhad, President, 8n3, 166n13, 170, awareness, of Iranian history and culture, 6, 181 15, 153, 168, 177 Ahura Mazda, 25 axis of evil, 180, 188, 192 AIOC. See Anglo-Iranian Oil Company Azerbaijan crisis (1945–47), 7, 35–57, 158 Ala, Hossein, 67 autonomy agreement, 48–50 Ala, Hussein, 46, 48 conclusions, 55–57 Alam, Asadollah, 33 oil concessions law and, 38, 41, 50, 52, Al-Arabiya TV, 194n23 54–55, 63 Albright, Madeleine, 10, 163, 192 Soviet involvement in, 39–40, 40n6, 42, 43 Algerian mediation, during hostage crisis, UN Security Council case, 46–47 118, 119, 154, 160, 176 Aziz, Tariq, 123 Algiers accord (1975), 144, 145 Algiers accord (1981), 143n41 Baghdad meetings, 10, 160 Ali, Imam, 16, 26 Baha’i faith, 29 Ali b. Abu Talib, 26, 27n14 bahar-e-azadi (spring of freedom), 95 Allen, George, 46, 49, 49n29, 51, 54 Bahremani, Mehdi, 135, 136 Al-Shiraa story, 136–37 Baku-Cayhan oil pipeline, 106 Amini, Ali, 78 Baluchistan, 47 Amir-Entezam, Abbas, 99, 183n9 Bani Sadr, Abu Al-Hassan, 103, 104, 112, 113 Anderson, 147 Baqa’i, Mozaffar, 64, 75 Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (AIOC), 53, 59, bâtiniyya (esotericism), 29 195 BATNA (Best Alternatives to a Negotiated boycott, 67, 68n16, 76 Agreement), 4–5, 177 compensation for assets of, 72–74, 78–79, Iranian, 5, 154, 166–67 79n40 Bazargan, Mehdi, 49, 96, 99–101, 100n20. Gass-Golshayan Agreement, 62, 65–67 See also provisional government Anglo-Persian Oil Company (APOC), 60, 61, Beeman, Bill, 123, 181, 188 61n3, 83 Begin, Menachem, 158 Anglo-Russian treaty (1907), 2n2, 37, 37n1, Behbehani, Ayatollah, 77 117, 157, 167 Beheshti, Mohammad, 5, 103, 107, 113 Ansar-e-Hezbollah, 162 Berthoud, Eric, 70 antiaircraft weapons, 128, 129–30, 132, 137 Bevin, Ernest, 42 anticlericalism, 29–30 Bill, James, 11n7, 56, 71–72, 79, 80, 139 APOC (Anglo-Persian Oil Company), 60–61, Bolshevik Revolution (1917), 32 61n3, 83 Bourguet, Christian, 110–12, 118, 161 Arabic script, 24 boycott, AIOC, 68, 68n16, 76 Arafat, Yasir, 158 206 Index207 Index207 British Persianists, 69–70. See also United Cooke, Donald, 183n8 Kingdom Cottam, Richard, 44, 46, 66, 75, 182n7 British Petroleum (BP), 78, 79n40 coup (August 1953), 32, 75–77 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 91, 97, 99n18, 100n20 long-term effects of, 81, 85–86, 87–88, 117, Bush, George H.W., 122, 139–40, 142–49 157, 158, 174, 182, 187 Bush, George W., 10, 154n1, 181, 189, 192 coup attempt (July 1980), 113 Byrnes, James, 46 CREEP (Committee to Reelect the President), 33 Cadman, John, 61 Crocker, Ryan, 10, 11n6 capitulations, versus concessions, 157n6 cultural openness, as element of Iranian Carter, Jimmy character, 23–24 conspiracy theories and, 174 culture (Iranian), 6, 15–32 decision to admit shah, 2, 99 tension between religion and, 30, 30n17 hostage question, 99, 99n16 culture (U.S.), Iranian fear of, 12 hostage release and, 116, 118, 186 Cutler, Walter, 92 letter to Khomeini, 102–03 cynicism, in Iranian political culture, 60, 81 reaction to embassy takeover, 109 Cyrus the Great, 19, 157 refusal of shah’s visit, 97 Tehran visit (1978), 90 D’Arcy concession (1901), 60, 83, 117 Cave, George, 134, 136, 150 Dawa Seventeen, 144, 145, 148 cease-fire negotiations, Iran-Iraq war, de Cuéllar, Pérez, 139–50 137–40, 146, 149–51, 164 Democratic Party of Azerbaijan (DPA), Christopher, Warren, 115, 116, 118, 119, 135, 39–40, 48, 49, 52, 57 154, 176 Democratic Republic of Kurdistan, 40n8 CIA, Iran-Contra scandal and, 124, 125, 131 Democrat Party, 49, 49n29, 52, 64 CIA coup (1953), 31–32, 75–77, 75n30 diaspora (Iranian), 12, 161, 169 long-term effects of, 81, 85–86, 117, 157, 158, diplomatic relations (U.S.-Iranian), lack of, 174, 182, 187 10–11, 154, 160 Ciccipio, Joseph, 135, 137, 147 diplomatic service cinema, 25 American, 11 Clark, Ramsey, 102–03 Iranian, 11–12, 156, 169 clergy, attitude toward, 29–30 distrust, 192–93 Clinton, Bill, 163, 179, 192 for legalism, 155–56 Cold War, 36–37, 91, 183 during oil nationalization crisis, 70–73, Iran-Control scandal and, 125–26, 134, 151 84–85 communication, through public speeches, “Divorce Iranian Style,” 155n2 123 Documents from the U.S. Espionage Den, 104, communication channels, between 104n23 Washington and Tehran, 10–11, 144 Douglas, William O., 127n12 Communist Party (Tudeh), 39, 42, 43, 49–50, “downward spiral,” 182, 182n7, 184, 188–89 49n29, 56, 76 escape from, 193–95 Compagnie Française des Pétroles, 78 DPA (Democratic Party of Azerbaijan), compensation 39–40, 48, 49, 52, 57 for AIOC assets, 72–74 Draper, Theodore, 129, 135 to IranAir Airbus victims, 143, 143n41 concessions. See also oil concessions Eisenhower, Dwight, 74n29, 75 versus capitulations, 157n6 elections (Majles) consortium of oil companies, 78–80 December 1946, 52 conspiracy theories, 174–75 hostage negotiations and, 113 Constitutional Movement (1906–11), 35, October 1949, 65–66 157, 158 embassy hostage crisis (1979–81), 8, 87–119 208 Negotiating with Iran conditions preceding, 92–101 German intermediaries, in hostage crisis, events during, 1–4, 101–02, 117 115, 119, 154 Iranian foreign relations and, 105–07 Getting to Yes (Fisher), 4–5 Iranian negotiating stance, 103–08, Ghorbanifarr, Manouchehr, 124–39, 152, 161 175–76, 176n26 goodwill Iranian political battles during, 103–04 Bush’s statement on, 122, 139 lessons learned, 4–5, 117–19 limits of, 146–47, 185 Limbert’s role in, 1–4, 183 Gulestan treaty (1813), 117 long-term effects of, 87–88, 119, 151, 182–83, 186 Hafez of Shiraz, 30n17 Miller-Clark mission, 102–03 Hague Tribunal, 176 rescue mission, 110, 113 Hakim, Albert, 133, 135, 136 resolution of, 113–16 Harriman, Averell, 68–69, 73, 83 U.S. misunderstanding of situation and, Harvard Law School, 4 100, 117 Hashemi, Ali, 137 U.S. negotiating stance, 107–09, 117–18 Hashemi, Hadi, 135 emigration, 12, 95, 156, 169 Hashemi, Mehdi, 136, 136n29 Eradeh-ye-Melli (National Will) party, 41 Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Ali Akbar, 114, 118, 140 esotericism (bâtiniyya), 29 1990 fake telephone call from, 122, 143, 151 expectations, realistic, 193–95 Iran-Contra deals and, 136 Lebanan hostages and, 123, 141–49 Falle, Sam, 69 policy toward United States, 142 Fallon, Admiral, 154n1 on UN mediation, 147 Farland, Joseph, 33, 33n20 Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Mahmoud, 135 Farmanfarmaian, Manuchehr, 78 Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Mohsen, 135 Fatemi, Hossein, 77 Hawk antiaircraft missiles, 128, 130, 131n20, Fath Ali Shah, 170 133, 134, 137 fatwa (religious opinion), 140, 171 Helms, Richard, 118, 187, 187n13 Feda’iyan-e-Islam, 67 Henderson, Loy, 74 Fesharaki, Feridoun, 80 heresy, 28–29 fetneh (disorder), 171 Herodotus, 19, 23 Firuz, Mozaffar, 42, 48, 49, 49n29 hesabgar (calculating), 175 Fisher, Roger, 4–5, 62–63, 68, 84, 97, 176n26 hezb-e-baad (party of the winds), 141, 170 on hostage negotiations, 5, 107–08, 108n28 Hezb-e Zahmatkeshan (Toilers’ Party), 64, 75 Flandrin, George, 98 Hezbollah, 123 folklore, 28, 157 Hidden Imam, 27 foreign innovations, Iranian adoption of, hijacking, TWA Flight 847, 123 24–25 historical background, 15–32 foreign relations, embassy hostage crisis historical monuments, 31, 157, 170 and, 105–07 history Forqaan, 95, 95n10 importance of, 6, 12, 83, 117, 153, 157–60, Fortier, Donald, 125 195 Foruhar, Dariush, 64 Iranian case based on, 169 Fraser, William, 72, 72n24, 78 political, 17–18, 22–23 frozen assets, 143 seminal events in, 182–84 Hoover, Herbert, Jr., 78 Gasiorowski, Mark, 74 hostages Gass-Golshayan Agreement, 62, 65–67 in Lebanon (See Lebanon hostages) Gates, Robert, 179 TWA Flight 847, 123 geographic vulnerability, 23 U.S. embassy (See embassy hostage crisis) hostility, 189–92 Index209 Index209 during oil nationalization crisis, 70–73, Iranian-Soviet treaty (1921), 37n1, 45, 53, 55, 84–85 155 Howland, Michael, 1 Iran-Iraq war (1980–99), 106, 158 humanitarian grounds cease-fire, 137–40, 146, 149–51, 164 Lebanon hostage release on, 143, 148 international opinion of Iran and, 175–76 U.S. admission of shah on, 98, 100n19, 100, Iran-Contra scandal and, 123–39 117, 167, 175 Iraqi blame for, 145–48, 152, 159–60, 173, Hussein (son of Ali), martyrdom of, 27 173n23 Hussein, Imam, 16, 158 media coverage during, 169–70 Hussein, Saddam, 106 outbreak of, 114 Lebanon hostage crisis and, 8, 144–46 political prisoner executions, 164 Persian Gulf War, 144–45, 148 U.S. alliance with Iraq, 138, 152, 188 UN Resolution 598 and, 152, 152n54 Iran Party, 49, 50, 49n28, 64, 65 Hussein, Shah Sultan, 171 Iraq, 10, 160, 165 U.S. alliance with, 138, 152, 188 Ibrahimian, Ibrahim, 133 Iricon, 78 intelligence, crediting negotiators with, Islamic Republic 167–68 authority and responsibility within, intermediaries, 154 162–63 choice of, 160–61 legal issues and, 155 during embassy hostage crisis, 110–12, motives of, 163–64 110n30, 115–16, 119, 154, 160–61, 176 Islamic Republican Party (IRP), 113 during Iran-Contral deals, 131, 148, 161 Islamic Revolution, 90, 158 during Lebanon hostage crisis, 140, 141, August 1953 coup and, 82, 86 144, 146, 150, 161 conspiracy theories and, 174 during oil nationalization crisis, 68–73, 83, internecine battles during, 94–95, 102, 85 103–04, 186 international opinion Iranian foreign relations and, 105–07 embassy hostage crisis and, 105–07 U.S.
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