A CONCISE HISTORICAL GRAMMAR OF THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE: Reconstruction of Proto-Albanian
VLADIMIR OREL
BRILL Orel 1.vw 14-03-2000 11:05 Pagina 1
A CONCISE HISTORICAL GRAMMAR OF THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE This page intentionally left blank Orel 1.vw 14-03-2000 11:05 Pagina 3
A CONCISE HISTORICAL GRAMMAR OF THE ALBANIAN LANGUAGE Reconstruction of Proto-Albanian
BY
VLADIMIR OREL
BRILL LEIDEN • BOSTON • KÖLN 2000 Orel 1.vw 14-03-2000 11:05 Pagina 4
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Orel, Vladimir E. A concise historical grammar of the Albanian language : reconstruction of Proto-Albanian / by Vladimir Orel. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 9004116478 (cloth : alk. paper) 1. Albanian language—Grammar, Historical. I. Title. PG9519 .O74 2000 491'.9915—dc21 99-053799 CIP
Die Deutsche Bibliothek - CIP-Einheitsaufnahme Orel, Vladimir E.: A concise historical grammar of the Albanian language : reconstruction of Proto-Albanian / by Vladimir Orel. - Leiden ; Boston ; Köln : Brill, 2000 ISBN 90-04-11647-8
ISBN 90 04 11647 8
© Copyright 2000 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher.
Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Brill provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910 Danvers MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands To Dad
“The question is,” said Humpty Dumpty, “which is to be master—that’s all … [Words have] a temper, some of them—particularly verbs, they’re the proudest—adjectives you can do anything with, but not verbs—how- ever, I can manage the whole lot!”
Lewis Carroll This page intentionally left blank contents vii
&217(176
3UHIDFH;, 5HIHUHQFHV ;9 $EEUHYLDWLRQV ;;,
3KRQRORJ\ 9RZHOV 6KRUWYRZHOV /RQJYRZHOV 'LSKWKRQJV 'HYHORSPHQWRIWKH(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQYRFDOLVP 1.1.5. Unstressed vowels ...... 20
9RFDOLVPRIORDQZRUGV 9RZHOVLQ*UHHNORDQZRUGV 9RZHOVLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV 6KRUWYRZHOVLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV /RQJYRZHOVLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV /DWLQGLSKWKRQJV 3RVLWLRQDOFKDQJHVRIYRZHOVLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV 9RZHOVLQ6ODYLFORDQZRUGV
6RQRUDQWV 6\OODELFVRQRUDQWV $V\OODELFVRQRUDQWV $V\OODELFVRQRUDQWVLQORDQZRUGV
&RQVRQDQWV 6SLUDQWV 2FFOXVLYHV ODELDOVDQGGHQWDOV 2FFOXVLYHV YHODUV 3DODWDOL]DWLRQV 1.4.5. Rhythmic rule ...... 78 &RQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUV &RQVRQDQWVLQORDQZRUGV ...... 102 viii contents
0RUSKRQRORJ\DQGZRUGIRUPDWLRQ
6WUHVV /DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQ6WUHVV (DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ6WUHVV
$OWHUQDWLRQV &RQVRQDQWDODOWHUQDWLRQV 9RFDOLFDOWHUQDWLRQV 9RFDOLFDOWHUQDWLRQV 8PODXW 9RFDOLFDOWHUQDWLRQV $EODXW
$IIL[DWLRQ 6XIIL[DWLRQRIQRXQV 3UHIL[DWLRQ &RPSRXQGV
0RUSKRORJ\
9HUE 9HUEVWHPV 3UHVHQWVWHPV $RULVWVWHPV 9HUEVWHPVRIORDQZRUGV
&RQMXJDWLRQ 3UHVHQW $RULVWDQGLPSHUIHFW 0RRGV ,PSHUDWLYHVXEMXQFWLYHRSWDWLYH 9RLFHV 0HGLRSDVVLYH 3DUWLFLSOHV
1RXQ 1RPLQDOVWHPV )RUPDWLRQRIWKHSOXUDO 'HFOHQVLRQ 3URQRXQV 3HUVRQDOSURQRXQV ...... 241 3RVVHVVLYHSURQRXQV ...... 243 contents ix
'HPRQVWUDWLYHDQGUHODWLYHSURQRXQV'HILQLWH IRUPV ...... 245 1XPHUDOV
9RFDEXODU\ 6HOHFWHGOH[LFDOLVRJORVVHVRI$OEDQLDQ 6HOHFWHGVHPDQWLFILHOGVLQ$OEDQLDQ
3KRQHWLFWDEOHV
,QGH[RI$OEDQLDQIRUPV
,QGH[DWHUJR This page intentionally left blank 35()$&(
The present book was started in 1982, in Mikhalevo (Russia), and its first (Russian) variant was finished in 1989 when it was submitted as a second doctoral dissertation to the linguistic department of the Institute for Slavic and Balkan studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (OREL Alb.). At the same time, the typescript was smuggled across the border to the United States (as some other works of the present writer) but, unfortunately, got lost on way to its destination. I continued my work on the historical grammar of Albanian while simultaneously writing an etymological dictionary as well: one project fostered the other. Until 1996, I had to concentrate on the etymological dictionary which eventually saw the light in 1998 (OREL AED). Meanwhile, the English text was quickly finished in 19971998. The present grammar was used as the basis of several courses in the historical grammar of Albanian (Institute of Slavic and Balkan Studies, Moscow, 1987 and V.A. Dybo’s Nostratic Seminar, 1988) and of a graduate seminar at UCLA in 1999. The main objective of the book is to analyze the lexical material of the new etymological dictionary (the latter should be used as a data base immediately connected with the grammar), and to give a new detailed description of the linguistic development from ProtoIndoEuropean to ProtoAlbanian to modern Albanian. Different stages of this develop- ment were not of equal interest to the writer. The history of the Albanian language understood as a description of its evolution from the earliest attested monuments (Old Albanian) to its present form remained beyond the reach of this study. For that—perfectly legitimate—kind of linguistic history of Albanian we will need another book. In my work, I deal with the transition from IndoEuropean to ProtoAlbanian and the corre- spondences between ProtoAlbanian and modern Albanian. Therefore, many important features of modern Albanian are not discussed here: they are relatively recent and therefore irrelevant for my main task, the reconstruction of ProtoAlbanian. Not all important features of the ProtoAlbanian structure can be revealed and properly described today. Our knowledge is still very insuf- ficient, especially in the field of ProtoAlbanian morphology. The study of Proto-Albanian syntax remains in its infancy. Hence, there are natural limitations to the present work: I give a relatively full description of historical phonetics but the third chapter of the book («Morphology») is only a very brief and incomplete sketch, in particular, as far as the xii preface
ProtoAlbanian verb is concerned. Two central notions of my work are ProtoIndoEuropean and ProtoAlbanian. As far as Proto-IndoEuropean is concerned, its definitions or descriptions are beyond the scope of this work. The phonetic and morphological reconstruction of Proto- IndoEuropean used here delineates a late stage in the development of the language, a stage in which certain areal changes have already occurred, such as the loss of Indo-Europen laryngeals. ProtoAlbanian is viewed as a language already possessing several features typical of the Albanian linguistic type. We reconstruct it in two forms: Early ProtoAlbanian—immediately before the beginning of linguistic contacts with speakers of Latin/ProtoRomance (1st century CE), and Late ProtoAlbanian—following the contacts with ProtoRomance and ancient Slavic dialects still close to ProtoSlavic (6th-7th centuries CE). Major changes shattered the structure of ProtoAlbanian during this short but eventful period. The work is based on the results of my own research (including the data of the Albanian Etymological Dictionary and numerous papers on the reconstruction of ProtoAlbanian) as well as existing literature, in- cluding studies by such outstanding students of Albanian from its IndoEuropean perspective as MEYER, PEDERSEN, JOKL, ÇABEJ, and HAMP. In many cases, the book suggests new solutions for complicated problems of Albanian historical phonetics, and sometimes proposes revi- sions of my earlier studies. An attentive reader will easily notice them, especially if the literature I have adduced has been properly studied. However, references are very far from being complete; the reader should consult my etymological dictionary for more infromation. The book contains four chapters—«Phonetics», «Morphonology and wordformation», «Morphology» and «Vocabulary». My knowledge of the Proto-Albanian syntax is so insufficient that a separate chapter on the subject would be totally irrelevant. Inside each chapter, the text is divided into sections and paragraphs. The beginning paragraph of every section (its number always ending in zero) includes a brief list of relevant literature, some of it—with very short summaries. The book concludes with an index of Albanian forms. Whenever Tosk and Geg forms coincide, one Albanian form is quoted. If there are phonetic differences between Tosk and Geg, two forms are adduced separated by a tilda, with the Tosk form coming first, e.g. OO¬U¬ ~ OODQ¬If the word only exists in Tosk or in Geg, it is marked correspondingly. Forms from the various IndoEuropean daughter languages are given according to their traditional transliterations. The preface xiii same applies to Proto-IndoEuropean reconstruction. As the reader will notice, I tend to use what could be labelled as «late» or «Brugmannian» IndoEuropean. Such a reconstruction does not take into account the comparative evidence provided by Hittite and Tocharian. Albanian is a product of this «late IndoEuropean» and it seemed counterproductive to make our reconstruction deeper than really necessary. I use three types of arrows in the text in order to distinguish between historical development, borrowing and morphological derivation. I do not have any illusions as to the future of this little innovation—it won’t be taken up. However, I want to give it a try. Usual arrows > < are reserved for historical change as they are normally used today. Thus, !Rmeans the development of in time. Arrows ÖÕ are used to describe the act of borrowing. The formula WHUUDHPAWXPÖW¬UPHWdeals with loanwords. Finally, arrows ¾½ appear in my description of wordformation. They indicate «derived from», e.g. bir ¾ birth. While working on the book, I was able to use the excellent facilities of the Greek-Slavonic Annexe of the Taylor Institute (Oxford), McMaster University Library (Hamilton, Ontario) and the Hebrew University Libraries (Jerusalem). I am indebted to all the above institutions as well as to my former university (Bar-Ilan University in Ramat-Gan) for their support of my research. I am also grateful to the Egged Bus Co-operative (Israel) in whose buses and coaches I wrote substantial parts of this work. I want to express my gratitude to several people whose combination of advice, help and fierce criticism were important at various stages of my research in the field of the historical grammar of Albanian during the last seventeen years: Çlirim Bidollari (Tirana), Vladimir Dybo (Moscow), D. Ellis Evans (Oxford), John Greppin (Cleveland), Viacheslav Ivanov (Los Angeles), Irina Kalu°skaia (Moscow), Evgenii Khelimski (Moscow), Alexander Rusakov (St. Petersburg), Vitaly Shevoroshkin (Ann Arbor), Vladimir Toporov (Moscow), Brent Vine (Los Angeles), Charles Xu (Calgary) and Andrei Zalizniak (Moscow). I am also grateful to Susan Rothstein and Adam Wyner of Bar-Ilan University (Ramat-Gan). Some of my advisors and friends have passed away. My gratitude to Leonid Gindin (Moscow) is mixed with the bitter taste of remembrance. I am particularly indebted to my friend Jay Friedman (Los Angeles) who has edited the whole text (but not this sentence) and encouraged me to make numerous important changes in it. Calgary, Alberta November 30, 1999 This page intentionally left blank 5()(5(1&(6
$$UE6W – $UKLY]DDUEDQDVNXVWDULQXMH]LNLHWQRORJLMX,–,,,%HRJUDG – $,$. – $NWHQ GHU LQWHUQDWLRQDOHQ DOEDQRORJLVFKHQ .ROORTXLXPV ,QQVEUXFN $QF,(– $QFLHQW,QGR(XURSHDQ'LDOHFWV%HUNHOH\ $QWL¨EDON– $QWL¨QDMDEDONDQLVWLND0RVNYD $QWL¨EDON– $QWL¨QDMDEDONDQLVWLND0RVNYD $17.2:6.,–$17.2:6., ) /D FKURQRORJLH GH OD PRQRSKWRQJDLVRQ GHV GLSKWRQJXHVGDQVOHVODQJXHVLQGRHXURS©HQQHV3R]QD¼ %$– %DONDQ$UFKLY/HLpziJ,–,9 – %DOFDQLFD– %DOFDQLFD/LQJYLVWL¨HVNLHLVVOHGRYDQLMD0RVNYD %DOWLVWLFD– %DOWLVWLFD9LOQLXV BARIC´ $56W– BARIC´+$OEDQRUXP¥QLVFKH6WXGLHQ,6DUDMHYR > =XU .XQGHGHU%DONDQKDOELQVHO4XHOOHQXQG)RUVFKXQJHQ9,,@ %$5,Ç+\PMH– %$5,Ç,++\PMHQ¬KLVWRULQ¬HJMXK¬VVKTLSH3ULVKWLQ¬ BARIC´ ,VW– BARIC´ +,VWRULMDDUEDQDVNRJMH]LND6DUDMHYR > %DONDQR ORhNL,QVWLWXW'MHOD;,,@ %233– %233)¡EHUGDV$OEDQHVLVFKHLQVHLQHQYHUZDQGWVFKDIWOLFKHQ%H]LH KXQJHQ .µQLJOLFKH 3UHXßLVFKH $NDGHPLH GHU :LVVHQVFKDIWHQ $EKDQG OXQJHQGHU3KLORVRSKLVFKKLVWRULVFKHQ.ODVVH%HUOLQ – %6/– %XOOHWLQGHOD6RFL©W©OLQJXLVWLTXHGH3DULV3DULV %86K7– %XOHWLQL8QLYHVLWHWLW6KWHW¬URUW¬7LUDQ¬V6HULDVKNHQFDWVKRTHURUH 7LUDQD>IURP FRQWLQXHGDV6WXGLPHILORORJMLNH@ &DKLHUV3X×FDULX– &DKLHUV63X×FDULX,–,,%XFDUHVWH &$0$-$OE:RUWE– &$0$-0$OEDQLVFKH:RUWELOGXQJ:LHVEDGHQ > $OEDQLVFKH)RUVFKXQJHQ9,@ &$3,'$1$URP–&$3,'$17+$URPDˆQLL 'LDOHFWXODURPDˆQ%XFXUH×WL &,(% – $FWHV GX , &RQJUªV ,QWHUQDWLRQDO GHV ©WXGHV EDONDQLTXHV HW VXGHVW HXURS©HQQHV9,/LQJXLVWLTXH6RILD &,02&+2:6., 'XVKPDQL–&,02&+2:6., : /H GLDOHFWH GH 'XVKPDQL '©VFULSWLRQGHO XQGHVSDUOHUVGHO $OEDQLHGX1RUG3R]QD¼ &,320RUIRORJMLD–&,32.0RUIRORJMLDKLVWRULNHHVKTLSHV7LUDQ¬ &2:*,// – &2:*,// : & 7KH ,QGR(XURSHDQ /RQJ 9RZHO 3UHWHULW '(0,5$-*U+LVW– '(0,5$-6+*UDPDWLN¬KLVWRULNHHJMXK¬VVKTLSH7LUDQ¬ '(0,5$-0RUIKLVW– '(0,5$-6+0RUIRORJLMDKLVWRULNHHJMXK¬VVKTLSH, 7LUDQD '(61,&.$-$ $MD] – '(61,&.$-$ $9 $OEDQVNLM MD]\N L HJR GLDOHNW\ /HQLQJUDG '(61,&.$-$ 6UDYQ – '(61,&.$-$ $9 6UDYQLWHO’QRH MD]\NR]QDQLH L LVWRULMD MD]\NRY/HQLQJUDG '2=210DQXHO– '2=21$0DQXHOGHODODQJXHVKNLSHRXDOEDQDLVH3DULV ÈWLPRORJLMD – ÈWLPRORJLMD 0RVNYD ÈWLPRORJLMD – ÈWLPRORJLMD 0RVNYD (Ê ™*8 – 1DX¨Q\M HÊHJRGQLN ™HUQRYLFNRJR *8 ]D ™HUQRYF\ )HVWVFKU .QREORFK – 6SUDFKZLVVHQVFKDIWOLFKH )RUVFKXQJHQ )HVWVFKULIW IºU -RKDQQ.QREORFK,QQVEUXFN )HVWVFKU5R]ZDGRZVNL– 6\PERODHJUDPPDWLFDHLQKRQRUHP,RDQQLV5R]ZD GRZVNL,–,,&UDFRYLDH – )HVWVNU7KRPVHQ– )HVWVNULIWWLO9LOKHOP7KRPVHQ.øEHQKDYQ )/+– )ROLD/LQJXLVWLFD+LVWRULFD.UDN²Z *$0.5(/,'=(– ,9$129– *$0.5(/,'=(79,9$12999,QGRHYURSHMVNLM MD]\N L LQGRHYURSHMF\ 5HNRQVWUXNFLMD L LVWRULNRWLSRORJL¨HVNLM DQDOL] SUDMD]\NDLSURWRNXO’WXU\,–,,7ELOLVL *HGHQNVFKU %UDQGHQVWHLQ–6WXGLHQ ]XU 6SUDFKZLVVHQVFKDIW XQG .XOWXUNXQGH *HGHQNVFKULIWIºU:%UDQGHQVWHLQ,QQVEUXFN > ,%.;,9@ *HGHQNVFKU &RZJLOO–6WXGLHV LQ 0HPRU\ RI :DUUHQ &RZJLOO %HUOLQ–1HZ -2./ /.8%$ – -2./ 1 /LQJXLVWLVFKNXOWXUKLVWRULVFKH 8QWHUVXFKXQJHQ DXV GHP%HUHLFKHGHV$OEDQLVFKHQ%HUOLQ–/HLS]LJ -2./ 6WXGLHQ – -2./ 1 6WXGLHQ ]XU DOEDQHVLVFKHQ (W\PRORJLH XQG :RUW ELOGXQJ:LHQ > .DLVHUOLFKH$NDGHPLHGHU:LVVHQVFKDIWHQLQ:LHQ 6LW]XQJVEHULFKWH3KLORVRSKLVFKKLVWRULVFKH.ODVVH&/;9,,,@ ./,1*(16&+0,779HUEXP– ./,1*(16&+0,77*'DVDOWDUPHQLVFKH9HUEXP :LHVEDGHQ .ROO ,GJ *HV–5$60866(1 -( HG ,Q KRQRUHP +ROJHU 3HGHUVHQ .ROOR TXLXPGHU,QGRJHUPDQLVFKHQ*HVHOOVFKDIW:LHVEDGHQ .85</2:,&=,QIO&DW– .85</2:,&=-7KH,QIOHFWLRQDO&DWHJRULHVRI,QGR (XURSHDQ+HLGHOEHUJ /$3,$1$6WXGL– /$3,$1$06WXGLOLQJXLVWLFLDOEDQHVL,3UROHJRPHQLDOOR VWXGLRGHOODOLQJXLVWLFDDOEDQHVH3DOHUPR /$3,$1$6W9DULD– /$3,$1$06WXGLOLQJXLVWLFLDOEDQHVL9DULD3H]]LQR– 3DOHUPR /DU\QJHDOV– :,17(5: HG (YLGHQFHIRU/DU\QJHDOV7KH+DJXH /%– /LQJXLVWLTXHEDONDQLTXH6RILD /LQJXLVWLFD– /LQJXLVWLFD/MXEOMDQD /LQJYLVVOHG– /LQJYLVWL¨HVNLHLVVOHGRYDQLMD,–,,0RVNYD /,V – /LQJYLVWL¨HVNLH LVVOHGRYDQLMD 6UDYQLWHO’QRLVWRUL¨HVNRH L WLSRORJL¨HVNRHL]X¨HQLHMD]\NRY0RVNYD /3– /LQJXD3RVQDQLHQVLV3R]QD¼. 0$11 +LVW *U – 0$11 6( $Q $OEDQLDQ +LVWRULFDO *UDPPDU +DPEXUJ 0$7+,$66(1– 0$7+,$66(176WXGLHQ]XPVODYLVFKHQXQGLQGRHXURS¥LVFKHQ /DQJYRNDOLVPXV2VOR 0(,' )OH[LRQ – 0(,' : 'LH LQGRJHUPDQLVFKHQ *UXQGODJHQ GHU DOWLULVFKHQ DEVROXWHQXQGNRQMXQNWHQ)OH[LRQ:LHVEDGHQ 0©ODQJHV 3HGHUVHQ–0©ODQJHV OLQJXLVWLTXHV RIIHUWV £ 0 +ROJHU 3HGHUVHQ .øEHQKDYQ > $FWD-XWODQGLFD,;@ 0(<(5 $OE *U – 0(<(5 * .XU]JHIDßWH DOEDQHVLVFKH *UDPPDWLN PLW /HVHVWºFNHQXQG*ORVVDU/HLS]LJ 0(<(5$OE6W,– 0(<(5*$OEDQHVLVFKH6WXGLHQ,'LH3OXUDOELOGXQJHQGHU DOEDQHVLVFKHQ 1RPLQD 6LW]XQJVEHULFKWH GHU SKLORVRSKLVFKKLVWRULVFKHQ &ODVVH GHU .DLVHUOLFKHQ $NDGHPLH GHU :LVVHQVFKDIWHQ &,9 – 0(<(5 $OE 6W ,, – 0(<(5 * $OEDQHVLVFKH 6WXGLHQ ,, 'LH DOEDQHVLVFKHQ =DKOZµUWHU 6LW]XQJVEHULFKWH GHU SKLORVRSKLVFKKLVWRULVFKHQ &ODVVH GHU .DLVHUOLFKHQ$NDGHPLHGHU:LVVHQVFKDIWHQ&9,, – 0(<(5 :E – 0(<(5 * (W\PRORJLVFKHV :µUWHUEXFK GHU DOEDQHVLVFKHQ 6SUDFKH6WUDßEXUJ 06/–0©PRLUHVGHOD6RFL©W©GHOLQJXLVWLTXHGH3DULV3DULV 1XPHUDOV – ,QGR(XURSHDQ 1XPHUDOV %HUOLQ–1HZ 25(/ $OE – 25(/ 9 6UDYQLWHO’QRLVWRULFKHVNDMD JUDPPDWLND DOEDQVNRJR MD]\ND IRQHWLND L PRUIRORJLLD 'LVVHUWDFLMD >@ GRNW ILO QDXN 0RVNYD >PDQXVFULSW@ 3('(56(1$OE7H[WH– 3('(56(1+$OEDQHVLVFKH7H[WHPLW*ORVVDU/HLS]LJ 3('(56(1.HOW*U– 3('(56(1+9HUJOHLFKHQGH*UDPPDWLNGHUNHOWLVFKHQ 6SUDFKHQ*µWWLQJHQ 3('(56(1 3URQ – 3('(56(1 + /HV SURQRPV G©PRQVWUDWLIV GH O’DQFLHQ DUP©QLHQ.RSHQKDJHQ 3(.0(=,– 3(.0(=,**UDPPDWLNGHUDOEDQHVLVFKHQ6SUDFKH:LHQ 3,6$1,6DJJL– 3,6$1,96DJJLGLOLQJXLVWLFDVWRULFD7RULQR 325=,* *OLHGHUXQJ – 325=,* :3 'LH *OLHGHUXQJ GHV LQGRJHUPDQLVFKHQ 6SUDFKJHELHWV+HLGHOEHUJ 3ULW – .DWHJRULMD SULWMDÊDWHO’QRVWL Y VODYMDQVNLNK L EDOWLMVNLNK MD]\NDNK 0RV FRZ 3UREOKLVW– 3UREOHPHW¬KLVWRULQ¬V¬JMXKHVVKTLSH3ULVKWLQ¬ 3UREOUHN– .RQIHUHQFLMD“3UREOHP\UHNRVWUXNFLL”0RVFRZ 3URF ,; 8&/$ – 3URFHHGLQJV RI WKH 1LQWK $QQXDO 8&/$ ,QGR(XURSHDQ &RQIHUHQFH/RV$QJHOHV 36)LO– 3UREOHP\VUDYQLWHO’QRMILORORJLL/HQLQJUDG 5$60866(1 0RUSK – 5$60866(1 -( 6WXGLHQ ]XU 0RUSKRSKRQHPLN GHU LQGRJHUPDQLVFKHQ*UXQGVSUDFKH,QQVEUXFN 5%– 5RPDQR%DOFDQLFD9RSURV\DGDSWDFLLODWLQVNRJRMDV\NRYRJRªOHPHQWDY EDONDQVNRPDUHDOH/HQLQJUDG 5(6O– 5HYXHGHV©WXGHVVODYHV3DULV 55/– 5HYXHURXPDLQHGHOLQJXLVWLTXH%XFDUHVWH 56KN– 5HYLVWDVKNHQFRUHH,QVWLWXWLW3HGDJRJMLN'\YMHçDU6KNRG¬U 6$1')(/' /EDON – 6$1')(/' . /LQJXLVWLTXH EDONDQLTXH SUREOªPHV HW U©VXOWDWV3DULV 6%-D.RQWDNW\– 6ODYMDQVNRHLEDONDQVNRHMD]\NR]QDQLH3UREOHP\MD]\NRY\[ NRQWDNWRY0RVNYD 6&+0,' %DOW – 6&+0,' :3 6WXGLHQ ]XP EDOWLVFKHQ XQG LQGRJHUPDQLVFKHQ 9HUEXP:LHVEDGHQ 6(/,Û&%(9 6ODY 1DVHOHQLH – 6(/,Û&%(9 $0 6ODYMDQVNRH QDVHOHQLH Y $OEDQLL 6RILMD 6&/– 6WXGLL.L&HUFHW:UL/LQJYLVWLFH%XFXUH.WL 62/7$%DONDQOLQJXLVWLN– 62/7$*5(LQIºKUXQJLQGLH%DONDQOLQJXLVWLNPLW EHVRQGHUHU %HUºFNVLFKWLJXQJ GHV 6XEVWUDWV XQG GHV %DONDQODWHLQLVFKHQ 'DUPVWDGW 6RYVODY– 6RYHWVNRHVODYMDQRYHGHQLH0RVNYD>IURP –6ODYMDQRYHGHQLH@ 6SUDFKH– 'LH6SUDFKH=HLWVFKULIWIºU6SUDFKZLVVHQVFKDIW:LHQ 66*/– 6WXGLHVLQ6ODYLFDQG*HQHUDO/LQJXLVWLFV$PVWHUGDP–$WODQWD 66/– 6WXGLHVDJJLOLQJXLVWLFL3LVD 6WDOE– 6WXGLDOEDQHVL1DSROL 6W)– 6WXGLPH)LORORJMLNH7LUDQD 6W,(– 6WXGLDLQGRHXURSHMVNLH:URFwDZ–:DUV]DZD–.UDN²Z–Gda¼sk references xix 6=(0(5É1<,1XPHUDOV– 6=(0(5É1<,26WXGLHVLQWKH,QGR(XURSHDQ6\VWHP RI1XPHUDOV+HLGHOEHUJ 7$*/,$9,1,'DOPD]LD– 7$*/,$9,1,&/’DOEDQHVHGL'DOPD]LD)LUHQ]H > %LEOLRWHFDGHOO $UFKLYXP5RPDQLFXP;;,, VHU @ 7$*/,$9,1, 6WUDWLILFD]LRQH – 7$*/,$9,1, & 6WUDWLILFD]LRQH GHO OHVVLFR DOEDQHVH(OHPHQWLLQGRHXURSHL%RORJQD 9$,//$17*UFRPS– 9$,//$17$*UDPPDLUHFRPSDU©HGHVODQJXHVVODYHV ,–,,,3DULV–/\RQ – 9$5%27 3UDVODY – 9$5%27 ää 3UDVODYMDQVNDMD PRUIRQRORJLMD VORYR REUD]RYDQLHLªWLPRORJLMD0RVNYD 9$60(5 $OE :RUWIRUVFK – 9$60(5 0 6WXGLHQ ]XU DOEDQHVLVFKHQ :RUW IRUVFKXQJ'RUSDW $FWDHW&RPP8QLY'RUS6HULH%, 9-D–9RSURV\MD]\NR]QDQLMD0RVNYD 92521,1$ 0HVKDUL – 92521,1$ ,, 6LVWHPD DUWLNOHM Y UDQQHQRYRDOEDQVNRP MD]\NH ;9, YHND QD PDWHULDOH MD]\NRYRJR SDPMDWQLND ;9, YHND–0HVKDUL *M%X]XND0RVFRZ 96-D– 9RSURV\VODYMDQVNRJRMD]\NR]QDQLMD9\S0RVNYD :$7.,16 *HVFKLFKWH – :$7.,16 & *HVFKLFKWH GHU LQGRJHUPDQLVFKHQ 9HUEDOIOH[LRQ+HLGHOEHUJ :(,*$1' *U – :(,*$1' */ $OEDQHVLVFKH *UDPPDWLN LP VºGJHJLVFKHQ 'LDOHNW 'XUD]]R(OEDVVDQ7LUDQD /HLS]LJ ;+89$1, Ç$%(- 3DUDVKW – ;+89$1, $ Ç$%(- ( 3DUDVKWHVDW H JMXK¬V VKTLSH Ç$%(-6W,,, ;+89$1, Ç$%(- 3UDSDVKW – ;+89$1, $ Ç$%(- ( 3UDSDVKWHVDW H JMXK¬V VKTLSH Ç$%(-6W,,, =I%DON– =HLWFKULIWIºU%DONDQRORJLH:LHVEDGHQ =I3KRQHWLN – =HLWVFKULIW IºU 3KRQHWLN XQG DOOJHPHLQH 6SDUFKZLVVHQVFKDIW %HUOLQ > =HLWVFKULIW IºU 3KRQHWLN 6SDUFKZLVVHQVFKDIW XQG .RPPXQLND WLRQVIRUVFKXQJ@ This page intentionally left blank $%%5(9,$7,216)25/$1*8$*(6$1'',$/(&76 Afgh – Afghan Alb – Albanian Anat – Anatolian Arm – Armenian Att – Attic Av – Avestan Balt – Baltic Bret – Breton Bulg – Bulgarian Corn – Cornish Dac – Dacian Dor – Doric E – English EPA – Early Proto-Albanian Fr – French G – German Gk – Greek Gmc – Germanic Goth – Gothic Hitt – Hittite Hom – Homeric IE – Indo-European Illyr – Illyrian Ion – Ionic Iran – Iranian Ir – Irish Lat – Latin Latv – Latvian Lith – Lithuanian LPA – Late Proto-Albanian Lyd – Lydian MDu – Middle Dutch Mess – Messapic MGk – Middle Greek MIr – Middle Irish MLG – Middle Low German MW – Middle Welsh NIr – Modern Irish OAlb – Old Albanian OCorn – Old Cornish OE – Old English OFris – Old Frisian OHG – Old High German OIr – Old Irish OLat – Old Latin xxii abbreviationsreferences ON – Old Norse OPers – Old Persian OPrus – Old Prussian OS – Old Saxon Osc – Oscan Osset – Ossetic Phryg – Phrygian Rom – Romance Rum – Rumanian SCr – Serbo-Croatian Scyth – Scythian Skt – Sanskrit Slav – Slavic Thrac – Thracian Toch – Tocharian Umbr – Umbrian W – Welsh 3+212/2*< 9RZHOV ,QGR(XURSHDQ YRFDOLVP DV LW FDQ EH UHFRQVWUXFWHG DIWHU WKH ORVV RI ODU\QJHDOV ZDV UHODWLYHO\ ZHOO SUHVHUYHG LQ (DUO\ 3URWR $OEDQLDQ +RZHYHU LWV HYROXWLRQ IURP (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ WR /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQDQGWKHQWR$OEDQLDQLVTXLWHFRPSOLFDWHG1XPHURXV SKRQRORJLFDOFKDQJHVREVFXUHPDQ\GHWDLOV 6KRUWYRZHOV 7KH V\VWHP RI VKRUW YRZHOV H[SHULHQFHG WZR PDMRU WUDQVIRU PDWLRQV WKHPHUJHURI,( D RDQG LQVRPHSKRQRORJLFDOFRQWH[WV i DW WKH (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ OHYHO DQG ODWHU FRPSOH[ SKRQRORJLFDO FKDQJHVRI H /LWHUDWXUH 0(<(5 $OE 6W ,,, 0$11 /DQJXDJH ;;9, ;;9,,, +LVW *U %$5,&´ ,VW H ! L LQ PLVK 3,6$1, 6DJJL +$03 .= /;;;,9 FRQGLWLRQV RI WKH GLSKWKRQJL]DWLRQRI H *(25*,(97UDNLWH $OEDQLDQ'DFLDQ SDUDOOHOLQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI H Ç$%(-6W,,, 25(/6%MD .RQWDNW\ ,( DZDVSUHVHUYHGDV(3$ D!$OED(3$ DFKDQJHV WR $OE H XQGHU WKH LQIOXHQFH RI YDULRXV SKRQHWLF RU PRUSKRQRORJLFDO IDFWRUV DFDU ‘VKDUS’ (3$ DWVDUD ,( D LG 2,U DLFKH ‘VKDUS’ *N CMTQP‘SRLQWWRS’/LWKDhU¸V‘VKDUS’6ODY RVWUÙLG DVKN¬ ‘ZRRG VSOLQWHU’ (3$D N hN ,( DV ‘D[LV’ 6NW¢N¿D *NCEYP/DWD[LV EDWK¬‘EURDGEHDQ’ (3$ EDWV *NHCMJ‘GLVKRIOHQWLOV’HCMQX ‘OHQWLO’ GKDOO¬‘EXWWHUPLON’ (3$ G]DO *NICNCLG HOE‘EDUOH\’ (3$ DOEL *NCNHK NDS ‘WR VHL]H WR JUDVS’ (3$ NDSD ,( NDS ‘WR VHL]H’ *N MCRVY‘WRVQDS’/DWFDSLA‘WRVHL]HWRWDNH’*RWKKDEDQ‘WR KROGWRKDYH’ NHT‘EDGHYLO’ (3$ NDNMD *NMCMQXLG 2 chapter one PDM ~PDˆM ‘WR IHHG WR IDWWHQ’ (3$ PD]GQMD ,( PD]G ‘IHHGLQJ’ 2+*PDVW6NWP©ÅDV‘IDWPDUURZ’ ,( R\LHOGHG(3$ D7KHODWWHUUHIOHFWVDV$OEDEXWUDLVHVWR $OEHLQFHUWDLQSKRQHWLFFRQGLWLRQV VHH (3$ DDSSHDUVDV¬~ â EHIRUHQDVDOFRQVRQDQWV GHUU‘SLJ’ (3$ GDUMD ,( ½KRURVLG *NZQK`TQX JM¬~JMâ‘WKLQJ’ (3$ VDQ V ,( VRQWV‘EHLQJ’ 6NWVDQW*N YP PDUGK¬‘FKLOOIURVWLFH’ (3$ PDUG] 6ODY PRU]Ù‘IURVW’ QDW¬ ‘QLJKW’ (3$ QDNWL FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR ,( QRNÆW LG 6NW Q¢NW*NPWE/DWQR[ QHV¬U ‘WRPRUURZ’ (3$ QDWhAU ,( QRNÆWAU :QHLWKLZU QHLWKZ\U‘ODVWQLJKW’%UHWQHL]œUQHL]ºULG SD‘ZLWKRXWEHIRUHWKHQ’ (3$ DSDUHIOHFWLQJ,( DSR 6NW¢SD ‘DZD\ RII’ *N C RQ ‘IURP’ *RWK DI ‘IURP ZLWKRXW EHIRUH WKHQ’ ,( i JDYH VLPLODU UHIOH[HV LH (3$ D ODWHU EHFRPLQJ D VRXUFHRI$OEDRULQVSHFLILFDOO\GHILQHGFRQGLWLRQV EHFRPLQJ $OEHRU¬ IODN‘WRWKURZWRIOLQJ’ (3$ DZDODND]HURJUDGHRI,( ON~ OiNWREHQGWRMXPS’ 0+*OHFNHQ‘WRWKURZEDFNWRVSULQJ’ /LWKOHNL¸O|NWL‘WRIO\’/DWYOªNW‘WRVSULQJWRMXPS’ NHP‘LQFHQVH’ (3$ NDSQD]HURJUDGHRI,( NÆS *NMCRPQX ‘VPRNH’ OHK~OHI‘WREDUN’ (3$ ODMD 6NWUd\DWLLG/LWKO²MXO²WLLG6ODY ODMDWL PDV‘WRPHDVXUH’ (3$ PDWMD ,( PiWAGHQRPLQDWLYHRI P LG 6NWPPWL7RFK$PH UUDK‘WREHDWWRVWULNH’ (3$ ZUDJVND]HURJUDGHRI,( ÆUJK LG *NT CUUY VKWD]¬ ~VKWDˆ]¬ ‘DQLPDO’ EDVHG RQ (3$ VWDQD IURP ,( VWiQR ,( VW K ‘WRVWDQG’ WDOO¬‘SHHOHGFRUQFRE FRUQVWUDZ’ (3$ WDO]HURJUDGHUHODWHG WR*NVJ`NKX‘IHQXJUHHN’/LWKDW²ODV‘ILUVWJUDVVHPHUJLQJDIWHU KD\PRZLQJ’ phonology 3 ,WPD\EHVXVSHFWHGWKDWGLIIHUHQWO\FRORUHGODU\QJHDOV RUVFKZD FRXOG \LHOGGLIIHUHQWUHIOH[HVLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQ,QGHHGZHILQGDWOHDVWRQH FDVH ZKHUH WKH UHIOH[ VHHPV WR EH (3$ H FRQWLQXLQJ D “SDODWDO” ODU\QJHDOLQD]HURJUDGHIRUPRI,( GK L GKH+L GMDO¬ ‘ER\ \RXWK’ (3$ GHOD ,( GKL ‘WR VXFN’ /DWY G?OV ‘VRQ’/DWIOLXVLG +RZHYHU LQ VRPH RWKHU FDVHV ,( i LV ORVW LQ $OEDQLDQ ,W VHHPV SUREDEOH WKDW “VFKZD” LV ORVW ZKHQHYHU LW IROORZV D VWUHVVHG V\OODEOHDVGHPRQVWUDWHGE\WKHIROORZLQJWZRH[DPSOHV EDOW¬‘VZDPSPDUVKGLUWHDUWK’ (3$ EDOW ,( EK²OiWRPLG 6ODY EROWRFI/LWKE¢OWDV‘ZKLWH’ EDUGK¬‘ZKLWH’ (3$ EDUG]D EK²Ui½R‘VKLQLQJ’ 6NWEK¢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~ LH LQ/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQ ELH ‘WR EULQJ’ (3$ EHUMD ,( EKHU ‘WR EULQJ WR FDUU\’ 6NW EK¢UDWL*NHGTY/DWIHUA GMH‘\HVWHUGD\’ (3$ GH 6NWK\¢VLG*NZSGXLG/DWKHULLG GKMHV ‘WR GHIHFDWH’ (3$ G]HWhD ,( ½KHG LG 6NW KDGDWL *N ZG\Y PMHN¬U ‘FKLQ EHDUG’ (3$ VPHNU ,( VPHUX LG +LWW ]DPDQNXU ‘EHDUG’ 6NW yP¢yUX LG $UP PDZURZ LG /LWK VP¦NUDV‘FKLQ’ VMHOO ‘WR EULQJ’ (3$ WhHOD ,( NÆHO 6NWF¢UDWL ‘WR PRYH WR ZDON’*NRGNY‘WRFRPHLQWRH[LVWHQFHWREHFRPH’/DWFROA ‘WRFXOWLYDWHWRWLOO’ 4 chapter one YMHUU‘WRKDQJ’ (3$ ZHUD ,( V ÆHU *NC GKTY‘WRUDLVHXS’ /LWKYHUL¸Y©UWL‘WRZHLJK’VYHUL¸VYH¼WL‘WRRSHQWRWKUHDG’ YMHW‘\HDU’ (3$ ZHWD ,( ÆHWLG +LWWÆLWW*NGVQX ,WLVXQNQRZQXQGHUZKDWFRQGLWLRQVWKHUHVXOWLQJGLSKWKRQJVDSSHDUDV LHRUMH1RFRPSOHPHQWDU\GLVWULEXWLRQFDQEHHVWDEOLVKHGLQVRIDUDVZH KDYHGLHOO‘VXQ’YVGMHJ‘WREXUQ’SMHOO‘WREHJHWWRSURGXFHWREHDU’ DQGELHYVGMH‘\HVWHUGD\’DQGEMHUU‘WRORVH’4XLWHSUREDEO\WKLVGLI IHUHQWLDWLRQ JRHV EDFN WR UHODWLYHO\ UHFHQW GLDOHFWDO YDULDWLRQV ODWHU XQLILHGDQGOH[LFDOL]HGLQPRGHUQ$OEDQLDQ ,QQXPHURXVZRUGVWKHQHZGLSKWKRQJ H\LHOGHGMDLQVWHDGRI MH ,Q D IHZ FDVHV LW FDQ EH GHPRQVWUDWHG WKDW WKLV FKDQJH WRRN SODFH EHIRUH LRIWKHQH[WV\OODEOHDVVKRZQE\WKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV GMDWK¬‘FKHHVH’ (3$ GHGL 6NWG¢GKL‘VRXUPLON’ EXWFI23UXV GDGDQ‘PLON’ MDP‘,DP’ (3$ HVPL ,( HVPLLG 6NW¢VPL*NGK OK PMDOW¬‘KRQH\’ (3$ PHOLWD ,( PHOLWLG +LWWPLOLW*NOGNK *RWKPLOLÈLG $OEDQLDQMDLVVLPSOLILHGWRDDIWHUJM JMDOS¬‘EXWWHU’ (3$ VHOSL 6NWVDUSV‘FODULILHGEXWWHU’ EXWFI *N GNRQX GNCKQP UVGCT GW SJPKC +HV 2+* VDOED ‘RLQWPHQW’ JMDVKW¬‘VL[’ (3$ VHNVWLGHULYDWLRQDOO\FORVHWR6NW¿D¿WL‘VL[ WHQV’ /3$ H~ DORVWLWVILUVWHOHPHQWEHIRUH G] WV QG QW PE7KLVUXOHLVFRUURERUDWHGE\WKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV EUHGK‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’ EUHG]D (3$ EUHGD 6ODY EUHG_ EUHVWL‘WRZDGHWRIRUG’/LWKEUHQG¸EU®VWLLG EUHQGD‘LQVLGH’ (3$ HQ SHUHQWD ,QGR(XURSHDQVHTXHQFHRI HQFO\WLFV HQSHUHQWRG çDQG¬U‘SURSVXSSRUW’ (3$ hWhHQWUD ,( HQWURP *NMGPVTQP ‘JRDGVSXU’ GHQG ‘WR VWXII’ (3$ HQ WHQGD ,( WHQG 6NW WDQGDWH ‘WR ZHDNHQ’/DWWHQGA‘WRVWUHWFK’ phonology 5 GUHGK‘WRWXUQWRURWDWH’ (3$ GUHG]D ,( GUH½K $UPGDàQDP ‘WRWXUQ’ GKHPE ‘WR DFKH’ (3$ G]HPED ,( ½HPEK 6NW M¢PEKDWH ‘WR VQDS DW’ /LWK ÊHPEL¸ ÊHÄEWL ‘WR FXW’ 6ODY ]?E_ ]?EWL ‘WR IUHH]HWRIHHOFROG’ OHQG‘DFRUQ’ (3$ OHQWD ,( OHQW‘OLQVH’ /DWOQVOQWLV2+* OLQVL6ODY O?WMD PEOHGK ‘WR JDWKHU WR FROOHFW’ (3$ DPELOHG]D ,( OH½ *N NGIYLG/DWOHJA‘WRUHDG WRJDWKHU’ WUHPE‘WRIULJKWHQ’ /3$ WUHPED (3$ WUHPD ,( WUHP 7RFK $ W¥UP ‘WR JHW DQJU\’ *N VTGOY ‘WR WUHPEOH RI IHDU ’ /DW WUHPALG 7KLVPDWHULDOLVRSSRVHGWRIRUPVZLWK3URWR$OEDQLDQFOXVWHUVXVXDOO\ EHJLQQLQJ ZLWK OLTXLGV— OQ UG UJ UG] UN UP UQ UHWDLQLQJ /3$ H~ D GMHUU‘WRGHVWUR\’ (3$ GHUQD ,( GHU 6NWGodWL‘WREXUVWWR WHDU’*NFGTY‘WRVNLQ’*RWKJDWDLUDQ‘WRWHDU’ MHUP ‘GHOLULXP DEVHQWPLQGHGQHVV’ (3$ HUPD /LWK H¼PDV ‘PRQVWHU’/DWY?UPV‘ZRQGHUIXODSSDULWLRQ’ SMHOO‘WREHJHWWRSURGXFHWREHDU’ (3$ SHOQDWR/DWSHOOA‘WR GULYHWRSXVK’ SMHUGK ‘WR IDUW’ (3$ SHUGD ,( SHUG LG 6NW S¢UGDWH *N RGTFQOCK2+*IHU]DQ/LWKS©UGÊLXS©UVWL WMHUU‘WRVSLQ’ (3$ WHUND ,( WHUNÆ‘WRWXUQ’ 7RFK%W¥UN/DW WRUTXHA ]YMHUGK‘WRZHDQ’ (3$ YHUG]D /LWKYHUÊL¸YH¼ÊWL‘WRODFHWR WLH’/DWYYU]W‘WRWXUQ’6ODY YHU]WL‘WRELQG’ MDUJ¬‘VSLWSKOHJP’ (3$ HUJ $YiUi]DQW‘EDG’2+*DUJ‘EDG HYLO’/LWKDUʸV‘OXVW\’ /3$ H~ DLVDOVRSUHVHUYHGEHIRUHWKHFOXVWHUVZKLFKWHQGWREHJLQ ZLWKYHODUV GMDWKW¬ ‘ULJKW’ (3$ GHWVD ,( GHV LG 6NW G¢N¿LoD *N FGEKQX/DWGH[WHU MDVKW¬‘RXWVLGH’ (3$ H N hWLWR,( H½KV‘RXW’ *NGE/DWH[ 6 chapter one PMHN¬U ‘FKLQ EHDUG’ (3$ VPHNU ,( VPHUX LG +LWW ]DPDQNXU ‘EHDUG’ 6NW yP¢yUX LG $UP PDZURZ LG /LWK VP¦NUDV‘FKLQ’ $WDODWHUVWDJHWKHILUVWHOHPHQWRIWKHGLSKWKRQJZDVORVWDIWHU DIIULFDWHVFçSDODWDOVJMTDQGOLTXLGVOU EXWDIWHUWKHODWWHURQO\LILW LV WKH VHFRQG HOHPHQW RI D FOXVWHU 7KLV FDQ EH REVHUYHG LQ WKH IRO ORZLQJH[DPSOHV VRPHRIWKHPKDYHDOUHDG\EHHQDGGXFHGLQ FHUP¬‘FROGFRRO’ çDM‘WRVSOLWWRFOHDYH’çDO¬‘ODPH’çDQG¬U‘SURSVXSSRUW’çDS‘WR FKHZ’çDUV‘WRGHVWUR\WRVSRLO’çHO‘WRRSHQ’çHP‘WREULQJWR OLJKWWRGLVFORVH’ JMDOS¬ ‘EXWWHU’ JMDUS¬U ‘VQDNH’ JMDVKW¬ ‘VL[’ JMHWK ‘IROLDJH JUHHQ OHDYHV’ TDV ‘WR DSSURDFK’ THOO ‘WR KDOW WR KROG XS WR FDUU\’ THS ‘WR VHZ WRJHWKHU WRVHL]H’VKTDUU‘PDUWHQ’VKTHUU‘WRWHDU FORWK ’ IOH‘WRVOHHS’IOHW¬‘ZLQJOHDI’OHQG‘DFRUQ’PEOHGK‘WRJDWKHUWR FROOHFW’ EUHGK ‘ILUWUHH’ EUHGK ‘MXPS VSULQJ’ EUHQGD ‘LQVLGH’ GUHGK ‘WR WXUQWRURWDWH’NUHK‘WRFRPE’VKWUHN‘FRUSVHFDUULRQ’WUHPED ‘WRIULJKWHQ’ 7KHUHLVRQHH[FHSWLRQWRWKLVGLVWULEXWLRQ çMHUU‘WRWHDUXS’ ,QDIHZFDVHV/3$ H~ DORVHVLWVILUVWHOHPHQWGHVSLWHWKH UXOHV GHVFULEHG LQ 7KXV LQ WKDUN ‘HQFORVXUH HVSHFLDOO\ IRU PLONLQJ ’ZHILQGDWKDWFDQEHRQO\H[SODLQHGIURPHDUOLHU DLIWKDUN LVWREHGHULYHGIURPWKXUDVVXJJHVWHGLQ$('VY7KHUHIRUHLWFRXOG EH QHFHVVDU\ WR UHYLVH WKLV HW\PRORJ\ DQG WR UHWXUQ WR DQRWKHU LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ 0(<(5$OE6W,,, IURP,( ÆRUNRV 7KHIRUPHVK ‘KHGJHKRJ’LVHYHQPRUHGLIILFXOWLQYLHZRIZLGHO\DWWHVWHGLQLWLDO HLQ ,QGR(XURSHDQFI*NG ZK`PQXLG2+*LJLOLG/LWKHÊmVLG6ODY HÊÚ LG 7KH VDPH LV WUXH RI PH ‘ZLWK’ (3$ PH W HW\PRORJLFDOO\ FRQQHFWHGZLWK*RWKPLÈLG*NOGVC‘LQWKHPLGGOHEHWZHHQ’(YHQ PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG LV WKH FDVH RI IHUU¬ ‘WKRUQ WKRUQ\ EXVK’ ZKLFK LV FRPSDUHGZLWKIRUPVGLVSOD\LQJDOHVVFOHDUURRWYRZHOFI21VSM_UDV RSSRVHGWR/DWVSDUXV‘VKRUWVSHDU’ phonology 7 ,Q D IHZ ZRUGV L VHHPV WR UHIOHFW RULJLQDO H ! H ,Q YLW ‘\HDU’LEHORQJHGRULJLQDOO\WRWKHIRUPRISOXUDO7KHSDUDGLJPRIWKLV QRXQGLVSOD\HGDQDOWHUQDWLRQRIVJ H~ SO LDQGZDVODWHUUHVWUXF WXUHGXQGHUWKHLQIOXHQFHRISDUDGLJPDWLFDQDORJLHV7KXVVJYLWLVD VHFRQGDU\ IRUPDWLRQ UHSODFLQJ ROGHU YMHW (W\PRORJLFDOO\ UHODWHG YLç KDV LWV L RI WKH VDPH RULJLQ ,Q ]L ‘EODFN’ WKH YRZHO UHVXOWV IURP WKH FRQWUDFWLRQRIHDUOLHU ]¬L (3$ GÊHGD ÞHGLRV$VWRWKHLLQLWK ‘EHKLQG’ LWV YRZHO PDNHV LW IDLUO\ FORVH WR 6ODYLF MÚ] DQG %DOWLF 23UXVLV/LWK®h(/DWYL] $WWKHVDPHWLPHDUDWKHULQIUHTXHQWFKDQJHRI HWRLLVDWWHVWHG7KLV SURFHVVWRRNSODFHEHIRUH PIROORZHGE\DVLELODQWRUDQDIIULFDWH,WV HDUO\ GDWH LV FRUURERUDWHG E\ WKH IDFW WKDW WKH VLELODQW IROORZLQJ HPHUJLQJ LZDVVXEMHFWWRWKH“UXNL”UXOH7KHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHVFDQ LOOXVWUDWHWKLVSKRQHWLFGHYHORSPHQW JMLWK¬JMLGK¬‘DOO’ (3$ VHPG]D ,( VHP½KR‘RQH’ $UPH] VHP½KR PLVK ‘IOHVK PHDW’ (3$ PHPVD ,( PHPVR LG 6NW P$VD ‘IOHVKPHDW’$UPPLV*RWKPLP]6ODY P?VR )RUWKHHDUO\FKURQRORJ\RIWKHDERYHVKLIWLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRWDNHLQWR DFFRXQW D GLIIHUHQW FKDQJH LQ /DWLQ ORDQZRUGV ZLWK D VLPLODU FOXVWHU ZKHUHKRZHYHUWKHVRXUFHYRZHOZDVORQJ SHVK¬‘ZHLJKW VWRQHERXOGHU’Õ/DWSHQVXPLG 6KRUW,( L\LHOGV(3$ L!$OELDVVKRZQE\VHYHUDODWWHVWHG H[DPSOHV ELQG‘WRFRQYLQFHWRSHUVXDGH’ (3$ ELQGDDQDVDOSUHVHQWEDVHG RQ,( EKHLGK‘WRSHUVXDGHWRIRUFH’ GKL‘VKHJRDW’ (3$ DLG]LM *NCKELG$UPD\FLG JML‘EUHDVWFKHVW’ (3$ VLQD /DWVLQXV‘FXUYHIROG’ KL‘DVK’ (3$ VNLQD /DWFLQLV‘GXVW’ ]L‘EODFN’ VHH PEL‘RQXSRQ’ (3$ DPEL ,( DPEKL *NC OHK‘DERXWDURXQG’ *RWKEL2,ULPP &HOW EL 8 chapter one 6KRUW ,( X UHPDLQHG XQFKDQJHG LQ (3$ X ! $OE XDV FRURERUDWHGE\WKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV EXW¬’VRIWVPRRWK’ (3$ EXJWD ,( EKXJK 1,UERJ‘VRIW’$UP ERZ‘EOXQW’ EX]¬ ‘OLS HQG HGJH EDQN VWLWFK URFN’ (3$ EXGM /LWK EXG| ‘WUHHIXQJXVWLQGHUZKHWVWRQH’ GUX‘WUHH ZRRG’ (3$ GUXZD ,( GUXLG 6ODY GUÙYR‘ZRRG’ 6NWGUXLG$YGUXLG*NFTW`X‘WUHHRDN’ JMXP¬‘VOHHS’ (3$ VXSQ ,( VXSQR *NWRPQX‘VOHHS’6ODY VÙQÙLG KX ~ KXl ‘SLFNHW VWDNH SROH SHQLV’ (3$ VNXQD 6ODY [XMÚ ‘SHQLV’ VNRXRV VXW¬‘IHPDOHGHHUGRH’ (3$ WhXNW‘KRUQHGDQLPDO’ ,( XN /LWKh¸NRV‘FRPE’h¸N^‘FURFN’hXNHWDV‘GHQWHGFKLSSHG’ /RQJYRZHOV 7KH KLVWRU\ RI ORQJ YRFDOLVP LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ LQFOXGHV WKH PHUJHU RI ,( DQG DV ZHOO DV WKH GLSKWKRQJL]DWLRQ DQG SDODWDOL ]DWLRQRIURXQGHGYRZHOVDWDODWHUVWDJH /LWHUDWXUH 3('(56(1 .= ;;;9, GLVWULEXWLRQ RI \L :(,*$1' *U /2:0$11 /DQJXDJH 9,,, WHUWLDU\ RSSRVLWLRQ LQ OHQJWK LQ *HJ 0$11 /DQJXDJH ;;9, +LVW *U 32/Á.6&/;, FRPELQDWRULDOPHFKDQLVPVRI*HJ OHQJWKHQLQJ Ç$%(- %86K7 ;,,, FKURQRORJ\ RI ! º 6W) 9,, *HJ OHQJWKV DV FRQWLQXDQWV RI ,QGR(XURSHDQ ORQJ YRZHOV 3UREO KLVW 6W ,,, '2', &,(% *HJOHQJWKV ,( ZDV SUHVHUYHG LQ (3$ /DWHU LW ZDV ODELDOL]HG DQG FKDQJHGWR/3$ Di DQGWKHQWR$OER IWRK ~ IWRI ‘WR FRRO WR PDNH FROG’ (3$ DZDWMD ,( W ‘WR PHOW’ 6ODY WDM_ WDMDWL2VVHWWDM\QLG NROO¬ ‘FRXJK’ (3$ NVO ,( NÆVO LG 6ODY NDhOÚ /LWK NRVXOmV PRW¬U‘VLVWHU’ (3$ PWHU ,( PWHU‘PRWKHU’ 6NWPW¢U*N OJVJT/DWPWHU SORMH‘VODXJKWHUFDUQDJH’ SORH (3$ SOJ *NRNJIJ‘EORZ’ /DWSOJD‘EORZVODXJKWHU’ phonology 9 VKNRS‘VWLFNFDQH’ (3$ VNSD *NUMC`RQX MNCFQX/DWVFSXV ‘VKDIWVWHP’2+*VNDIW‘VKDIWVSHDU’ VKWRM‘WRLQFUHDVH’ (3$ VWQMD ,( VW 6NWWL¿bKDWL‘WRVWDQG’ *NKUVJOK‘WRSXW’/DWVWA‘WRVWDQG’2+*VWQLG/LWKVW²MX VW²WLLG6ODY VWRM_ VWRMDWLLG $V LV FOHDU IURP WKH DWWHVWHG GHYHORSPHQW RI ,( LQ WKH SRVLWLRQ EHIRUH FOXVWHUV LQ (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ VWLOO GLIIHUHQWLDWHG EHWZHHQ ,( DQG ,( 7KXV ZH KDYH WR UHFRQVWUXFW (3$ +RZHYHUDWODWHUVWDJHVLWFKDQJHGWR/3$ å DQGPHUJHGZLWK,( !(3$ $VGLVFXVVHGDERYHWKHODWWHUGHYHORSHGLQWR/3$ åDQG HYHQWXDOO\WR$OER7KHHYROXWLRQRI,( WRRFDQEHFRUURERUDWHG by numerous examples: ERM ‘WR GULYH WR PDWH’ (3$ EJQMD ,( EKHÞ ZLWK D OHQJWKHQLQJVLPLODUWR/LWKE{JWL‘WRUXQ’/DWYEêJWLG ORGK‘WRWLUHWRZHDU\’ (3$ OGD ,( OG *RWKOHWDQ‘WROHW’ *NNJFGK`P MQRKC`PMGMOJMGPCK PRV ‘QRW’ SURKLELWLYH (3$ PWh ,( P NÆH ‘DQG QRW’ *N OJVG QJURK‘WRZDUP’ (3$ HQJUMD 6ODY JUpM_ JUpWLLG SORW¬‘IXOO’ (3$ SOWD ,( SOWR‘IXOO’ 6NWSUW¢/DWFRP SOWXV WKRP ‘WR VD\’ (3$ WVQVPL ,( HQV 23HUVSWL\‘WR VD\ WR VSHDN’/DWFQVHA‘WRDVVHVVWRYDOXH’ ,( AZDVSUHVHUYHGDVVXFKLQ/3$ A$WDODWHUVWDJHLQWKH HQG RI WKH /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ SHULRG LW ZDV GLSKWKRQJL]HG DQG UHVXOWHGLQ/3$ ÆH7KLVSURFHVVZDVVWUXFWXUDOO\SDUDOOHOWREXWQRW VLPXOWDQHRXVZLWKWKHGLSKWKRQJL]DWLRQRI WKDWPXVWKDYHKDSSHQHG ODWHULIZHFDQUHO\RQWKHGDWDRI/DWLQORDQZRUGV VHH 7KHQ /3$ ÆHWXUQHGLQWR ö DQGILQDOO\LQWR$OEH EOHUW¬ ‘JUHHQ’ (3$ EOAUD ,( EKOAURV /DW IOAUXV ‘VKLQLQJ EULJKW’2,UEO¢U‘JUD\’:EODZULG KHOO‘VSHDUVSLW’ (3$ VNAOD *NUMY`NQX‘SRLQWHGVWDNHWKRUQ’ NUHGK‘WRSOXQJHWRLPPHUVHWRVWHHSWRVPRWKHUWREHVSDWWHU’ (3$ NUAGD 6ODY NUDG_ NUDVWL ‘WR VWHDO’ UHIO NUDG_ V? NUDVWLV?‘WRVQHDNWRVWHDOXSWRDSSURDFKXQQRWLFHG’ 10 chapter one QJMHVK ‘WR JLUG’ (3$ HQMhD ,( AV $Y \vKDLLHLWL LG *N \YPPWOKLG/LWKM·RVWLLG6ODY MDVDWL‘WRWHDUFORWKHV’ PHKHP ‘WR IDLO’ (3$ PAMD 2+* PXRDQ ‘WR ZRUN GLOLJHQWO\’ 6ODY PDMDWL‘WRZRUNVORZO\’ WHW¬‘HLJKW’ (3$ DNWA WL ,( RWA X ‘HLJKW’ 6NWD¿bd$UPRZ *NQ MVY WUHV ‘WR PHOW WR ORRVHQ WR GLVVROYH’ (3$ WUAWMD 6ODY WUDWM_ WUDWLWL‘WRVSHQGWRZDVWH’ ,QWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHZRUG/3$ ÆHZDVSUHVHUYHGLQ$OEYHDVLQ WKHZRUGIRU‘HDU’ZKHUHDGLSKWKRQJZLWKDORQJILUVWHOHPHQWLVWUHDWHG OLNHDFRUUHVSRQGLQJORQJYRZHO VHH YHVK¬ /3$ ÆHVD (3$ AXVDFORVHWR*NY?XLG ,( GLG QRW FKDQJH LQ (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ DQG ZDV ODWHU SUHVHUYHGDV/3$ LDQG$OEL GL ‘WR NQRZ’ (3$ GMD ]HURJUDGH RI ,( GKHLi ‘WR VHH’ 6NW GK\WL GK\\DWL ‘WR REVHUYH WR IHHO WR WKLQN’ $Y G \ ‘WR VHH’ GLN¬‘GHVLUHOXVW’ (3$ GNVXEVWDQWLYL]HGDGMHFWLYHUHODWHGWR /LWKGmNDV‘LGOHHPSW\’6ODY GLNÙ‘ZLOG’ GLW¬‘GD\’ (3$ GW *PF WGL]‘WLPH’ 2+*]W2(WG DQG 6NWGWL‘EULJKWQHVVVSOHQGRU’ KLMHKH‘VKDGRZ’ (3$ NVLM ,( VL~ VLG 6NWFK\d *NUMKC KLUU¬‘ZKH\’ (3$ NVLU 6NWN¿U¢‘PLON’2VVHWæ[hLULG SL‘WRGULQNWRVXFN’ (3$ SMD ,( SA L ~ S‘WRGULQN’ 6NW SdWL‘WRGULQN’*NRKPY/DWELEA ,( ZDVSUHVHUYHGDV(3$ EXWODWHUGLSKWKRQJL]HGWR/3$ ÆLVLPLODUWR/3$ ÆH A7KLVGHYHORSPHQWLVSURYHGLQGLUHFWO\E\ WKHVLPLODUHYROXWLRQRIJURXSVLQFOXGLQJ ÆLDQGDOVRGLUHFWO\E\2OG $OEDQLDQVSHOOLQJXL(YHQWXDOO\ ÆLFKDQJHGWR7RVN\~ *HJ\>ü@RU PRUHRIWHQ*HJL&IVHYHUDOH[DPSOHVEHORZ IU\M‘WREORZ’ (3$ VSU JQMD /LWKVSU JVWXVSU JWL‘WRHVFDSH WRJHWRXW’6ODY SU\JDWL‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’ JM\VK‘JUDQGIDWKHU’ (3$ V VD 6NWV ¿d‘SURJHQLWRU’ phonology 11 QJU\GK‘WRZRUNXSWRIRPHQWWRIHUPHQW’ (3$ HQNU GD /LWK JUgÊLXJUgVWL‘WRVWDPSWRSXQFK’/DWYJUûVWLG U\V ‘WRSUDFWLVHWRH[HUFLVH’ (3$ U WMD ,( UHÆi U /DW UXA‘WRUXVKGRZQWRIDOOGRZQ’6ODY U\WL‘WRGLJ’/LWKU¢XWL ‘WRWHDUWRSXOO’ WU\V‘WRSUHVVWRFRPSUHVVWRVTXHH]H’ (3$ WU WMD ,( WUHX~ WU *NVTWY‘WRZHDURXWWRH[KDXVW’/LWKWU QL¸WU Q{WL ‘WRURWWRJRIRXO’ ,QDXVODXW VRPHWLPHVIRUPHGE\WKHHDUO\ORVVRIILQDO VLQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ WKH ILUVW HOHPHQW RI WKH GLSKWKRQJ GLVDSSHDUHG DQG /3$ ÆL\LHOGHG$OEL PL ‘PRXVH’ (3$ P V ,( P V LG 6NW Pg¿ *N OW`X /DW P V WL‘WKRX’ (3$ W FRQWLQXLQJ,( W LG $YW *NUW/DWW 2,U W· WKL‘SLJ’ (3$ WV V ZLWKGLVVLPLODWLRQRIVLELODQWV ,( V VLG *NW=X/DWV V2+*V 7KHJOLGHRI/3$ ÆLZDVDOVRORVWDIWHUDODELDO ELP¬‘SODQW’ (3$ E P ,( EK PR *NHW`OCLG ELVKW‘WDLO’ (3$ E hWDGHULYDWLYHRI,( EK ‘WRJURZ’ PELM‘WRWKULYHWRJURZWRVKRRW’ (3$ HQE QMD ,( EK ‘WR JURZ’ PL]¬‘IO\’EDVHGRQ(3$ P M 21P\LG*NOWK`CLG/DWPXVFD LG RUEHIRUHLW NULS¬ ‘VDOW’ (3$ NU S ,( NUHXS 21 KUXID ‘VFDE’ /LWK NUDXS¸V ‘URXJK’ NUDXSLV ‘VFDE’ /DWY NUD-SLV ‘IUDLO EULWWOH’ 6ODY NUXSD‘JURDWV’ TLSL ‘VWDFN’ GHULYHG IURP (3$ N SD 23HUV NDXID ‘PRXQWDLQ’ 2+*KXIR‘KHDS’2(K©DSLG 7KHFDVHRIPL]¬KRZHYHUFDQDOVRLOOXVWUDWHDQRWKHUSKRQHWLFFRQWH[W LQZKLFK/3$ ÆLFKDQJHGWRL7KLVGHYHORSPHQWWRRNSODFHEHIRUH M DQG LDVLQWKHIROORZLQJZRUGV 12 chapter one GULQM¬‘EUXVKZRRG’ (3$ GU QMGHULYDWLYHRI,( GUHX‘WUHH’ SOLVK ‘NLQG RI UHHG 3KUDJPLWHV FRPPXQLV’ (3$ SO hL /LWK SO L h®V‘UHHG’ VKL ‘UDLQ’ (3$ V MD ZLWK GLVVLPLODWLRQ ,( V LG *N WGK 7RFK$VZDVH7RFK%VZHVH‘UDLQ’V ‘WRUDLQ’23UXVVXJH ‘UDLQ’ >V M@ 'LSKWKRQJV 7KHV\VWHPRI,QGR(XURSHDQGLSKWKRQJVZDVIXOO\SUHVHUYHG LQ(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQEXWODWHUZDVWRWDOO\UHRUJDQL]HGDQGHYHQWXDOO\ GHVWUR\HGDWWKH/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQVWDJH'LSKWKRQJVLQ FKDQJHG WRIURQWPRQRSKWKRQJVZKLOHDOOGLSKWKRQJV ÆORVWWKHLUJOLGH /LWHUDWXUH 0(<(5 $OE 6W ,,, 3(.0(=, (3$ DX ! H 0(<(5%58*0$11,)/ ,( HX!H 0$11/DQJXDJH;;9, +LVW *U $17.2:6., 3,6$1, 6DJJL (3$ DL!D Ç$%(-6W)9,, VDPHDV3,6$1, 6W,,, +$03 (WLPRORJLMD ORVV RI WKH VHFRQG HOHPHQW LQ ORQJ GLSKWKRQJV *(25*,(97UDNLWH 'DFLDQ$OEDQLDQSDUDOOHOLVP LQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI DX!D UHIOH[HVRI(3$ DLGHSHQGLQJRQ WKHSRVLWLRQRIVWUHVV 7KHUDUH,QGR(XURSHDQGLSKWKRQJ DLZDVSUHVHUYHGLQ(DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ EXW ODWHU \LHOGHG $OE H DV VKRZQ E\ WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV HGK‘KHJRDW’ (3$ DLG]D *NCKE‘JRDW’$UPD\FLG HWKH‘IHYHU’EDVHGRQ(3$ DLGD ,( DLGKRV 6NWHGKDV‘ILUHZRRG IXHO’*NCK?SQX‘ILUH’ ,( RLFRLQFLGHGLQ(3$ DLZLWK,( DL,WUHVXOWVLQ$OEH EH‘RDWK’ (3$ EDLG 6ODY EpGD‘GLVDVWHU’ /DW IRHGXV‘OHDJXH WUHDW\’ OHGK‘PXGDOOXYLXPFOD\ ZDOOHDUWKPRXQG ULYHUPRXWKEDON’ (3$ ODLGD 23UXVOD\GLV‘FOD\’ OHVK ‘ZRRO IOHHFH KDLU’ (3$ ODLhD WKH %DOWR6ODYLF ZRUG IRU ‘IROLDJH’ /LWKOD&hNDV‘OHDI’/DWYOD&VND‘OHDIRQDOLQHQVWDON VWDON’6ODY OLVWÙ‘OHDI’ phonology 13 THW¬ ‘ MDJJHG URFN’ (3$ NODLW ,( ORLWRV :FOXG ‘KHDS’ /LWKhOD&WDV‘VORSH’ VKWHJ‘SDWKURDG’ (3$ VWDLJD ,( VWRLJKR‘ZD\’ *NUVQK ZQX ‘URZOLQH’*RWKVWDLJD‘ZD\’/DWYVWD&JD‘ZDONLQJ’ YHU¬ ‘ZLQH’ (3$ ZDLQ FRJQDWH ZLWK *N QKPJ ‘YLQH’ QK?PQX ‘ZLQH’/DWYQXP‘ZLQH’$UPJLQLLG ,( HL\LHOGHG(3$ HLWKDWFKDQJHGWR/3$ L!$OEL FLW¬ ‘IXOO EULPIXOO’ (3$ WVHLWD ,( NÆHiWRV 6ODY ¨LWÙ ‘ZKROH’/LWNHWDV‘KDUG’ GLP¬U ‘ZLQWHU’ (3$ GHLPHQD ,( ½KHLPHQ LG 6NW K©PDQ HQGLQJOHVVORF‘LQZLQWHU’*NZGK`OC‘ZLQWHU’ KLPH ‘EUDQ’ (3$ VNHLGPD ,( VNHLGPHQ /LWK VNLHPX¶ ‘RSHQLQJXVHGWRLQVHUWWKHVKXWWOH’ LN¬M‘WRJRDZD\WRUXQDZD\’ (3$ HLNDFORVHWR/LWKH&NH&NL ‘JR’ ZLWK WKH LPSHUDWLYH VXIIL[ RI %DOWR6ODYLF UDWKHU WKDQ )LQQR8JULFRULJLQ OLO¬‘VPDOOLURQULQJORRSULQJOLQN’ (3$ OHLO /LWKOH&ODV‘WKLQ VXSSOHIOH[LEOH’ $V IDU DV ZH FDQ MXGJH ORQJ GLSKWKRQJV LQ ORVW WKHLU ODVW HOHPHQW DQG ZHUH WUHDWHG DV XVXDO ORQJ YRZHOV 7KHUH LV RQO\ RQH UHOLDEOHH[DPSOH UURM ‘WR OLYH WR VWD\’ (3$ UQMD ,( UL /LWK U²MX U²WL ‘WR FRSHWREHUHDG\’UHWL‘WRVWDFN ZRRG ’ 5DUH,( DXZDVSUHVHUYHGDV(3$ DXEXWWKHGLSKWKRQJORVW LWVJOLGHDQGWXUQHGLQWR/3$ D!$OED RUHXQGHUFHUWDLQSKRQHWLF FRQGLWLRQV &IWKHIROORZLQJFDVHV DJ‘WZLOLJKWGXVN’ (3$ DXJD ,( DXJ *NCW IJ‘UD\RIOLJKW’ WKDM ‘WR GU\’ (3$ VDXVQMD ,( VDXVR ‘GU\’ *N CW=QX 0+* VôU/LWKVD-VDV6ODY VX[Ù HUU‘GDUNQHVV’ (3$ DXVUD /LWKDXhU£‘GDZQ’*NGYXLG OHU¬‘GLUWPXG’ (3$ ODXU /LWKOD-U^‘GLUW\SHUVRQ’ PEDWK‘WRSXWRQ VKRHV ’ (3$ DPE L DXWVD ,( DX +HX+ LG $UP DJDQLP ‘WR SXW RQ FORWKHV ’ /LWK DXQ¸ DWL 6ODY XWL 14 chapter one ,( RX PHUJHG ZLWK DX LQ (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ ,WV IXUWKHU GHYHORSPHQWZDVWKHVDPHDVLQ GDVK ‘UDP’ (3$ GDXhD ,( GKRXVR ~ GKHXVR *RWK GLXV ‘ZLOG DQLPDO’ /LWK SO GD-VRV ‘SDUDGLVH’ 6ODY GX[Ù ‘EUHDWK VSLULW’ JHU‘VTXLUUHO’ ‘IXUU\’ (3$ JDXUD /LWKJD-UDV‘KDLUGRZQWXIW RIKDLU’/DWYJDXUL‘SXELFKDLU’0,UJ·DLUH‘KDLU’ ODVKW¬ ‘ROG HDUO\ SUHPDWXUH RI IUXLW ’ (3$ ODXhD *RWK ODXV ‘HPSW\ORRVH’ SDK‘VFDEGXVW’ (3$ SDXMD ,( SRXR $UPKRJL‘EUHDWK’ VKWUHS ‘PDJJRW ODUYD’ (3$ VWUDXSD FORVH WR 6ODY VWUXSÙ ‘ZRXQGVFDESRLVRQ’ ,( HX ZDV SUHVHUYHG DV (3$ HX 7KHQ LW ORVW LWV VHFRQG HOHPHQW WRR DQG LV QRZ UHIOHFWHG DV $OE H 7KLV GHYHORSPHQW LV FRUURERUDWHGE\VHYHUDOUHOLDEOHHW\PRORJLHV EUH]‘EHOW’ EUHXQD ZLWKDODWHVXIIL[ /LWKEULDXQ£‘HGJH’ GHU¬‘ELWWHU GLIILFXOW’ 7RVNRQO\ (3$ GHXQD 26WLRQR‘HYLO’ 2(WHRQD‘ZURQJ’ GHUL‘WRXSWRWLOO’ (3$ GHXU H L *NFGW`TQFGW`TGFGW`TK‘KHUH’ IURP,( GHXUR KHGK‘WRWKURZWRVKRRW’ (3$ VNHXGD ,( VNHXG‘WRWKURZWR VKRRW’ 21VNM²WD2+*VFLRfDQ WUHGK‘WRFDVWUDWH’ (3$ WUHXGD ,( WUHXG /DWWU GA‘WRSXVK’ *RWKXVÈULXWDQ‘WREXUGHQ’6ODY WUXGÙ‘ODERUZRUN’ 'LSKWKRQJVLQ ÆZLWKORQJILUVWHOHPHQWVWHQGHGWRORVHWKHLU JOLGHV DQG ZHUH FRQVHTXHQWO\ WUHDWHG DV FRUUHVSRQGLQJ ORQJ PRQRSKWKRQJV ORTH‘SHQLV WHVWLFOHV’ (3$ OXND /LWKOLDXN£‘JODQG’ SHO¬‘PDUH’ (3$ SAXO *NRY`NQX‘IRDO’*RWKIXODLG 'HYHORSPHQWRIWKH(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQYRFDOLVP 7KH /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ SHULRG LQFOXGLQJ WKH WXPXOWRXV DQG OHQJWK\ HSRFK RI 5RPDQL]DWLRQ ZDV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ QXPHURXV phonology 15 VWUXFWXUDO FKDQJHV LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ SKRQRORJ\ &HUWDLQ SRVLWLRQV LQ WKHZRUG DQODXWODVWV\OODEOH DVZHOODVFHUWDLQSKRQHWLFFRQWH[WV HJ DOO YRZHOV EHIRUH QDVDO VRQRUDQWV ZHUH VXEMHFW WR D P\ULDG RI DOWHUDWLRQV 6RPH RI WKH /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ SURFHVVHV KDYH DOUHDG\ EHHQ GHVFULEHG LQ $W WKH HQG RI WKH SHULRG 3URWR$OEDQLDQ YRFDOLVPORVWLWVTXDQWLWDWLYHRSSRVLWLRQ /LWHUDWXUH 63,7=(5 ,);;;,; RQXD~ XH -2./ ,);/,; KLVWRU\ RI XD ~ XH 3('(56(1 %86K7 ;,9 VHFRQGDU\MDIWHUDXVODXWXD~ XH 3,6$1,6DJJL QDVDOL]DWLRQRI YRZHOV 32/Á. 2UELV ;,, VLPLODU GHYHORSPHQW RI DQ LQ 5XPDQLDQ DQG 7RVN +$03 55/ ;; 0$11 +LVW *U \H HH[SODLQHGE\WKHORVVRIWKHIROORZLQJV\OODEOH RULJLQRI¬~ D Ç$%(-6W,,, 25(//%;;9,, \ 9Z9 ;;,; XD ~ XH 6ODY RYD /LQJXLVWLFD ;;,9 \ 9Z9 )ROORZLQJWKHVLPSOLILFDWLRQRIVRPHLQODXWFOXVWHUVSUHFHGLQJ YRZHOVZHUHOHQJWKHQHGLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQ GRU¬‘KDQG’ (3$ GAU ,( ½KHVULG *NZGK`T+LWWNHhhDU$UP MHUQ NUXD ~NUXH ‘VSULQJ IRXQWDLQ’ (3$ NUAQD *N MTJPJ LG 2( KUæQ‘ZDYH’ *PF [UD]QA NU\H‘KHDG’ (3$ NUQM NUDVQM *NMTC PKQP‘VNXOOKHDG’ ,Q /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ DOO YRZHOV SUHFHGLQJ QDVDO VRQRUDQWV ZHUH QDVDOL]HG ,Q WKLV SRVLWLRQ VKRUW YRZHOV D H EHIRUH LWV GLSKWKRQJL]DWLRQ L DQG X FKDQJHG WR /3$ *â, *ê, *î, *û FRUUH VSRQGLQJO\7KHVHQHZQDVDOYRZHOVZHUHFRPSOHWHO\SUHVHUYHGLQ*HJ LQWKHRUWKRJUDSK\,DPXVLQJWKH\DUHPDUNHGDVâ (derived from both *â DQG *ê , î, û RQO\ZKHQQRWIROORZHGE\DQDVDOFRQVRQDQW EXWORVW WKHLUQDVDOL]DWLRQLQ7RVNZKHUHWKH\ZHUHUHSODFHGE\¬LDQGX(3$ HLQWKLVSRVLWLRQFRXOGDOVRRFFDVLRQDOO\\LHOG7RVN¬H~*HJê$WWKH VDPHWLPHWKHRULJLQDOQDVDOFRQVRQDQWZDVORVWLQFHUWDLQPRUSKRQR ORJLFDOFRQWH[WV JM¬~JMDˆ‘WKLQJ’ (3$ VDQ V ,( VRQWV‘EHLQJ’ 6NWVDQW JML~JMî‘EUHDVWFKHVW’ (3$ VLQD /DWVLQXV‘FXUYHIROG’ JMX ~JMû ‘NQHH’ (3$ JOXQD GLVVLPLODWHG IURP J D QXQD ,( ½HQXLG +LWWJQX6NWMdQX*NIQPW/DWJHQ 16 chapter one KX~Kû‘SLFNHWVWDNHSROHSHQLV’ (3$ VNXQDEDVHGRQ VNXMD 6ODY [XMÚ‘SHQLV’ K¬Q¬ ~ KDQ¬ ‘PRRQ’ (3$ NVDQG 6NW F¢QGDWL ‘ KH VKLQHV LV EULJKW’FDQGU¢‘VKLQLQJ PRRQ’ O¬QG¬ ~ ODQG¬ ‘ZRRG WLPEHU PDWHULDO’ (3$ OHQW ,( OHQW 2+*OLQWD‘OLQGHQ’/LWKOHQW£‘ERDUG’6ODY O_WÙ‘EDVW’ ULM ~Uî ‘WR PDNH KXPLG’ (3$ ULQMD 6NW ULodWL ‘WR VWUHDP WR UHOHDVH’6ODY ULQ_WL‘WRIORZ’ 7KLV GHYHORSPHQW ZDV VKDUHG E\ (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ GLSKWKRQJVHYHQWKRXJKUHOLDEOHH[DPSOHVDUHQRWYHU\IUHTXHQW GU¬QM¬ ‘FRUQHOFKHUU\ KHDOWK\ VRXQG’ (3$ GUDXQM GHULYHG IURP,( GUHX‘WUHH’ JM¬U ‘VRXS’ ~ JMDQ¬ ‘PXGEHG DOOXYLXP’ (3$ MDXVQD 6NW QHXW \ ¿‘VRXS’/DWL VLG/LWKMgh^‘ILVKVRXS’ K¬~Kê‘QRZ’ (3$ VNDLQDLGDWLYHORFDWLYHRIDQRXQUHODWHGWR *RWKVNHLQDQ2+*VNQDQ‘WRVKLQH’ O¬~ODˆ‘WROHW’ (3$ ODLGQD /LWKO©LVWLLG/DWYODîVWLG*RWKOHWDQ LG Q¬QW¬~QDQG‘QLQH’ (3$ QHXQWL ZLWKDQDORJLFDOUHVWUXFWXULQJ RI WKH FOXVWHU LQ 7RVN ,( QHÆ LG 6NW Q¢YD /DW QRYHP *RWKQLXQ %HIRUH D QDVDO FRQVRQDQW RU U VWUHVVHG (3$ DQG A LQFOXGLQJ ORQJ GLSKWKRQJV DQG ORQJ YRZHOV UHVXOWLQJ IURP D FRPSHQVDWRU\OHQJWKHQLQJ PHUJHGLQWR AZKLFKFKDQJHGWR/3$ ÆH 7KHODWWHUGHYHORSHGLQWR ÆDˆDQGHYHQWXDOO\\LHOGHG7RVNXD~ 2*HJ XR*HJXH,QXQVWUHVVHGSRVLWLRQV(3$ DQG AGLGQRWPHUJHDQG GHYHORSHGDVLQDOORWKHUSKRQHWLFFRQWH[WVLH\LHOGHG$OERDQGH7KH UHVXOWLVDSDUDGLJPDWLFDQGGHULYDWLRQDODOWHUQDWLRQOLNHWKDWREVHUYHGLQ GRU¬VJvs. duar ~GXHUSO,QPDQ\FDVHVDOWHUQDWLRQVRIWKLVNLQGOHG WR WKH ULVH RI QHZ DQDORJLFDO IRUPV 6LPLODU UHVXOWV GHULYHG IURP WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI GLV\OODELF JURXSV ZLWK PLGGOH Æ LQ WKH DXVODXW 7KH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHVGHPRQVWUDWHWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI(3$ DQG ALQ WKLVSRVLWLRQ GXDM ~ GXHM ‘VKHDI’ (3$ GAQMD 6NW GKQd ‘JUDLQ FHUHDOV’ GKQ\¢‘JUDLQ’/LWKG·RQD‘EUHDG’ phonology 17 SOGXDU~GXHU‘KDQGV’ (3$ GAUL ,( ½KHVULG *NZGK`T+LWW NHhhDU$UPMHàQ KXDM~KXHM‘IRUHLJQVWUDQJH’ (3$ NVAQ Z MDZLWK*NEGPQX'RU EGP®QX‘VWUDQJHUJXHVW’ NUXD ~NUXH ‘VSULQJ IRXQWDLQ’ (3$ NUAQD *N MTJPJ LG 2( KUæQ‘ZDYH’ *PF [UD]QA PXDM ~ PXHM ‘PRQWK’ (3$ PAVQMD IURP WKH PHWDWKHVLV RI ,( PQV‘PRRQPRQWK’ 6NWPV*NOJP/DWPQVLV2,UP TXDM~TXHM‘WRFDOOWRJLYHDQDPH’ (3$ NOAXVQMDDGHQRPLQDWLYH EDVHGRQ,( OHÆRV‘JORU\ZRUG’ 6NWyU¢YDV*NMNGQX6ODY VORYR ,QVRPHZRUGVVWUHVVHG(3$ LQDVLPLODUSRVLWLRQEHIRUH Q DQG O \LHOGHG \H :H GR QRW KDYH D VDWLVIDFWRU\ H[SODQDWLRQ RI WKH GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WKH UHIOH[DWLRQ RI ,W PD\ EH VXVSHFWHG WKDW \H RULJLQDOO\ DSSHDUHG LQ ZRUGV ZKHUH L ZDV SUHVHQW LQ WKH IROORZLQJ V\OODEOH HVSHFLDOO\ DV LW VHHPV WR DOWHUQDWH ZLWK H DV LQ GHU¬ VJ YV G\HU SO ZKLOH XD ~ XH LV LQ DOWHUQDWLRQ ZLWK R 7KLV K\SRWKHVLV LV FRUURERUDWHG E\ ZKDW ZH REVHUYH LQ /DWLQ ORDQZRUGV +RZHYHU WKH RULJLQDO SLFWXUH KDV EHHQ FRPSOHWHO\ GLVWRUWHG E\ DQDORJLFDO WUDQVIRUPDWLRQV DQG RWKHU NLQGV RI ODWHU FKDQJHV +HUH DUH VRPH H[DPSOHVRI\H I\HOO ~I\OO ‘IOXWH’ (3$ VSOL *N URJNCKQP ‘FDYH FDYHUQ’ ‘KROORZ’ NU\H‘KHDG’ (3$ NUQM NUDVQM *NMTC PKQP‘VNXOOKHDG’ T\H ‘VXPPLW SHDN’ (3$ NOLQL ,( ORLQR ‘VODQWLQJ VNHZ’ *RWKJHQSOKODLQH‘KLOO’ WK\HM‘WREUHDN’ (3$ WV L QMD ,( L‘WRVKDUSHQ’ 6NWyLyWL ‘WRVKDUSHQ’$UPVRZU‘VKDUS NQLIH’ ,QRQHFDVHWKHRULJLQRI\HUHPDLQVWRWDOO\XQH[SODLQHG S\HV‘WRDVN’ (3$ S WD +LWWNDSSXZHD‘WRFRXQW’ SX+ /DWSXWA‘WRUHFNRQWRSRQGHU’6ODY S\WDWL‘WRDVN’ &HUWDLQJURXSV9Æ9DQG99 ZKHUH9LVDORQJPRQRSKWKRQJ RU D GLSKWKRQJ FKDQJHG WR VLQJOH YRZHOV :H KDYH RQO\ RQH VXFK H[DPSOH RI 99 ZKLFK LQ IDFW PLJKW KDYH D FRPSOHWHO\ GLIIHUHQW 18 chapter one H[SODQDWLRQ LQVRIDU DV LV H[SHFWHG WR IDOO EHWZHHQ WZR IURQW YRZHOV +RZHYHUZHDGGXFHLWKHUH WUH‘WKUHH’ (3$ WUHMH ,( WUHHVLG 6NWWUD\Då*NVTGK`X/DW WUV *URXSV9Æ9\LHOGHGXD~ XHLIWKHILUVWYRZHOZDVQRQIURQWDQGQRQ ODELDOZKLOHWKHVHFRQGYRZHOZDVQRQIURQW7KLVLVZHOOFRUURERUDWHG E\WKHGHYHORSPHQWRIHDUO\6ODYLFORDQZRUGVEXWZHDOVRKDYHDWOHDVW RQHJRRGH[DPSOHIURPWKH,QGR(XURSHDQOH[LFRQ JUXD ~JUXH ‘ZRPDQ ZLIH’ (3$ JUZ *N ITCW`X ‘ROG ZRPDQ’ ,IWKHILUVWYRZHOZDVODELDODVZHOODVWKHVHFRQGRQHWKHUHVXOWZDV\ DVLQWKHZRUGIRU‘WZR’ G\‘WZR’ (3$ GXZA ,( G X ÆA X LG ,IWKHILUVWYRZHOZDVDGLSKWKRQJWKHJURXSGHYHORSHGLQWR\H O\HM ‘WR VPHDU WR RLO’ (3$ HODLZDQMD EDVHG RQ HODLZ ERUURZHGIURP*NGNCK 8 QP‘RLO’ U\HM‘WRVXIIHU’ UDÆQMD (3$ UDXGLQMD 6NWU²GLWL‘WRZHHSWR URDU’ /DW UGA ‘WR VKRXW WR FU\’ /LWK UDXG£ ‘ZHHSLQJ’ 6ODY U\GDWL‘WRZHHS’ )LQDOO\ LI ERWK YRZHOV ZHUH SDODWDO WKH JURXS \LHOGHG \ DV LQ WKH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHV JU\N¬ ‘WKURDW’ (3$ JUZN ,( ÞUÆ‘QHFN’ 6NWJUYd $Y JUY/DWYJUYD‘ULYHUPRXWK’6ODY JULYD‘PDQH’) K\M‘WRHQWHU’ (3$ HLZQMDFORVHWR6NW©YD‘VSHHG\’/LWKDW H&YLVDW©LYD‘QHZFRPHUVWUDQJHU’SHUHLYLVS©UHLYD‘WUDPS YDJUDQW’ PE\OO‘WRVKXWWRIDVWHQ’ (3$ DPELZOD 6NWYDODWL‘WRWXUQ’*N GK NGY‘WRUROOWLJKWXSWRFORVH’2,UILOOLG‘WREHQG’ PE\V ‘WR VWUDQJOH WR GURZQ WR NLOO’ (3$ DPELZWMD 6NW Y\¢WKDWH‘WRVZD\WRURFN’*RWKZLÈRQ‘WRSRXU’. phonology 19 T\U‘WRORRN’ (3$ NHZUD *NMQGY‘WRQRWH’/DWFDYHA‘WREH DZDUH’*RWKKDXVMDQ‘WRKHDU’ \OOK\OO‘VWDU’ (3$ VNZLODGHULYHGIURPKLMH‘VKDGRZ’ ,Q PRUH WKDQ RQH HW\PRORJLFDOO\ UHOLDEOH FDVH ZH ILQG \ UHVXOWLQJ IURP /3$ ÆL L LUUHVSHFWLYH RI LWV (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ VRXUFH7KHGHYHORSPHQWRIDQHZJOLGH DV\VWHPDWLFDOO\DSSHDULQJLQ RQH RU LQ ERWK VWDQGDUG $OEDQLDQ GLDOHFWV LV REYLRXVO\ FDXVHG E\ D IROORZLQJODELDOFRQVRQDQW O\S‘WREHJWRDVNWRVHHNWRQHHG’ (3$ OHLSD ,( OHLS *N NKRVQOCK ‘WR EH HDJHU IRU WR ORQJ IRU’ /LWK OLHSL¸ OLSWL ‘WR RUGHU’ NULPE~NU\P ‘ZRUP’ (3$ NULP ,( NÆPL LG 6NW N¤PL /LWKN®UPLV UU\S~UULS‘EHOW’ (3$ ZULSD *NT CRVY‘WRVHZ WRJHWKHU WR VWLWFK’/LWKYH¼SWL‘WRVSLQ’ 7KHVDPHGHYHORSPHQWWRRNSODFHDWWKHHQGRI3URWR$OEDQLDQZRUGV QRW WR EH FRQIXVHG ZLWK WKH SRVLWLRQ EHIRUH M ZKLFK EHFDPH WKH 0RGHUQ$OEDQLDQDXVODXW D\‘KH’ (3$ DHL ,( HL 6NWD\¢P‘KH’/DWLV V\‘H\H’ (3$GXDO DWh 6NWDN¿À$YDhL/LWKDN®6ODY R¨L ,QLWLDO,( ÆRFKDQJHGWR(3$ ZDDQGWKHQWR$OEX XGK¬‘ZD\’ (3$ ZDGD ,( ÆHGK‘WREHDWWREUHDN’ XPDV‘WREDUN’IURPDQXQDWWHVWHG XP¬ (3$ ZDP 6NWY¢PLWL ‘WRYRPLW’$YYDP‘WRVSLW’*NG OGY‘WRVSLWRXW’/DWYRPHA ‘WRYRPLW’. XQD]¬‘ILQJHUULQJVPDOOLURQULQJ’EDVHGRQXQ¬ (3$ ZDQG $UPJLQG‘ULQJ’*RWKELZLQGDQ‘WRXQZUHDWKH’ XQ¬ ‘SLHFH RI D EURNHQ SRW’ (3$ ZDQW $UP YDQGHP ‘WR GHVWUR\’2+*ZXQG‘ZRXQG’0:JZHLQWSUDHW‘ , SLHUFHG’ XU¬‘EULGJH’ (3$ ZDU *RWKZDUMDQ‘WRSUHYHQWWRGHIHQG’21 Y_U‘URZRIVWRQHV’YHU‘GDP’2VFYHUX‘GRRU’ XUL~û ‘KXQJHU’ (3$ ZDQD ,( ÆHQ‘WRZDQWWRGHVLUH’ 6NW Y¢QDWLYDQ²WLLG/DWYHQXV‘ORYH’ 20 chapter one 8QVWUHVVHGYRZHOV 6WUHVV KDV SOD\HG DQ LPSRUWDQW UROH LQ WKH HYROXWLRQ RI WKH SKRQHWLFV\VWHPDQGRIWKHYRFDOLVPLQSDUWLFXODU7KHKLVWRU\RI3URWR $OEDQLDQ VWUHVV LV SUHVHQWHG LQ +HUH RQO\ LWV LQIOXHQFH RQ WKH YRFDOLVPZLOOEHRXWOLQHG /LWHUDWXUH -2./ )HVWVFKU 5R]ZDGRZVNL LQLWLDO YRZHOV LQ 2OG $OEDQLDQ Ç$%(- 3UREOKLVW DSKHUHVLVLQ 0¬VKDUL 6W,,, FRQWUDFWLRQ 25(/ 6RY VODY UHGXFWLRQRIDXVODXWYRZHOV 7KH LQKHULWHG V\VWHP RI ,QGR(XURSHDQ DFFHQW ZDV UHFRQILJXUHGLQ(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQWKRXJKLWVQDWXUHGLGQRWFKDQJH 7KH(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQDFFHQWZDVSDUDGLJPDWLF– LWVSDWWHUQVZHUH OLQNHGWRPRUSKRORJLFDOFODVVHVDQGVXEFODVVHV,QVRPHSDUDGLJPVWKH VWUHVV ZDV EDU\WRQLF LQ RWKHUV – R[\WRQLF RU PRELOH :KLOH LQODXW YRZHOVLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQGHYHORSHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHUXOHVGHVFULEHGLQ WKH KLVWRU\ RI WKH YRZHOV DW WKH HQG RI WKH ZRUG ZDV PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG ,Q DXVODXW 3URWR$OEDQLDQ YRZHOV ZHUH QRW FKDQJHG LI WKH\ ZHUH VWUHVVHG :KHQ XQVWUHVVHG LQ FHUWDLQ EDU\WRQLF DQG PRELOH DFFHQWXDO SDUDGLJPV DOOYRZHOVORVWRQHPRUDRULQRWKHUZRUGVVKRUWYRZHOV ZHUHFRPSOHWHO\ORVWZKLOHORQJYRZHOVZHUHVKRUWHQHG)RUH[DPSOH (3$VJ VN¢O‘ILVKERQH’! VN¢OD (3$SO VNDOdV‘ILVKERQHV’! VNDO¢ V (3$VJ GZ¢LJ‘EUDQFK’! G©JD (3$SO GZ¢LJL‘EUDQFKHV’! G©JDL (3$VJ G¢XVDV‘UDP’! GDXh (3$SO G¢XVDL‘UDPV’! G¢XhL ,Q /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ WKH ZKROH DFFHQWXDO V\VWHP ZDV UDGLFDOO\ FKDQJHG XQGHU WKH LQIOXHQFH RI /DWLQ 7KH VWUHVV LQ 3URWR $OEDQLDQ ZDV QRZ ZLWK VRPH LPSRUWDQW H[FHSWLRQV VKLIWHG DXWR PDWLFDOO\ WR WKH VHFRQG V\OODEOH RI DQ\ ZRUG ,Q QHZ SDUR[\WRQD WKH SURFHVVRIUHGXFWLRQRIWKHQHZXQVWUHVVHGYRZHOVOHGWRWKHIROORZLQJ UHVXOWVLQWKHHQGRIWKHZRUG XQVWUHVVHGD\LHOGHG¬RWKHUXQVWUHVVHG YRZHOVJDYH]HUR6WUHVVHGYRZHOVZHUHDOWHUHGDVIROORZV DZDVSUH VHUYHGDVDDLFKDQJHGWRHHZDVSUHVHUYHGDVQRQGLSKWKRQJL]HGHL phonology 21 DSSHDUHGDV¬RULQVRPHFDVHVL7KHIRUPVDGGXFHGLQZRXOG QRZORRNDVIROORZV (3$VJ VN¢O‘ILVKERQH’! VN¢OD!KDO¬ (3$SO VNDOdV‘ILVKERQHV’! VNDO¢ V !KDOD (3$VJ GZ¢LJ‘EUDQFK’! G©JD!GHJ¬ (3$SO GZ¢LJL‘EUDQFKHV’! G©JDL!GHJ¬ (3$VJ G¢XVDV‘ram’! GDXh!GDVK (3$SO G¢XVDL‘rams’! G¢XhL!GHVK 3RVWWRQLF LQODXW YRZHOV ZHUH DOO UHGXFHG WR ¬ ZKLFK LV VWLOO SUHVHUYHG LQ WKH 2OG $OEDQLDQ WH[WV EXW FRPSOHWHO\ ORVW DIWHUZDUGV 1XPHURXV FDVHV RI WKLV UHGXFWLRQ DUH IRXQG LQ /DWLQ SURSDUR[\WRQD ERUURZHGWR$OEDQLDQ N¬US~NDQS‘KHPS’Õ5RP FDQQDSLVLG NXPW¬U‘JRGIDWKHU’Õ/DWFRPSDWHULG SULIW‘SULHVW’Õ/DWSUHVE\WHULG VKSUHWN¬ ~ VKS¬QHWN¬ ‘VSOHHQ’ Õ /DW VSOQWLFXP ‘UHODWHG WR WKH VSOHHQ’ YRVKW¬U *HJ ‘/LJXVWUXPYXOJDUH’Õ/DW²OHDVWHULG 3UHWRQLFQRQKLJKYRZHOVZHUHDOVRUHGXFHG RUORVWLQVRPH FDVHV DV LQ P¬UGKLM ‘WR IUHH]H’ ½ PDUGK ‘FROG IURVW’ $JDLQ PDQ\ H[DPSOHVDUHIRXQGLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV N¬UNRM‘WRORRNIRUWRVHHN’Õ5RP FLUFUHLG N¬VKW¬U~N¬VKW¬Q‘&KULVWLDQ’Õ/DWFKULVWLQXVLG N¬VKWMHOO¬‘FDVWOHIRUW’Õ/DWFDVWHOOXPLG N¬VK\UH‘PRXQWDLQSDWKSDWKLQWKHUDYLQH’Õ/DWFODXV UD‘ORFN EDUEROW FDVWOHIRUW’ P¬UNRVK ‘PDQ O\LQJ LQ ZLIH’V EHG DIWHU FKLOGELUWK DQG UHFHLYLQJ YLVLWRUV ORYHU’Õ5RP PULFAVXV‘KXVEDQGOLNH’ Q¬P¬URM‘WRQXPEHUWRFRXQW’Õ/DWQXPHUUHLG 3UHWRQLF R LQ /DWLQ ORDQZRUGV D SKRQHPH PLVVLQJ LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ ZDVQRUPDOO\VXEVWLWXWHGZLWKXDVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV NXURU¬~ NXQRU¬‘FURZQ’Õ/DWFRUAQDLG NXPHUT‘WROOGXW\’Õ/DWFRPPHUFLXP‘WUDGHFRPPHUFH’ 22 chapter one PXUWDM¬‘SODJXH’Õ5RP PRUWOLDLG SXOT\HU‘WKXPE GZDUI’Õ/DWSROOLFULV‘EHORQJLQJWRDWKXPE’ SXVKWHW‘SRZHU’Õ/DWSRWHVWWHPLG YXOOQHW‘ZLOO’Õ/DWYROXQWWHPLG 8QVWUHVVHGYRZHOVLQWKHDQODXWZHUHVXEMHFWWRDSKHUHVLV7KH SURFHVV GDWHV EDFN WR 2OG $OEDQLDQ ZKHUH YRZHOV EHIRUH QDVDO DQG OLTXLG VRQRUDQWV ZHUH DIIHFWHG /DWHU LW FRYHUHG LQLWLDO YRZHOV EHIRUH RWKHUW\SHVRIFRQVRQDQWV PEL‘RQXSRQ’ (3$ DPEL ,( DPEKL *NC OHK‘DERXWDURXQG’ *RWKEL2,ULPP &HOW EL QJURK~ QJURI‘WRZDUP’ (3$ HQJUMD 6ODY JUpWLLG URV¬‘GXFN’ (3$ DQWM ,( D QiW 6NWW‘ZDWHUELUG’*N PJ`UUC‘GXFN’ 7KHVDPHSURFHVVDIIHFWHG/DWLQORDQZRUGV EODW¬‘ZDIHU’Õ/DWREOWDLG NLVK¬‘FKXUFK’Õ/DWHFFOVLDLG OWHU‘DOWDU’Õ/DWDOWULXPLG SULOO‘$SULO’Õ/DWDSUOLVLG SXS¬‘KRRSRH’Õ/DWXSXSDLG VKHP¬‘VZDUP RIEHHV ’Õ/DWH[PHQ‘VZDUP’ $IWHU WKH UHGXFWLRQ RI LQODXW YRZHOV KDG EHHQ FRPSOHWHG JURXSVRIYRZHOVZHUHFRQWUDFWHGZKHUHYHUWKH\KDGEHHQIRUPHGGXH WR WKH IDOO RI LQWHUYRFDOLF YRLFHG VWRSV 7KH TXDOLW\ RI WKH UHVXOWLQJ YRZHO GHSHQGHG RQ WKH VWUHVVHG HOHPHQW LQ WKH JURXS 7KH XQVWUHVVHG HOHPHQWKDGDOUHDG\EHHQUHGXFHGWR¬,Q*HJZKHUHQHZORQJYRZHOV H[LVWFRQWUDFWHGYRZHOVDUHORQJ EH‘RDWK’ (3$ EDLG 6ODY EpGD‘GLVDVWHU’ /DW IRHGXV‘OHDJXH WUHDW\’ GHW ‘VHD’ (3$ GHXEHWD ‘GHSWK’ ,( GKHXE ‘GHHS’ FI *PF GHXSLÈA‘GHSWK’!0'XGLHSGH0/*GSHGH(GHSWK U\HM‘WRVXIIHU’ UDÆLQMD (3$ UDXGLQMD 6NWU²GLWL‘WRZHHSWR URDU’ /DW UGA ‘WR VKRXW WR FU\’ /LWK UDXG£ ‘ZHHSLQJ’ 6ODY U\GDWL‘WRZHHS’ VRW‘WRGD\’ (3$ WVM L GWL ,( GWL‘WKLVGD\’ phonology 23 YH‘ZLGRZ’ (3$ ZLGHZ 6NWYLGK¢Y LG /DW YLGXD LG *RWK ZLGXZRLG ]L ‘EODFN’ (3$ GÊHGL ,( ÞHG 0+* TXW ‘GLUW’ 2( FZ©DG ‘EDG’ /LWK J{GD ‘VKDPH’ 6ODY JDGÙNÙ ‘GLVJXVWLQJ’ JDGÙ ‘UHSWLOHZRUP’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Õ EDJ¬P‘RLOIRUDQRLQWPHQW’ *NDCRVKUOC‘EDSWLVP’ Õ ODN¬U~ODN¬Q‘FDEEDJHJUHHQV’ *NNCZCPQP‘JUHHQV’ Õ PRN¬U~PRN¬Q‘PLOOVWRQH’ *NOJZCPJ‘GHYLFHLQVWUXPHQW’ Õ SUHVK‘OHHN’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chapter one /LWHUDWXUH 0,+$[(6&8 6&/ ;;;, /DW L LQ $OEDQLDQ %$1),$,$. 6KRUWYRZHOVLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV 6KRUW/DWDLVQRUPDOO\UHQGHUHGDV$OED DIW¬‘FDSDEOHSURSHU’Õ/DWDSWXVLG EDUN¬‘ERDW’Õ/DWEDUFDLG IUDVK¬U~IUDVK¬Q‘DVKWUHH’Õ/DWIUD[LQXVLG KDUP¬VKRU‘VWDOOLRQVWXGKRUVH’Õ5RP DUPHVVULXVLG NDO¬‘KRUVH’Õ/DWFDEDOOXVLG VKDJ‘FRDUVHOLQHQIDEULFVSUHDGRQWKHIORRU’Õ/DWVDJXP‘FORDN PDGHRIFRDUVHIDEULF’ /LNH(3$ D/DWDFRXOGEHLQIOXHQFHGE\WKHIURQWYRZHORI WKHQH[WV\OODEOHDQGFKDQJHGWRH HPW¬‘DXQW’Õ/DWDPLWD‘SDWHUQDODXQW’ JMHOE¬U~JMHOE¬Q‘JUHHQ’Õ/DWJDOELQXV‘JUHHQLVK\HOORZ’ THOT‘JODVV’Õ/DWFDOLFHP‘ERZOFXS’ 7KHVDPHUHVXOWZDVDFKLHYHGGXHWRWKHJHQHUDOL]DWLRQRISOXUDOIRUPV RI ZKLFK WKH /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ HQGLQJ L FDXVHG XPODXW FI WKH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHV EHOE¬‘VWDPPHULQJGXPE’Õ/DWEDOEXV‘VWDPPHULQJVWXWWHULQJ’ EUHN¬‘SDQWV’Õ/DWEUFDH‘WURXVHUVEUHHFKHV’ GUHT‘GHYLO’Õ QRPVJ /DWGUDFA‘GUDJRQ’ HQJM¬OO‘DQJHO’Õ/DWDQJHOXVLG JMHO‘URRVWHU’Õ/DWJDOOXVLG THUU‘ZDJRQFDUW’Õ/DWFDUUXV‘WZRZKHHOHGZDJRQ’ $ GLIILFXOW\ LV SUHVHQWHG E\ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI /DW D LQ EMHVKN¬ ‘PRXQWDLQSDVWXUH’Õ5RP SDVWLFDEDVHGRQ/DWSDVWXV‘SDVWXUH’ %HIRUH QDVDOV /DW D \LHOGHG /3$ Dˆ ZKLFK GHYHORSHG DV LQ RWKHUFDVHVLQWR7RVN¬~ *HJDˆ: G¬P~GDP‘GDPDJH’Õ/DWGDPQXP‘KXUWKDUPGDPDJH’ JM¬QG¬U~JMDQG¬U‘JODQG’Õ/DWJODQGXOD‘JODQGRIWKHWKURDW’ phonology 25 N¬QGHOO¬ ~ NDQGHOO¬ ‘ODPS’ Õ /DW FDQGOD ‘ZD[OLJKW WDOORZ FDQGOH’ N¬QJ¬~NDQJ¬‘VRQJ’Õ/DWFDQWLFXPLG P¬QJ¬~PDQJ¬‘DUPIXOVOHHYH’Õ/DWPDQLFDH‘VOHHYH’ P¬QJRM DUFKDLF PXQJRM‘WRODFN’Õ5RP PDQFUHLG /DWHZDVUHQGHUHGDV/3$ HDVDJHQHUDOUXOH N¬VKWMHOO¬‘FDVWOHIRUW’Õ/DWFDVWHOOXPLG SMHS¬U ~ SMHS¬Q ‘VZHHW PHORQ’ Õ 5RP SHSLQHP LG FI /DW SHSAQHP‘NLQGRIODUJHPHORQSXPSNLQ’ SMHUJXOO ‘YLQHDUERU SHUJROD’ Õ /DW SHUJXOD ‘VKHG ERRWK YLQH DUERU’ SMHV¬‘SDUW’Õ5RP SHWLDLG SMHVKN¬‘SHDFK’Õ5RP SHVFD /DWSHUVLFDLG YMHUVK¬‘SRHP’Õ/DWYHUVXV‘YHUVH’ 7KHGLSKWKRQJWKHQGHYHORSHGLQWR D MDY¬‘ZHHN’Õ/DWKHEGRPDVLG 7KH JOLGH ZDV ORVW LQ WKH SRVLWLRQV GHVFULEHG LQ RU VLPLODUFRQWH[WV EHIRUHQJDIWHUVK EOHW¬‘EHHVZDUPKLYH’ PEOHW¬Õ 5RP PHOHWWXP GUHMW¬‘VWUDLJKWULJKW’Õ/DWGLUHFWXPLG JMHVKW¬U ‘EURRP’ Õ 5RP JHQLVWUD EDVHG RQ /DW JHQLVWD JHQHVWD ‘EURRPSODQWEURRP’ JMXYHQJ¬‘KDUORW’Õ/DWDGMIHPMXYHQFD‘\RXQJ’ NUHO‘FXUOORFN’Õ5RP FHUHEHOOXV NXYHQG ‘VSHHFK FRXQFLO PHHWLQJ’ Õ/DW FRQYHQWXV ‘PHHWLQJ DVVHPEO\’ OHSXU‘KDUH’Õ/DWOHSRUHPLG PHQG‘PLQG’Õ/DWPHQWHPLG VKHVK‘SODLQSODQHIODWQHVVVTXDUH’Õ/DWVHVVXV‘VHDW’ 7KHVDPHDSSOLHVWRWKHGHYHORSPHQWRI D TDUU‘7XUNH\RDNELWWHURDN’Õ/DWFHUUXVLG 26 chapter one VKDO¬‘VDGGOH LQQHUVLGHRIWKLJKSDLURIOHJV’Õ/DWVHOOD‘VHDW VDGGOH’ VKDUWRM ‘WR FURVV RI DQLPDOV WR HQJUDIW RI SODQWV ’Õ5RP LQ VHUWUHEDVHGRQ/DWVHUHUH‘WRVRZ’ VKDUU¬‘VDZ’Õ/DWVHUUDLG VKDW‘KRH’Õ/DWVHFWRU‘FXWWHU’ ,Q D IHZ ZRUGV ZH ILQG /DW H UHQGHUHG DV $OE H LQ FRQWH[WV GLVDJUHHLQJZLWKWKHUXOHVHVWDEOLVKHGIRU(3$ H VHH ,Q RQH FDVH $OE H UHIOHFWV DQ XQVWUHVVHG FRQWUDFWHG JURXS HL HEL UDWKHU WKDQ /DW H VR WKDW LW FDQ EH FRPSOHWHO\ LJQRUHG DV IDU DV WKH KLVWRU\RIHLVFRQFHUQHG GHW\U¬‘GXW\GHEW’Õ5RP GHELW UDLG ,QDQRWKHUFDVHZHKDYHWRVXSSRVHVRPHNLQGRIDQDORJLFDOLQWHUDFWLRQ REVFXULQJWKHRULJLQDOYRFDOLVP HJM¬U‘/ROLXPWHPXOHQWXP’Õ/DWHEULDIHP‘GUXQN’LQIOXHQFHGE\ HJ¬U ,QWZRPRUHZRUGVZHILQGQRSKRQRORJLFDOH[SODQDWLRQ(YHQWKRXJK LQ ERWK IRUPV WKH QRQGLSKWKRQJL]HG H LV IROORZHG E\ D FOXVWHU EHJLQQLQJZLWKUWKLVLVKDUGO\GHFLVLYHLQVRIDUDVVXFKFOXVWHUVGRQRW EHKDYH WKLV ZD\ LQ /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ ZRUGV RI RWKHU RULJLQV 7KLV PD\PHDQWKDWWKHFDVHVEHORZEHORQJWRDODWHUKLVWRULFDOVWUDWXP IHUU‘KHOO’Õ/DWLQIHUQXPLG NXPHUT‘WROOGXW\’Õ/DWFRPPHUFLXP‘WUDGHFRPPHUFH’ $GLIIHUHQWOD\HURIWKH$OEDQLDQYRFDEXODU\UHIOHFWV/DWHDV $OEL6HHPLQJO\WKRVHZRUGVZHUHERUURZHGDWDGLIIHUHQWWLPHDWD GLIIHUHQW SODFH RU IURP D GLIIHUHQW NLQG RI DQFLHQW 5RPDQFH +\SRWKHWLFDOO\IRUPVZLWKLFRXOGSHQHWUDWH$OEDQLDQDWWKHVWDJHZKHQ WKH(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQSKRQRORJLFDOV\VWHPKDGQRVKRUWH LHDIWHU WKHGLSKWKRQJL]DWLRQRI(3$ H! HEXWEHIRUHWKHUHYHUVHSURFHVVLQ FHUWDLQSKRQHWLFFRQWH[WV ,QRWKHUZRUGVERUURZHGIRUPVZLWKL H EHORQJWRDODWHUOD\HUWKDQWKHUHVWRI/DWLQZRUGVERUURZHGZLWKMHH H phonology 27 JULJM‘IORFNKHUG’Õ/DWJUHJHPLG JMLQGH‘SHRSOH’Õ/DWJHQWHPLG P¬VKLU¬‘SLW\PHUF\’Õ/DWPLVHULD‘ZUHWFKHGQHVV’ QLS‘QHSKHZJUDQGVRQ’Õ/DWQRPQHSAV‘JUDQGVRQ’ SULIW‘SULHVW’Õ/DWSUHVE\WHULG SULQG‘IDWKHUSDUHQW’Õ/DWSDUHQWHPLG 6WUHVVHG/DWLQR\LHOGHG$OER EROO¬ ‘NLQG RI KDUPOHVV VQDNH’ Õ 5RP EROD FI /DW EROHD ‘VDODPDQGHU’ IORN‘KDLU’Õ/DWIORFFXV‘ORFNIORFN’ NRUEXOO‘NHJFDVNZRRGHQSDLO’Õ/DWFRUEXOD‘OLWWOHEDVNHW’ NXOORVKW¬U‘ELHVWOLQJV’Õ/DWFRORVWUDLG SRVKW¬‘GRZQEHORZXQGHU’Õ/DWSRVWSRVWH‘EHKLQGEDFN’ UURW¬‘ZKHHO’Õ/DWURWDLG 8QVWUHVVHG/DWLQRZDVUHIOHFWHGDV$OEX JXOWRM‘WRJHWULGRII’Õ/DWFROOXFWUL‘WRVWUXJJOHWRFRQWHQG’ NXODU‘FXUYHGSLHFHRIZRRGR[FROODU’Õ/DWFROOUH‘FROODU’ NXQDW‘EURWKHULQODZ’Õ/DWFRJQWXV‘NLQVPDQEORRGUHODWLRQ’ OHSXU‘KDUH’Õ/DWOHSRUHPLG PXOOL~PXOOî‘PLOO’Õ/DWPROQXPLG SXOT\HU‘WKXPE GZDUI’Õ/DWSROOLFULV‘EHORQJLQJWRDWKXPE’ ,Q WZR FDVHV SUREDEO\ ERUURZHG DW D ODWHU VWDJH XQVWUHVVHG RLV UHIOHFWHGLQ$OEDQLDQDVR QRWRM‘WRVZLP’Õ5RP QRWUHUHSODFLQJFODVVLFDO/DWQDWUHLG SHVKNRS‘ELVKRSRIWKH2UWKRGR[FKXUFK’Õ/DWHSLVFRSXV‘ELVKRS’ ,QRQHFDVHRKDVEHHQUHGXFHGWR¬ N¬UUXW¬‘HZHZLWKKRUQV’Õ/DWIHPDGMFRUQ WD‘KRUQHG’ 6WUHVVHG /DWLQ R FDQ EH DOVR UHQGHUHG DV $OE X :RUGV UHIOHFWLQJ WKLV GHYHORSPHQW VHHP WR IRUP D VHSDUDWH OH[LFDO OD\HU 28 chapter one SUHVXPDEO\RIHDUOLHURULJLQWKDQWKHUHVWRI/DWLQZRUGVZLWKR&IWKH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHV IXUULN IXUULT ‘FKLFNHQFRRS IRZOSHQ URRVW QHVWLQJER[’ Õ /DW IRUQLFHP‘DUFKYDXOW’ IXVK¬‘SODLQRSHQILHOGPHDGRZ’Õ/DWIRVVD‘GLWFKWUHQFKJXWWHU IXUURZ’ NXT‘UHG’Õ5RP FRFFHXVFI/DWFRFFLQHXV‘VFDUOHW’ NXUW‘\DUG’Õ/DWFRUWHPLG UUXPEXOO ‘UROOHG LQWR D EDOO’ Õ 5RP URPEXOXV EDVHG RQ /DW UKRPEXV‘PDJLFZKLUOLJLJRUZKHHO’ VKSX]¬‘KRWDVKHV’Õ/DWVSRGLXP‘DVK’ ,QWZR UHODWHG ZRUGVVWUHVVHG/DWRVHHPVWREHUHIOHFWHGDV $OEH EUHWN‘IURJ’Õ5RP EURWDFXVLG EUHVKN¬ ‘WRUWRLVH’ Õ %DONDQ 5RP EURWDVFXV RU EURVDFXV ‘WRUWRLVHIURJ’ ,W LV SUREDEOH WKDW R RI WKH ILUVW V\OODEOH ZDV IRU VRPH UHDVRQ OHQJWKHQHGWR ALQWKH5RPDQFHGLDOHFWVRI$OEDQLD /DWL\LHOGHG$OEL ELVKWDM¬ ‘SRG KXOO SHD JUHHQ EHDQ’ Õ 5RP SLVWOLD ! 5XP S:VWDLH‘SRGKXOO’ GLVKW¬GLVKN¬‘PLOOIXQQHO’Õ/DWGLVFXV‘GLVN’ LULT‘KHGJHKRJ’Õ/DWULFLXVLG LVKXOO‘LVODQG’Õ/DWLQVXODLG N¬VKLOO‘FRXQFLO’Õ/DWFRQVLOLXPLG UULT¬U~UULT¬Q‘WLFN’Õ/DWULFLQXVLG YLUJM¬U~YLUJMLQ‘PDLGHQ’Õ/DWYLUJLQHPLG 7KHUH H[LVWV KRZHYHU DQRWKHU OD\HU RI /DWLQ ORDQZRUGV LQ ZKLFK/DWLLVUHIOHFWHGDV$OEH,WLVSUREDEOHWKDWWKLVJURXSRIZRUGV EHORQJVWRDODWHUSHULRGZKHQRQWKHRQHKDQGQHZVKRUWHUHDSSHDUHG LQ3URWR$OEDQLDQDQGRQWKHRWKHUKDQGVKRUWLLQ/DWLQPHUJHGZLWK VKRUWH,WLVLQWHUHVWLQJWKDWORDQZRUGVZLWKLÖHEHORQJIRUWKHPRVW SDUWWRFRPSOHWHO\GLIIHUHQWVHPDQWLFILHOGV phonology 29 IH‘EHOLHIUHOLJLRQ’Õ/DWILGHP‘IDLWK’ NUHVKS¬‘VKHHSZLWKORQJDQGURXJKZRRO’Õ/DWIHPDGMFULVSD ‘FXUOHGFULVSXQHYHQ’ PHVK¬‘PDVV’Õ/DWPLVVDLG VKHQM¬‘VLJQ’Õ/DWVLJQXPLG XSHVKN‘ELVKRS’Õ/DWHSLVFRSXVLG YHV‘EDGKDELW’Õ/DWYLWLXP‘IDXOWGHIHFWYLFH’ 5HVXOWLQJHZDVRFFDVLRQDOO\FKDQJHGWR¬EHIRUHVRQRUDQWV N¬UNRM‘WRORRNIRUWRVHHN’Õ5RP FLUFUHLG N¬VKW¬U~N¬VKW¬Q‘&KULVWLDQ’ N¬UVKW¬QÕ/DWFKULVWLQXVLG VKWU¬QJRM‘WRSUHVVWRVTXHH]H’Õ/DWVWULQJHUH‘WRVWUHWFKWRSUHVV WRVTXHH]H’ ,Q WZR FDVHV DSSDUHQWO\ UHSUHVHQWLQJ UHODWLYHO\ HDUO\ ERUURZLQJV EHWZHHQWKRVHZKHUH/DWLÖ$OELDQGWKRVHZKHUH/DWL Ö$OEH /DWLLVUHQGHUHGDV/3$ H~ D PMHU¬‘XQKDSS\XQIRUWXQDWH’Õ5RP PLVUHP /DWPLVHUHPLG TDUN‘FLUFOH’Õ/DWFLUFXVLG /DWXLVUHIOHFWHGDV$OEXLQPRVWFDVHV EXO¬‘EXG’Õ/DWEXOOD‘EXEEOHERVVNQRE’ EXW‘ELJEDUUHO’Õ/DWEXWWLVLG VKXP¬‘PDQ\PXFK’Õ/DWVXPPXV‘XSSHUPRVWKLJKHVW’ NXQM‘SHJZHGJH’Õ/DWFXQHXV‘ZHGJH’ PXVKW‘PXVWQHZZLQH’Õ/DWPXVWXPLG JMXYHQJ¬ ‘KDUORW’Õ/DW DGM IHP MXYHQFD ‘\RXQJ’ DOVR ‘\RXQJ FRZ’ ,QDIHZFDVHVZHILQG$OERDVDUHIOH[RI/DWX,WLVFOHDUWKDWVXFK ZRUGV EHORQJ WR WKH VDPH FKURQRORJLFDO OD\HU DV WKH IRUPV ZLWK H UHQGHULQJ/DWL JRP¬‘UHVLQ’Õ5RP JXPPDDYDULDQWRI/DWJXPPLLG WURIW¬‘WURXW’ÕLat WUXFWDLG 30 chapter one ]PRMOH ‘IDOORZ ODQG ’ Õ 5RP H[PXOJLD D GHULYDWLYH RI /DW [ PXOJUH‘WRPLONRXWWRGUDLQRXW’ %HIRUHVRQRUDQWVXQVWUHVVHGXZRXOGRFFDVLRQDOO\\LHOG¬ Q¬P¬URM‘WRQXPEHUWRFRXQW’Õ/DWQXPHUUHLG UU¬PEHM‘WRUREWRVHL]H’Õ/DWUXPSHUH‘WRWHDUWRWHDUDZD\’ ,QWZRFDVHV/DWXZDVOHQJWKHQHGDQG\LHOGHG$OE\ NU\T‘FURVV’Õ/DWFUXFHPLG P\VKNPXVKN‘PRVVPXVN’Õ/DWPXVFXVLG /RQJYRZHOVLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV /RQJ /DWLQ YRZHOV DOVR UHIOHFW GLIIHUHQW FKURQRORJLFDO VWDJHV DQG SUREDEO\ GLIIHUHQW DUHDV RI /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ DQG 5RPDQFH SKRQHWLFGHYHORSPHQW 7KH QRUPDO UHIOH[ RI /DW LV $OE D DV LQ WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV EODW¬‘ZDIHU’Õ/DWREOWDLG IDP¬‘JRRGUHSXWDWLRQUXPRU’Õ/DWIPD‘UXPRUIDPH’ IDW‘IDWH EULGHJURRPKXVEDQGIULHQG’Õ/DWIWXP QDW\U¬‘QDWXUH’Õ/DWQW UDLG VKNDOO¬‘VWDLUVVWDLUFDVH’Õ/DWVFODH‘VWDLUV’ VKWUDW‘EHG OD\HU’Õ/DWVWUWXPLG $VLQWKHFDVHRIVKRUW/DWD VHH /DWLVRIWHQUDLVHG WR$OEHEHIRUHIURQWYRZHOVRIYDULRXVRULJLQV N¬OTHUH‘OLPH’Õ/DWIHPDGMFDOFULD‘SHUWDLQLQJWROLPH’ OWHU‘DOWDU’Õ/DWDOWULXPLG PDUWHV¬‘PDUULDJH’Õ5RP PDULWWLALG SXVKWHW‘SRZHU’Õ/DWSRWHVWWHPLG VKHP¬‘VZDUP RIEHHV ’Õ/DWH[PHQ‘VZDUP’ YXOOQHW‘ZLOO’Õ/DWYROXQWWHPLG phonology 31 ,Q D OLPLWHG QXPEHU RI FDVHV VWUHVVHG /DW \LHOGHG$OE\H EHIRUHU FIDVLPLODUGHYHORSPHQWIRU(3$ LQ PXVKN¬OO\HU ‘GXQ JUH\EURZQ UHGEURZQ’ Õ 5RP PXVFHOOULXV ‘FRORUHGOLNHDPRXVH’FI/DWPXVFHOOULXP‘PRXVHWUDS’ SXOT\HU‘WKXPE GZDUI’Õ/DWSROOLFULV‘EHORQJLQJWRDWKXPE’ %HIRUHQDVDOVLQDXVODXW/DWVHHPVWREHKDYHDVVKRUWDLHLW\LHOGV /DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQDˆ RUê (if raised), which then developed as described in 1.1.4.2: SH~Sê‘WKUHDG’Õ/DWSQXV‘WKUHDGZRXQGXSRQWKHEREELQ’ VKXOO¬~VKXOODˆ‘VXQQ\VSRW’Õ/DWVROQXV ORFXV LG 3UHWRQLF/DWZDVUHIOHFWHGDV¬ P¬UNRVK ‘PDQ O\LQJ LQ ZLIH’V EHG DIWHU FKLOGELUWK DQG UHFHLYLQJ YLVLWRUV ORYHU’Õ5RP PULFAVXV‘KXVEDQGOLNH’ $OOWKHDERYHORDQZRUGVPXVWKDYHSHQHWUDWHG$OEDQLDQDIWHU WKH SURFHVV RI ODELDOL]DWLRQ RI (3$ ZDV FRPSOHWHG +RZHYHU ZH NQRZ RI DW OHDVW RQH FRQVLGHUDEO\ HDUOLHU FDVH RI D /DWLQ ORDQZRUG ZKLFKDSSHDUVWRUHIOHFW/DWÖ$OER PROO¬‘DSSOHDSSOHWUHH’Õ/DWPOXPLG 7KHVWDQGDUGUHIOH[RI/DWLV$OEH IHP¬U~IHP¬Q‘ZRPDQ’Õ/DWIPLQDLG N¬QGHOO¬~NDQGHOO¬‘ODPS’Õ/DWFDQGOD‘ZD[OLJKWWDOORZFDQGOH’ SU¬QGYHU¬ ~ SUDQGYHU¬ ‘VSULQJ’ Õ 5RP SUPD YUD ! ,WDO SULPDYHUD5XPSULP:YDU: THW¬‘TXLHW’Õ/DWTXLWXVLG VKSUHWN¬ ~ VKS¬QHWN¬ ‘VSOHHQ’ Õ /DW VSOQWLFXP ‘UHODWHG WR WKH VSOHHQ’ YUHU~Y¬QHUP‘JDOOELOH’Õ/DWYHQQXP‘SRWLRQSRLVRQ’ 8QGHUWKHLQIOXHQFHRIIROORZLQJLRU/DWZDVUHIOHFWHGDVL 32 chapter one ELVK¬‘EHDVWZLOGDQLPDO’Õ/DWEVWLDLG LULT‘KHGJHKRJ’Õ/DWULFLXVLG NLVK¬‘FKXUFK’Õ/DWHFFOVLDLG OLJM‘ODZ’Õ/DWOJH P LG DIIHFWHGE\LRIWKHREOLTXHFDVHV 7ZRVPDOOHUJURXSVRIZRUGVZLWKGLIIHUHQWUHIOH[HVEHORQJWR HDUOLHU VWDJHV RI $OEDQLDQ FRQWDFWV ZLWK 5RPDQFH 7KH ROGHVW OH[LFDO OD\HU GHPRQVWUDWHV WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI /DW WR $OE R VLPLODU WR WKH FKDQJHRI(3$ ORJRUL‘ZDLOLQJPRXUQLQJGLUJH’Õ/DWDOOJRULD‘DOOHJRU\’ PEORM‘WRILOO’Õ/DWLPSOUHLG TRM‘WRZDNHXS’Õ/DWFLUH‘WRPRYHWRDJLWDWH’ $QRWKHUJURXSRIZRUGVSUHVXPDEO\ZDVERUURZHGDIWHUWKHVKLIW ! (3$ KDGWDNHQSODFHEXWEHIRUHWKHGLSKWKRQJL]DWLRQRIVKRUW(3$ HLHDWWKHWLPHZKHQ(3$ HZDVWKHEHVWSRVVLEOHVXEVWLWXWHIRU/DW NDVKQMHW‘FKHVWQXWJURYH’Õ/DWFDVWDQWXPLG UUMHW¬‘QHW’Õ/DWUWHLG WMHJXOO‘EULFN’Õ/DWWJXODLG %HIRUHQDVDOVLQDXVODXW/DWEHKDYHVDVVKRUWHDQG\LHOGV/DWH3URWR $OEDQLDQê: IUH~IUê‘EULGOH JUDSHVWDON FRPE’Õ/DWIUQXPLG 7KHROGHVW/DWLQORDQZRUGVGLVSOD\HDVDUHJXODUUHIOH[RI/DW AFIIRUH[DPSOH KHU¬‘WLPHPRPHQWRIWLPHKRXU’Õ/DWKAUD‘KRXU’ SHP¬‘IUXLWWUHHIUXLW’Õ/DWSAPXP‘IUXLW’SAPXV‘IUXLWWUHH’ SOHS‘SRSODU’Õ5RP SOASXVPHWDWKHVLVRI/DWSASXOXVLG SUHPWRM‘WRSURPLVH’Õ/DWSUAPLWWHUH‘WRIRUERGHWRSURPLVH’ W¬UPHW‘HDUWKTXDNH’Õ5RP WHUUDHPAWXVLG WPHUU‘KRUURUIULJKW’Õ/DWWLPAUHPLG ,QDVPDOOQXPEHURIORDQZRUGVZHILQGDVXEVWLWXWLRQRI/DWA ZLWK$OEX phonology 33 NDQXVK¬‘VWRUN’Õ5RP FQAVXVGHULYDWLYHRI/DWFQXV‘ZKLWH’ XUGK¬U~XUGK¬Q‘RUGHU’Õ/DWAUGLQHPLG XW‘RZO’Õ/DWAWXV‘KRUQHGRZO’ &IDOVRRQHFDVHLQZKLFKZHILQG\DVDFRQWLQXDWLRQRI/DWASUREDEO\ WKHUHVXOWRI$OEXEHIRUHDV\OODEOHFRQWDLQLQJL ]JM\U¬‘UXVW’Õ/DWVFAULD‘GURVVVODJ’ 7KH PRVW UHFHQW OD\HU RI /DWLQ ERUURZLQJV UHIOHFWV /DW A H[DFWO\DVVKRUW/DWR VHH 6WUHVVHG/DWAJLYHV$OER NXURU¬~ NXQRU¬‘FURZQ’Õ/DWFRUAQDLG P¬UNRVK ‘PDQ O\LQJ LQ ZLIH’V EHG DIWHU FKLOGELUWK DQG UHFHLYLQJ YLVLWRUV ORYHU’Õ5RP PULFAVXV‘KXVEDQGOLNH’ UUREXOO‘PRXQWDLQSLQH’Õ/DWUAEXU‘RDN’ZLWKDGLVVLPLODWLRQRI VRQRUDQWV VK¬QGRVK‘KHDOWK\’Õ5RP VDQLWAVXVLG VKTRS¬‘EULDU’Õ/DWVFASD‘WZLJEUDQFK’ ZLWKVHFRQGDU\T 8QVWUHVVHG/DWALVUHIOHFWHGDVXFIWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV GKXURM‘WRPDNHDSUHVHQW’Õ/DWGAQUHLG NXMWRM‘WRUHPHPEHUWRWKLQN’Õ/DWFAJLWUHLG NXOORM‘WRVLHYHWRVLIWWRILOWHU’Õ/DWFAOUH‘WRILOWHUWRVWUDLQ’ XVKWRM‘WRVRXQGWRVKRXW’Õ/DWAVFLWUH‘WRVKRXWWRRSHQPRXWK WR\DZQ’ ,QDQODXWEHIRUHQDVDOV/DWA\LHOGV$OEXD~ XH GUDJXD~ GUD Q JXH‘GUDJRQ’Õ5RP GUDQFAQHPDPRGLILFDWLRQRI /DWGUDFAQHPLG IDMNXD~IDMNXH‘IDOFRQ’Õ/DWIDOFAQHPLG IWXD ~ IWXH ‘TXLQFH’ Õ 5RP FRWAQHXP LG QDPHO\ ‘&\GRQLDQ DSSOH’ NDSXD~NDSXH‘URRVWHU’ Õ/DWFSAQHP‘FDSRQ’ 8QGHUXQFHUWDLQFRQGLWLRQV DIWHUL " ZHDOVRILQG\H 34 chapter one DUV\H‘UHDVRQXQGHUVWDQGLQJ’ÕUDWLAQHPLG 7KHKLVWRU\RI/DWLQ$OEDQLDQLVLGHQWLFDOZLWKWKDWRIVKRUW /DWL VHH ,QPRVWFDVHVLWJLYHV$OEL çLPN¬‘EXJ’Õ/DWFPLFHPLG IVKLN¬‘EOLVWHUEXEEOHEODGGHUEUXLVH’Õ/DWYVFD‘EODGGHU’ LM¬‘KLSVLGH’Õ/DWSOOLD‘JURLQIODQN’ OLO‘OLO\’Õ/DWOOLXPLG PLN‘IULHQG’Õ/DWDPFXVLG VKSLUW‘VRXOVSLULW’Õ/DWVSULWXVLG 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG LQ VHYHUDO ZRUGV ERUURZHG DW DQRWKHU VWDJH RI FRQWDFWVZHILQG$OEHDVDUHIOH[RI JMHU‘GRUPRXVH’Õ/DWJOUHPLG SUHY¬ ‘RSHQ ZD\ WUDFN IRUG’ Õ /DW SUYXP LWHU ‘SULYDWH URDG SDVVDJH ’ VKRUHWN¬ ‘KROH RI D KRQH\FRPE’ VKRUWHN¬ Õ 5RP VRUWFD ‘RXWOHW’GHULYHGIURP VRUWUH‘WRJRRXW’ (DUO\ORDQZRUGVZLWK/DW UHIOHFWDFKDQJHWR\ EU\P¬‘IURVW’Õ/DWEU PD‘FROGIURVW’ IU\W‘IUXLW’ Õ/DWIU FWXVLG I\W\U¬‘IDFH’Õ/DWIDFW UD‘IRUPDWLRQFUHDWXUH’ ODW\U¬‘ULQVHZDWHU’ Õ5RP ODYW UDIURP/DWODYUH‘WRZDVK’ P\OO‘PXOH’Õ/DWP OXVLG QDW\U¬‘QDWXUH’Õ/DWQW UDLG ,Q ODWHU ORDQZRUGV /DW LV UHQGHUHG DV $OE X FI WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV GXURM‘WREHSDWLHQW’Õ/DWG UUHLG N¬UUXW¬‘HZHZLWKKRUQV’ Õ/DWIHPDGMFRUQ WD‘KRUQHG’ NXNXW¬‘IHQQHO’Õ/DWFLF WDLG QXVH ‘EULGH \RXQJ ZRPDQ \RXQJHU GDXJKWHULQODZ’ Õ5RP Q SWLD D ORFDO YDULDQW RI /DW Q SWD ‘PDUULHG ZRPDQ ZLIH EULGH’ UUXJ¬‘VWUHHW’Õ/DWU JD‘ZULQNOH’ phonology 35 UUXVKNXOO‘DNLQGRIWKRUQ\SODQW’Õ5RP U VFXOXVGHULYDWLYHRI /DWU VFXV‘EXWFKHU’VEURRP’ /DWLQGLSKWKRQJV 7KHRQO\GLSKWKRQJWKDWH[LVWHGLQ/DWLQDQGHDUO\5RPDQFHDW WKHWLPHVRI$OEDQLDQ/DWLQFRQWDFWVZDVDX2WKHUGLSKWKRQJV WKRXJK ZH GR QRW KDYH H[DPSOHV IRURH KDG DOUHDG\ EHFRPH PRQRSKWKRQJV VHH /DWDXVKDUHGWKHIDWHRI(3$ DXDQGZDVUHQGHUHGDV$OED DU‘JROG’Õ/DWDXUXPLG JD]‘MR\ODXJKWHU’Õ/DWJDXGLXP‘MR\’ ODU‘ODXUHO’Õ /DWODXUXVLG SDN‘DOLWWOHIHZ’Õ/DWSDXFXV‘IHZOLWWOH’ VKNDJRM ‘WR UHIXVH WR GHFOLQH’ Õ /DW H[FDXGLFUH ‘WR XSURRW WR HUDGLFDWH‘ 8QVWUHVVHGDXZDVUHGXFHGWR¬ZKLFKZDVWKHQODELDOL]HGWRXXQGHU WKHLQIOXHQFHRIWKHSUHFHGLQJV\OODEOH N¬VK\UH‘PRXQWDLQSDWKSDWKLQWKHUDYLQH’Õ/DWFODXV UD‘ORFN EDUEROW FDVWOHIRUW’ VKXUXNRM‘WRWKXQGHUWRPDNHQRLVH’Õ5RP VXEUDXFUH‘WRPDNH KRDUVH’FI,WDOGLDOVXUUDJDUH /DWHU ORDQZRUGV ERUURZHG DW WKH WLPH ZKHQ (3$ DX KDG DOUHDG\ EHFRPH DUHIOHFW/DWDXDV DY! DIXQVWUHVVHG¬Y!LY NDIVK¬‘DQLPDOWKLQJ’Õ/DWFDXVD‘FDXVH’ OLITHUOLITDU‘ZDWHUIDOO’Õ5RP ODYFUXP /DWODYFUXP‘EDWK’ ZLWKL ¬ /DWDHFRLQFLGHGZLWKVKRUWH LQRSHQ5RP ? ORQJEHIRUHWKH EHJLQQLQJ RI $OEDQR5RPDQLDQ FRQWDFWV ,WV UHIOHFWLRQ LV LGHQWLFDO WR WKDWRI/DWH JUHN‘*UHHN’Õ/DWJUDHFXVLG SUH‘SUH\ERRW\SOXQGHU’Õ/DWSUDHGDLG 36 chapter one TLHOO‘VN\KHDYHQ’Õ/DWFDHOXPLG VKHNXOO‘DJH’Õ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‘WRPHQGWRUHSDLU’Õ/DWUHQRYUH‘WRUHQHZ’ DUULM‘WRFRPHWRDUULYH’Õ5RP DUULYUHLG EOHM‘WREX\’Õ5RP DEOHYUH‘WROLIWXSWRUHOLHYH IURP ’ IHO¬‘KRQH\FRPE’Õ5RP IDYDOLDFI,WDOILDOHLG ,IWKHVHFRQGV\OODEOHZDVLWKHJURXSZDVUHIOHFWHGDV$OE\ JM\NRM‘WRMXGJHWRWU\’Õ/DWM GLFUHLG Q\W¬URM‘WRPXUPXUWRZKLVSHU’Õ/DWUHLWHUUH‘WRUHSHDW’ S\ON¬‘ZHGJH HQGRIDQD[HKDQGOH’Õ/DWSDYFXOD‘UDPPHU’ T\WHW‘FLW\’Õ/DWFYLWWH P LG :KLOHLQLQODXW/DWRZDVVXEVWLWXWHG DWGLIIHUHQWHSRFKV E\R RUX,QLWLDOO\LWEHFDPH/3$ ÆH YHUE¬U~YHUE‘EOLQG’Õ/DWRUEXVLG YHS¬U‘ZRUN’Õ/DWRSHUDLG /DWHULQLWLDO/DWRZDVVXEVWLWXWHGE\7RVNYD~*HJYR 2*HJYH DVLQ WKHIROORZLQJFDVHV phonology 37 YDM~ YRM‘RLO’Õ/DWROHXPLG YDUI¬U~YRUI¬Q‘SRRU’Õ/DWRUSKDQXV‘RUSKDQ’ YRVKW¬U *HJ ‘/LJXVWUXPYXOJDUH’Õ/DW²OHDVWHULG YH~YR‘HJJ’ YDH~ YRH Õ/DWAYXP‘HJJ’ /RDQZRUGV IURP RWKHU ODQJXDJHV WKDW SHQHWUDWHG $OEDQLDQ GXULQJ WKH VDPHSHULRGZHUHWUHDWHGOLNHZLVH Õ YDGK¬~YRGK¬‘VRUEDSSOH’ *NQKJLG YDW¬U~YRW¬U‘KHDUWKILUHSODFH’Õ,UDQGLDO RWDU ,UDQ DWDUFI $YWDU‘ILUH’ ,QJURXSVRQDQGRPWKH/DWLQYRZHOZDVDOZD\VUHQGHUHG DV $OE X ZKLOH WKH VRQRUDQW ZDV RQO\ SUHVHUYHG LI LW ZDV WKH ILUVW HOHPHQWRIDFOXVWHULQFOXGLQJDQRFFOXVLYH QRUPDOO\QWRUQF NUXVKN ‘EULGH’V PDQ XQPDUULHG UHODWLYH’ NXVKN ¬ U Õ /DW FRQVRFHU‘IDWKHULQODZ’ NXQG¬U‘DJDLQVW’Õ/DWFRQWUDLG NXQJRM‘WRFRPPXQLFDWH’Õ/DWFRPP QLFUHLG NXVKXOO‘FRQVXO’Õ/DWFRQVXOHPLG NXYHQG ‘VSHHFK FRXQFLO PHHWLQJ’ Õ /DW FRQYHQWXV ‘PHHWLQJ DVVHPEO\’ UUXIH ‘OLJKWQLQJ’ Õ /DW URPSKDHD ‘ORQJ VZRUG’ DGDSWDWLRQ RI *N T QOHCKCLG /DWHUWKLVJURXSZDVUHQGHUHGDV¬ N¬VKLOO‘FRXQFLO’Õ/DWFRQVLOLXPLG 9RZHOVLQ6ODYLFORDQZRUGV 7KH PDMRULW\ RI 6ODYLF ORDQZRUGV LQ $OEDQLDQ EHORQJ WR D UHODWLYHO\ ODWH SHULRG SUHVXPDEO\ DIWHU WKH 9,,, FHQWXU\ &( DQG UHIOHFW IXOO\ GHYHORSHG 6RXWK 6ODYLF GLDOHFWV ZLWK VXFK DGYDQFHG SKRQHWLF IHDWXUHV DV GHQDVDOL]HG ? DQG _ ORVW ZHDN “MHUV” IXOO\ YRFDOL]HGVWURQJ“MHUV”, metathesized groups of vowels with liquids and the like. 38 chapter one +RZHYHUWKHUHDOVRH[LVWVDOLPLWHGJURXSRIORDQZRUGV EHORQJLQJWR WKH 9, 9,,, FHQWXULHV UHIOHFWLQJ VRPH RI WKH PRUH DUFKDLF SKRQHWLF SKHQRPHQDRI6ODYLF7KH\DUHGHVFULEHGEHORZ,WLVLPSRUWDQWIRUWKH UHODWLYH FKURQRORJ\ RI WKH $OEDQLDQ YRFDOLVP WKDW 6ODYLF ORDQZRUGV EHDUQRWUDFHVRIGLSKWKRQJL]DWLRQRIH 6HYHUDO6ODYLFORDQZRUGVUHIOHFWXQVWUHVVHG6ODY RDV$OED MXVWOLNHLQRWKHUQHLJKERULQJODQJXDJHVWKDWERUURZHGIURP6ODYLFDIWHU WKH 6RXWKHUQ PLJUDWLRQV DQG H[SDQVLRQV RI 6ODYV FI 6ODY VORYpQH Ö ‘6ODYV’ *N5MNCDJPQKLG EDJ¬WL~EDNWL‘GRPHVWLFDQLPDO KHDGRI FDWWOH’EDVHGRQ EDJ¬W Õ6ODY ERJDWÙ‘ULFK’ NDçXE¬‘EXVK’Õ6ODY NR¨XEÙ NR¨XED‘FUHVWWXIW’ NDUUXS‘ILVKWUDS’Õ6ODY NRUXSÙLGDWWHVWHGLQ%XOJNRUXS NDUUXW¬‘IHUPHQWHU’Õ6ODY NRU\WR‘WURXJK’ PDWXN¬‘PDWWRFNKRH’Õ6ODY PRW\NDLG UDJDO‘NHQQHO’Õ6ODY URJDOÚ‘FRUQHU’ 6ODY R DSSHDUV DV $OE ¬ LQ RQH H[DPSOH OLNHO\ GXH WR YRZHO DVVLPLODWLRQ S¬J¬M~SXJâM‘WRPDNHGLUW\WRVRLO’Õ6ODY SRJDQLWLLG :HDOVRILQGWZRLQWHUHVWLQJFDVHVRI6ODY D RULJLQDOO\DORQJYRZHO UHIOHFWHGDV(3$ !R NRV‘\RJXUWFORWWHGFXUGV’Õ6ODY NYDVÙ‘VRXUVXEVWDQFH’ YRUE¬‘FOD\SRW’Õ6ODY YDUÚED‘FRRNLQJ’ ,QHDUO\ORDQZRUGV6ODY \ LVUHQGHUHGDV$OEX EXVKW¬U‘UDJLQJZLOG’Õ6ODY E\VWUÙIHP E\VWUD‘TXLFN’ NDUUXW¬‘IHUPHQWHU’Õ6ODY NRU\WR‘WURXJK’ NXO¬‘KHUQLD’Õ6ODY N\ODLG OOXN¬‘OLPHWUHH’Õ6ODY O\NR‘EDVW’ PDWXN¬‘PDWWRFNKRH’Õ6ODY PRW\NDLG SRVXOO¬‘ELOOVOLSQRWHOHWWHU’Õ6ODY SRV\OD SXUU¬‘KRWDVKHV’Õ6ODY S\U’ÚLG phonology 39 6ODYLF “jers” Ú DQG Ù ROG VKRUW L DQG X DUH UHIOHFWHG DV L DQG X FRUUHVSRQGLQJO\FIWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV PX]J‘GXVN’Õ6ODY PÙ]JD‘UDLQ\ZHDWKHU’ RSLQJ¬ ‘VDQGDO’ Õ 6ODY RE Ù SÚQÙNÙ ‘VDQGDO VKRH’ FI 6&U RSDQDN WULVKH‘VKRRWLQJVSURXW’Õ6ODY WUÚVÙ‘JUDSHVWDON’FI6&UWUV *URXSV 7HU7 7RU7 DQG 7RO7DUHSUHVHUYHGLQHDUO\6ODYLF ORDQZRUGVEXWRFKDQJHVWR$OEDDVLQGLFDWHGDERYH DUTLW¬ ‘URG IRU EDVNHW ZHDYLQJ ’ Õ 6ODY RUN\WD ‘EURRP SODQW NLQGRIZLOORZ’ çHUGKH‘QHVW’Õ6ODY ¨HUGD‘URZKHUGIORFN’ GDOW¬‘FKLVHO’Õ6ODY GROEWRLG VKDUN‘ZRROHQFORDN JUHHQVNLQRIQXWV’Õ6ODY VRUND‘VKLUW’ YDOONXD ~YDOONXH‘ILVKWUDS’Õ6ODYSO YRONRYH‘REMHFWVWKDWFDQ EHGUDJJHGRUFDUULHGQHWV’ 2FFDVLRQDOO\ 7RU7 ZDV UHQGHUHG DV DQ XQXVXDO 6RXWK 6ODYLF “SROQRJODVLH”DUD KDUDEHO‘VSDUURZ’Õ6ODY YRUEÚOÚLG NDUDYHO¬‘VPDOOURXQGEUHDG’ NDUDYDO¬Õ6ODY NRUYDMÚ‘URXQG EUHDG’ ,QWZRFDVHV RULVUHIOHFWHGDVUR2QHRIWKHPVHHPVWRUHIOHFWD VWDQGDUG2OG&KXUFK6ODYLFGHYHORSPHQWRIDQODXWLQJ RU URE‘VHUISULVRQHU’Õ6ODY RUEÙLG 7KH VHFRQG ZRUG LV PXFK PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG DQG VHHPV WR UHIOHFW DQ XQDWWHVWHG 6ODYLF GLDOHFW LQ WKH %DONDQV LQVRIDU DV DOO 6RXWK 6ODYLF ODQJXDJHVGHYHORSHGUDKHUH JURVK¬ ‘EHDQ OHQWLO’ Õ 6ODY JRUhÚ DQ DGMHFWLYH GHULYHG IURP JRU[Ù‘SHD’ *URXSVRI“MHUV” IROORZHGE\OLTXLGVLQHDUO\6ODYLFORDQZRUGV DUHDOOUHSUHVHQWHGDVXODQGXUFIWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV 40 chapter one EXOORJ ‘GUDJRQ’V GZHOOLQJ’ Õ EÙUORJÙ 6ODY EÚUORJÙ ‘GHQ GZHOOLQJ’ JUXVKW‘ILVW’Õ6ODY JÙUVWÚ‘KDQGIXOKDQG’ NXOE¬‘NLQGRIIUHVKZDWHUILVK’Õ6ODY NÙOED~ NÙOEÙLGFI3RO NLHOE5XVNROED YXUNROODN‘YDPSLUH’Õ6ODY YÚONRGODNÙ‘ZHUZROIYDPSLUH’ ,Q RQH ZRUG KRZHYHU ZH ILQG D GLIIHUHQW SKRQHWLF GHYHORSPHQW UHIOHFWLQJDGLDOHFWDOVRXUFHYHU\FORVHWR2OG&KXUFK6ODYLF WUHJ‘PDUNHW’Õ WUÙJÙ 2&6WUÚJÚ 6ODY WÙUJÙLG ,Q VHYHUDO FDVHV QDVDO YRZHOV RI 6ODYLF ORDQZRUGV DUH WUDQVIRUPHGLQWR$OEDQLDQJURXSVYRZHOQDVDOVRQRUDQW O¬QGLQ¬‘XQWLOOHGODQGIDOORZILHOGJUDVVODQG’Õ6ODY O?GLQDLG RUHQGL‘HTXLSPHQWXWHQVLOV’Õ6ODY RU_GÚMHLG SHQGDU‘ZDWFKPDQ’Õ6ODY S_GDUÚLG SRUHQG‘WKRUQKHGJH’Õ6ODY SRU?GÙ‘RUGHUURZ’ VHPE¬U ‘WZR SHDVDQWV XVLQJ WKH VDPH SDLU RI R[HQ RU KDYLQJ FRPPRQFDWWOH’Õ6ODY V?EUÙ‘QHLJKERUFRPUDGHSHDVDQW’ +RZHYHU WKLV VXEVWLWXWLRQ LV QRW GLUHFWO\ UHODWHG WR WKH FKURQRORJ\ RI ERUURZLQJ VLQFH LQ PDQ\ FRQWHPSRUDU\ 6RXWK 6ODYLF %XOJDULDQ 0DFHGRQLDQ GLDOHFWV VLPLODU UHIOH[HV DUH IRXQG $Q HDUO\ GDWH RI ERUURZLQJLVPRUHSUREDEOHZKHQWKHYRZHOLQ/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQLV DRU X6XFKJURXSVPD\UHIOHFWHDUO\6ODYLFRU6RXWK6ODYLFJURXSV RQRU ÙQFIWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV N¬QG~NDQG‘FRUQHUDQJOH’Õ6ODY N_WÙLG VXQGRM‘WRUXOH’Õ6ODY V_GLWL‘WRMXGJH’ WDQJ¬‘UHVHQWPHQWSUHMXGLFHGDPQDWLRQ’Õ6ODY W_JD‘JULHI’ ]KXPELQ¬‘JXP’Õ6ODY ]_ELQDLG 2WKHU FRQVLGHUDWLRQV WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI 6ODY ¨ SURYH WKDW WZR ZRUGVZLWKRUHSODFLQJ6ODY _PXVWEHTXLWHDUFKDLFFI SRURVLW‘WRRUGHUWRGHPDQG’Õ6ODY SRU_¨LWLLG VRGLW‘WRREVHUYH’Õ6ODY V_GLWL‘WRMXGJH’ FIVXQGRMDERYH phonology 41 7ZR SRVLWLRQDO FKDQJHV LQ HDUO\ 6ODYLF ORDQZRUGV GHVHUYH VSHFLDODWWHQWLRQ (YHQ WKRXJK ZH KDYH RQO\ RQH UHOLDEOH H[DPSOH WKHUH VHHPV WR EH D VSHFLDOWUHDWPHQWRILQLWLDOXZKLFKLVUHQGHUHGDVYR YREHNW¬‘SRRU’Õ6ODY XERJÙLG $OOJURXSVKDYLQJDVWUXFWXUH9Æ9\LHOGXD~ XH EXDOO~EXHOO‘EXIIDOR’Õ6ODY E\YROÙLG JDWXDM~JDWXHM‘PDNHUHDG\SUHSDUH’Õ6ODY JRWRYDWL JRWRYLWL ‘PDNHUHDG\SUHSDUH’ SDWNXD~SDWNXH‘KRUVHVKRH’Õ6ODY SRGÙNRYÙLG S¬UUXD~S¬UUXH‘EURRN ULYHUEHG’Õ6ODY SRURYÙ~ SDURYÙFI 3ROSDU²Z‘UDYLQH’QDPHRIDVRXUFHLQ*UHHFH2QTóDQX WRUXD~WRUXH‘WUDFH VHFUHWSDWK’Õ6ODYSO WRURYH‘SDWKVWUDFHV’ YDOONXD ~YDOONXH‘ILVKWUDS’Õ6ODYSO YRONRYH‘REMHFWVWKDWFDQ EHGUDJJHGRUFDUULHGQHWV’ YLUXD ~ YLUXH ‘EURRN ULYXOHW’ Õ 6ODY SO YLURYHRI YLUÙ ‘ZKLUOSRROZDWHUSLW’ ,QRQHFDVHWKHVDPHGHYHORSPHQWLVDWWHVWHGIRUDJURXSZLWK MLQWKH PLGGOH ]DEXD~]DEXH‘OLQFKSLQ’Õ6ODY ]DERMÚ 6RQRUDQWV 7KHKDUPRQLRXVVWUXFWXUHRI,QGR(XURSHDQVRQRUDQWVZLWKWKHLU RSSRVLWLRQ RI V\OODELF DQG DV\OODELF IXQFWLRQV KDG EHHQ FRPSOHWHO\ GHVWUR\HGDOUHDG\LQ(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQEHFDXVHRIWKHGHYHORSPHQW RIRULJLQDOV\OODELFVRQRUDQWV 6\OODELFVRQRUDQWV 7KHKLVWRU\RIV\OODELFVRQRUDQWVLQ$OEDQLDQLVUHODWLYHO\FOHDU EXWTXLWHFRQWUDGLFWRU\DVIDUDVWKHDUHDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRI$OEDQLDQDUH 42 chapter one FRQFHUQHG,QLWVWUHDWPHQWRIQDVDODQGOLTXLGVRQRUDQWV$OEDQLDQGLV SOD\VIHDWXUHVSURSHUWRWZRVHSDUDWHJURXSVRI,QGR(XURSHDQGLDOHFWV /LWHUDWXUH 0(<(5$OE6W,,, !¬Q L55L ` 3('(56(1.=;;;9, !L )$<,);;;,, FRQWUD 3('(56(1 -2./5HDOOH[9RUJHVFK, X55X ` /.8%$ LUXUIURP iUULIURP Ö !¬Q 6SUDFKH,; L5 5L `EXWDU ¹ 9$60(5$OE:RUWIRUVFK DQG ! D 0$11/DQJXDJH;9,, X55X ` !¬Q +LVW*U `!L5X5EXW5L5\EHIRUHODELDOV 1!¬1~D1 %$5,C´ ° ,VW IROORZV9$60(5 Ç$%(-+\UMH !XQ 6W,,,,9 (DJDLQVW !UL .$/8ä6.$-$25(/$QWL¨EDON6%-D .RQWDNW\ WLPEUHLLQVKRUWDQGWLPEUHXLQORQJV\OODELF VRQRUDQWV IROORZ9$60(5 %RWKQDVDOVRQRUDQWV DQG \LHOGHG(3$ D7KHODWWHU ZDVSUHVHUYHGDV$OED&IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV DYXOO‘VWHDPYDSRU’ (3$ DEXODFRQWLQXLQJ EK X ORFORVHWR 2+*QHEXO‘IRJ’26QLIRO *PF QHEXOD] JDW¬ ‘KHURQ’ (3$ JDW ,( ½KW D YDULDQW RI ,( ½KDQV ‘JRRVH’FI*PF JDQWD ,( ½KDQG JMDW¬‘ORQJ’ (3$ GODWD ,( GOJKWR ,( G ORQJKRLG /DW ORQJXV*RWKODJJV PDW‘EDQNVKRUH’ (3$ PDWD PWR /DWPAQV‘PRXQWDLQ’ VKWDW¬ ‘VHYHQ’ (3$ VHSWDWL GHULYHG IURP ,( VHSW LG 6NW VDSW¢*NG RVC/DWVHSWHP 7KH YRFDOL]DWLRQ RI QDVDO VRQRUDQWV SUHFHGHG WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI XQYRLFHGRFFOXVLYHVDIWHUVRQRUDQWVWR P E Q G Q J ,QVHYHUDOFDVHV(3$ D ,( ZDVUDLVHGWRHDVGHPRQ VWUDWHGE\WKHIROORZLQJZRUGV HSULYDWLYHSUHIL[‘QRQXQ’ LQHJM¬OO‘RQDQHPSW\VWRPDFK’DQG HV¬OOLG (3$ D ,( OHKW¬‘OLJKW DGM ’ 3$OE ODJD ,( OÞK 6NWUDJK·‘KDVWHQLQJ’ ODJK·‘OLJKW’*NGNCZWXLG/DWOHYLVLG WKHN ‘WR URDVW WR WRDVW EUHDG ’ (3$ WVDND ,( NFI*N MGIMGK RGKPC`^ MCIMQOGPJX EJTC`X VY`^ HQDY^ +HV RQNWMCIMJX‘EXUQLQJVWURQJO\’ +RP ]HW ‘WZHQW\’ (3$ Z GÊDW ,( ÆW LG 6NW YLayDW *N GKMQUK/DWYJLQW phonology 43 7KH KLVWRU\ RI V\OODELF OLTXLG VRQRUDQWV LV H[WUHPHO\ FRP SOLFDWHG $OUHDG\ LQ (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ WKH\ KDG FKDQJHG WR IXOO\ YRFDOL]HGJURXSV ,( â!(3$ LODQG XODQG,( !(3$ LUDQG XU /DWHU LQ VRPH FDVHV WKH QHZ JURXSV ZHUH PHWDWKHVL]HG VHH EHORZ 7KHGLVWULEXWLRQEHWZHHQSDODWDODQGODELDOYDULDQWVKDVEHHQFRQVLGHU DEO\ REVFXUHG E\ YDULRXV VHFRQGDU\ SURFHVVHV +RZHYHU VRPH LP SRUWDQWIDFWRUVWKDWLQIOXHQFHGWKHGLVWULEXWLRQEHWZHHQ L5RU X5FDQ EHHVWDEOLVKHG (3$ L5 DSSHDUV EHIRUH FRQVRQDQWDO FOXVWHUV DV LQ WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV ELU¬‘KROH’ (3$ ELUM ,( EKHU /DWIRUA‘WRERUHWRSLHUFH’ 2+*ERUAQLG GULWK¬ ‘JUDLQ’ (3$ GULWV ,( ½K]G ‘EDUOH\’ /DW KRUGHXP 2+*JHUVWD GULW¬‘OLJKWOXVWUHSXSLO RIDQH\H ’ (3$ GULNW ,( GHU‘WR ORRN’ GUL]¬‘EODFNWKRUQVORH’ (3$ GULG]M ,( GHU½K‘WRKROGWREH ILUP’ 6NWGK\DWL ‘WR EH ILUP’ 6ODY GÚUÊDWL WR KROG’ GÚU]MDWL DQG LQ SDUWLFXODU GÚU]D ! 5XVV GHUH]D ‘NLQG RI WKRUQ\SODQW’ JULM~JUîM‘WRFXWLQWRSLHFHVWRJQDZWRHDWDZD\’ (3$ JULQMD ,( ÞHU ‘WR VZDOORZ’ 6NWJLU¢WL $UP HNHU /DW YRUA /LWK JHUL¸J©UWL‘WRGULQN’6ODY ÊHUWL SLU¬‘SRUH’ (3$ SLUM *NRGKTY‘WRERUH’6ODY SHUM_LG UULV‘WRSXOOXSWRPRYHXSWRLQFUHDVHWRJURZ’ (3$ ZULWMD ,( ÆHUW ‘WR WXUQ’ 6NWYDUWDWH /DW YHUWA *RWK ZDLUÈDQ ‘WR EHFRPH’ VKWULM‘WRVSUHDGWRVWUHWFK’ (3$ VWULQMD 6NWVWQdWL‘WRVSUHDGWR VFDWWHU’*NUVQTPWOK‘WRVSUHDGWRVWUHWFK’/DWVWHUQALG 7KHVDPHUXOHDSSOLHVWRWZRZRUGVZLWKDVHFRQGDU\GHYHORSPHQWRIL LQWRH VHHDOVREHORZ JUHOO¬ ‘GHHS SODFH’ (3$ JULWO /LWK JXUNOmV ‘FURS’ 23UXV JXUFOH ‘WKURDW’ 6ODY JÙUGOR LG FI DOVR ÊHUGOR ‘ULYHUEHG RSHQLQJ’ JUHU¬~JUHQ]¬‘ZDVSKRUQHW’ JULVQ /DWFUEUA‘KRUQHW’2+* KRUQDfLG/LWKhLUhX¶LG6ODY VÚUhHQÚLG 44 chapter one (3$ L5 DOVR UHIOHFWV ,QGR(XURSHDQ OLTXLG VRQRUDQWV ZKHQ IROORZHGE\ LRU LQWKHQH[WV\OODEOH ELUT ‘KHDS KHDS RI VDQG VDQGGXQH’ (3$ ELUNL 6ODY EÙUNÙ ‘PRXVWDFKHKDLUWUXQN’ NULPE~NU\P‘ZRUP’ (3$ NULP ZLWKXQH[SODLQHG*HJ\ ,( áPLLG 6NWN¤PL/LWKN®UPLV UL‘QHZ\RXQJUHFHQW’ (3$ ULMDGHULYDWLYHRI,( HU~ RU‘WR ULVHWRPDNHPRYH’FI21_UU‘TXLFN’26DUXLG UULPH‘UDLQZRUP’ (3$ ZULPL ,( ÆPL ÆPR‘ZRUP’ /DW YHUPLVLG*RWKZD·UPV‘ZRUPVQDNH’/LWKYD¼PDV‘LQVHFW’ 7KHUHDUHVRPHFDVHVLQZKLFKWKHUHDUHQRREYLRXVWUDFHVRI L UULE¬‘JDOHZLQGZDWHUIDOOWRUUHQW’ (3$ ZULE L ,( ÆHUE K ‘WRWXUQWREHQG’ WKLUU‘VRRW’GHULYHGIURP(3$ WVLUZ L /LWKhL¼YDV‘JUD\’ ,QDOORWKHUSRVLWLRQV,QGR(XURSHDQOLTXLGVRQRUDQWV\LHOGHG (3$ X5 JUXU¬ ~JUXQ¬‘ZKHDW’ (3$ JUXQ ,( ½¹QRP ‘JUDLQ’ /DW JUQXP2,UJU¢Q*RWKNDXUQ/LWKÊ®UQLV6ODY ]ÚUQR NXOS¬U ~ NXOS¬Q ‘LY\ FOHPDWLV’ (3$ NXOSD /LWK N®OSD ‘ORRS’ /DWYFLËSDLG KXGK¬U‘JDUOLF’ (3$ VNXUG *NUMQTQFQPLG PXUJ ‘GDUN JUH\’ (3$ PXUJD /LWK P¢UJDV ‘PXOWLFRORUHG’ PLUJ·RWL ‘WR VSDUNOH WR VKLQH’ /DWY PLUJD ‘JOHDP’ P¸UJV ‘IDQWDVWLFLPDJH’ QGXONHP‘WRULSHQ’ (3$ HQWXOND /LWKWHONL¸WHËNWL‘WRJDWKHUWR EULQJWRJHWKHU’6ODY WHONWL‘WREHDWWRSRXQG’ XMN‘ZROI’ (3$ Z XOND ,( ÆâáRVLG 6NWY¤ND*NNWMQX/DW OXSXV*RWKZXOIV XO]¬‘NLQGRIPDSOH’GHULYHGIURP(3$ XOPD ,( âPR‘HOP’ /DW XOPXV21DOPU2,UOHP ,QIRXUFDVHVWKHLLQULKDVEHHQUHSODFHGE\H JUHOO¬ ‘GHHS SODFH’ (3$ JULWO /LWK JXUNOmV ‘FURS’ 23UXV JXUFOH ‘WKURDW’ 6ODY JÙUGOR LG FI DOVR ÊHUGOR ‘ULYHUEHG RSHQLQJ’ phonology 45 JUHU¬~JUHQ]¬‘ZDVSKRUQHW’ (3$ JULVQ /DWFUEUA‘KRUQHW’ 2+*KRUQDfLG/LWKhLUhX¶LG6ODY VÚUhHQÚLG GUHJ¬ ‘VFDE’ (3$ GULJ :HVW *PF WDUJMDQ ‘WR SXOO WR VWLU’ 6ODY GÚUJDWL‘WRSXOOWRWXJ’/LWKG®UJLQWL‘WRPRYHWRLUULWDWH’ GUHN¬‘OXQFKGLQQHUPLGGD\PHDO’ (3$ GULN ,( GáFORVH WR%UHWGLEUL‘OXQFK’2%UHWGLSULP‘WRHDW’ 7KHSKRQHWLFFRQGLWLRQVRIWKLVFKDQJHUHPDLQXQFHUWDLQ ,Q KDOI RI WKH NQRZQ ZRUGV UHIOHFWLQJ ,QGR(XURSHDQ OLTXLG VRQRUDQWVWKHUHVXOWLQJ(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQJURXSVZHUHPHWDWKHVL]HG H[FHSW IRU (3$ LO 7KHUH LV QR GHILQLWH SKRQHWLF IDFWRU ZKLFK FDQ H[SODLQ WKLV SKHQRPHQRQ 7KH VLWXDWLRQ LV LOOXVWUDWHG E\ WKH IROORZLQJ FRQWUDVWLYHSDLUV LU ~ UL WKLUU‘VRRW’ (3$ WVLUZL /LWKhL¼YDV‘JUD\’ WULP‘KHUREUDYHFRXUDJHRXV’ (3$ WULPD ,( WPRFI$UP DUP‘\RXQJIUHVKJUHHQ’ XU~UX SXUWK ‘GLDUUKRHD’ GHULYHG IURP (3$ SXUZD /LWK SX¼YDV ‘ILOWK GLUW’/DWYS¸UYV‘VZDPSPDUVK’ EUXP¬ ‘GRXJK’ (3$ EUXPD *PF EDUPD ‘\HDVW’ DQG /DW IHUPHQWXP‘OHDYHQ\HDVW’ XO~ OX NXOS¬U ~ NXOS¬Q ‘LY\ FOHPDWLV’ (3$ NXOSD /LWK N®OSD ‘ORRS’ /DWYFLËSDLG JMXK¬ ‘WRQJXH ODQJXDJH’ (3$ JOX[ WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ GLDOHFWDOZRUGIRU‘VRXQG’ JROVR 21NDOO‘VKRXW’/LWKJDËVDV ‘HFKR’6ODY JROVÙ‘YRLFH’ $V\OODELFVRQRUDQWV $V\OODELF VRQRUDQWV ZHUH ZHOO SUHVHUYHG LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ WKRXJKVRPHRIWKHPXQGHUZHQWVHULRXVFKDQJHVGXULQJODWHUVWDJHVRI SKRQHWLFGHYHORSPHQW)RUSRVLWLRQDOFKDQJHVRIDV\OODELFVRQRUDQWVVHH 46 chapter one /LWHUDWXUH 0(<(5 $OE 6W ,,, :(,*$1' %$ ,,, 5XPDQLDQ UKRWDFLVP UHVXOWLQJ IURP $OEDQLDQ LQIOXHQFH 3('(56(1 %86K7;,9 P!PE +$03.=/;;9, Ö!UHEHIRUH ORQJ /;;9,, VDPH ,) /;9, 0$11 /DQ JXDJH ;9,, 0,16+$// /DQJXDJH ;;;,, GHYHORS PHQWRI LQFOXVWHUVZLWKODU\QJHDOVLQ$OEDQLDQ Ç$%(-%6KN6K, ,( ! $OE ] ;9 H[SUHVVLYH UU U =I3KRQHWLN ,; RQ,( LQ$OEDQLDQ 56KN FOXVWHUPE P 6W ,,, 25(/ )/+ 9,,, ,( LQ $OEDQLDQ ,( UHPDLQHG XQFKDQJHG LQ (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ IRU ZKLFK ZHUHFRQVWUXFW(3$ M+RZHYHULWVIXUWKHUKLVWRU\LVTXLWHFRPSOLFDWHG ,QPRVWFDVHV EHIRUH(3$ D HDQG A LW\LHOGHGJMLQDQODXWDVFRU URERUDWHGE\VHYHUDOUHOLDEOHH[DPSOHV JMHP‘EULGOH’ (3$ MHPD 6NW\¢PDLG JMHU‘WLOO’ (3$ D MHUL *NJ?TK J?GTK‘HDUO\’IXUWKHUUHODWHUWR *PF DLUL]‘EHIRUHHUH’ *RWKDLU21¢U DQG$YD\DU‘GD\’ JMHVK‘WRNQHDG’ (3$ MHVMD 6NW\¢V\DWL‘WRERLO’*N\GY‘WRERLO WRFRRN’ JM¬U‘VRXS’ 7RVN (3$ MDXVQD 6NWQHXW\ ¿‘VRXS’/DWL VLG /LWKMgh^‘ILVKVRXS’ JMXDM~JMXHM‘WRKXQW’ (3$ MAJQMD 2+*MDJAQ‘WRKXQW’ QJMHVK‘WRJLUG’ (3$ HQMAhD $Y\vKD\HLWLLG*N\YPPWOKLG /LWK M·RVWL LG 6ODY MDVDWL ‘WR WHDU FORWKHV’ ‘WR WHDU LQWR EDQGV’ SRMDVÙ‘EHOW’ %HIRUH(3$ DQG X(3$ MZDVSUHVHUYHGDV$OEM DMR‘VKH WKDW’ (3$ DM ,( LGIHPVJRI R MRVK‘WRFXUOWRIRQGOHWRFDUHVV’ (3$ MXGVMD ,( HXGK 6NW \·GK\DWH‘WRILJKWWRVWUXJJOH’7RFK$\XWN‘WRWDNHFDUHRIWR WURXEOHDERXW’/LWKM¢XGLQWL‘WRH[FLWHWRDURXVH’ MX‘\RX’ (3$ MX ZLWKVHFRQGDU\VKRUW X /LWKM VLG*RWKMXV LG*NWOGK`XLG6NWDFF\X¿PdQLG ,QWKHLQODXW(3$ MZDVORVWDIWHUIURQWYRZHOVFIWKHIROORZ LQJH[DPSOHV GL‘WRNQRZ’ (3$ GMD ,( GKHi 6NWGK\WLGK\\DWL‘WRRE VHUYHWRIHHOWRWKLQN’$YG LL ‘WRVHH’ IOH~IOHl‘WRVOHHS’ (3$ DZDOHMD 6ODY OpM_ OpMDWL‘WRGR]HWR VOXPEHU’ phonology 47 UL‘QHZ\RXQJUHFHQW’ (3$ ULMDGHULYDWLYHRI,( HU~ RU‘WR ULVHWRPDNHPRYH’FI21_UU‘TXLFN’26DUXLG VKL ‘UDLQ’ (3$ V MD ZLWK LUUHJXODU GHYHORSPHQW RI WKH LQLWLDO V ,( V ‘UDLQ WR UDLQ’ *N WGK 7RFK $ VZDVH 7RFK % VZHVH‘UDLQ’V ‘WRUDLQ’23UXVVXJH‘UDLQ’ >V M@ $IWHU DOO RWKHU YRZHOV PHGLDO M JDYH $OE K *HJ ILQWKH DXVODXWRIPRVWYHUEV EDKH‘VOLQJ’ (3$ EDMHW\PRORJLFDOO\FORVHWR6ODY ERMÚ‘ILJKW’ WR,( EKHL‘WRVWULNHWREHDW’ IWRK ~ IWRI ‘WR FRRO WR PDNH FROG’ (3$ DZDWMD ,( W ‘WR PHOW’ 6ODY WDM_ WDMDWL2VVHWWDM\Q QJURK‘WRZDUP’ (3$ HQJUMD 6ODY JUpM_ JUpWLLG SDK ‘VFDE GXVW’ (3$ SDXMD ,( SHX ‘WR EORZ XS’ FI LQ SDUWLFXODU$UPKRJL‘EUHDWK’ ,( SRÆR VKWURK¬~VKWURI¬‘NHQQHO’ (3$ VWUM /DWYVWUDMD‘VWDOOFRYHUHG ZLWKVWUDZ’6ODY VWURMÚ‘FRQVWUXFWLRQ’ YHKWH‘VHOI’ (3$ VZDMD ZLWKDVHFRQGDU\VXIIL[W ,( VÆRRV ‘RZQ’ 6ODY VYRMÚ23UXVVZDLV $QLPSRUWDQWH[FHSWLRQFRXOGEHSUHVHQWHGE\DQHZHW\PRORJ\RIWKH IROORZLQJZRUG '(0,5$-$( GHM‘WKHGD\DIWHUWRPRUURZ’ (3$ GDMDXFRQWLQXLQJ,(ORFGXDO GÆRRXV +RZHYHU D EHWWHU H[SODQDWLRQ FDQ EH JLYHQ LQWHUSUHWLQJ GHM DV (3$ GHMZHL GHÆHLZLWKDVSHFLILFGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHFOXVWHU Æ ,( ÆJDYH ZLQ(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ,QDQODXWWKLVVRXQG \LHOGHG$OEY YHU¬~YHQ¬I‘ZLQH’ (3$ ZDLQFRJQDWHZLWK*NQKPJ‘YLQH’ QK?PQX‘ZLQH’/DWYQXP‘ZLQH’$UPJLQLLG YHVK ‘WR SXW RQ FORWKHV ’ (3$ ZHVMD ,( ÆHV 6NWY¢VWH ‘WR ZHDUWREHGUHVVHGLQ’*NGPPWOK‘WRGUHVV’ YMHGK ‘WR VWHDO’ (3$ ZHG]D ,( ÆH½K 6NW Y¢KDWL ‘WR GULYH’ /DWYHKA‘WREHDUWRFDUU\’*RWKJDZLJDQ‘WRVWHDO’ YMHO‘WRSOXFN IUXLW WRYLQWDJH’ (3$ ZHOD *NGKNY‘WRVKXWLQ WRSUHVV’/LWKVXYDOØWL‘WRKDUYHVWWRUHDS’ YMHOO‘WRYRPLW’ (3$ ZHOZD /DWYROYA‘WRWXUQ’ YMHUU‘WRKDQJ’ (3$ ZHUD *NCGKTY‘WRUDLVHXS’/LWKYHUL¸ Y©UWL‘WRZHLJK’VYHUL¸VYH¼WL‘WRRSHQWRWKUHDG’ 48 chapter one ,QDQODXW,( ÆR!(3$ ZDEHFRPHVX XGK¬‘ZD\’ (3$ ZDGD ,( ÆHGK‘WREHDWWREUHDN’ FI6ODY WUHSDWL‘WREHDW’~ WURSD‘SDWK’ RU,( ÆH½K‘ZD\’ XO‘WRORZHU’ (3$ ZDOD ,( ÆHO *NGKNY‘WRVKXWLQWRSUHVV’ /LWKYDOØWL‘WRFOHDQ’LhYDOØWL‘WRFDUU\DZD\’ XQD]¬ ‘ILQJHUULQJ VPDOO LURQ ULQJ’ GHULYHG IURP (3$ ZDQG $UPJLQG‘ULQJ’*RWKELZLQGDQ‘WRXQZUHDWKH’ XU¬‘EULGJH’ (3$ ZDU 21Y_U‘URZRIVWRQHV’YHU‘GDP’2VF YHUX‘GRRU’ XU¬‘EXUQLQJORJ’ (3$ ZDU $UPYDàHP‘WRNLQGOH ILUH ’+LWW ÆDU‘WREXUQ’ XUL~ û‘KXQJHU’ (3$ ZDQD ,( ÆHQ‘WRZDQWWRGHVLUH’ 6NW Y¢QDWLYDQ²WLLG/DWYHQXV‘ORYH’ 7KH GHYHORSPHQW RI ,( Æ VXUURXQGHG E\ ORQJ YRZHOV RU GLSKWKRQJV KDV EHHQ GHVFULEHG DERYH VHH :KHQ SUHFHGHG E\ VKRUW(3$ D ZZDVSUHVHUYHGDV$OEY DY¬U‘LFHIORH’ (3$ DZHUD ,( DÆHU DÆHG‘WRPDNHZHW’ JUDY¬ ‘FDYH GHQ ODLU’ (3$ JUDYL /LWK JULRY£ /DWY JUDYD ‘UDYLQHSUHFLSLWRXVYDOOH\’23UXVJUDXZXV‘VLGH’ YUDV‘WRNLOO’ (3$ DZDUDXWMDGHULYHGIURP,( UHX‘WRWHDUWRGH VWUR\’ 6NWUXW¢‘EURNHQ’/DWUXA‘WRIDOOGRZQWRUXVKGRZQ’ %HIRUH XQYRLFHG VWRSV DZD LV DWWHVWHG DV I %\ DQDORJ\ LW DOVR DVVXPHVWKLVIRUPLQFHUWDLQZRUGVEHIRUHVRQRUDQWV IODN ‘WR WKURZ WR IOLQJ’ (3$ DZDODNDGHULYHG IURP ,( ON OiNWREHQGWRMXPS’ 0+*OHFNHQ‘WRWKURZEDFNWRVSULQJ’ /LWKOHNL¸O|NWL‘WRIO\’/DWYOªNW‘WRVSULQJWRMXPS’ ,QRWKHUFDVHV ZZDVORVW GUX ~GUû ‘WUHH ZRRG’ (3$ GUXZD 6ODY GUÙYR ‘ZRRG’ 6NW GUXLG$YGUXLG*NFTW`X‘WUHHRDN’ NUL ~NUî ‘ZRRGZRUP PRWK’ (3$ NULZL ,( áÆL 6ODY ¨ÚUYÚ‘ZRUP’ YH ‘ZLGRZ’ (3$ ZLGHZ 6NW YLGK¢Y LG /DW YLGXD LG *RWK ZLGXZRLG ,( PZDVSUHVHUYHGDV(3$ P!$OEPLQDOOSRVLWLRQV GHP ‘\RXQJ EXOO’ (3$ GDPD 2,U GDP ‘R[’ DQG *N FCOCNQX ‘FDOI’ phonology 49 GLP¬U‘ZLQWHU’ (3$ GHLPHQD ,( ½KHLPHQLG 6NWKHPDQORF ‘LQZLQWHU’*NZGK`OC‘ZLQWHU’ PDUGK¬‘FKLOOIURVWLFH’ (3$ PDUG] 6ODY PRU]Ù‘IURVW’ PL ‘PRXVH’ (3$ P V ,( P V LG 6NW Pg¿ *N OW`X /DW P V PRW¬U‘VLVWHU’ (3$ PWHU ,( PWHU‘PRWKHU’ 6NWPW¢U*N OJVJT/DWPWHU PXW‘H[FUHPHQW’ (3$ PXNWD 6NWPXNW¢‘UHOHDVHG’IXUWKHUFI 6NWPX±F¢WL‘WRORRVHWRIUHH’/LWKP¸NWL‘WRJHWIUHHWRIOHH’ $WWKHHQGRIWKHZRUG PRFFDVLRQDOO\EHFRPHVPE NULPE~NU\P‘ZRUP’ (3$ NULP ZLWKXQH[SODLQHG*HJ\ ,( áPLLG 6NWN¤PL/LWKN®UPLV VKNUXPE‘EODFNDVKHVDQ\WKLQJEXUQHGWRDVKHV’ (3$ LhNUXPD ,( NUHP /DWFUHPA‘WREXUQ’ WUHPE‘WRIULJKWHQ’ (3$ WUHPD 7RFK$W¥UP‘WRJHWDQJU\’*N VTGOY‘WRWUHPEOH IURPIHDU ’/DWWUHPALG ,( QZDVSUHVHUYHGDV(3$ Q,QDQODXWLWLVFRQWLQXHGE\ $OEQ QDW¬ ‘QLJKW’ (3$ QDNWL FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR ,( QRNÆW LG 6NW Q¢NW*NPWE/DWQR[ QH‘ZH’ (3$ QA V 6NWQDV$YQA/DWQAVLG QHV¬U ‘WRPRUURZ’ (3$ QDWhAU ,( QRNÆWAU :QHLWKLZU QHLWKZ\U‘ODVWQLJKW’%UHWQHL]œUQHL]ºULG Q¬P¬ ~ QDP¬ ‘FXUVH’ (3$ QDP ,( QHP *N PGOY ‘WR GLVWULEXWH’FIPGOGUKX‘ZUDWK’*RWKQLPDQ‘WRWDNH’ Q¬QW¬~QDQG‘QLQH’ (3$ QHXQWL ZLWKDQDORJLFDOFKDQJHRI QW LQ7RVN ,( QHÆLG 6NWQ¢YD/DWQRYHP*RWKQLXQ QXN‘QRW’ (3$ QXNDFRPSRVHGRI QX ,( QHFRORUHGE\WKH IROORZLQJODELRYHODUDQG ND áRDSURQRPLQDOVWHP %HWZHHQ WZR YRZHOV (3$ Q ZDV SUHVHUYHG LQ *HJ DV Q EXW FKDQJHG WR 7RVN U 7KLV SURFHVV LV NQRZQ DV 7RVN UKRWDFLVP $V GHPRQVWUDWHG E\ /DWLQ ORDQZRUGV UHIOHFWLQJ WKH VDPH SURFHVV LW WRRN SODFHDIWHUXQVWUHVVHGYRZHOV GLP¬U‘ZLQWHU’ (3$ GHLPHQD ,( ½KHLPHQLG 6NWKHPDQORF ‘LQZLQWHU’*NZGK`OC‘ZLQWHU’ JMDUS¬U ~ JMDUS¬Q ‘VQDNH’ (3$ VHUSHQD ,( VHUS ‘WR FUDZO’ /DWVHUSQV‘VQDNHVHUSHQW’VHUSA‘WRFUDZO’ JMHU¬~JMDQ¬‘EURDGZLGH’ (3$ VDLQD ,( VL‘ORQJODWH’ 2( VG ‘ORQJ ZLGH’ *RWK VHLÈXV ‘ODWH’ 2,U VWK ‘ORQJ’ /DW VHUXV ‘ODWH’ 50 chapter one OO¬U¬~OODQ¬‘IRUHDUPHOO’ (3$ DOHQ *NYNGPJ‘HOERZ’/DW XOQD2+*HOLQD WK¬UL~WK¬QL‘ORXVH’ (3$ WVDQLG *NMQPKX‘QLW’2+*KQL]LG YHU¬~YHQ¬I‘ZLQH’ (3$ ZDLQFRJQDWHZLWK*NQKPJ‘YLQH’ QK?PQX‘ZLQH’/DWYQXP‘ZLQH’$UPJLQLLG $IWHUVWUHVVHGYRZHOV QZDVORVWLQ/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQ EOL~EOî‘OLQGHQ’ (3$ EOLQL /LWKEOLQG®VEOHQG®V‘6DOL[FDSUHD’ GUH~GUê‘GHHU’ (3$ GUDQL CTCPKX>IRUFT@ GNCHQX JML~JMî‘EUHDVWFKHVW’ (3$ VLQD /DWVLQXV‘FXUYHIROG’ JMX ~JMû ‘NQHH’ (3$ JOXQD GLVVLPLODWHG IURP J D QXQD ,( ½HQXLG +LWWJQX6NWMdQX*NIQPW/DWJHQ KX~Kû‘SLFNHWVWDNHSROHSHQLV’ (3$ VNXQDUHSODFLQJHDUOLHU VNXMD 6ODY [XMÚ‘SHQLV’ WUX ~WUû ‘EUDLQ’ (3$ WDUXQD 6NW W¢UXoD ‘\RXQJ WHQGHU’ $Y WDXUXQD ‘\RXQJ’ FI DOVR *N VGTJP ‘WHQGHU’ VGTW CUSGPGX NGRVQP +HV ,( O\LHOGHG(3$ O7KHODWWHULVQRUPDOO\SUHVHUYHGDV$OEO LQDQODXW ODVKW¬ ‘ROG HDUO\ SUHPDWXUH RI IUXLW ’ (3$ ODXVWD *RWK ODXV ‘HPSW\ORRVH’ OHGK‘PXGDOOXYLXPFOD\ ZDOOHDUWKPRXQG ULYHUPRXWKEDON’ (3$ ODLGD 23UXVOD\GLV‘FOD\’ O¬~ODˆ‘WROHW’ (3$ ODLGQD /LWKO©LVWLLG/DWYODîVWLG ORGK‘WRWLUHWRZHDU\’ (3$ ODGD *RWKOHWDQ‘WROHW’*NNJFGK`P MQRKC`PMGMOJMGPCK +HV DQGWKHOLNH OXJ ‘WURXJK ZDWHUWURXJK ORQJ JXWWHU SLSH’ (3$ OXJD 6ODY OÙJD‘VSRRQEODGH’ OÙÊLFDLG OXV‘WRSUD\WRLQYRNHWREHJ’ (3$ OXJWMD /LWKO J²WL‘WRDVNWR SUD\’/DWYO¸G]XO¸JW‘WRDVNWRLQYLWH’2+*ORFNAQ‘WROXUH WRHQWLFH’ ,QDIHZFDVHV EHORQJLQJWRWKHH[SUHVVLYHYRFDEXODU\ ZHILQGLQLWLDO OO OOXN¬‘IRXOHJJ’ (3$ OXN ,( OHX i ‘GLUW’ OOXS‘WRJXOSGRZQWRVZDOORZ’ (3$ OXSD 6NWOXPS¢WL‘WREUHDN WRLQMXUH’/LWKO¸SWL‘WRSHHO’/DWYOXSW‘WRSHHO WRHDW’6ODY OXSLWL‘WRSHHO’ ,QRQHZRUGLQLWLDOOOUHPDLQVXQH[SODLQHG phonology 51 OO¬U¬~OODQ¬‘IRUHDUPHOO’ (3$ DOHQ *NYNGPJ‘HOERZ’/DW XOQD2+*HOLQD %HWZHHQWZRYRZHOV(3$ ORULJLQDOO\\LHOGHG$OEOO EDOO¬‘IRUHKHDG’ (3$ EDO 6NWEKODLG23UXVEDOORLG GKDOO¬‘EXWWHUPLON’ (3$ G]DO *NICNCLG KHOO‘VSHDUVSLW’ (3$ VNAOD *NUMY`NQX‘SRLQWHGVWDNHWKRUQ’ P¬OOHQM¬ ‘EODFNELUG’ (3$ PHODQM ,( IHP DGM PHOiQ ‘EODFN’ *NOGNCKPCLGFIDOVR6NWPDOLQ¢IHPPDOLQ‘GLUW\ XQFOHDQ/DWYP?ËQV‘EODFN’ VMHOO ‘WR EULQJ’ (3$ WhHOD ,( NÆHO 6NWF¢UDWL ‘WR PRYH WR ZDON’*NRGNY‘WRFRPHLQWRH[LVWHQFHWREHFRPH’/DWFROA ‘WRFXOWLYDWHWRWLOO’ Y¬OOD‘EURWKHU’ (3$ VZHODXGFRPSRVLWHRISURQRPLQDO,( VÆH DQG ODXG ,( OHXGK 2+*OLXW‘SHRSOH’6ODY OMXGÙLG /DWHUGXHWRLQWHUGLDOHFWDOLQIOXHQFHVDQGYDULRXVDQDORJLFDOSURFHVVHV LWZDVVRPHWLPHVUHSODFHGE\O EDO ‘GRJ ZLWK D ZKLWH VSRW RQ LWV IRUHKHDG ZKLWHKDLUHG’ (3$ EDOD FORVH WR /LWK E¦ODV ‘ZKLWH’ /DWY E£OV ‘SDOH’ *N HCNQX NGWMQX +HV SHO¬‘PDUH’ (3$ SAXO *NRY`NQX‘IRDO’*RWKIXODLG ,Q /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ LQWHUYRFDOLF O FKDQJHG WR M LI IROORZHG E\ D IURQW YRZHO RQO\ L" 7KLV SKRQHWLF FRQWH[W W\SLFDOO\ LV UHSHDWHG LQ SOXUDOVRIPDVFXOLQHQRXQV HQGLQJLQ(3$ DL!/3$ L ZLWKDVWHP HQGLQJLQOOFIIRUH[DPSOH DYXOO SO DYXM‘VWHDPYDSRU’ EXDOO~EXHOO SOEXDM~EXHM‘EXIIDOR’ GHOO SOGHM‘WHQGRQ’ GLHOO SOGLHM‘VXQ’ HKXOO SOHKXM‘LFLFOH’ Q\HOO SOQ\HM‘DQNOHJQDUONQRW’ ,QDIHZQRXQVOOZDVUHVWRUHGLQWKHSOXUDODVDUHVXOWRIDQDORJ\DQG FKDQJHVLQGHFOHQVLRQW\SH KLV¬OO~KîV¬OO SOKLV¬OOD~KîV¬OOD‘EXUQLQJQHWWOH’ N¬VKLOO SON¬VKLOOD‘FRXQFLO’ QGU\VKNXOO SOQGU\VKNXOOD‘ERLODEVFHVV’ 52 chapter one ,QIHPLQLQHQRXQVZKHUHWKHSOXUDOZDVIRUPHGE\WKH(3$HQGLQJ V !/3$ DILQDOOOZDVSUHVHUYHG EUXVKWXOO SOEUXVKWXOOD‘KHDWKHU’ NRUEXOO SONRUEXOOD‘NHJFDVNZRRGHQSDLO’ PMHJXOO SOPMHJXOOD‘FORXG’ PRGKXOO SOPRGKXOOD‘YHWFKFKLFNOLQJFKLFNSHD’ QGULNXOO SOQGULNXOOD‘JRGPRWKHU PLGZLIH’ QRIXOO SOQRIXOOD‘MDZMDZERQHFKHHNERQH’ (3$ ODOVRJLYHV$OEOLQFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUV XQOHVVWKH\GHYHORSDV GHVFULEHGLQSDVVLP EOHUW¬ ‘JUHHQ’ (3$ EOAUD ,( EKOAURV /DW IOAUXV ‘VKLQLQJ EULJKW’2,UEO¢U‘JUD\’:EODZULG HOE‘EDUOH\’ (3$ DOEL *NCNHK‘NLQGRIJUDLQ’ ¬PE¬O~DPE¬O‘VZHHW’ (3$ DPOD 6NWDPO¢‘VRXU’ JMDOS¬‘EXWWHU’ (3$ VHOSL 6NWVDUSª‘FODULILHGEXWWHU’ EXWFI*N GNRQX GNCKQPUVGCTGWSJPKC +HV 2+*VDOED‘RLQWPHQW’ PMDOW¬‘KRQH\’ (3$ PHOLWD ,( PHOLWLG +LWWPLOLW*NOGNK *RWKPLOLÈLG ,( UGLGQRWFKDQJHLQ(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ,QDOOSRVLWLRQV (3$ U LV UHIOHFWHG DV $OE URUDV$OEUU ,Q FRQVRQDQWDO FOXVWHUV ZH QRUPDOO\ILQGU EU\GK ‘ZHDN SOLDQW PLOG’ (3$ EU G]D /DW IU [ ‘IUXLW’ *RWK EUXNMDQ‘WRXVH’ çDQG¬U‘SURSVXSSRUW’ (3$ hWhHQWUD ,( HQWURP *NMGPVTQP ‘JRDGVSXU’FIDOVR/DWYVWV‘VSHDUODQFH’ %DOW hLQWDV GUX‘WUHH ZRRG’ (3$ GUXZD ,( GUXLG 6ODY GUÙYR‘ZRRG’ 6NWGUXLG$YGUXLG*NFTW`X‘WUHHRDN’ GK¬QG¬U ~ GKDQG¬U ‘EULGHJURR~ VRQLQODZ’ (3$ G]DQUD ,( ½HQiU‘VRQLQODZ’ /DWJHQHU NUHGK‘WRSOXQJHWRLPPHUVHWRVWHHSWRVPRWKHUWREHVSDWWHU’ (3$ NUAGD 6ODY NUDG_ NUDVWL ‘WR VWHDO’ UHIO NUDG_ V? NUDVWLV?‘WRVQHDNWRVWHDOXSWRDSSURDFKXQQRWLFHG’ SMHUGK ‘WR IDUW’ (3$ SHUGD ,( SHUG LG 6NW S¢UGDWH *N RGTFQOCK2+*IHU]DQ/LWKS©UGÊLXS©UVWL 7KH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI WKH WZR UHIOH[HV U DQG UU UHPDLQV XQ NQRZQ:RUGVZLWKUUDUHVRPHZKDWPRUHQXPHURXV EDUU¬‘ORDGEXUGHQ’ (3$ EDU *NHQTC‘ORDG’ phonology 53 KLUU¬‘ZKH\’ (3$ NVLU 6NWN¿U¢‘PLON’2VVHWæ[hLULG N¬UU‘GRQNH\DVVIRDO JUD\’ (3$ NDUD 6NWNK¢UD‘GRQNH\’$Y [DUALG6F\WK [DUD2VVHW[æUæJLG UUHN ‘WR VWUDLQ WR ERWKHU’ (3$ UDLND /LWK UHLN£ ‘QHHG QHFHVVLW\’UHæNWL‘WREHQHFHVVDU\’IXUWKHUH[SODLQHGLQ UUMHGK‘WRIORZ’ (3$ UHG]D /DWULJUH‘WRZHWWRPRLVWHQ’21 UDNL‘ZHWQHVV’ YMHK¬UU ‘PRWKHULQODZ’ (3$ VZH[XU ZLWK DVVLPLODWLRQ IURP H[SHFWHG VZHWVXU ,( VÆHU 6NWyYDyUgPRWKHULQODZ’ /DWVRFUXVLG ([DPSOHVRI(3$ U!$OEUDUHDOVRUDWKHUFRPPRQ DU¬‘ILHOG’ (3$ DU /DWYDˆUDLG+LWWDUD‘ERUGHUDUHD’/\G DDUD‘IDUPVWHDGODQG’0HVVDUDQ EDU ‘JUDVV’ (3$ EDUD /DW IDU ‘VRUW RI JUDLQ VSHOW’ 21 EDUU ‘VSHOW’ IDU¬‘VHHGVHPHQNLQ’ (3$ VSDU ,( VSHU *NIHPURQTC ‘VHHG’URGKTY‘WRVSLOOWRVRZ’URGTOC‘VHPHQVHHG‘ PLU¬ ‘JRRG’ (3$ PLUD IRUPLQJ D VHSDUDWH LVRJORVV ZLWK 6ODY PLUÙ IXUWKHUWR,( PL P‘PLOGZHDNQLFH’ UMHS‘WRVWULSRII VNLQRUEDUN WRWHDURII’ (3$ UHSD ,( UHS *NGTGRVQOCK‘WRHDW’/DWUDSLA‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVS’/LWKU{SWL ‘WRJUDVS’ WMHW¬U‘RWKHU’ (3$ HWHUD 6ODY HWHUÙ‘VRPHVRPHERG\’ ,Q WKH ILQDO SRVLWLRQ DIWHU H (3$ U ZDV UHJXODUO\ ORVW DV GHPRQVWUDWHGE\WKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV ELH ‘WR EULQJ’ (3$ EHUD ,( EKHU ‘WR EULQJ WR FDUU\’ 6NW EK¢UDWL*NHGTY VKWLH‘WRSRXULQWRSXWLQWRWKURZ’ (3$ VWHUD 6NWVWodWL‘WR VSUHDG WR VFDWWHU’ *N UVQTPWOK ‘WR VWUHWFK WR VSUHDG’ /DW VWHUQA‘WRVSUHDG’6ODY VWÚU_ VWHUWLLG ]LH‘WRERLOWRFRRN’LG (3$ GÊHUD ,( ÞKHU *NSGTQOCK‘WR EHFRPHKRWWRZDUPWREXUQ’2,UIRJHLU‘ KH ZDUPV’ +RZHYHUUZDVDQDORJLFDOO\UHVWRUHGLQVHYHUDOYHUEVDVLQWKHIROORZ LQJFDVHV çMHUU ‘WRWHDUXS’ (3$ hWhHUD 2,U VFDUDLP ‘WR VHSDUDWH’ 21 VNHUD‘WRFXW’/LWKVNLUL¸VN®UWL‘WRVHSDUDWH’ GMHUU ‘WR GHVWUR\’ (3$ GHUD 6NW GodWL ‘WR EXUVW WR WHDU’ *N FGTY‘WRVNLQ’*RWKJDWDLUDQ‘WRWHDU’ 54 chapter one $V\OODELFVRQRUDQWVLQORDQZRUGV Greek borrowings contain only marginal information on the development of asyllabic sonorants. At the same time, Latin and early Slavic loanwords are rich with phonetically representative material which adds to our understanding of the Proto-Albanian development. )RU SRVLWLRQDOFKDQJHVRIDV\OODELFVRQRUDQWVLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGVVHH ,QWKHEHJLQQLQJRIDZRUG/DWMLVUHQGHUHGDV$OEJM&IWKH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHV JMXYHQJ¬‘KDUORW’Õ/DWDGMIHPMXYHQFD‘\RXQJ’ JM\NRM‘WRMXGJHWRWU\’Õ/DWM GLFUHLG JM\PW\U¬‘MRLQWOLPE’Õ/DWMXQFW UD‘MXQFWXUHMRLQW’ QJM¬URM~ JMLQRQM‘WRWU\WRVDPSOHWRWDVWH’Õ/DWMM QUH‘WRIDVW’ ZLWKDVHFRQGDU\SUHIL[LQ7RVN ]JMXD~]JMXH‘EHHKLYH’Õ/DWMQXD‘GRRUHQWUDQFH’ ZLWKDQHZ SUHIL[] ,QWKHPLGGOHRIWKHZRUG/DWMLVHLWKHUUHWDLQHGDV$OEMRUGURSSHG +RZHYHUWKHPDWHULDOLVVLPSO\WRROLPLWHGIRUXVWRREWDLQDFOHDUHU SLFWXUH7KHIROORZLQJZRUGVFDQEHDGGXFHG PDM‘0D\’Õ/DW0MXVLG WDIWDU‘IXQQHO’Õ5RP WUDLHFWULXPLGIRU/DWWUDLHFWAULXPLG 7KH ORVV RI LQWHUYRFDOLFM PD\ EH FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI WKH FKURQRORJLFDO VWDJHZKHUHWKHFKDQJHFW!IWWRRNSODFH In the beginning of a word, Lat v is always preserved in Alb v: YD‘IRUG’Õ/DWYDGXPLG YMHUVK¬‘SRHP’Õ/DWYHUVXV‘YHUVH’ YMHW¬U‘ROG’Õ/DWYHWHUHPLG YUHU~Y¬QHU‘JDOOELOH’Õ/DWYHQQXP‘SRWLRQSRLVRQ’ YXOOQHW‘ZLOO’Õ/DWYROXQWWHPLG YULJXOO‘IODSOREH’Õ/DWYHUULFXOXP‘VHLQH’ 7KHUHVXOWLVWKHVDPHIRUZRUGVUHVXOWLQJIURPODWHUXQLYHUEDWLRQ LIY ZDVLQWKHEHJLQQLQJRIDOH[HPHLQ/DWLQ SU¬QGYHU¬ ~ SUDQGYHU¬ ‘VSULQJ’ Õ 5RP SUPD YUD ! ,WDO SULPDYHUD5XPSULP:YDU: phonology 55 ,I/DWYLVIROORZHGE\DJURXSYRZHOQDVDOVRQRUDQWLW\LHOGV$OEP P¬QMLOO‘YLJLO IDVW’Õ5RP YLQJLOLDFI/DWYLJLOLD‘YLJLO’ P¬VKLN¬ ‘EXEEOH EOLVWHU EODGGHU’ Õ 5RP YQVFD IRU /DW YVFD ‘EODGGHU’ In inlaut, Lat v was only preserved after u: JMXYHQJ¬‘KDUORW’Õ/DWDGMIHPMXYHQFD‘\RXQJ’ ,WZDVORVWDIWHURWKHUYRZHOV ODW\U¬‘ULQVHZDWHU’ Õ5RP ODYW UDIURP/DWODYUH‘WRZDVK’ QRVKW¬U‘VSURXW\RXQJSODQWVDSOLQJ’Õ5RP Q²YDVWHU!,WDOGLDO QRYDVWURLG VKLM¬‘WDVWH’Õ5RP VXYLOLDEDVHGRQ/DWVXYLV‘VZHHW’ VKTD‘%XOJDULDQ’ *HJ Õ/DWVFODYXV‘6ODY’ XOOL~XOOî‘ROLYH WUHH ’Õ/DWROYXV‘ROLYHWUHH’ YXDM~YXHM‘WRVXIIHU’Õ/DWYYHUH‘WROLYHWRVXUYLYH’ /DWPKDVEHHQSUHVHUYHGLQDOOSKRQHWLFFRQWH[WV IDPXOO‘JRGFKLOG’Õ/DWIDPXOXV‘VHUYDQWDWWHQGDQW’ NXOP‘ULGJHSHDN ZDYH’Õ/DWQRPFXOPHQLG PDVKNXOO‘PDQPDOH’Õ/DWPDVFXOXV‘PDOHPDVFXOLQH’ PHVK¬‘PDVV’Õ/DWPLVVDLG P¬QG‘PRPHQW’Õ/DWPAPHQWXPLG TXP¬VKW ‘PLON ZKH\’ Õ 5RP FORPRVWXP /DW FRORVWUXP FRORVWUXm,EHHVWLQJV’ ,QLWLDO/DWQZDVSUHVHUYHGLQ$OEDQLDQ QDW\U¬‘QDWXUH’Õ/DWQW UDLG Q¬P¬URM‘WRQXPEHUWRFRXQW’Õ/DWQXPHUUHLG QLS‘QHSKHZJUDQGVRQ’Õ/DWQRPQHSAV‘JUDQGVRQ’ QRWRM‘WRVZLP’Õ5RP QRWUHIRU/DWQDWUHLG QXVH ‘EULGH \RXQJ ZRPDQ \RXQJHU GDXJKWHULQODZ’ Õ5RP Q SWLDYDULDQWRI/DWQ SWD‘PDUULHGZRPDQZLIHEULGH’ Q\MH‘NQRW’Õ/DWQAGXVLG ,QWHUYRFDOLF /DW Q ZDV SUHVHUYHG DV *HJ Q EXW UKRWDFL]HG LQ 7RVNDIWHUXQVWUHVVHGYRZHOV DUE¬U~DUE¬Q‘$OEDQLDQ SDUWLFXODUO\RI,WDO\DQG*UHHFH ’Õ5RP DOEDQXVUHQGHULQJ,OO\U #NDCPQK 3WRO 56 chapter one DUPLN~DQ¬PLN‘HQHP\’Õ/DWLQLPFXVLG JMHOE¬U~JMHOE¬Q‘JUHHQ’Õ/DWJDOELQXV‘JUHHQLVK\HOORZ’ N¬US~NDQS‘KHPS’Õ5RP FDQQDSLVIRU/DWFDQQDELVLG P¬VKWHN¬U ~ P¬VKWHN¬Q ‘ELUFK’ Õ /DW PDVWLFLQXV ‘UHODWHG WR WKH PDVWLFWUHH’ PXUJ~PXQJ‘PRQN’Õ/DWPRQDFKXVLG +RZHYHULQWHUYRFDOLF/DWQZDVORVWDIWHUVWUHVVHG LHXVXDOO\ORQJ YRZHOVDWWKHHQGRIWKHZRUG IOL~IOî‘VDFULILFH’Õ5RP ILULJLOQXP IUH~IUê‘EULGOH JUDSHVWDON FRPE’Õ/DWIUQXPLG NXVK¬UL~NXVK¬Uî‘FRXVLQ’Õ/DWFRQVAEUQXVLG O¬WL~O¬Wî‘,WDOLDQ/DWLQ&DWKROLF’Õ/DW/DWQXV‘/DWLQ’ OL~Oî‘IOD[OLQHQ’Õ/DWOQXPLG SH~Sê‘WKUHDG’Õ/DWSQXV‘WKUHDGZRXQGXSRQWKHEREELQ’ ,IWKHZRUGFRQWDLQHGDQRWKHUQRUULQWHUYRFDOLFQ\LHOGHG7RVNUHYHQ LILWDSSHDUHGDIWHUDVWUHVVHGYRZHO N¬VKW¬U~N¬VKW¬Q‘&KULVWLDQ’Õ/DWFKULVWLQXVLG U¬U¬~UDQ¬‘VDQG’Õ/DWDUQDLG UU¬VKLU¬~UU¬VKLQ¬‘UHVLQ’Õ/DWUVQDLG UULT¬U~UULT¬Q‘WLFN’Õ/DWULFLQXVLG YUHU~Y¬QHU‘JDOOELOH’Õ/DWYHQQXP‘SRWLRQSRLVRQ’ ,QWKHLQWHUYRFDOLFSRVLWLRQERWKPDQGQFRXOGGHYHORSDKRPRUJDQLF RFFOXVLYHDIWHUWKHP SHQG¬‘IHDWKHU SDLU RIR[HQ ’Õ/DWSLQQDSHQQD‘IHDWKHU’ UUHPE~UUHP‘EUDQFK’Õ/DWUPXVLG VKHPE¬OOHM‘WRUHVHPEOH’Õ/DWVLPLOUHLG XPE‘SORXJKVKDUH’Õ/DWQRPYAPLVLG ,QLWLDO/DWOLVUHIOHFWHGDV$OEO ODIVK¬‘FUHVW RIELUG FRPE’Õ/DWOD[D FXWLV ‘ORRVH VNLQ ’ ODU‘ODXUHO’Õ/DWODXUXVLG OHS¬U‘OHSURV\’Õ/DWOHSUDLG OHSXU‘KDUH’Õ/DWOHSRUHPLG OLJM‘ODZ’Õ/DWOJH P LG OXF¬‘PXGPLUH’Õ/DWOXWHD‘PXGG\’ ,QFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUV/DWOWHQGVWREHSUHVHUYHGDVO phonology 57 EOHM‘WREX\’Õ5RP DEOHYUH‘WROLIWXSWRUHOLHYH IURP ’ JMHOE¬U~JMHOE¬Q‘JUHHQ’Õ/DWJDOELQXV‘JUHHQLVK\HOORZ’ NDOW¬U ‘EOXH VN\ EOXH’ 7RVN Õ 5RP FDOWKLQXV‘\HOORZ \HOORZ LVK’EDVHGRQ/DWFDOWKD‘&DOHQGXODRIILFLQDOLV’ THOT‘JODVV’Õ/DWFDOLFHP‘ERZOFXS’ +RZHYHU WKHUH LV RQH H[FHSWLRQ ZKHQ /DW O LV VXEVWLWXWHG E\ OO LQ D FOXVWHU SOODM¬‘XSODQGJHQWOHVORSH’Õ SODJLXVLG ,QRWKHUSRVLWLRQV/DWOLVXVXDOO\VXEVWLWXWHGE\$OEOO GMDOO‘GHYLO’Õ/DWGLDEROXVLG N¬UVK¬QGHOOD‘&KULVWPDV’Õ/DW&KULVWQWOHLG PUHNXOO‘PLUDFOH’Õ/DWPLUFXOXPLG SOODM¬‘XSODQGJHQWOHVORSH’Õ5RP SODJLXVLGFI5XPSODL,WDO SLDJJLD SULOO‘$SULO’Õ/DWDSUOLVLG VKSDWXOO‘VKRXOGHUVKRXOGHUEODGH’Õ5RP VSDWXODLG ,QODWHUORDQZRUGV/DWOFDQEHDOVRUHSUHVHQWHGE\$OEORUHYHQM O KLQJ¬O‘JLUWK’Õ5RP KLQQLFXODGHULYDWLYHRI/DWKLQQXV‘PXOH’ NDO¬‘KRUVH’Õ/DWFDEDOOXVLG NXODU‘FXUYHGSLHFHRIZRRGR[FROODU’Õ/DWFROOUH‘FROODU’ PDQGLOH‘NHUFKLHI’Õ/DWPDQWOH‘WRZOQDSNLQ’ PEXORM‘WRFRYHUWREXU\’Õ5RP PDQLSXOUH‘WRGLJLQKDQGIXOV’ FI/DWPDQLSXOXV VKWLM¬‘VSHDUUD\’Õ/DWKDVWOH‘VSHDU’ ,QROGDQGQHZO\IRUPHGFOXVWHUV LQFOXGLQJJ" /DWOLVUHQGHUHGDVU G¬UJRM‘WRVHQG’Õ/DWGOJUHLG JU¬P¬UDW¬ ‘EHHVWLQJV FORWV RI FXUGOHG PLON’ Õ /DW JORPHUWXP SDUWLFLSOH RI JORPHUUH ‘WR ZLQG LQWR D EDOO WR JDWKHU LQWR D URXQGKHDS’ 7KH SKRQRORJLFDO RSSRVLWLRQ EHWZHHQ U DQG UU LV ZHDN DQG RIWHQORVWLQGLDOHFWV$VDUHVXOWWKHROGGLVWULEXWLRQRILQLWLDOUUYHUVXV PHGLDO UZKLFKFRQWLQXHV/DWUKDVVHYHUDOH[FHSWLRQV ,QDQODXWWKHUHJXODUUHIOH[RI/DWULV$OEUU UUH]H‘UD\VSRNH’Õ/DWUDGLXVLG 58 chapter one UU¬VKDM¬‘3HQWHFRVW’Õ/DW5AVOLD‘5RVDOLHV’ UU¬VKLU¬~UU¬VKLQ¬I‘UHVLQ’Õ/DWUVQDLG UULS¬‘SUHFLSLFHVWRQHZDOO’Õ/DWUSD‘EDQNFRDVW’ UULT¬U~UULT¬Q‘WLFN’Õ/DWULFLQXVLG UUXPEXOO‘UROOHGLQWRDEDOO’Õ5RP URPEXOXVEDVHGRQ/DWUKRP EXV‘PDJLFZKLUOLJLJRUZKHHO’ 7KHUHDUHWKUHHH[FHSWLRQVLQZKLFKZHILQG$OEULQDQODXW UHJM‘NLQJ’Õ/DWUJHPLG U¬P¬U~U¬PHQ‘9DODFKLDQ VKHSKHUG’Õ/DW5RPQXV‘5RPDQ’ UXQJRM‘WRZHHG’Õ/DWUXQFUHLG ,QLQODXW/DWUQRUPDOO\JLYHV$OEU DUP¬‘ZHDSRQ’Õ/DWDUPDLG EU\P¬‘IURVW’Õ/DWEU PD‘FROGIURVW’ IUXHU‘)HEUXDU\’ *HJ Õ/DWIHEUXULXVLG I\W\U¬‘IDFH’Õ/DWIDFW UD‘IRUPDWLRQFUHDWXUH’ JMHU‘GRUPRXVH’Õ/DWJOUHPLG LU¬‘ZUDWKKHURLVP’Õ/DWUD‘ZUDWK’ ]KXU‘JUDYHO’Õ/DWVDEXUUD‘VDQGEDOODVW’ 7KHUHH[LVWVHYHUDOH[FHSWLRQVZLWK/DWUÖ$OEUU NDQG¬UU‘LQVHFW’Õ/DWFDQWKDULV‘EHHWOHZRUP’ NUURNXOO‘VDIIURQ’Õ5RP FURFXOXPGHPLQXWLYHRI/DWFURFXPLG QG¬UURM‘WRFKDQJHWRDOWHU’Õ/DWDOWHUUHLG SDUUL]‘SDUDGLVH’Õ/DWSDUDGVXVLG S¬UUDOO¬‘WDOHVWRU\’Õ/DWSDUDEROD‘SURYHUEVSHHFK’ WPHUU‘KRUURUIULJKW’Õ/DWWLPAUHPLG *HPLQDWHG /DWLQ VRQRUDQWV OO DQG UU KDYH D KLVWRU\ RI WKHLU RZQ/DWOOJDYH$OEO EXO¬‘EXG’Õ/DWEXOOD‘EXEEOHERVVNQRE’ JMHO‘URRVWHU’Õ/DWJDOOXVLG NUHO‘FXUOORFN’Õ5RP FHUHEHOOXV‘UHODWHGWRWKHKHDG’EDVHGRQ /DWFHUHEUXP‘EUDLQVNXOO’ SXO¬‘KHQ’Õ5RP SXOOD‘KHQ’ THO‘VFDE’Õ/DWFDOOXP‘FRUQKDUGVNLQ’ WU\HO¬‘ERUHGULOO’Õ5RP WHUHEHOOXPLG ,QRQHFDVHZHILQGMUHSODFLQJO OO P\M¬I‘KDUGZRRGLQWHULRURIWUHHVPHGXOOD’Õ/DWPHGXOODLG phonology 59 *HPLQDWH/DWUULVUHIOHFWHGLQ$OEDQLDQDVUU DUULM‘WRFRPHWRDUULYH’Õ5RP DUULYUHLG NDUU¬‘FDUW’Õ/DWFDUUXP‘WZRZKHHOHGZDJRQ’ SRUULTP‘OHHN’Õ5RP SRUULFLXPGHULYHGIURPSRUUXPLG TDUU‘7XUNH\RDNELWWHURDN’Õ/DWFHUUXVLG THUU‘ZDJRQFDUW’Õ/DWFDUUXV‘WZRZKHHOHGZDJRQ’ VKDUU¬‘VDZ’Õ/DWVHUUDLG (DUO\ 6ODYLF ORDQZRUGV UHIOHFW VRPH UHPDUNDEOH IHDWXUHV GLIIHUHQWLDWLQJ WKHP IURP ODWHU ZRUGV RI WKH VDPH RULJLQ LQVRIDU DV DV\OODELFVRQRUDQWVDUHFRQFHUQHG :KLOHLQODWH6ODYLFORDQZRUGVWKHUHJXODUVXEVWLWXWLRQRI6ODY MZLWK $OEMLVDWWHVWHGWKHUHDUHVHYHUDOZRUGVLQZKLFKWKHUHIOH[HVRI6ODY M FRLQFLGHZLWKWKRVHRI(3$ M,QRQHZRUGDQODXW6ODY M\LHOGV$OEJM JMH]GLV‘WRJRIRUDZDONWRURDP’Õ6ODY Mp]GLWL‘WRULGH’ ,QLQODXW6ODY MLVFKDQJHGWR$OEK NUDK‘DUmVKRXOGHUVLGH’Õ6ODY NUDMÚ‘HQGVLGHH[WUHPLW\’ NUDKLQ¬‘UHJLRQDUHD’Õ6ODY NUDMLQDLG NUDKLV‘WRVZHHSXS ZKHDW WRFXW EUDQFKHV ’Õ6ODY NUDMLWL‘WR FXWWRZLQQRZ’ OORK¬ ‘UDLQ ZLWK VQRZ VQRZEURWK GDPSQHVV’ Õ 6ODY ORMÚ ‘DQ\WKLQJOLTXLG’ !‘IDW’ SRVWDKH‘EODQNHWTXLOWXVHGIRUVLWWLQJ’Õ6ODY SRVWDMD‘EHGFRYHU’ ,Q RQH FDVH WKH IDOO RI LQWHUYRFDOLF 6ODY Y LV DWWHVWHG EHWZHHQ VKRUW YRZHOV VKN¬UGKHF‘NHJEDUUHO’Õ6ODY VNRYRUGÚFÚ‘SDQ’ ,QHDUO\6ODYLFORDQZRUGV OLVXVXDOO\UHIOHFWHGDVOO EXDOO~EXHOO‘EXIIDOR’Õ6ODY E\YROÙLG OORK¬ ‘UDLQ ZLWK VQRZ VQRZEURWK GDPSQHVV’ Õ 6ODY ORMÚ ‘DQ\WKLQJOLTXLG’ !‘IDW’ OOXN¬‘OLPHWUHH’Õ O\NR‘EDVW’ ,QWHUYRFDOLF6ODY ULQHDUO\ORDQZRUGVLVUHJXODUO\VXEVWLWXWHGE\$OE UU NDUUXS‘ILVKWUDS’Õ6ODY NRUXSÙLG NDUUXW¬‘IHUPHQWHU’Õ6ODY NRU\WR‘WURXJK’ RUUO‘HDJOHEX]]DUG’Õ6ODY RUÚOÙLG 60 chapter one S¬UUXD~S¬UUXH‘EURRN ULYHUEHG’Õ6ODY SRURYÙ~ SDURYÙ SXUU¬‘KRWDVKHV’Õ6ODY S\U’ÚLG 'HVSLWH -2./ ,) ;;;9,, DQG 6(/,Û&%(9 6ODY QDVHOHQLH WKHUHDUHQRWUDFHVRI7RVNUKRWDFLVPLQ6ODYLFORDQZRUGVLQ$OEDQLDQ 7KHLUFODLPKDVEHHQEDVHGRQHUURQHRXVHW\PRORJLHVVXFKDV9$60(5’V $OE :RUWIRUVFK H[SODQDWLRQ RI YU¬U¬W ~ YUDQ¬W ‘GDUN FORXG\’ IURP 6RXWK 6ODY YUDQÙ ‘EODFN’ 7KH $OEDQLDQ DGMHFWLYH LV D GHYHUEDWLYHZKLOHWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJYHUELVEDVHGRQUH‘FORXG’ 25(/ $(' 6LPLODUO\ 7RVN W¬UVLU¬ ‘URSH’ LV QRW ERUURZHG IURP 6ODY WUD¨LQD GHVSLWH -2./ $$UE6W , EXW LV GHULYHG IURP W¬U¬VL ‘ZKROHQHVV WRWDOLW\ XQLW\’ WKH ODWWHU EHLQJ UHODWHG WR W¬UH ~ WDQ¬ ‘DOO ZKROH’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h!WKLQWKL DQGWKDM 0$11/DQJXDJH;;9,,,+LVW*U &,02&+2:6., 6W,( V!KEHIRUHX +$03(WLPRORJLMD UHMHFWV VDVDVRXUFHRILQWHUYRFDOLF$OEK ÇABEJ St. III 137-139; 25(/ 6RYVODY “UXNL” UXOHLQ$OEDQLDQ ,-D.6SUDFKH ;;;, ,Q LQLWLDO SRVLWLRQ ,( V ZDV SUHVHUYHG DV V LQ (DUO\ 3URWR $OEDQLDQ/DWHUKRZHYHULWPHUJHGZLWKWKHFRQWLQXDQWRI,( LQ/3$ M!$OEJM phonology 61 & JMDN‘EORRG’ (3$ VDND *NQRQX‘MXLFH’/LWKVDND ‘UHVLQ’6ODY VRNÙ‘MXLFH’ JMDOS¬‘EXWWHU’ (3$ VHOSD *NGNRQX GNCKQPUVGCTGWSJPKC +HV 6NWVDUSª‘FODULILHGEXWWHU’2+*VDOED‘RLQWPHQW’ JMDUS¬U ~ JMDUS¬Q ‘VQDNH’ (3$ VHUSHQD ,( VHUS ‘WR FUDZO’ /DWVHUSQV‘VQDNHVHUSHQW’VHUSA‘WRFUDZO’ JMHUE ‘WR JXOS WR GULQN’ (3$ VHUED /DW VRUEHA ‘WRVXSXSWR VXFNLQ’*NTQHGYLG/LWKVXUEL¸VX¼EWLLG6ODY VÚUEDWL‘WR JXOSWRVXSXS’ JM¬~JMâ‘WKLQJ’ (3$ VDQ V SDUWLFLSOHRI,( HV‘WREH’ VRQWV 6NWVDQW*NY=P JMXP¬‘VOHHS’ (3$ VXSQD ,( VÆHS‘WRVOHHS’FI VXSQR *N WRPQX‘VOHHS’6ODY VÙQÙLG ,Q WKUHH FDVHV ZRUG LQLWLDO ,( V GLG QRW EHFRPH $OE JM GXH WR GLVVLPLODWLRQ VKL‘UDLQ’ (3$ V MD ZLWKGLVVLPLODWLRQLQWKHODWHUIRUP M MD ,( V LG *NWGK7RFK$VZDVH7RFK%VZHVH‘UDLQ’V ‘WR UDLQ’23UXVVXJH‘UDLQ’ >V M@ WKDM ‘WR GU\’ (3$ VDXVQMD ,( VDXVR ‘GU\’ *NCW=QL 0+* VôU/LWKVD-VDV6ODY VX[Ù WKL ‘SLJ’ (3$ WV V ZLWK GLVVLPLODWLRQ RI VLELODQWV ,( V V LG $YJHQVJK *NW=X/DWV V2+*V ,Q WKH LQWHUYRFDOLF SRVLWLRQ ,( V EHFDPH (3$ [ ZKLFK LV UHIOHFWHGDVKRUDOWRJHWKHUORVWDOUHDG\LQ2OG$OEDQLDQWH[WV JMXK¬ ‘WRQJXH ODQJXDJH’ (3$ JXO[ WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ GLDOHFWDOZRUGIRU‘VRXQG’ JROVR 21NDOO‘VKRXW’/LWKJDËVDV ‘HFKR’6ODY JROVÙ‘YRLFH’ ND‘R[’ (3$ ND[D ,( NRVRGHULYDWLYHRI,( NHV‘WRVFUDWFK WR FXW’ FI 6ODY YROÙ ‘R[’ ~ YDOLWL ‘WR WKURZ GRZQ’!‘WR FDVWUDWH’ NH]¬ ‘ZRPDQ’V KHDGGUHVV ERQQHW KDLUQHW’ GHULYDWLYH LQ ]¬ RI (3$ ND[‘SODLWHGKDLU’ 6ODY NRVDLG21KDGGU‘ZRPDQ’V KDLU’ NRK¬‘WLPH’ (3$ N[ 6ODY ¨DVÙLG YDM]¬ ‘JLUO’ EDVHG RQ YDU¬ (3$ VZHVDU 6NW VY¢VDU $UP R\U/DWVRURU 62 chapter one YMHK¬UU ‘PRWKHULQODZ’ (3$ VZH[XU ZLWK DVVLPLODWLRQ IURP H[SHFWHG VZHWVXU ,( VÆHU 6NWyYDyUgPRWKHULQODZ’ /DWVRFUXVLG +RZHYHUDIWHU DQG DVZHOODVGLSKWKRQJVLQ LDQG X ,( V FKDQJHG WR h 7KXV 3URWR$OEDQLDQ KDG D NLQG RI “UXNL”UXOH VLPLODU WR WKDW RI %DOWR6ODYLF DQG ,QGR,UDQLDQ &I WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV GDVK‘UDP’ < *dauhD (3$ GDXVD ,( GKRXVR~ GKHXVR *RWK GLXV ‘ZLOG DQLPDO’ /LWK SO GD-VRV ‘SDUDGLVH’ 6ODY GX[Ù ‘EUHDWKVSLULW’ JM\VK‘JUDQGIDWKHU’ V hD (3$ V VD 6NWV ¿d‘SURJHQLWRU’ OHVK ‘ZRRO IOHHFH KDLU’ <*laihD (3$ ODLVD /LWK OD&hNDV ‘OHDI’ /DWYOD&VND‘OHDIRQDOLQHQVWDON VWDON’6ODY OLVWÙ‘OHDI’ SLVK¬ ‘SLQH’ < *p h¸ (3$ S V *N RKVWX /DW SQXV IURP SLWVQRVRU SLVQRV SOLVK‘NLQGRIUHHG3KUDJPLWHVFRPPXQLV’ < SO hL (3$ SO VL /LWKSO L h®V‘UHHG’ SUXVK‘HPEHUJORZLQJFRDO’ < SUXhD (3$ SUXVD /DWSU QDLG SUXVQ6NWSOR¿DWL‘WREXUQ’ 2FFOXVLYHV ODELDOVDQGGHQWDOV 7KHWHUWLDU\RSSRVLWLRQRI,QGR(XURSHDQXQYRLFHGYRLFHGDQG DVSLUDWH YRLFHG RFFOXVLYHV QHXWUDOL]HG LWV DVSLUDWHQRQDVSLUDWH FRP SRQHQWLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQDVLQ%DOWR6ODYLF /LWHUDWXUH 0$11 /DQJXDJH ;;9,,, VSLUDQWL]DWLRQ RI G +LVW *U Ç$%(- 6W ,,, 25(/ 6%-D .RQWDNW\ FRQGLWLRQVRI G!GK ,QGR(XURSHDQXQYRLFHGODELDO SZDVSUHVHUYHGDV(3$ S! $OES JOHS¬‘PDWWHUIURPH\HVUKHXP LQH\HV ’ (3$ NDODLSGHULYHG IURP,( OHLS‘WRVPHDUZLWKIDW’ DSMDS‘WRJLYH’ (3$ DSD ,( DS~ S‘WRVHL]HWRWDNH’ +LWW S ~ DS ‘WR VHL]H’ 6NW SQ²WL ‘ KH UHDFKHV RYHUWDNHV’ *N CRVY‘WRIDVWHQWRELQG’/DWDSVFRU‘WRJUDVS’ phonology 63 NULS¬~NU\S¬‘VDOW’ (3$ NU S 21KUXID‘VFDE’/LWKNUDXS¸V ‘URXJK’NUDXSLV‘VFDE’/DWYNUD-SLV‘IUDLOEULWWOH’6ODY NUXSD ‘JURDWV’ SODN‘ROGPDQ’ (3$ S H ODND ,( S H OiNRV /LWKS®ONDV‘JUD\’ SâiNRVFI*NRQNKQX‘JUD\JUL]]OHG’ SORW¬ ‘IXOO’ (3$ SOWD ,( SOWR ‘IXOO’ 6NWSUW¢ /DW FRP SOWXV SULVK ‘WR GHVWUR\ WR VSRLO WR ZDVWH’ (3$ SUhD *N RTKY ‘WR VDZ’ UMHS‘WRVWULSRII VNLQRUEDUN WRWHDURII’ (3$ UHSD ,( UHS *NGTGRVQOCK‘WRHDW’/DWUDSLA‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVS’/LWKU{SWL ‘WRJUDVS’ $ UDUH ,QGR(XURSHDQ SKRQHPH E \LHOGHG (3$ E DQG IXUWKHU$OEE EDMJ¬‘GXQJ’ (3$ EDOJ *NDQNDKVQP‘FRZGXQJ’ ,( EROÞ UUDEH‘URFN\GHVHUW ZLWKEXVKHV ’ (3$ UDXED *RWKUDXSMDQ‘WR ULS’2+*URXIHQLG VKN¬OER]¬ ‘EDUN’ (3$ VNDOE 21 VNDOSU ‘VKLS’ VNHOSD ‘JULPDFH’ ‘FUDFNVSOLW’0/*VFKROSH‘PXVVHO’ ,( EKPHUJHGZLWK,( ELQ(3$ EGHYHORSLQJLQWR$OEE EDUGK¬‘ZKLWH’ (3$ EDUG]D ,( EKHUi½‘WRVKLQH ZKLWH’ 6NW EKUMDWH ‘ KH VKLQHV EHDPV JOLWWHUV’ *RWK EDLUKWV ‘OLJKW VKLQLQJ’ E¬M~EDˆM‘WRGRWRPDNH’ (3$ EDQMD *NHCKPY‘WRDSSHDU’ EUHM ~EUêM ‘WR JQDZ’ (3$ EUDLQMD ,( EKUHL ‘WR FXW’ 6NW EKUodWL‘ KH LQMXUHV’/DWIULA‘WRUXE’6ODY EULWL‘WRVKDYH’ HOE‘EDUOH\’ (3$ DOEL *NCNHK‘NLQGRIJUDLQ’ JMHUE‘WRJXOSWRGULQN’ (3$ VHUED ,( VHUEK /DWVRUEHA‘WR VXSXSWRVXFNLQ’*NT QHGYLG/LWKVXUEL¸VX¼EWLLG6ODY VÚUEDWL‘WRJXOSWRVXSXS’ KXPE‘WROHDYHWRORVHWRVSRLOWRPLVVWRGURZQ’ (3$ VNXPED QDVDOSUHVHQWRI,( VNHXEK *RWKDIVNLXEDQ‘WRSXVKDZD\WR UHMHFW’/LWKVNXPE¸VN¸EWL‘WRKXUU\WRKDVWHQ’ ,IIROORZHGE\ X(3$ EFKDQJHVWRYDIWHUDYRZHO 64 chapter one DYXOO‘VWHDPYDSRU’ (3$ DEXODFRQWLQXLQJ EK X ORFORVHWR 2+*QHEXO‘IRJ’26QLIRO *PF QHEXOD] 8QYRLFHG ,( W ZDV SUHVHUYHG DV (3$ W ! $OE W &I WKH IROORZLQJFDVHV GLW¬‘GD\’ (3$ GW GWL *PF WGL]‘WLPH’ 2+*]W2(WG DQG6NWGWL‘EULJKWQHVVVSOHQGRU’ MHW¬ ‘OLIH’ (3$ HWD UHODWHG *N GVGQX ‘WUXH UHDO’ G VC C NJSJ` C ICSC +HV GVC\Y‘WRWHVW’ PRW¬U‘VLVWHU’ (3$ PWHU ,( PWHU‘PRWKHU’ 6NWPW¢U*N OJVJT/DWPWHU WHW¬‘HLJKW’ (3$ DNWAWL ,( RWA X LG 6NWD¿bd$UPRZ*N Q MVY WUDS‘IHUU\’ (3$ WUDSD 6ODY WURSD‘SDWK’ WUH‘WKUHH’ (3$ WUHMH ,( WUHHVLG 6NWWUD\Då*NVTGK`L/DW WUV WXQG‘WRPRYHWRVWLUWRVZLQJ’ (3$ WXQGD 6NWWXQGDWH‘WRSXVK WRVWULNH’/DWWXQGA‘WRSXVK’ ,( G\LHOGHG(3$ G!$OEG GHP ‘\RXQJ EXOO’ (3$ GDPD 2,U GDP ‘R[’ DQG *N FCOCNQL ‘FDOI’ GMDWKW¬ ‘ULJKW’ (3$ GHWVD ,( GHV LG 6NW G¢N¿LoD *N FGEKQX/DWGH[WHU GMHUU‘WRGHVWUR\’ (3$ GHUD ,( GHU 6NWGodWL‘WREXUVWWR WHDU’*NFGTY‘WRVNLQ’*RWKJDWDLUDQ‘WRWHDU’ GUHGK‘WRWXUQWRURWDWH’ (3$ GUHG]D ,( GUH½K $UPGDàQDP ‘WRWXUQ’GDUΑFXUYHWXUQ’ G\ ‘WZR’ (3$ GXZA ,( GÆA X LG 6NW GY¢X $Y GYD *N FWY/DWGXR PXQG ‘WR EH DEOH’ (3$QDVDOSUHVHQW PXQGD /LWK PXG£ ‘SRVVLELOLW\’ PXG·RWL ‘WR WU\ WR DWWHPSW’ 6NW P²GDWH ‘WR UHMRLFHWREHPHUU\’ 7KH ,QGR(XURSHDQ YRLFHG DVSLUDWH GK PHUJHG ZLWK G LQ (3$ G!$OEG phonology 65 GDO‘WRJRRXW’ (3$ GDOD *NSCNNY‘WREORRP’LH‘WRDSSHDU WRFRPHRXW’ GDVK ‘UDP’ (3$ GDXhD ,( GKRXVR ~ GKHXVR ‘EUHDWK EUHDWKLQJDQLPDO’ *PF GHX]DQ‘ZLOGDQLPDO’/LWKSOGD-VRV ‘SDUDGLVH’6ODY GX[Ù‘EUHDWKVSLULW’ GMDO¬ ‘ER\ \RXWK’ (3$ GHOD ,( GKL ‘WR VXFN’ /DWY G?OV ‘VRQ’/DWIOLXVLG GMHJ ‘WR EXUQ’ (3$ GHJD ,( GKHÞK ‘WR EXUQ’ 6NWG¢KDWL 7RFK$%WVDNWV¥N/LWGHJ¸GªJWL GXDM ~ GXHM ‘VKHDI’ (3$ GAQMD 6NW GKQd ‘JUDLQ FHUHDOV’ GKQ\¢‘JUDLQ’/LWKG·RQD‘EUHDG’ HQG‘SROOHQ’ (3$ DQGD 6NW¢QGKDV‘KHUE’*NCPSQX‘IORZHU’ ,QWKHLQWHUYRFDOLFSRVLWLRQDQGDIWHUU3URWR$OEDQLDQ GZDV DOVRSUHVHUYHG VHHWKRXJK $WDYHU\ODWHVWDJHSUHVXPDEO\LQ WKH ; ;,, FHQWXULHV WKLV VRXQG ZDV VSLUDQWL]HG SUREDEO\ XQGHU WKH LQIOXHQFHRIPHGLHYDO*UHHN7KHUHVXOWZDV$OEGK JDUGK ‘IHQFH’ (3$ JDUGD *RWK JDUGV ‘KRXVH’ /LWK JD¼GDV ‘IHQFH’6ODY JRUGÙ‘WRZQIHQFH’ JOHGK¬ ‘FDUHVV’ (3$ JODG /DW JODEHU ‘VPRRWK’ 2+* JODW ‘VKLQLQJ HYHQ VPRRWK’ /LWK JORG¸V ‘VPRRWK’ 6ODY JODGÙNÙ LG JODGLWL‘WRFDUHVV’ KHGK‘WRWKURZWRVKRRW’ (3$ VNHXGD ,( VNHXG‘WRWKURZWR VKRRW’ 21VNM²WD2+*VFLRfDQ KHUGKH‘WHVWLFOHV’ (3$ DUG]DL ,( RU½KL~ ½KLLG $YGXDO iUi]*NQTZKX$UPRUML0,UXLUJJHLG NURGK¬ ‘EHHKLYH’ (3$ NUG *RWK KURW ‘URRI’ 6ODY NUDGD ‘KHDSSLOH’ WUHGK ‘WR FDVWUDWH’ (3$ WUHXGD /DW WU GA ‘WR SXVK’ *RWK XV ÈULXWDQ‘WREXUGHQ’6ODY WUXGÙ‘ODERUZRUN’ 2FFDVLRQDOO\ (3$ G DSSHDUV DV $OE GK LQ DQODXW ,W ZDV VSLUDQWL]HG LQWHUYRFDOLFDOO\E\WKHORVVRIWKHLQLWLDOYRZHO GKXQ¬‘ODERUSDLQVVKDPHGLVJUDFH’ (3$ HGXQWLRU DGXQWL *N Q FWPJ‘ODERUSDLQV’$UPHUNQLG $QDORJLFDOIRUFHVDUHDWZRUNLQWKHZRUGIRU‘WHQ’ 66 chapter one GKMHW¬‘WHQ’ (3$ GHWVWL ,( GH‘WHQ’ 6NWG¢yD *N FGMC /DWGHFHP 7KH LQIOXHQFH FDPH IURP FRPSRXQGV VXFK DV QM¬PE¬GKMHW¬ ‘HOHYHQ’ G\PE¬GKMHW¬‘WZHOYH’DQGVRRQ,QVXFKFDVHV GZDVVLWXDWHGEHWZHHQ WKHWZR3URWR$OEDQLDQYRZHOVRI DPELGHNWL 2FFOXVLYHV YHODUV 7KH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ YHODUV UHWDLQHG DQ LPSRUWDQW WHUWLDU\ RSSRVLWLRQ WKDW RI “pure” YHODUV SDODWDO YHODUV DQG ODELRYHODUV WKH ODWWHUDUHGLIIHUHQWLDWHGIURPRWKHUYHODUVEHIRUHIURQWYRZHOVEXWPHUJH ZLWK“pure” velars elsewhere ,QWKLVVHQVHWKH3URWR$OEDQLDQV\VWHP RI RFFOXVLYHV VXSSRUWV WKH /XZLDQ HYLGHQFH WKDW 3URWR,QGR(XURSHDQ SRVVHVVHGWKUHHGLVWLQFWYHODURSSRVLWLRQV /LWHUDWXUH 0(<(5 $OE6W,,, YRLFHGDQGYRLFHGDVSLUDWHVLQ DQODXW 3('(56(1 .= ;;;9, SDVVLP UHIOH[HV RI ODELRYHODUV GHVSLUDQWL]DWLRQ RI $OE GKLQDQODXW +(50$11 .= ;/, FULWLFL]HV 3('(56(1’V DQDO\VLV RI ODELRYHODUV LQ $OEDQLDQ -2./ 0©ODQJHV 3HGHUVHQ GHYHORSPHQW RI ODELRYHODUV UHFRQ VWUXFWLRQ RI Wh GÊ LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ ,) ;;;9,, 0$11 /DQJXDJH;;9,,,Hist. Gr. 3334 Ç$%(-6SUDFKH;9,,, St. III 127-128, IV 212-218 -8&482,60XV©RQ/;;9,,, FDVDQHDUO\SUHVHUYHGUHIOH[RI /%(5**HGHQNVFKU%UDQGHQ VWHLQ EHIRUH XDQG Æ 0$57,1(7 ,QGR&HOWLFD 586$.29/,V VHFRQGDU\F WK -D/% LQLWLDOG DQG GK 25(/ 6%-D .RQWDNW\ GLVWULEXWLRQ RI G DQG GKLQ DQODXW “3XUH” YHODUVDUHZHOOSUHVHUYHGLQ$OEDQLDQ8QYRLFHG,( N DVZHOODV NKLIVXFKDSKRQHPHH[LVWHG JDYH(3$ N!$OENDVLQ WKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV EDUN ‘EHOO\ ZRPE DEGRPHQ’ (3$ EDUXND DCTWMC CK FQK`QP RCTC>6CTCSPVKPQKX GLN¬ ‘GHVLUH OXVW’ (3$ GN /LWK GmNDV ‘LGOH HPSW\’ 6ODY GLNÙ‘ZLOG’ NDP ‘WR KDYH’ (3$ NDSPL ,( NDS ‘WR VHL]H WR JUDVS’ /DW FDSLALG*RWKKDEDQ‘WRKDYH’ phonology 67 N¬UU‘GRQNH\DVVIRDOJUD\’ (3$ NDUD 6NWNK¢UD‘GRQNH\’$Y [DUALG6F\WK [DUD2VVHW[æUæJLG NRUU ‘WR UHDS WR KDUYHVW’ (3$ NVUD /LWK NDV¸ N£VWL ‘WR GLJ’ 6ODY NRVD‘VF\WKH’ NUHGK‘WRSOXQJHWRLPPHUVHWRVWHHSWRVPRWKHUWREHVSDWWHU’ (3$ NUAGD 6ODY NUDG_ NUDVWL ‘WR VWHDO’ UHIO NUDG_ V? NUDVWLV?‘WRVQHDNWRVWHDOXSWRDSSURDFKXQQRWLFHG’ ,QWKHSUHYHUE NRP!(3$ ND,( N!$OEJ J¬VKWDOO¬ N¬VKWDOO¬ ‘VSOLQW SLHFH RI ZRRG’ (3$ NDVWDOQ ,( VWHO *N UVGNNY ‘WR SXW WR VHW’ 2+* VWHOOHQ ‘WR SXW’ 23UXVVWDOOW‘WRVWDQG’ JOHS¬ ‘PDWWHU IURP H\HV UKHXP LQ H\HV ’ (3$ NDODLS ,( OHLS‘WRVPHDUZLWKIDW’ JORT ‘UKHXP LQ H\HV WHVWLV’ (3$ NDOXNMD ,( OHXN ‘WR VKLQH VKLQLQJZKLWH’ 9RLFHG,( J\LHOGV(3$ JZKLFKLVSUHVHUYHGDV$OEJ DJ‘WZLOLJKWGXVN’ (3$ DXJD ,( DXJ‘WRLQFUHDVH’ *NCW IJ ‘UD\RIOLJKW’ JMXK¬JOXK¬‘WRQJXHODQJXDJH’ (3$ JXO[ WKH,QGR(XURSHDQ GLDOHFWDOZRUGIRU‘VRXQG’ JROVR 21NDOO‘VKRXW’/LWKJDËVDV ‘HFKR’6ODY JROVÙ‘YRLFH’ OLJ ‘EDG LOO’ (3$ OLJD *N Q NKIQX ‘VPDOO IHZ’ NQKIQX ‘GHVWUXFWLRQGHDWK’/LWKOLJ£‘LOOQHVV’/DWYOLJDLG SORJ ‘JUDQDU\ EDUQ KHDS’ (3$ SOJD *N RNCIKQX ‘SODFHG VLGHZD\VVORSLQJOHDQLQJ’/DWSODJD‘TXDUWHUUHJLRQ’ VKWDJ¬ ‘SROH VWLFN’ (3$ VWDJ 21 VWMDNL LG /DWY VW?JD ‘ORQJ SROH’ VKWUHJ¬‘SLOHRIZRRG’ (3$ VWUDJ 0+*VWUDF‘WLJKW’2(VWUHF ‘KDUGVWURQJ’ 9RLFHGDVSLUDWH,( JKPHUJHGZLWK,( JLQ(3$ J!$OEJ FIWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV GUHJ¬ ‘VFDE’ (3$ GUDJ :HVW *PF WDUJMDQ ‘WR SXOO WR VWLU’ *HUP]HUJHQ 6ODY GÚUJDWL‘WRSXOOWRWXJ’/LWKG®UJLQWL‘WR PRYHWRLUULWDWH’ 68 chapter one JUDE¬‘HURVLRQKROORZLQJRXW’ (3$ JUDE ,( JKUHEKWRGLJ’ 2+*JUDE‘JUDYH’6ODY JUREÙLG JULK‘WR VKDUSHQ’ (3$ JUHLVND *NZTKY ‘WRUXEWRDQRLQWWR SULFN’ /LWK JULHM¸ JULWL ‘WR VFRRS FUHDP IURP PLON WR WDNH KROGRI’ JXDOO‘VKHOOVNXOO’ (3$ JAO Z D $UPJORZ[‘KHDG’ JKAOX /LWKJDOY£LG6ODY JROYDLG PMHJXOO‘FORXG’ (3$ PHJO *NQ OKZNJ‘IRJPLVW’/LWKPLJO£ LG6ODY PÚJOD‘GDUNQHVVPLVW’ QJDM ‘WR UXQ’ (3$ HQJDQMD 6NW M¢KWL ‘WR OHDYH WR DEDQGRQ’ 2+*JQJQ‘WRJR’ ,QRQHFDVH(3$ JKDVEHHQXQYRLFHGLQDQODXW NUHK~NUHI‘WRFRPE’ (3$ JUHEVND /LWKJU{EWL‘WRUDNH’6ODY JUHE_ JUHEWL‘WRURZWRUDNH’ 3DODWDO YHODUV GHYHORSHG ZLWK RQH LPSRUWDQW SRVLWLRQDO H[FHSWLRQ LQWRVLELODQWDIIULFDWHV8QYRLFHG,( JDYH(3$ WVZKLFK EHFDPH$OEWK DWK¬W‘KDUVKVRXUUDQFLG’ (3$ DWVHWD ,( D‘VKDUS’ FI/DW DFLGXV‘VRXU’ THWK ‘WR FXW KDLU ’ (3$ NDLWVD 6NW N©yD ‘KDLU RI WKH KHDG ’ /LWKN¢LVWL‘WRVFUDSHWRVKDYH’ WKHN¬‘IULQJH’ (3$ WVDN 6NWydNK‘EUDQFK’/LWKhDN£LG WKHS‘SHDNSRLQWFRJWRRWK’ (3$ WVDLSD 6NWy©SD‘WDLOSHQLV’ /DWFLSSXV‘SROH’ WKMHUP¬‘JUD\’(3$ WVHUPD /LWKhL¼PDV‘JUD\’ WKMHUU¬ ‘OHQWLO’ (3$ WVHU ,( LHU /DW FLFHU ‘SHD’ $UP VLVHàQLG ,QVHYHUDOFDVHVWKHRULJLQDODIIULFDWHLVUHWDLQHGLQPRGHUQ$OEDQLDQDV F DFDU ‘VWHHO’ (3$ DWVDUD ‘VKDUS’ 2,U DLFKH ‘VKDUS’ *N CMTQP ‘SRLQWWRS’/LWKDhU¸V‘VKDUS’6ODY RVWUÙLG FHUP¬‘FROGFRRO’ (3$ WVHUP /LWKhDUP£‘IURVW’/DWYVDUPD LG phonology 69 F¬ULM‘WRPHOWEXWWHU’ (3$ WVLUD 6NWyUd\DWL‘WRFRRNWRIU\’*N MKTPJOK‘WRPL[’ 9RLFHG ,( ½ \LHOGHG (3$ G] LQ DOO SRVLWLRQV /DWHU G] EHFDPH$OEGK EDUGK¬‘ZKLWH’ (3$ EDUG]D ,( EKHUi½‘WRVKLQH ZKLWH’ 6NW EKUMDWH ‘ KH VKLQHV EHDPV JOLWWHUV’ *RWK EDLUKWV ‘OLJKW VKLQLQJ’ GKHPE ‘WR DFKH’ (3$ G]HPED 6NW M¢PEKDWH ‘WR VQDS DW’ /LWK ÊHPEL¸ÊHÄEWL‘WRFXW’DQG6ODY ]?E_ ]?EWL‘WRIUHH]HWRIHHO FROG’ GK¬PE~GKDPE‘WRRWK’ (3$ G]DPED ,( ½RPEKR‘SHJWRRWK’ 6NWM¢PEKD‘ELWSHJ’*NIQOHQX‘SHJ’7RFK$NDP‘WRRWK’ %NHPHLG/DWY]¸REVLG6ODY ]_EÙLG GK¬QG¬U ~ GKDQG¬U ‘EULGHJURRP VRQLQODZ’ (3$ G]DQUD ,( ½HQiU‘VRQLQODZ’ /DWJHQHU NHGK‘NLG’ (3$ NDG]D 6ODY NR]D‘VKHJRDW’ UUXGK¬‘ZULQNOH’ (3$ UXG] /DWU JDLG 9RLFHGDVSLUDWH ½KPHUJHGZLWK ½LQ(3$ G]!$OEGK GUHGK‘WRWXUQWRURWDWH’ (3$ GUHG]D ,( GUH½K $UPGDàQDP ‘WRWXUQ’GDUΑFXUYHWXUQ’ GKMHV‘WRGHIHFDWH’ (3$ G]HWMD 6NWKDGDWLLG*NZG\YLG KHUGKH‘WHVWLFOHV’ (3$ DUG]DL ,( RU½KL~ ½KLLG $YGXDO iUi]*NQTZKX$UPRUML0,UXLUJJHLG PDUGK¬‘FKLOOIURVWLFH’ (3$ PDUG] 6ODY PRU]Ù‘IURVW’ YMHGK ‘WR VWHDO’ (3$ ZHG]D ,( ÆH½K 6NW Y¢KDWL ‘WR GULYH’ /DWYHKA‘WREHDUWRFDUU\’*RWKJDZLJDQ‘WRVWHDO’ ]YMHUGK‘WRZHDQ’ (3$ YHUG]D /LWKYHUÊL¸YH¼ÊWL‘WRODFHWR WLH’/DWYYU]W‘WRWXUQ’6ODY YHU]WL‘WRELQG’ ,QRQHFDVH(3$ G]LVUHIOHFWHGDV$OEG GLP¬U ~ GLP¬Q ‘ZLQWHU’ (3$ GHLPHQD ,( ½KHLPHQ LG 6NW KHPDQORF‘LQZLQWHU’*NZGK`OC‘ZLQWHU’ 70 chapter one ,Q DQODXW (3$ G] ZDV GLVVLPLODWHG WR G LI IROORZHG E\ D VLELODQW +HQFH QXPHURXV FDVHV ZLWK LQLWLDO $OE G UHIOHFWLQJ ,( ½ RU ½K GRU¬ ‘KDQG’ (3$ GU ,( ½KHVU LG *N ZGK`T +LWW NHhhDU 7RFK$WVDU%¿DU$UPMHàQ GMHUU‘IDOORZODQG’ (3$ GHUVD ,( ½KHUVRV *NZGTUQX‘GU\ ODQG’ GULWK¬ ‘JUDLQ’ (3$ GULWV ,( ½K]G /DW KRUGHXP ‘EDUOH\’ 2+*JHUVWDLG GXD~GXH‘WRORYH’ (3$ GXVQMD GXVQMD ,( ½HXV‘WRWDVWH’ 6NWM²¿DWL‘WREHIRQGRI’*NIGWQOCK G\OO¬‘ZD[’ (3$ G OD GXVOD *NZWNQX‘MXLFH’ %HIRUH X LQFOXGLQJWKHQHZO\GHYHORSHGJOLGHRIV\OODELF ! XU (3$ WVDQG G]EHFDPH WhDQG GÊ FIDVLPLODUIDWHRIFOXVWHUV WVZDQG G]Z VXN¬ ‘ORZ KLOO’ (3$ WVXN 6NW y ND ‘DZQ RI JUDLQ VSLNH RI LQVHFW’$YV N‘QHHGOH’ VXPEXOO‘URXQGEXWWRQ EXG’ (3$ WVXPEDFRQWLQXLQJ,( XPE FI*NMWODJ‘ERZO’2,UFRPP‘YHVVHO’ VXS ‘VKRXOGHU’ (3$ WVXSD 6NW yXSWL LG $Y VXSWL LG 0/* VFKXIW‘IURQWVKRXOGHUEODVH RIDQLPDOV ’ VXUP¬‘GDUNJUH\’ (3$ WVXUPD ,( PR /LWKhL¼PDV‘JUH\’ VXW¬ ‘IHPDOH GHHU GRH KRUQOHVV’ (3$ WVXNW ,( XN /LWK h¸NRV ‘FRPE’ h¸N^ ‘FURFN’ hXNHWDV ‘GHQWHG FKLSSHG’ /DWY VXND‘EUXVK’ ]XO¬‘VKRXWJORU\’ (3$ G]XO ,( ½KDÆi ½KHX+‘WRFDOO’ 6NWK¢YDWH$Y]DYDLWL6ODY ]ÙYDWL $WDYHU\HDUO\VWDJHLQPDQ\ZRUGVFRQWDLQLQJVRQRUDQWVDQG LQ SDUWLFXODU LQ WKH LPPHGLDWH FRQWDFW ZLWK VRQRUDQWV SDODWDO YHODUV ZHUHGHSDODWDOL]HGLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQDQGPHUJHGZLWK“SXUH” YHODUV IOXJ¬‘VKLQJOH’ (3$ DZDOXJD ,( OHX½ 6NWUXM¢WL‘WREUHDN’ /DWO JHA‘WRPRXUQWRGHSORUH’ JDU¬‘FRPSHWLWLRQUDFH’ (3$ JDU ,( ½KHU‘WRZLVKWRIHHO LQFOLQDWLRQ’ *N ZCKTY ‘WR UHMRLFH’ ZCTOJ ‘MR\ RI EDWWOH EDWWOHILJKW’ phonology 71 JUXU¬ ~JUXQ¬‘ZKHDW’ (3$ JUXQ ,( ½¹QRP ‘JUDLQ’ /DW JUQXP2,UJU¢Q*RWKNDXUQ/LWKÊ®UQLV6ODY ]ÚUQR JMX ~JMXl ‘NQHH’ (3$ JOXQD GLVVLPLODWHG IURP J D QXQD ,( ½HQXLG +LWWJQX6NWMdQX*NIQPW/DWJHQ NU\H‘KHDG’ (3$ NUQM NUDVQM *NMTC PKQP‘VNXOOKHDG’ PMHN¬U ‘FKLQ EHDUG’ (3$ VPHNU ,( VPHUX LG +LWW ]DPDQNXU ‘EHDUG’ 6NW yP¢yUX LG $UP PDZURZ LG /LWK VP¦NUDV‘FKLQ’ %HIRUH QRQIURQW YRZHOV ODELRYHODUV PHUJHG ZLWK “SXUH” YHODUVLQ(3$ N J7KHLQWHUPHGLDWHVWDJHRIWKLVGHYHORSPHQWFDQEH UHFRQVWUXFWHG DV NZ JZ ,Q DOO SRVLWLRQV RWKHU WKDQ EHIRUH IURQW YRZHOV Z ZDV ORVW 7KH UHVXOWLQJ FRQVRQDQWV ZHUH LGHQWLFDO ZLWK “SXUH” YHODUV ,( á\LHOGHG(3$ N!$OEN GDUN¬‘VXSSHU’ (3$ GDUN ,( GRUáRPUHIOHFWHGLQ*NFQTRQP LG & JMDN‘EORRG’ (3$ VDND *NQRQX‘MXLFH’/LWKVDND ‘UHVLQ’6ODY VRNÙ‘MXLFH’ NROO¬‘FRXJK’ (3$ NVO ,( áV 6ODY NDhOÚLG/LWKNRVXOmV LG NULPE~NU\P‘ZRUP’ (3$ NULP ZLWKXQH[SODLQHG*HJ\ ,( áPLLG 6NWN¤PL/LWKN®UPLV QGMHN‘WRIROORZWRFKDVHWRSXUVXH’ (3$ HQWHND ,( WHá‘WR UXQ WR IORZ’ 2,U WHFKLP ‘WR IOHH’ /LWK WHN¸ WHN{WL ‘WR UXQ’ 6ODY WHN_ WHNWL‘WRIORZWRUXQ’ SMHN‘WREDNHWRFRRN’ (3$ SHND ,( SHáLG 6NWS¢FDWL*N RGUUY/DWFRTXA6ODY SHN_ SHNWL ,QWKHVDPHSRVLWLRQ,( ÞJDYH(3$ JSUHVHUYHGDV$OEJ EDMJ¬‘GXQJ’ (3$ EDOJ *NDQNDKVQP‘FRZGXQJ’ EROÞ JRV¬ ‘ZDWHUKROH SLW’ (3$ JWM ,( Þ 6ODY JDWÚ JDWÙ ‘GDPSRRO’DQG6NWJW·‘SDVVDJHZD\’ JUDK~JUDI‘WRVSXURQWRFDOOWRURDU’ (3$ JUDVND ,( ÞHUi 6NWJodWL‘WRFDOOWRLQYRNH’JLUDV‘VRQJ’/LWKJLUL¸J®UWL‘WR SUDLVH’ 72 chapter one JUHOO¬ ‘GHHS SODFH’ (3$ JULWO /LWK JXUNOmV ‘FURS’ 23UXV JXUFOH ‘WKURDW’ 6ODY JÙUGOR LG FI DOVR ÊHUGOR ‘ULYHUEHG RSHQLQJ’ JULM~JUîM‘WRFXWLQWRSLHFHVWRJQDZWRHDWDZD\’ (3$ JULQMD ,( ÞHUi ‘WR VZDOORZ’ 6NWJLU¢WL $UP HNHU /DW YRUA /LWK JHUL¸J©UWL‘WRGULQN’6ODY ÊHUWL JXU‘VWRQHURFN’ (3$ JXUD ,( ÞHUi‘PRXQWDLQ’ 6NWJLU$Y JDLUL/LWKJLUL£‘ZRRG’/DWYG]LULDLG6ODY JRUD‘PRXQWDLQ ZRRG’ 7KHVDPHFRQWLQXDQW$OEJ (3$ JUHVXOWVIURP,( ÞK GMHJ ‘WR EXUQ’ (3$ GHJD ,( GKHÞK ‘WR EXUQ’ 6NWG¢KDWL 7RFK$%WVDNWV¥N/LWGHJ¸GªJWL JDUEH‘IORZHUSRW’ (3$ JDULE ,( ÞKHU‘WREXUQ’ FI6ODY JÙUQÙ‘RYHQSRW’ QJURK~QJURI‘WRZDUP’ (3$ HQJUMD ,( ÞKHU 6ODY JUpM_ JUpWL‘WRZDUP’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h DQG GÊ DV GLG WKH FOXVWHUV FRQWLQXLQJ ÆDQG ½Æ /LWHUDWXUH 0$11 +LVW *U 25(/ =I%DON ;;,,, GLIIHUHQWUHIOH[HVRI UMGHSHQGLQJRQWKHSODFHRIVWUHVV %HIRUH IURQW YRZHOV ,( á JDYH (3$ Wh ZKLFK ODWHU GHYHORSHGLQWR$OEV phonology 73 PRV ‘QRW’ SURKLE (3$ PWh ,( P áH FI *N OJVG ‘DQG QRW’ SHV¬~SêV¬‘ILYH’ (3$ SHQWhH ,( SHQáH‘ILYH’ 6NWS¢±FD*N RGPVG/DWTXQTXH VDUN¬ ‘EXLOG IUDPH ILJXUH RI KXPDQ ERG\ ’ (3$ WhHUN ,( áHU‘WRPDNHWREXLOG’ 6NWNDUeWL/LWKN¸UWL VMHOO ‘WR EULQJ’ (3$ WhHOD ,( áHO 6NWF¢UDWL ‘WR PRYH WR ZDON’*NRGNY‘WRFRPHLQWRH[LVWHQFHWREHFRPH’/DWFROA ‘WRFXOWLYDWHWRWLOO’ VRUU¬ ‘FURZ’ (3$ WhUVQ FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR 6NW N¿o¢ ‘EODFN GDUN’23UXVNLUVQDQ‘EODFN’6ODY ¨ÚUQÙLG V\‘H\H’ (3$ DWhZL 6NWDN¿À$YDhL/LWKDN®6ODY R¨L ,QRQHFDVHWKHRULJLQDO3URWR$OEDQLDQDIIULFDWHPLJKWEHSUHVHUYHG 笑ZKDW’ (3$ WhL ,( áLG +LWWNXLW*NVK/DWTXLG +RZHYHU ç¬ DSSHDUV WR FRQWLQXH D V\QWDFWLF FRPSOH[ SUREDEO\ ,( áRGVR 1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHDIIULFDWHDSSHDUVWREHSUHVHUYHGLQDWOHDVWRQHFDVH FLW¬‘IXOOEULPIXOO’ (3$ WVHLWD ,( áHiWRV 6ODY ¨LWÙ‘ZKROH’ /LWKNHWDV‘KDUG’ 7KHDIIULFDWH Wh!VUHVXOWHGIURP áEHIRUH QLV ‘WR VWDUW WR EHJLQ WR SUHSDUH IRU MRXUQH\’ (3$ QHLWhD ,( QHLáA /LWKVXQ®NWL‘WRVHWXSRQWRDWWDFN’6ODY QLNQ_WL ‘WRULVHWRJURZ’ YGHV ‘WR GLH’ (3$ DZDWDNMD ,( WHá ‘WR UXQ WR IORZ’ 2,U WHFKLP‘WRIOHH’/LWKWHN¸WHN{WL‘WRUXQ’6ODY WHN_ WHNWL‘WR IORZWRUXQ’ %HIRUHIURQWYRZHOVDQG M,( ÞEHFDPH(3$ GÊ!$OE][ P]LWK‘DQNOH’EDVHGRQ(3$ GÊLMD ,( ÞL‘WHQGRQERZVWULQJ’ 6NWM\d$YÎ\*NDKQX Q[LW‘WRXUJHWRVWLPXODWHWRKXUU\’ (3$ GÊLWD,( Þ‘WROLYH’ 6NWMÀYDWL/DWYYA2(FZLFX‘DOLYHOLYLQJ’!(TXLFN 74 chapter one ]¬~]Dˆ ‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVSWRWRXFK’ (3$ GÊHLQD ,( ÞHi‘WR RYHUSRZHU’ 6NWM\d‘IRUFHSRZHU’M¢\DWL‘WRZLQWRFRQTXHU’ *NDKJ‘SRZHU’ ]L ‘EODFN’ (3$ GÊHGL ,( ÞHG 0+* TXW ‘GLUW’ 2( FZ©DG ‘EDG’ /LWK J{GD ‘VKDPH’ 6ODY JDGÙNÙ ‘GLVJXVWLQJ’ JDGÙ ‘UHSWLOHZRUP’ ]RUU¬ ‘JXW’ (3$ GÊUQ ,( ÞHUi ‘WR VZDOORZ’ /LWK ÊDUQ£ ‘JXW’ ,( ÞK PHUJHV ZLWK Þ LQ (3$ GÊ!$OE] EHIRUH D IURQW YRZHORU M QGH] ‘WR VHW DOLJKW WR LJQLWH’ (3$ HQGDGÊMD FDXVDWLYH ,( GKRÞKHA ,( GKHÞK‘WREXUQ’ ]MHM‘WRERLOWRFRRN’ (3$ GÊHUQMD ,( ÞKHU *NSGTQOCK‘WR EHFRPHKRWWRZDUPWREXUQ’2,UIRJHLU‘ KH ZDUPV’ ]MDUU ‘ILUH’ (3$ GÊHUD ,( ÞKHUHV 6NWK¢UDV ‘IODPH KHDW’ *NSGTQX‘VXPPHU’$UPÎHULG (3$ W GDQG [ V \LHOGHG Wh GÊDQG hEHIRUH M,( W!(3$ Wh!V GMHUV¬‘SHUVSLUDWLRQ’ (3$ ZLGHUWM *NKFTYXLG VÆLGUAWV QXV ‘WKUHDG VWULQJ’ *HJ (3$ VQXWMD ,( VQHX ‘WR WXUQ WR VSLQ’ 6NWVQdYDQ‘EDQGVLQHZ’ SUHV‘WRZDLWWRH[SHFW’ (3$ SUDWMD *RWKIUDÈMDQ‘WRWKLQNWR XQGHUVWDQG’/LWKSUDQW¸SU£VWL‘WRJHWXVHGWRXQGHUVWDQG’ S\HV ‘WR DVN’ (3$ S WD /DW SXWA ‘WR UHFNRQ WR SRQGHU’ 6ODY S\WDWL‘WRDVN’ VKNDV‘WRVOLSWRVOLGH’ (3$ VNDWMDFRUUHVSRQGLQJWR/DWVFDWHA ‘WRVWUHDPWRIORZRXW’/LWKVNDQW¸VN£VWL‘WRVSULQJWRMXPS’ WUHV ‘WR PHOW WR ORRVHQ WR GLVVROYH’ (3$ WUAWMD 6ODY WUDWM_ WUDWLWL‘WRVSHQGWRZDVWH’ 2FFDVLRQDOO\DPRUHDUFKDLFVWDJHRI(3$ Wh!$OEFLVSUHVHUYHG FI WKHVLPLODUGHYHORSPHQWRI á! Wh!FEHIRUHDIURQWYRZHORU M EDF‘HOGHUEURWKHUXQFOH’ (3$ EDWMD 6ODY EDW’D~ EDWMD‘HOGHU EURWKHUIDWKHU’ PMDOF¬‘EHH’ (3$ PHOLWM *NOGNKUUC OGNKVMCLG phonology 75 ,Q WKH VDPH SRVLWLRQ (3$ G JRLQJ EDFN WR ,( G DQG GK EHFRPHV GÊ!$OE] EUX] ‘EOXH LQGLJR’ (3$ EUXGMD ,( EKURXGK 6ODY EUXGÙ ‘GLUW’ EUXGÚQÙ‘GLUW\’ EX]¬ ‘OLS HQG HGJH EDQN VWLWFK URFN’ (3$ EXGM /LWK EXG| ‘WUHHIXQJXVWLQGHUZKHWVWRQH’ JMD]¬ ‘ULYHUVLGH IRUHVW’ (3$ VHGMD ,( VHG ‘WR VLW WR EH VHWWOHG’FILQSDUWLFXODU6ODY VDGÙ‘JDUGHQJURYH’ OR]‘WRPRYHWRVKDNHWRSOD\’ (3$ OGMD 6ODY ODGÙ‘RUGHU SHDFH’ ODGLWL‘WRPDNHRUGHUWRPDNHSHDFH’ P¬]~ PDˆ]‘IRDO’ (3$ PDQGMDGHULYHGIURPP¬QG‘WRIHHGWR VXFNOH’ ,( PD]G 7KH GHYHORSPHQW RI ,( VM ! [M LQWR h!$OEVK LV ZHOO DWWHVWHG JMHVK‘WRNQHDG’ (3$ MHVMD 6NW\¢V\DWL‘WRERLO’*N\GY‘WRERLO WRFRRN’ VKRVK‘WRVLIW’ (3$ VMVMD *NJ SGYLG/LWKVLM²MXVLM²WLLG6ODY VpMDWLLG VKRW¬‘ELJGXFN’ (3$ VMXW :KZ\DGLG2&RUQKRHWLG%UHW KRXDWLG YHVK‘WRSXWRQ FORWKHV WRFRYHU’ (3$ ZHVMDWR ÆHV 6NWY¢VWH ‘WR ZHDU WR EH GUHVVHG LQ’ *N GPPWOK ‘WR GUHVV’ DQG LQ SDUWLFXODU6NWYV¢\DWLDQG*RWKZDVMDQLG (3$ WVDQG G]UHIOHFWLQJ,QGR(XURSHDQSDODWDOV\LHOGHG WhDQG GÊ EHIRUH M GUL]¬‘EODFNWKRUQVORH’ (3$ GULG]M ,( GHU½K‘WRKROGWREH ILUP’ 6NWGK\DWL ‘WR EH ILUP’ 6ODY GÚUÊDWL WR KROG’ GÚU]MDWL DQG LQ SDUWLFXODU GÚU]D ! 5XVV GHUH]D ‘NLQG RI WKRUQ\SODQW’ VLYMHW‘WKLV\HDU’ (3$ WVMHLZHWHLGDWORFVJFRQWLQXLQJ,( HL ÆHWHL VRW ‘WRGD\’ (3$ WVM L GWL GDWORF VJ FRQWLQXLQJ ,( GWL YLVH ‘SODFH’ (3$ ZWVM ,( ÆHL VLPLODU WR *N QKMKC ‘GZHOOLQJKRXVH’ 76 chapter one +RZHYHU LQ FHUWDLQ FDVHV SDODWDO YHODUV ZHUH GHSDODWDOL]HG LQ 3URWR $OEDQLDQ DQG WKHLU GHYHORSPHQW EHIRUH M ZDV LGHQWLFDO ZLWK WKDW RI “SXUH”YHODUV N¬QDT‘WRSOHDVHWRVDWLVI\’ (3$ NDQDNMD *RWKJDQDK‘WREH HQRXJK’2+*JLQDKLG)XUWKHUUHODWHGWR,( QH 6NWQ¢yDWL ‘WRUHDFK’ 8QGHUWKHLQIOXHQFHRI/3$ MVRQRUDQWVZHUHDOVRSDODWDOL]HG ZLWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI P %HIRUH M /3$ O ZDV UHWDLQHG /DWHU LW RFFDVLRQDOO\FKDQJHGWRMWKRXJK çDO¬‘ODPH’ (3$ hWhDOMD *NUMQNKQX‘FURRNHG’/DWVFHOXV çHO‘WRRSHQ’ (3$ hWhHOMD +LWWLhNDOOL‘WRWHDUXS’21VNLOMD‘WR VSOLW’/LWKVNHOL¸VN©OWLLG GDO‘WRJRRXW’ (3$ GDOMD *NSCNNY‘WREORRP’ KDO¬‘ILVKERQHVSOLQWHU SLQH’ (3$ VNDOM /LWKVNDO£‘VWLFNRI ILUHZRRG’/DWYVNDOD‘VSOLQWHU XVHGWRIXUQLVKOLJKW ’ PDM¬‘WLSWRSSRLQWSHDNVXPPLW’ (3$ PDOM /LWKPDO£‘ODQG’ /DWYPDOD‘EDQNVKRUH’ YMHO‘WRSOXFN IUXLW WRYLQWDJH’ (3$ ZHOMD *NGKNY‘WRVKXWLQ WRSUHVV’/LWKVXYDOØWL‘WRKDUYHVWWRUHDS’ ,Q WKH VDPH SRVLWLRQ Q FKDQJHG WR $OE QM 7KH ODWWHU GHYHORSHGLQWRMLQVRPHGLDOHFWVDQGLQFHUWDLQPRUSKRORJLFDOFODVVHV &IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV E¬M~EDˆM‘WRGRWRPDNH’ (3$ EDQMD *NHCKPY‘WRDSSHDU’ EUHM ~EUêM ‘WR JQDZ’ (3$ EUDLQMD ,( EKUHL ‘WR FXW’ 6NW EKUodWL‘ KH LQMXUHV’/DWIULA‘WRUXE’6ODY EULWL‘WRVKDYH’ KXDM ~ KXHM ‘IRUHLJQ VWUDQJH’ (3$ NVQMD FRQQHFWHG ZLWK LVRODWHG*NEGPQX'RUEGP®QX‘VWUDQJHUJXHVW’ P¬OOHQM¬ ‘EODFNELUG’ (3$ PHODQM ,(IHP DGM PHOiQ ‘EODFN’ *NOGNCKPCLGFIDOVR6NWPDOLQ¢IHPPDOLQ‘GLUW\ XQFOHDQ/DWYP?ËQV‘EODFN’ QMHU QMHUL ‘PDQ SHUVRQ KXPDQ EHLQJ’ (3$ QHUD 6NW Q¢U ‘PDQ’*NC PJTLG$UPD\ULG WKLQM¬ ‘JUD\ KDLU’ (3$ WVLQMD 6NW y\Y¢ ‘GDUN EURZQ’ $Y V\YD‘EODFN’6ODY VLYÙ‘GDUNJUD\’ phonology 77 ,Q/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQ QZDVDOVRSDODWDOL]HGDQGFKDQJHGWRQMDWWKH HQG RI WKH ZRUG EHIRUH DXVODXWLQJ L DL IRXQG LQ SOXUDOV RI VXEVWDQWLYHV +RZHYHU LI L ZDV IROORZHG E\ D FRQVRQDQW WKH SUHFHGLQJ QZDVQRWSDODWDOL]HG+HQFHQXPHURXVSOXUDOVLQQM QL (3$ QDLRIQRXQVLQQDUHLQFRQWUDVWZLWKSOSUHVHQWRIYHUEVLQ Q QLW (3$ QW ,( UEHIRUH MJLYHV$OEUU GHUU‘SLJ’ (3$ GDUMD *NZQK`TQXLG ,( ½KRURV ¬QG¬UU ~ DQG¬UU ‘GUHDP VOHHS’ (3$ DQUM ,( RQHUR *N QPGKTQPQPGKTQX$UPDQRZUÎ VKSHUU‘WRZLQ PRQH\ WRJDLQ’ (3$ VSDUMD *PF VSDUAMDQ‘WR OHDYH XQKDUPHG WR NHHS’ 21 VSDUD 2+* VSDUAQ 2( VSDULDQ VKTHUU‘WRWHDU FORWK ’ (3$ LhNHUMD 6NWNoWL‘WRGLPLQLVK’*N MGKTY‘WRFXW’ $W D ODWHU FKURQRORJLFDO VWDJH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ YHODUV ZHUH SDODWDOL]HG EHIRUH M ~ RI DQ\ RULJLQ LQFOXGLQJ DV WKH ILUVW FRPSRQHQWRIDGLSKWKRQJ EHIRUHGLSKWKRQJVLQ LDVZHOODV DQG ºERWKROGDQGQHZ,QWKLVHQYLURQPHQWJM JDQGT N GHUJM‘WROLHGRZQWROD\VLFNWREHLOO’ (3$ GHUJMD /LWKG®UJLQWL ‘WR PRYH’ G®UJWL ‘WR ORVH HQHUJ\ WR EHFRPH ZHDN’ 6ODY GÚUJDWL‘WRSOXFNWRSXOO’DQG*PF WDUJMDQ‘WRWHDU’ NHT‘EDGHYLO’ (3$ NDNMD *NMCMQX‘EDG’ THOO ‘WR KDOW WR KROG XS WR FDUU\’ (3$ NHOD 6NW NDO¢\DWL ‘WR LPSHO’*NMGNQOCK‘WRGULYHRQ’ THWK ‘WR FXW KDLU ’ (3$ NDLWVD 6NW N©yD ‘KDLU RI WKH KHDG ’ /LWKN¢LVWL‘WRVFUDSHWRVKDYH’ TLSL ‘VWDFN’ (3$ N SD 23HUV NDXID ‘PRXQWDLQ’ 2+* KXIR ‘KHDS’ 2( K©DS LG DQG DOVR KRXI LG /LWK N¢XSDV LG 6ODY NXSDLG T\O‘VOLPHPXG’ (3$ N OD /LWKNgOD‘RXWJURZWK‘6ODY N\ODLG UHJM‘WRWDQ’ (3$ UDXJMD 21UH\NU‘VPRNH’2+*URXKLG 78 chapter one 5K\WKPLFUXOH $ VSHFLDO FKDQJH DIIHFWLQJ LQWHUYRFDOLF YRLFHG RFFOXVLYHV LQ FHUWDLQ FRQGLWLRQV FDQ EH REVHUYHG LQ /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ ,W WDNHV SODFH ERWK LQ $OEDQLDQ ZRUGV RI ,QGR(XURSHDQ RULJLQ DQG LQ /DWLQ ORDQZRUGV ZKHUH LWV HIIHFWV FDQ EH EHWWHU IROORZHG 7KH FKDQJH LV FRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHV\OODELFVWUXFWXUHRIZRUGVDQGWKHUHIRUHPXVWEH OLQNHG WR WKH WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ RI DFFHQWXDO SDWWHUQV LQ /DWH 3URWR $OEDQLDQ /LWHUDWXUH Ç$%(- 6W ,,, 25(/ 6%-D .RQWDNW\ DFFHQWXDOFRQGLWLRQVRIWKHUK\WKPLFUXOH .$/8ä6.$-$$QWL¨EDON ORVVRILQWHUYRFDOLFRFFOXVLYHV 586$.295% 3URWR$OEDQLDQLQWHUYRFDOLFYRLFHGRFFOXVLYHVDUHSUHVHUYHGLQ GLV\OODELF ZRUGV ZKHUH WKH\ GHYHORS DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH UXOHV RI /3$ E\LHOGV$OEE GJLYHV$OEGKDQG JUHPDLQVXQFKDQJHGDV$OE J GMHJ ‘WR EXUQ’ (3$ GHJD ,( GKHÞK ‘WR EXUQ’ 6NWG¢KDWL 7RFK$%WVDNWV¥N/LWGHJ¸GªJWL GUHJ¬ ‘VFDE’ (3$ GUDJ :HVW *PF WDUJMDQ ‘WR SXOO WR VWLU’ *HUP]HUJHQ 6ODY GÚUJDWL‘WRSXOOWRWXJ’/LWKG®UJLQWL‘WR PRYHWRLUULWDWH’ JOHGK¬ ‘FDUHVV’ (3$ JODG /DW JODEHU ‘VPRRWK’ 2+* JODW ‘VKLQLQJ HYHQ VPRRWK’ /LWK JORG¸V ‘VPRRWK’ 6ODY JODGÙNÙ LG JODGLWL‘WRFDUHVV’ JUDE¬‘HURVLRQKROORZLQJRXW’ (3$ JUDE ,( JKUHEK‘WRGLJ’ 2+*JUDE‘JUDYH’6ODY JUREÙLG UUDEH‘URFN\GHVHUW ZLWKEXVKHV ’ (3$ UDXED *RWKUDXSMDQ‘WR ULS’2+*URXIHQLG WUHGK ‘WR FDVWUDWH’ (3$ WUHXGD /DW WU GA ‘WR SXVK’ *RWK XV ÈULXWDQ‘WREXUGHQ’6ODY WUXGÙ‘ODERUZRUN’ 7KHVDPHUHVXOWVDUHREVHUYHGLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGVZKHUH/DWG DQGJDUHVXEVWLWXWHGE\$OEGKDQGJ ZHKDYHQRUHOLDEOHH[DPSOHVIRU ELQWKLVSRVLWLRQ ELJ¬ ‘IRUNHG VWLFN EUDQFK GRXEOHFUHVWHG PRXQWDLQ’ Õ /DW EJD ‘SDLURIDQLPDOV WHDPIRUSORXJKLQJ’ phonology 79 PRGK‘EXVKHO’Õ/DWPRGXV‘PHDVXUH’ SODJ¬‘ZRXQG’Õ/DWSOJDLG UUXJ¬‘VWUHHW’Õ5RP U JDLG /DWU JD‘ZULQNOH’ ,Q SRO\V\OODELF ZRUGV LQWHUYRFDOLF YRLFHG RFFOXVLYHV FKDQJHG WRIULFDWLYHV D F IZKLFKHYHQWXDOO\PHUJHG ZLWK/3$ [ DQGHLWKHUZHUHORVWRU LQDIHZFDVHV ZHUHSUHVHUYHGDV$OEK7KH IROORZLQJFDVHVFRUURERUDWHWKHUK\WKPLFUXOH GHW ‘VHD’ (3$ GHXEHWD ‘GHSWK’ ,( GKHXE ‘GHHS’ FI *PF GHXSLÈA‘GHSWK’!0'XGLHSGH0/*GSHGH(GHSWK NLM ‘WR SUXQH WR WULP’ (3$ GHQRPLQDWLYH NDGLQMD UHODWHG WR NDGK¬ ‘SUXQLQJNQLIH ELOOKRRN ZLWK ORQJ KDQGOH’ ,( V NH Q G 6NW VNKDGDWH ‘WR VSOLW’ *N UMGFCPPWOK ‘WR VFDWWHUWRGLVSHUVH’ QJH ‘WLPH OHLVXUH FKDQFH RSSRUWXQLW\’ (3$ HQJDG 6ODY JRGÙ‘WLPH\HDU’ UUXVK‘JUDSH’ (3$ UJXhD *NT CELG,QWHUPHGLDWHVWDJHVRIWKH 3URWR$OEDQLDQGHYHORSPHQWDUHUHIOHFWHGLQWKHQDPHRI,OO\U 5DJXVD~ 5DJXVLXP‘4CQWUC VRW‘WRGD\’ (3$GDWORFVJ WVM L GWL ,( GWL Y¬OOD‘EURWKHU’ (3$ VZHODXGFRPSRVLWHRISURQRPLQDO,( VÆH DQG ODXG ,( OHXGK 2+*OLXW‘SHRSOH’6ODY OMXGÙLG $ OLPLWHG QXPEHU RI H[FHSWLRQV DUH NQRZQ ,Q WZR FDVHV WUDGLWLRQDO UHFRQVWUXFWLRQVPXVWEHPRGLILHGLQRUGHUWRFRPSO\ZLWKWKHUK\WKPLF UXOH EH ‘RDWK’ (3$ EDLGHV UDWKHU WKDQ EDLG 6ODY EpGD ‘GLVDVWHU’/DWIRHGXV‘OHDJXHWUHDW\’7KH$OEDQLDQZRUGLVD UHVKDSHGVVWHPVLPLODUWRWKDWRI/DWLQ GUD ~GUDˆ ‘RLOFDNH PHOWHG EXWWHU’ (3$ GUDJLM UDWKHU WKDQ GUDJ 21SOGUHJJLDU‘\HDVW’23UXVGUDJLRV‘\HDVW’2/LWK GUDJ^VLG/HWWGLDOGUDG]L‘VHGLPHQWLQPHOWHGEXWWHU’ 2QHFDVHUHPDLQVREVFXUHDQGPD\QHHGDUHYLVLRQRILWVHW\PRORJ\ KD‘WRHDW’ (3$ HGVNDGHULYHGIURP,( HGLGUDWKHUWKDQ(3$ HGD 80 chapter one 7KHVDPHFKDQJHWRRNSODFHLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV EXMN‘SHDVDQW’Õ/DWEXEXOFXV‘SORXJKPDQKHUGVPDQ’ NDO¬‘KRUVH’Õ/DWFDEDOOXVLG NUHVKP¬‘IDVW’Õ/DWTXGUJVLPD‘/HQWIDVWRIIRUW\GD\V’ PMHN‘SK\VLFLDQGRFWRU’Õ/DWPHGLFXVLG PMHVKW¬U‘PDVWHUEXLOGHU’Õ/DWPDJLVWHU‘PDVWHU’ S\OO‘IRUHVW’Õ5RP SDG OHP /DWSDO GHP‘VZDPS’ :RUGV ZLWK QR WUDFHV RI WKH UK\WKPLF UXOH EHORQJ WR D ODWHU OD\HU RI /DWLQORDQZRUGV DGKXURM‘WRDGRUH’Õ/DWDGRUUHLG UUHJXOO‘UXOHQRUP’Õ/DWUJXODLG UUREXOO‘PRXQWDLQSLQH’Õ/DWUAEXU‘RDN’ WUDVK¬JRM‘WRLQKHULW’Õ/DWWUQVLJHUH‘WRUHDFKDQDFFRUGWRFDUU\ RXWWUDQVDFWLRQ’ ,QWZRFDVHV$OEDQLDQZRUGVVKRXOGEHUHLQWHUSUHWHGDVGLDOHFWDO,WDOLDQ ORDQZRUGVUDWKHUWKDQERUURZLQJVIURP/DWLQ IH‘EHOLHI’YD‘IRUG’ &RQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUV &RQVRQDQWDO FOXVWHUV XQGHUZHQW GUDVWLF FKDQJHV LQ 3URWR $OEDQLDQDQGDWODWHUVWDJHV /LWHUDWXUH 3('(56(1$OE7H[WH FOXVWHUVZLWK Z .=;;;9, VÆ!G PHUJHURI VNDQG V ,( WW!V GHYHORSPHQW RI JQ -2./ 6WXGLHQ VÆ ! G ,) ;;; RQ VN V /.8%$ FOXVWHUV ZLWK OLTXLGD ,( WW 0©ODQJHV 3HGHUVHQ GHYHORSPHQW RI ÆWR Wh %$5IC´ $$UE6W ,,, GHYHORSPHQW RI VN V 7$*/,$9,1, 'DOPD]LD FOXVWHUVZLWK Z 0$11/DQJXDJH;9,, UQ!UU ;;9,,, GHSDODWDOL]DWLRQRISDODWDOV GHYHORSPHQWRI VU VO +LVW *U &,02&+2:6., %86K7 ;,,, *C7(56 .= /;;,,, GHYHORSPHQWRI,( UÆ 62/7$ ,)/;; $OEDQLDQ$UPHQLDQ SDUDOOHOV /%(5* *HGHQNVFKU %UDQGHQVWHLQ +$03.=/;;9,, ,( WW Ç$%(-6SUDFKH;9,,, UHIOH[HVRI VN V 6W,,,,9 JURXSVQG QJ ,9 VN!VK QW!XQUKRWDFL]HGQ ÆU phonology 81 !UU 586$.29/,V 25(/$QWL¨EDON ,( GÆ !$OEEEHIRUHIURQWYRZHOV /%;;9,,, FOXVWHUV VS VW VN $OOFOXVWHUVFRQVLVWLQJRIOLTXLGVRQRUDQWVIROORZHGE\(3$ Z FKDQJHG LQ WKH VDPH GLUHFWLRQ WKH\ ORVW WKHLU VHFRQG HOHPHQW ZKLOH PRGLI\LQJWKHILUVWRQH(3$ OZ\LHOGHG$OEOO DPXOO ‘VWDJQDQW RI ZDWHU ’ (3$ DPXOZD /LWK PXËY^ ‘VLOW PDUVK’P¸OWL‘WRJHWGLUW\’ GLHOO‘VXQ’ (3$ GHOZD 6NWK¢UL‘SDOH\HOORZLVK’$Y]DLULLG /DWKHOYXV‘\HOORZLVK’/LWKÊHËYDVLG JMDOO¬‘DOLYH’ (3$ VDOZD 6NWV¢UYD‘FRPSOHWHZKROH’*NQNQX ‘ZKROH’/DWVDOYXV‘KHDOWK\’7RFK$VDOX‘FRPSOHWHO\’ PLHOO‘IORXU’ (3$ PHOZD ,( PHOÆR 2+*P¬ORLG21PM_O LG6ODY PHOYR‘JUDLQIRUJULQGLQJ’ YMHOO‘WRYRPLW’ (3$ ZHOZD /DWYROYA‘WRWXUQ’ $VIDUDV(3$ UZLVFRQFHUQHGLWLQYDULDEO\JDYH$OEUU DUU¬ ‘ZDOQXWWUHH ZDOQXW’ (3$ DUZ *N CTWC VC> *TCMNGYVKMC>MCTWC+HV EHUU ‘VKHHS JRDW’ (3$ EDUZD 21 ERUJU ‘KRJ’ 2+* EDUXJ EDUXKLG6ODY ERUYÙ‘ERDU’ PRUU‘ORXVH’ (3$ PUZD 2,UPRLUE‘DQW’6ODY PRUYÙLG WKLUU‘VRRW’ (3$ WVLUZD /LWKhL¼YDV‘JUD\’ YHUU¬‘KROH’ (3$ ZHUZ 6NWXU·‘ZLGH’Y¢UDV‘VSDFHZLGWK’ *NGWTWX‘ZLGH’ (3$ ZUJDYHWKHVDPHUHVXOWVDV UZ UUD‘EHOO\ZRUP’ (3$ ZUDJ 2,UIULJH‘YHUPLQIOHVKZRUP’ ÆJ UUDK ‘WR EHDW WR VWULNH’ (3$ ZUDJVND *N TCUUY LG ,( ÆUJK UU¬QM¬~UUDQM¬‘URRW RDN’ (3$ ZUDGQM *NTCFKE‘EUDQFK’LG /DWUG[‘URRW’:JZUDLGG UULPH ‘UDLQZRUP’ (3$ ZULPD ,( ÆPL ~ ÆPR ‘ZRUP’ /DW YHUPLV LG *RWK ZD·UPV ‘ZRUP VQDNH’ /LWK YD¼PDV ‘LQVHFW’ 82 chapter one UULV‘WRSXOOXSWRPRYHXSWRLQFUHDVHWRJURZ’ (3$ ZULWMD ,( ÆHUW ‘WR WXUQ’ 6NWYDUWDWH /DW YHUWA *RWK ZDLUÈDQ ‘WR EHFRPH’ UUXP ‘FODSSHU PDL]HFRE VWULSSHG RI FRUQV’ (3$ ZUXEQD *N TCOPQX‘WKRUQ\EXVK’ ÆEQR (3$ ZORVWEHIRUHDOOYRZHOVZKHQIROORZLQJDQRFFOXVLYH ERW¬‘HDUWK ZRUOG’ (3$ EZWEDVHGRQ,( EKHXi~ EK ‘WR EHWRJURZ’ GDN ‘ELJ UDP’ (3$ GZDND /LWK GY|NWL ‘WR EUHDWKH’ GY¦NDV ‘EUHDWK’ GHJ¬‘WZLJEUDQFK’ (3$ GZDLJ 2+*]ZJLG*HUP=ZHLJ GHU¬ ‘GRRU’ (3$ GZAU ,( GKÆHU LG 6NW GYdU *N SWTC 7RFK%WZHUH JMHWK‘IROLDJHJUHHQOHDYHV’ (3$ JDG]D 2+*TXHVWD‘WXIW’21 NXLVWU‘EUDQFK’6ODY JYR]GÚ‘ZRRGIRUHVW’ NHP‘LQFHQVH’ (3$ NDSQD ,( NÆS *NMCRPQX‘VPRNH’ W¬U¬ ~ WDQ¬ ‘ZKROH DOO’ (3$ WZDQD WÆRQR ,( WHXi ‘WR VZHOO’ FILQSDUWLFXODU/LWKWY®QWL‘WRULVHWRVZHOO RIZDWHU ’ WY¦QDV‘IORRG’ (3$ VZLVFRQFHUQHGLWORVWLWVILUVWHOHPHQWDQGJDYH$OEYFIWKH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHV YDM]¬ ‘JLUO’ EDVHG RQ YDU¬ (3$ VZHVDU 6NW VY¢VDU $UP R\U/DWVRURU YHKWH‘VHOI’ (3$ VZDMD ZLWKDVHFRQGDU\VXIIL[W ,( VÆRRV ‘RZQ’ 6ODY VYRMÚ23UXVVZDLV Y¬OOD‘EURWKHU’ (3$ VZHODXGFRPSRVLWHRISURQRPLQDO,( VÆH DQG ODXG ,( OHXGK 2+*OLXW‘SHRSOH’6ODY OMXGÙLG YMHK¬UU ‘PRWKHULQODZ’ (3$ VZH[XU ZLWK DVVLPLODWLRQ IURP H[SHFWHG VZHWVXU ,( VÆHU 6NWyYDyUgPRWKHULQODZ’ /DWVRFUXVLG :KHQIROORZHGE\ Z3URWR$OEDQLDQDIIULFDWHV WVDQG G]FKDQJHGWR Wh DQG GÊ H[DFWO\ DV LQ WKH SRVLWLRQ EHIRUH X 7KH VDPH SURFHVV DIIHFWHGZRUGVEHJLQQLQJLQ ZLWV! ZG]! G]Z! GÊ phonology 83 VDP¬‘GRJ’VH[FUHPHQWV’ (3$ WVZD Q PDDGHULYDWLYHLQ PR RIWKH,QGR(XURSHDQZRUGIRU‘GRJ’FI6NWyY*NMWYP2,U F·/LWKhX¶ ]HW ‘WZHQW\’ (3$ Z WVDW ,( ÆW LG 6NW YLayDW *N GKMQUK/DWYJLQW ]¬~]Dˆ‘YRLFH’ (3$ G]ZDQD ,( ½KÆHQ $UPMDLQ‘YRLFH’6ODY ]YRQÙ‘ULQJLQJVRXQG’ ]RW‘ORUGPDVWHUJRG’ (3$ Z L WVSDWL 6NWYLySDWL‘ORUGRIWKH KRXVH’ &RQVRQDQWDO FOXVWHUV M XVXDOO\ ORVW RU PRGLILHG WKHLU ILUVW HOHPHQW7KHQWKHSDODWDOL]DWLRQWRRNSODFH (3$ EQM!$OE Q M JMDM‘WRUHVHPEOHWREHOLNH WRVXLWWREHFRPH WRVHHP WRKDSSHQ’ (3$ JDODEQMD D GHQRPLQDWLYH YHUE EDVHG RQ ODE /LWK O¦EDV‘JRRG’/DWYODEVLG NUXDM~NUXHM‘WRVFUDWFK’ (3$ NUEQMDIXUWKHUFRQQHFWHGZLWK,( JKUHEK YHM ‘WR ZHDYH’ (3$ ZHEQMD 6NW XEKQdWL ‘WR ODFH XS’ 2+* ZHEDQ‘WRZHDYH’7RFK%ZSLG (3$ GQM!$OE Q M JMHM~JMHˆj ‘WRILQG’ (3$ JDGQMD *NZCPFCPYDRUGZCFQP‘WR VHL]HWRJUDVS’/DWSUHKHQGALG21JHWDLG OHM‘WRJLYHELUWK WREHERUQ WRULVH RIWKHVXQ ’ (3$ ODLGQMD /LWKO©LVWL‘WROHW’/DWYODîVWLG OXDM ~ OXHM ‘WR PRYH WR VKDNH WR SOD\’ (3$ OGQMD D GHQRPLQDWLYH YHUE FRQQHFWHG ZLWK 6ODY ODGÙ ‘RUGHU SHDFH’ ODGLWL‘WRPDNHRUGHUWRPDNHSHDFH’ UU¬QM¬~UUDQM¬‘URRW RDN’ (3$ ZUDGQM *NTCFKE‘EUDQFK’LG /DWUG[‘URRW’:JZUDLGG (3$ JQM!$OE Q M ERMERKHW‘WRPDWH’ (3$ EJQMD /LWKE{JWL‘WRUXQ’/DWYEHlJW LG23UXVEHJH\WHLG6ODY EpJWLLG*NHGDQOCKLG 84 chapter one HQM¬‘MXQLSHU\HZ’ (3$ DLJQMUHODWHGWRWKH*HUPDQLFZRUGIRU ‘RDN’ 21HLN2+*HLK HQM¬~êM¬‘GDLU\JRDW’ (3$ DJQM *NCOPQX‘ODPE’/DWDJQXV LG UXDM~UXHM‘WRJXDUGWRNHHSWRREVHUYH’ (3$ UJQMD 21Uø´NMD ‘WRWDNHFDUHRI’*NCTJIY‘WRDVVLVWWRGHIHQG’ XM¬‘ZDWHU’ (3$ XGQM ,( ÆHG~ ÆRGLG (3$ NQM!$OEQM SU¬QMN¬ ‘IUHFNOH VXQVSRW’ GHULYDWLYH LQ N¬ RI (3$ SULNQM 6NW S¤yQL‘VSRWWHGVSHFNOHG’*NRGTMPQX‘GDUNVSRWWHG’:HUFK ‘VSRWWHG’ (3$ UQM!$OE Q M PEDM‘WRKROGWRFDUU\’ (3$ HQEDUQMDDFDXVDWLYHUHODWHGWR,( EKHU‘WREHDU’ ]LHM‘WRERLOWRFRRN’ (3$ GÊHUQMD ,( ÞKHU *NSGTQOCK‘WR EHFRPHKRWWRZDUPWREXUQ’2,UIRJHLU‘ KH ZDUPV’ (3$ VQM!$OE Q M PXDM ~ PXHM ‘PRQWK’ (3$ PAVQMD IURP WKH PHWDWKHVLV RI ,( PQV‘PRRQPRQWK’ 6NWPV*NOJP/DWPQVLV2,UP TXDM~TXHM‘WRFDOOWRJLYHDQDPH’ (3$ NOAXVQMDDGHQRPLQDWLYH EDVHGRQ,( OHÆRV‘JORU\ZRUG’ 6NWyU¢YDV*NMNGQX6ODY VORYR WKDM ‘WR GU\’ (3$ VDXVQMD ,( VDXVR ‘GU\’ *N CW?QX 0+* VôU/LWKVD-VDV6ODY VX[Ù (3$ VQM!$OE Q M PDM~PDˆM‘WRIHHGWRIDWWHQ’ (3$ PD]GQMDDGHYHUEDWLYHEDVHG RQ,( PD]G‘IHHGLQJ’ 2+*PDVW6NWP©GDV‘IDWPDUURZ’ phonology 85 (3$ GWM JWM NWM!$OEV OXV‘WRSUD\WRLQYRNHWREHJ’ (3$ OXJWMD /LWKO J²WL‘WRDVNWR SUD\’/DWYO¸G]XO¸JW‘WRDVNWRLQYLWH’2+*ORFNAQ‘WROXUH WRHQWLFH’ QHV¬U ‘WRPRUURZ’ (3$ QDWhAU FRQWLQXLQJ QRáWAU FI : QHLWKLZUQHLWKZ\U‘ODVWQLJKW’%UHWQHL]RHUQHL]ºULG ]K\V ‘WR GLYH’ (3$ GLh GWMD GHULYHG IURP ,( ÆHG ~ XG ‘ZDWHU’ (3$ GVM NVM!$OEVK MRVK‘WRFXUOWRIRQGOHWRFDUHVV’ (3$ MXGVMD ,( HXGK 6NW \·GK\DWH‘WRILJKWWRVWUXJJOH’7RFK$\XWN‘WRWDNHFDUHRIWR WURXEOHDERXW’/LWKM¢XGLQWL‘WRH[FLWHWRDURXVH’ SXVK ‘IOXII GRZQ QDS SLOH’ (3$ SXNVMD 6NW S·FFKD ‘WDLO’ SXNVNR6ODY SX[Ù‘GRZQ’ SRXNVR THVK‘WRODXJK’ (3$ NDNVMDFIVLPLODURQRPDWRSRHLFYHUEVLQ 6NWN¢NKDWLLG*NMCZC\YLG WHVK¬I‘VSHFNRIGXVWOLWWOHVSOLQWHU’ (3$ WDNVM ,( WHV 6NW WDN¿DWL‘WRFDUSHQWHUWRFXW’/DWWH[A‘WRZHDYH’/LWKWDhØWL‘WR KHZ’ ,Q(3$ QUMWKHVHJPHQW UMFKDQJHGWRUUDQGWKHQHSHQWKHWLFGZDV DGGHGVRWKDW QUMUHVXOWHGLQQG¬UU ¬QG¬UU ~ DQG¬UU ‘GUHDP VOHHS’ (3$ DQUM ,( RQHU ‘ZRUG’ *NQPCT ~ RQHURLG *NQPGKTQPQPGKTQX$UPDQRZUÎ $QODXWFOXVWHUVFRQVLVWLQJRIYHODURFFOXVLYHVIROORZHGE\(3$ ODUHUHODWLYHO\ZHOOSUHVHUYHGLQ$OEDQLDQ:KLOHLQVRPHDUHDVWKH\ UHPDLQXQFKDQJHGLQWKHPDMRULW\RIGLDOHFWV OJDYHMDQGWKHFOXVWHUV HYHQWXDOO\\LHOGHGJMDQGT WKHODWWHUFRXOGODWHUEHFRPHGHSDODWDOL]HG DQGWXUQWRN &IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV JMHPEJO¬PE‘WKRUQ’ (3$ JODPEDFRPSDUDEOHZLWK6ODY JO_E RNÙ ‘GHHS’ ‘KROORZHG’ JO_EÙ ‘WUXQN VWXPS FDEEDJH VWXPS’FIDOVR*NINCHY‘WRVFUDSHXS’ THS ‘WR VHZ WRJHWKHU WR VHL]H’ (3$ NOHSD 6ODY NOHSDWL ‘WR EHDWWRNQRFN’ 86 chapter one THW¬‘ MDJJHG URFN’ (3$ NODLW :FOXG‘KHDS’DQG/LWKhOD&WDV ‘VORSH’ TRV ‘WR HQG WR ILQLVK’ (3$ NO X WMD GHULYHG IURP WKH ,QGR (XURSHDQ ZRUG IRU ‘NH\’ *N MNJKX /DW FOYLV &I /LWK NOLDXGØWL‘WRVWRSWRSUHYHQW’ TXDM ~ TXHM ‘WR FDOO WR JLYH D QDPH’ (3$ NOXVQMD D GHQRPLQDWLYH EDVHG RQ ,( OHÆRV ‘JORU\ ZRUG’ 6NW yU¢YDV *NMNGQX6ODY VORYR T\H‘VXPPLWSHDN’ (3$ NODLQDWR,( ORLQR‘VODQWLQJVNHZ’ *RWKJHQSOKODLQH‘KLOO’ 7KHRQHH[DPSOHRIPHGLDO JODWWHVWVDQDQDSW\FWLFYRZHO PMHJXOO‘FORXG’ (3$ PHJO *NQ OKZNJ‘IRJPLVW’/LWKPLJO£ LG6ODY PÚJOD‘GDUNQHVVPLVW’ (3$ JUDQG NUDUHZHOOSUHVHUYHGLQ$OEDQLDQ JUDE¬‘HURVLRQKROORZLQJRXW’ (3$ JUDE 2+*JUDE‘JUDYH’ 6ODY JUREÙLG JUDK~JUDI‘WRVSXURQWRFDOOWRURDU’ (3$ JUDVND 6NWJodWL ‘WRFDOOWRLQYRNH’/LWKJLUL¸J®UWL‘WRSUDLVH’ JULM~JUîM‘WRFXWLQWRSLHFHVWRJQDZWRHDWDZD\’ (3$ JULQMD ,( ÞHU ‘WR VZDOORZ’ 6NWJLU¢WL $UP HNHU /DW YRUA /LWK JHUL¸J©UWL‘WRGULQN’6ODY ÊHUWL NUL ~NUî ‘ZRRGZRUP PRWK’ (3$ NULZL WR ,( áÆL 6ODY ¨ÚUYÚ‘ZRUP’ NULS¬~NU\S¬‘VDOW’ (3$ NU S 21KUXID‘VFDE’/LWKNUDXS¸V ‘URXJK’NUDXSLV‘VFDE’/DWYNUD-SLV‘IUDLOEULWWOH’6ODY NUXSD ‘JURDWV’ NUXD~NUXH‘VSULQJIRXQWDLQ’ (3$ NUQD NUDVQD *NMTJPJ LG2(KUæQ‘ZDYH’ *PF [UD]QA ,QLWLDO NURFFDVLRQDOO\EHFDPHYRLFHG JUHU¬~JUHQ]¬‘ZDVSKRUQHW’ (3$ JUDLVQ /DWFUEUA‘KRUQHW’ 2+*KRUQDfLG/LWKhLUhX¶LG6ODY VÚUhHQÚLG ,QWKHLQWHUYRFDOLFSRVLWLRQWKHYHODULQ JUZDVORVWFIWKHIROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV phonology 87 EORU¬‘VOLQJ’ (3$ EOJUFRPSDUDEOHZLWK/DWIODJUXP‘ZKLS’ FIIXUWKHU21EOHNNMD‘WREHDWWRVWULNH’ S¬UPMHUU ‘WR XULQDWH’ (3$ SHUPHJUD ,( PHL½K LG 6NW P©KDWL*NQOGKZY/DWPHLA21PJD 7KHQXPEHURIH[DPSOHVLOOXVWUDWLQJWKHHYROXWLRQRIFOXVWHUV LQFOXGLQJ GHQWDOV DQG O LV YHU\ OLPLWHG 7KH UDUH LQLWLDO FOXVWHU GO PHUJHGZLWK JO JMDW¬ JODW¬ ‘ORQJ’ (3$ GODWD FRQWLQXLQJ ,( GOJKWR FI G ORQJKR /DWORQJXV*RWKODJJV $VWR WOLWGHYHORSHGLQWROOLQWKHPLGGOHRIWKHZRUG JUHOO¬ ‘GHHS SODFH’ (3$ JULWO /LWK JXUNOmV ‘FURS’ 23UXV JXUFOH ‘WKURDW’ 6ODY JÙUGOR LG FI DOVR ÊHUGOR ‘ULYHUEHG RSHQLQJ’ (3$ VO\LHOGV$OEOOLQDOOSRVLWLRQV GHOO‘WHQGRQ’ (3$ GDLVOD /LWKJØVOD‘EORRGYHVVHOWHQGRQ’6ODY ÊLOD‘WHQGRQ’ G\OO¬‘ZD[’ (3$ G OD GXVOD *NZWNQX‘MXLFH’ NROO¬‘FRXJK’ (3$ NVO 6ODY NDhOÚLG/LWKNRVXOmVLG OO¬QM¬]‘PXGVLOW’ (3$ VOLQM /LWKVOLQDV‘VDOLYDPXFXVVOLPH’ 6ODY VOLQD‘VDOLYD’ TXOO‘SRUULGJH’ (3$ NOXVOD *NMNW\Y‘WRULQVH’/DWFOXA‘WR FOHDQ’ ,I ZDVQRWGHSDODWDOL]HGEHIRUH OWKHUHVXOWLQJFOXVWHU WVO\LHOGHG VO!OO SHOO¬‘FRPE’ (3$ SHWVO *NRGMY‘WRFRPE’/LWKSªhWL‘WRSXOO WRSOXFN’/DWSHFWHQ‘FRPE’ WROO¬‘EDOGVSRW GUXPPHPEUDQH’ (3$ WVO WVO /DWWOD ‘FORWK’2+*GHKVDOD‘D[H’6ODY WHVODLG 1XPHURXV FOXVWHUV LQFOXGLQJ GHQWDOV DQG U ZHUH ZHOO SUHVHUYHGLQ$OEDQLDQ(3$ GUJDYHGU 88 chapter one GUDQJ ‘EDUJHSROH SXQWLQJSROH \RXQJ FUHDWXUH FXE’ (3$ GUDQJD 21 GUDQJU ‘VWRQHSLOODU’ GUHQJU ‘WKLFN WUXQN’ /LWK GU¢QJD‘SHUFKSROH’6ODY GU_JÙ~ GU_JD GUH~GUê ‘GHHU’ (3$ GUDQL CTCPKX>IRUFT@ GNCHQX GUHGK ‘WR WXUQ WR URWDWH’ (3$ GUHG]D FRQWLQXLQJ ,( GUH½K $UPGDàQDP‘WRWXUQ’GDUΑFXUYHWXUQ’ GULW¬‘OLJKWOXVWUHSXSLO RIDQH\H ’ (3$ GULNWEDVHGRQ,( GHU ‘WR ORRN’ FI LQ SDUWLFXODU 2( WRUKW ‘EULJKW’ 2+* ]RUDKW GUX ~GUû ‘WUHH ZRRG I SO GUX ’ (3$ GUXZD 6ODY GUÙYR ‘ZRRG’6NWGUXLG$YGUXLG*NFTW`X‘WUHHRDN’ GUH GURH ‘IHDU’ 3$OE GUZ /DWY GUXYDV ‘IHDU’ DQG /LWK GUDXGÊL¸GUDX~VWL‘WRIRUELGWRGHWHUWRVFDUHRII’ (3$ WUGLGQRWFKDQJH WUDS‘IHUU\’ (3$ WUDSD 6ODY WURSD‘SDWK’IXUWKHUUHODWHGWR,( WUHS‘WRWUHDG’ WUH‘WKUHH’ (3$ WUHMH ,( WUHHVLG 6NWWUD\Då*NVTGK`X/DW WUV WUHGK ‘WR FDVWUDWH’ (3$ WUHXGD /DW WU GA ‘WR SXVK’ *RWK XV ÈULXWDQ‘WREXUGHQ’6ODY WUXGÙ‘ODERUZRUN’ WUHPE‘WRIULJKWHQ’ (3$ WUHPD 7RFK$W¥UP‘WRJHWDQJU\’*N VTGOY‘WRWUHPEOH RIIHDU ’/DWWUHPALG WUHV ‘WR PHOW WR ORRVHQ WR GLVVROYH’ (3$ WUAWMD 6ODY WUDWM_ WUDWLWL‘WRVSHQGWRZDVWH’ WULP ‘KHUR’ DGM ‘EUDYH FRXUDJHRXV’ (3$ WULPD ,( WPR $UPDUP‘\RXQJIUHVKJUHHQ’ ,QLQODXWDQDSW\FWLF¬GHYHORSHGZLWKLQ$OEWUDQGGUDWDYHU\UHFHQW VWDJH WMHW¬U‘RWKHU’ (3$ HWHUD 6ODY HWHUÙ‘VRPHVRPHERG\’ PRW¬U ‘VLVWHU’ PWU (3$ PWHU ,( PWHU ‘PRWKHU’ 6NW PW¢U*NOJVJT/DWPWHU 7KHFOXVWHU VUJLYHV$OEUULQDOOSRVLWLRQV HUU‘GDUNQHVV’ (3$ DXVUD /LWKDXhU£‘GDZQ’*NGYXLG phonology 89 NRUU‘WRUHDSWRKDUYHVW’ (3$ NVUD /LWKNDV¸N£VWL‘WRGLJ’ 6ODY NRVD‘VF\WKH’ UUDJ ‘DSURQ’ (3$ VUDXJD /LWK VU·RJD ‘VNHLQ KDQN WXI KDLUORFN’VUDXJDLG UU\P¬ ‘IORZ RI ZDWHU ’ (3$ VU P *N TGW`OC ‘VWUHDP’ 21 VWUDXPULG/LWKVUDXPX¶‘IDVWVWUHDP’ 7KHGHYHORSPHQWRI VWULVRIVSHFLDOLQWHUHVW,WVHHPVWRUHIOHFWGKU G]U WVUZLWKDVHFRQGDU\YDULDQWGU EDGK¬U EDG¬U ‘QDUFLVVXV GDIIRGLO’ (3$ EDVWU 6NW EK¢VWU ‘EHOORZV’IXUWKHUEDVHGRQ EKHV‘WREORZ’ WKDG¬U ‘D NLQG RI GRXEOHVLGHG D[H’ (3$ WVHVWU 6NW yDVWU¢ ‘NQLIHVZRUG’ ,QLWLDOFOXVWHUVZLWKVHFRQG UFDQRFFDVLRQDOO\ORVHWKHU S¬USXVK‘WRSRNHWRVWLUXS’ S¬USUXVKFISUXVK‘HPEHUJORZ LQJFRDO’ VKNHS VKNUHS ‘WR UHVHPEOH’ D SUHIL[HG GHULYDWLYH RI NUHS (3$ NUHSD‘ERG\’ 6NWNS‘VKDSHEHDXWLIXODSSHDUDQFH’/DW FRUSXV‘ERG\’2+*KUI‘ERG\ODS’ VKSDOO‘WRDQQRXQFHWRGHFODUH’ VKSUDOO EDVHG RQ SUUDOO¬‘WDOH VWRU\’ :KHQDSSHDULQJLQFOXVWHUVZLWKQDVDOVRQRUDQWVOLTXLGVFUHDW HGKRPRUJDQLFHSHQWKHWLFFRQVRQDQWV GK¬QG¬U ~ GKDQG¬U ‘EULGHJURRP VRQLQODZ’ (3$ G]DQUD ,( ½HQiU‘VRQLQODZ’ /DWJHQHU ¬PE¬O~DPE¬O‘VZHHW’ (3$ DPOD 6NWDPO¢‘VRXU’ 5DUHO\DWWHVWHG UO\LHOGHGOM ELO¬ELM¬‘GDXJKWHU’ (3$ ELU L OGHULYHGIURPELU‘VRQ’ :KHQIROORZHGE\RFFOXVLYHV(3$ ODQG UZHUHSUHVHUYHG +RZHYHU$OEOFDQFKDQJHWRMLQPRVWGLDOHFWV 90 chapter one DMN¬ ‘FUHDP ZRRO IDW’ (3$ DON UHODWHG WR /LWK ¢ONWL ‘EH KXQJU\’DËND‘KXQJHU’6ODY RONWL‘EHKXQJU\’ DUJ¬VK ‘FUXGH UDIW VXSSRUWHG E\ VNLQ EODGGHUV FUXGH EULGJH RI FURVVEDUVKDUURZ’ (3$ DUJXVD 6NWDUJDOD‘EROW’2(UHFHG ‘EXLOGLQJKRXVH’ EDMJ¬EDOJ¬‘GXQJ’ (3$ EDOJ *NDQNDKVQP‘FRZGXQJ’ ,( EROÞ GDUN¬‘VXSSHU’ (3$ GDUN ,( GRUáRPUHIOHFWHGLQ*NFQTRQP LG KHTKHOT‘WRGUDZWRSXOO’ (3$ VNDONMD *N QNMGY VRONHA EDVHGRQGNMY‘WRGUDZ’7KHYDULDQWKHTJRHVEDFNWR KHMT ,QRQHFDVHKRZHYHU(3$ UN\LHOGHGUU WMHUU‘WRVSLQ’ (3$ WHUND 7RFK%W¥UN‘WRWXUQ’ RQO\DVSDUW SUHW /DWWRUTXHALGDQGWKHOLNH &OXVWHUVFRQVLVWLQJRIDOLTXLGIROORZHGE\ VRUE\DQDIIULFDWHGHYHO RSHGLQWRO O DQGU U GMHUU ‘IDOORZ ODQG’ (3$ GHUVD ,( ½KHUVRV *N ZGTUQX ‘GU\ ODQG’ NDOOL‘HDURIJUDLQ’EDVHGRQ(3$ NDOVD 6ODY NROVÙ‘HDURIJUDLQ’ PDUUW¬‘PXUN\FORXG\GLPGXOO’GHULYHGIURP(3$ PDUVD 6ODY PRU[Ù‘GXVNIRJ’ PMHO‘WRPLON’ (3$ PHOJD *NCOGNIYLG/DWPXOJHALG/LWK P©OÊLXP©OÊWLLG WHU‘WRPDNHGU\’ (3$ WDUVMD 6NWWDU¿¢\DWLLG/DWWRUUHALG21 ÈHUUDLG ,QLQODXWWKHUHIOH[RI(3$ UWhLV U V7KLVPD\EHWKHUHVXOWKRZHYHU RISUHVHUYHGGHULYDWLRQDOFRQQHFWLRQV GDVP¬GDUVP¬‘ZHGGLQJ’ (3$ GDUWhLPGHULYHGIURPGDUN¬ /RQJHUFOXVWHUVEHJLQQLQJZLWKOLTXLGVZHUHUDGLFDOO\VLPSOLILHG EDUP¬ ‘EDVW’ (3$ EDUG]P GHULYHG IURP EDUG]D ! EDUGK¬ ‘ZKLWH’ phonology 91 EDVKN¬ ‘IOHHFH’ (3$ EDU X hN EDUXN¬ LG DQG GHULYHG IURP EHUU‘VKHHSJRDW’ HW‘WKLUVW’ (3$ DONWL /LWK¢ONWL‘WREHKXQJU\’6ODY RONDWLLG 2+*LOJL‘KXQJHU’ NDVKW¬‘VWUDZ’ (3$ NDOVWGHULYDWLYHRINDOOL‘HDURIJUDLQ’ 7KHJURXSV OQDQG UQKDYHEHHQSUHVHUYHGXQWLODYHU\ODWH VWDJH SUREDEO\ XQWLO WKH HDUO\ 0LGGOH $JHV 7KHQ ERWK FOXVWHUV ZHUH VLPSOLILHG(3$ OQGHYHORSHGLQWROO EROOH ‘WHVWLFOHV’ (3$ EOQDL *N HCNNQX ‘SKDOOXV’ /DW IROOLV ‘EHOORZV’2,UEDOO‘OLPEPHPEHU’ J¬VKWDOO¬‘VSOLQWSLHFHRIZRRG’ (3$ NDVWDOQ ,( VWHO KDOO‘WURXEOHPLVHU\SOLJKWVRUURZ’ (3$ VNDOQD *PF VNDOOD] ‘WKLQGU\VKDOORZ’~ [DOOD]‘ZHDNWLUHG’ NDOO ‘WR LQVHUW WR WKUXVW WR SODFH WR LQFLWH WR VHW RQ ILUH’ (3$ NDOQD ,( áRORGHULYHGIURP áHO‘WRWXUQ’ SMHOO ‘WR EHJHW WR SURGXFH WR EHDU’ (3$ SHOQD /DW SHOOA ‘WR GULYHWRSXVK’*NRCNNY‘WRSRLVHWRVZHOOWRVZLQJ’ (3$ UQJDYH$OEUU EDUU¬‘IHWXV’ (3$ EDUQFRJQDWHZLWK*PF EDUQDQ‘FKLOG’ GMHUU‘WRGHVWUR\’ (3$ GHUQD 6NWGodWL‘WREXUVWWRWHDU’*N FGTY‘WRVNLQ’*RWKJDWDLUDQ‘WRWHDU’ NXUU¬‘QHYHUHYHU’ (3$ NXUQHDFRPSRXQGRINXU‘ZKHQ’DQG WKHQHJDWLRQSDUWLFOH QH PDUU‘WRWDNHWRJUDVS’ (3$ PDUQDDGHQRPLQDWLYHEDVHGRQWKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ KHWHURFOLWLF VWHP PiUQ +LWW PQLDKK ‘WR KDQGRYHU’*NOCTJ/DWPDQXV YHUU ‘DOGHU’ (3$ ZHUQD %UHW JZHUQ LG : JZHUQHQ LG 0,U IHUQLGDQG$UPJHUDQ‘EHDPWLPEHU’ ]RUU¬‘JXW’ (3$ GÊUQ /LWKÊDUQ£LG 7KHFOXVWHU UVQDOVRSURGXFHG$OEUU VRUU¬ ‘FURZ’ (3$ WhUVQ FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR 6NW N¿o¢ ‘EODFN GDUN’23UXVNLUVQDQ‘EODFN’6ODY ¨ÚUQÙLG 92 chapter one $OOFOXVWHUVFRQVLVWLQJRIDQRFFOXVLYHIROORZHGE\(3$ P GHYHORSHGLQWR$OEP DP¬]‘RGRXUDURPD’GHULYHGIURP(3$ DGP *NQFOJLG/DW RGRULG/LWK·RVWL‘WRVPHOO’ EUDP‘UHVLGXHVFRULDUXVWHDUZD[’ (3$ EUDGPD 6NWEUDGKQ¢ ‘UHGGLVK\HOORZ’6ODY EURQÙ‘FRORUHG’ EURGQÙ KLPH ‘EUDQ’ (3$ VNHLGPD ,( VNHLGPHQ *RWK VNDLGDQ ‘WR GLYLGH’ /LWK VNHGÊX VNHVWL ‘WR PDNH WKLQ’ FI /LWK VNLHPX¶ ‘RSHQLQJXVHGWRLQVHUWWKHVKXWWOH’ VNHLGPHQ NDP ‘WR KDYH’ (3$ NDSPL ,( NDS ‘WR VHL]H WR JUDVS’ /DW FDSLALG*RWKKDEDQ‘WRKDYH’ /LNHZLVH(3$ QP!$OEP HP¬U ~ HP¬Q ‘QDPH’ (3$ HQPHQ RU LQPHQ 2,U DLQP LG 6ODY MÚP?LG23UXVHPQHVLG (3$ VP!$OEPLQDOOSRVLWLRQV LPW¬ ‘WLQ\ VPDOO’ (3$ PD FRQWLQXLQJ VPRV FI 6NW ¿¢W ‘OLWWOHDOLWWOHVOLJKWO\’/LWKLVDV‘VKRUW’/DWYîVVLG MDP‘WREH’ (3$ HVPL ,( HVLG 6NW¢VPL*NGKOK PMHN¬U ‘FKLQEHDUG’ (3$ VPHNU +LWW]DPDQNXU‘EHDUG’6NW yP¢yUXLG$UPPDZURZLG/LWKVP¦NUDV‘FKLQ’ PXJ‘WZLOLJKW’ (3$ VPXJD 2(VPRFD‘VPRNH’ 2,U P·FK LG $UPPRZ[LG (3$ QVPVLPSOLILHGWR$OEP WKRP‘WRVD\’ (3$ WVQVPL 23HUVSWL\‘WRVD\’/DWFQVHA‘WR DVVHVVWRYDOXH’ %HIRUHVSLUDQWVDQGDIIULFDWHV PZDVGURSSHG JMLWK¬‘DOO’ (3$ VHPG]D ,( VHP½KR‘RQH’ $UPH] PLVK ‘IOHVK PHDW’ (3$ PHPVD ,( PHPVR LG 6NW P$VD ‘IOHVKPHDW’$UPPLV*RWKPLP]6ODY P?VR phonology 93 7KH KLVWRU\ RI FOXVWHUV ZLWK Q LV PRUH FRPSOLFDWHG WKDQ WKRVHLQ P*URXSVFRQVLVWLQJRIDODELDODQG Q\LHOGHGP JMDOP‘URSHODFH’ (3$ VDOSQD 6ODY VROSLWL‘WRVWLFNRXW’/LWK LhVHOSLQ{WL‘WRJHWGLYLGHG’ JMXP¬ ‘VOHHS’ (3$ VXSQD ,( VXSQR LG *N WRPQX 6ODY VÙQÙ NDUP¬‘URFN’ (3$ NDUSQIXUWKHUUHODWHGWRNDUS¬LG NHPTHP‘LQFHQVH’ (3$ NDSQD *NMCRPQX‘VPRNH’ N¬UP¬‘FDUFDVVFDULRQFDGDYHU’ (3$ NDUSQ 6NWN¤S‘VKDSH EHDXWLIXO DSSHDUDQFH’ /DW FRUSXV ‘ERG\’ 2+* KU¬I ‘EHOO\ ERG\’ OXP‘EOHVVHGKDSS\OXFN\IRUWXQDWH’ (3$ OXEQDDQDGMHFWLYH LQ QRGHULYHGIURP,( OHXEK‘WRORYHWRZLVK’ (3$ JQ ZLWK JRIDQ\RULJLQ FKDQJHGWRQM HQM¬‘MXQLSHU\HZ’ (3$ DLJQM 21HLN2+*HLK HQM¬~ êM¬‘GDLU\JRDW’ (3$ DJQM *NCOPQX‘ODPE’/DWDJQXV LG QMRK~QMRI‘WRNQRZ’ (3$ JQVND ,( ½HQi~ ½QALGFI*N IKIPYUMY(SLGDXUIPYUMY/DW J QAVFA (3$ VQEHFDPH QZKLFKLVSUHVHUYHGDVVXFKLQDQODXW QXV‘WKUHDGVWULQJ’ (3$ VQXWMD 6NWVQdYDQ‘EDQGVLQHZ’ ,QDXVODXWKRZHYHU QZDVRFFDVLRQDOO\ORVW:KHQLWZDVSUHVHUYHGLW ZDVUKRWDFL]HGLQ7RVN JUHU¬~JUHQ]¬‘ZDVSKRUQHW’ (3$ JUDLVQ /DWFUEUA‘KRUQHW’ 2+*KRUQDfLG/LWKhLUhX¶LG6ODY VÚUhHQÚLG JM¬U ‘VRXS’ ~ *HJ JMDQ¬ ‘PXGEHG DOOXYLXP’ (3$ MDXVQD 6NW QHXW\ ¿‘VRXS’/DWL VLG/LWKMgh^‘ILVKVRXS’ NUXD ~NUXH‘VSULQJ IRXQWDLQ’ (3$ NUAQD *N MTJPJ LG 2( KUæQ‘ZDYH’ *PF [UD]QA NU\H‘KHDG’ (3$ NUQM NUDVQM *NMTC PKQP‘VNXOOKHDG’ PXDM ~ PXHM ‘PRQWK’ (3$ PAVQMD IURP WKH PHWDWKHVLV RI ,( PQV ‘PRRQ PRQWK’ 6NWPV *N OJP /DW PQVLV 2,U P 94 chapter one 7KHGHYHORSPHQWRI GQZDVVLPLODUWRWKDWRI VQ O¬~ODˆ ‘WROHW’ (3$ ODLGQD /LWKO©LVWLLG/DWYODîVWLG*RWKOHWDQ LG &OXVWHUV LQ ZKLFK Q LV IROORZHG E\ YHODUV LQFOXGLQJ WKRVH GHULYHGIURPROGSDODWDOV HPHUJHGDVQJ DQJ ‘IHDU QLJKWPDUH’ (3$ DQJD FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR 6NW ¢$KDV ‘IHDU’/DWDQJRU‘XQUHVWIHDU’2,UFXPFDHJO‘DQJRU’ &HOW NRPRQJ DQJ¬UU‘VNLQLQWHVWLQHV’ (3$ DQJDUUHODWHGWR$UPDQMQ‘VRXO SHUVRQ’21DQJL‘VPHOORGRU‘ EXQJ‘NLQGRIRDN4XHUFXVVHVVLIORUD’ (3$ EXQND $UPERZQ ‘WUXQN’ QJD ‘RXW’ (3$ HQND D FRPSRXQG FRQVLVWLQJ RI HQ LGHQWLFDO ZLWK,( HQ‘LQ’DQG(3$ NDZKLFKLVUHODWHGWR6ODY NÙ‘WR WRZDUGV’ QJXO‘WRWKUXVWLQWRVWLFNLQ’ (3$ HQNXOD /LWKN¸OWL‘WRWKUHVK’ /DWYNXËW‘WRVWULNH’ ,IWKHSDODWDOFKDQJHGWRDQDIIULFDWH QZDVORVW SHV¬~SêV¬‘ILYH’ (3$ SHQWhH ,( SHQáH‘ILYH’ 6NWS¢±FD*N RGPVG/DWTXQTXH ,QDXVODXWWKHFOXVWHU QWQRUPDOO\JLYHVQ DQ¬‘VLGH’ (3$ DQW 6NW¢QWD‘HQG’*RWKDQGHLVLG EDQ¬‘GZHOOLQJ’ (3$ EDQWLGHULYHGIURPE¬M‘WRPDNHWRGR’ GKXQ¬ ‘ODERU SDLQV VKDPH GLVJUDFH’ (3$ HGXQWL *N QFWPJ ‘ODERUSDLQV’$UPHUNQLG PDQ‘PXOEHUU\’ (3$ PDQWD 'DFOCPVGKC‘EODFNEHUU\’ YRQ¬‘ODWH’ (3$SDUWLFLSOH ZQWL 6NWYd\DWL‘WRYDQLVKWREHFRPH H[KDXVWHG’/LWKY²MXV L ‘DLOLQJ’/DWYYDˆMh‘PHDJHUZHDN’ ,ISUHFHGHGE\ H(3$ QWEHFDPHQG EUHQGD‘LQVLGH’ (3$ HQ SHUHQWDDVHTXHQFHRIFOLWLFV phonology 95 çDQG¬U ‘SURS VXSSRUW’ (3$ LhVNHQWUD ,( V HQWURP *N MGPVTQP‘JRDG’ OHQG‘DFRUQ’ (3$ OHQWD ,( OHQW‘OHQWLO’ /DWOQVOQWLV2+* OLQVL6ODY O?WMD O¬QG¬~ODQG¬‘ZRRGWLPEHUPDWHULDO’ (3$ OHQW *PF OHQGA ‘OLQGHQ’ 2+* OLQWD 2( OLQG /LWK OHQW£ ‘ERDUG’ 6ODY O_WÙ ‘EDVW’ YHQG‘SODFH’ (3$ ZHQWDEDVHGRQY¬‘WRSXW’ (3$ ZHQD 7KH KLVWRU\ RI FOXVWHUV EHJLQQLQJ LQ V VHHPV WR EH SDUWLFXODUO\FRPSOLFDWHG'HVSLWHPDQ\DWWHPSWVDWWKHLUHOXFLGDWLRQRXU XQGHUVWDQGLQJUHPDLQVLQFRPSOHWH 7KHFOXVWHU VSUHJXODUO\UHIOHFWVDVILQDQODXW,WLVOLNHO\WKDWDPHGLDO VWDJH SVH[LVWHG FIEHORZ IDU¬‘VHHGVHPHQNLQ’ (3$ VSDU ,( VSHU‘WRVSLOOWRVRZ’ *NURGKTYLGURGTOC‘VHPHQVHHG‘ IHQG ‘WR IDUW’ (3$ VSHQGD 6NW VSDQGDWH ‘WR VKLYHU’ *N UHCFC\Y‘WRDKLYHUWRWUHPEOH’ IHUU¬‘WKRUQWKRUQ\EXVK’ (3$ VSHUQ ,( VSHU‘VSHDUVWLFN’ /DWVSDUXV‘VKRUWVSHDU’*PF VSHUX‘VSHDU’!21VSM_U IMDO¬ ‘ZRUG VSHHFK WDOH’ (3$ VSHO *RWK VSLOO ‘VWRU\ IDEOH’ 21VSMDOO‘VWRU\VSHHFK’2(VSHOOLG2+*VSHOVSHOOLGDQG $UPDàDVSHO‘IDEOH’ IU\M~IU\HM‘WREORZ’ VSU JQMD /LWKVSU JVWXVSU JWL‘WRHVFDSH WRJHWRXW’6ODY SU\JDWL‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’ IXV ‘WR SXW LQ WR WKUXVW LQ WR LQVHUW WR SODQW’ (3$ VSXWMD /DW SXWA‘WRWULPWRSUXQH’7RFK$%SXWN‘WRGLYLGH’ I\W‘WKURDWJXOOHW’ (3$ VS WD /DWVSXA‘WRVSLW’VS WXP‘VSLWWOH’ *NRVWY‘WRVSLW’ (3$ SV\LHOGHGI DI¬U‘QHDU’ (3$ DSVHUDDFRQWDPLQDWLRQRI DSVDYDULDQWRI,( DSR DQG RI DSHUR 6NW¢SDUD ‘SRVWHULRU ODWHU’ *RWK DIDU ‘DIWHU’ 1RH[DPSOHVRIPHGLDO VSDUHDWWHVWHG7KHUHDUHDOOHJHGFDVHVZKHUH VS \LHOGV $OE VKS KRZHYHU WKHVH H[DPSOHV DUH EHWWHU H[SODLQHG DV 96 chapter one GHULYDWLYHV ZKHUH D PRUSKRORJLFDO ERXQGDU\ VHSDUDWHV WKH V DQG S &IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH VKSDUGK VKSDUU ‘RDN’ (3$ LVSDUG]D 21 IRUNU ‘VWLFN SROH’ FRQWLQXLQJ,( SHU½ 7KHUHPD\EHKRZHYHURQHH[DPSOHZKLFKVXSSRUWVWKLVSRVLWLRQ VKSHUU‘WRZLQ PRQH\ WRJDLQ’ (3$ VSDUMD *PF VSDUAMDQ‘WR OHDYHXQKDUPHGWRNHHS’ 21VSDUD2+*VSDUAQ2(VSDULDQ 7KHFOXVWHU VWJDYHVKWLQDOOSRVLWLRQV DVKW‘ERQH’ (3$ DhWLRU DhWD ,( RVW L ‘ERQH’ +LWWDhWDL6NW ¢VWKL*NQUVGQP EUXVKWXOO ‘KHDWKHU’ (3$ EUXVWXOD 6ODY EUÙVWÚ ‘VSURXW EXG’ DQG26EUXVWLDQ‘WRVKRRWWRVSURXW’ N¬VKWDOO¬‘VSOLQW LQPHGLFLQH ’ (3$ NDVWDO *RWKVWROV‘FKDLU’ /LWKVW¦ODV‘WDEOH’6ODY VWROÙ‘WDEOHSROH’ VKWDJ¬ ‘SROH VWLFN’ (3$ VWDJ 21 VWMDNL LG /DWY VW?JD ‘ORQJ SROH’ VKWDQJ ‘KDUG’ (3$ VWDQJD 21 VWLQJD ‘WR SXW WR VWLFN’ /LWK VW©QJLXVW©QJWL‘WREHDEOH’VWL±JWL‘WREHFRPHKDUG’/DWYVWL±JW LG VKWHJ‘SDWKURDG (3$ VWDLJD ,( VWRLJKR‘ZD\’ *NUVQK`ZQX ‘URZ OLQH’ *RWK VWDLJD ‘ZD\’ /DWY VWD&JD ‘ZDONLQJ’ VWîJD ‘SDWK’6ODY VWÚ]DLG $OEVKWLVDOVRWKHHQGSURGXFWRIWULFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUVHQGLQJLQ VW JMDVKW¬‘VL[’ (3$ VHNVWLGHULYDWLRQDOO\FORVHWR6NW¿D¿WL‘VL[ WHQV’ MDVKW¬‘RXWVLGH’ (3$ HNVWDGHULYHGIURP,( H½KV‘RXW’ *NGE /DWH[DQGWKHOLNH NDVKW¬‘VWUDZ’ (3$ NDOVWGHULYDWLYHRINDOOL‘HDURIJUDLQ’ UUDVKW‘ERQHVNXOOVNHOHWRQVKHOO’ (3$ ZUDJhWDGHULYDWLYHRI UUDK‘WREHDWWRVWULNH’ ZUDJVND 7KHYRLFHGFRUUHODWHRI VWUHIOHFWHGDV ]G! G]!GK phonology 97 SLGK‘IHPDOHSXGHQGD’ (3$ S H L]GD 6ODY SL]GDLGDQG23UXV SHLVGD‘ERWWRP’ +RZHYHUZKHQSUHFHGHGE\YRLFHGFRQVRQDQWV ]GZDVGLVVLPLODWHGWR WV!WK GULWK¬‘JUDLQ’ (3$ GULWV /DWKRUGHXP‘EDUOH\’2+*JHUVWDLG ,( ½K]G JMHWK‘IROLDJHJUHHQOHDYHV’ (3$ JDG]D 2+*TXHVWD‘WXIW’21 NYLVWU‘EUDQFK’6ODY JYR]GÚ‘ZRRGIRUHVW’ ,QDQODXW(3$ VNRIDQ\RULJLQ LHUHIOHFWLQJ,( VNRU V FRXOGHLWKHUGHYHORSLQWRVKNRUEHFRPHPHWDWKHVL]HGDQGFKDQJHWRK WKURXJK WKH LQWHUPHGLDWH VWDJH RI NV $V ZH NQRZ WKH ODWWHU ZRXOG JLYH$OEKDVSURYHGE\WKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH KLUU¬‘ZKH\’ (3$ NVLU 6NWN¿U¢‘PLON’2VVHWæ[hLULG 0HWDWKHVLV GLG QRW QRUPDOO\ WDNH SODFH LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ URRWV FRQWDLQLQJDQXQYRLFHGFRQVRQDQW VKNDN‘UHDVRQFDXVH QRRVHVQDUHWUDS’ (3$ VNDND 21VNDJD ‘WRSURWUXGH’6ODY VNRNÙ‘MXPS’ ,( VNHN‘WRMXPSWREH DJLOH’ VKNDV‘WRVOLSWRVOLGH’ (3$ VNDWMDFRUUHVSRQGLQJWR/DWVFDWHA ‘WRVWUHDPWRIORZRXW’/LWKVNDQW¸VN£VWL‘WRVSULQJWRMXPS’ VKNHS‘WRULSRSHQWRXQULSWRWHDU’ (3$ VNDLSD 21VNID‘WR VSOLW’2)ULVVNYLD‘WRGLYLGH’ VKNRS‘VWLFNFDQH’ (3$ VNSD *NUMC`RQX MNCFQXUMJ`RVTQP ‘VWDII’/DWVFSXV‘VKDIWVWHP’ VKNXQG ‘WR VKDNH WR VZLQJ’ (3$ VNXQWD QDVDO SUHVHQW RI ,( VNHXW 0,UVFRWKDLG‘WRFXWRII’/LWKVNXW¸VN¸VWL‘WRVFUDSH’ 7KHUHLVQRPHWDWKHVLVLQZRUGVEHJLQQLQJZLWK VNU VKNUDE¬‘VFUDZO’ (3$ VNUDE /DWVFURELV‘SLW’2(VFUHSDQ‘WR VFUDWFK’/LWKVNUHE{WL‘WRUXVWOH’6ODY VNUHEWL‘WRVFUDWFK’ (3$ VN LV UHJXODUO\ PHWDWKHVL]HG WR NV ! $OE K LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ URRWVZLWKYRLFHGRFFOXVLYHV 98 chapter one KHGK‘WRWKURZWRVKRRW’ (3$ NVHXGD 21VNM²WD2+*VFLRfDQ DQGRWKHUFRQWLQXDQWVRI*PF VNLXWDQ‘WRVKRRW’ KLPH ‘EUDQ’ (3$ VNHLGPD *RWK VNDLGDQ ‘WR GLYLGH’ /LWK VNHGÊXVNHVWL‘WRPDNHWKLQ’FI/LWKVNLHPX¶‘RSHQLQJXVHG WRLQVHUWWKHVKXWWOH’ VNHLGPHQ 7KHVDPHGHYHORSPHQWWDNHVSODFHLQURRWVZLWKVRQRUDQWV O U P Q M Z KDUU‘WRZHHGWRFXWGRZQ’ (3$ VNDUQD ,( VNHU‘WRFXW’FI *RWKXVVNDUMDQ‘WRWHDURXW’/LWKVNLUL¸VN®UWL KHOO‘VSHDUVSLW’ (3$ VNAOD *NUMY`NQX‘SRLQWHGVWDNHWKRUQ’ K¬Q¬ ‘PRRQ’ (3$ NVDQG 6NW F¢QGDWL ‘ KH VKLQHV LV EULJKW’ FDQGU¢‘VKLQLQJ PRRQ’ KLMH‘VKDGRZ’ (3$ NVLM ,( VL~ V 6NWFK\dLG*N UMKCLG KLU ‘JUDFH IDYRU PHUF\’ (3$ VNUD *RWK VNHLUV ‘FOHDU’ 6ODY h¨LUÙ‘FOHDQ’ KX ~Kû ‘SLFNHW VWDNH SROH SHQLV’ (3$ VNXMD 6ODY [XMÚ ‘SHQLV’ KXPE ‘WR OHDYH WR ORVH WR VSRLO WR PLVV’ ,( VNHXEK *RWK DI VNLXEDQ‘WRSXVKDZD\WRUHMHFW’/LWKVNXPE¸VN¸EWL‘WRKXUU\ WRKDVWHQ’ 7KHUHDUHDIHZH[FHSWLRQVWKDWPD\UHTXLUHDUHYLVLRQRIWKHSUHVHQWO\ DFFHSWHGHW\PRORJLHV KLS ¬M ~K\SL‘WRJRXS’ (3$ VN SD /LWKN¸SWL‘WRULVH’/DWY NXSW‘WRJDWKHUWREXLOGXS’ VKN¬OER]¬ ‘EDUN’ EDVHG RQ VKNDOE¬ (3$ VNDOE 21 VNDOSU ‘VKLS’ VNHOSD ‘JULPDFH’ ‘FUDFN VSOLW’ 0/* VFKROSH ‘PXVVHO’ 7KHHPHUJLQJQHZVRXQGKZDVH[WUHPHO\XQVWDEOHLQDQODXWDQGZDV GURSSHGLQYDULRXVZRUGVLQDOPRVWDOORIWKH$OEDQLDQGLDOHFWV$WWKH VDPH WLPH D QRQHW\PRORJLFDO K DSSHDUHG LQ TXLWH D IHZ $OEDQLDQ ZRUGVFIIRUH[DPSOH KHUGKH‘WHVWLFOHV’ (3$ DUG]DL ,( RU½KL~ ½KLLG $YGXDO iUi]*NQTZKX$UPRUML0,UXLUJJHLG phonology 99 KLN¬UU‘VRXUPLON EXFNZKHDW’ (3$ HLNUDQUGHULYDWLYHRILN LN¬M ‘WR JR’ IRU WKH VHPDQWLF GHYHORSPHQW FI *HUP JHULQQHQ ‘WRFRDJXODWH’ ULQQHQ‘WRUXQ’ $OEVKN~ VKTLQDQODXWPD\DOVRUHVXOWIURPWKHGHYHORSPHQW RIWKHSUHIL[ LhDQGDURRWLQLWLDO N VKNDO‘WREULQJGRZQWRGUDJWRUROOWRFKDUP RIIDLULHV ’ (3$ LhNDOD ,( áHO‘WRWXUQWRUROO’ VKNHO ‘WR PDNH D VWHS WR ZDON’ (3$ LhNDOMD 6NW NDO¢\DWL ‘WR GULYH’*NMGNNYLG VKNXO‘WRWHDURXWWRSXOORXWWRHUDGLFDWH’ (3$ LhNXOD /DW FHOOA‘WRULVHKLJK’/LWKNHOL¸N©OWL‘WROLIW’ VKTHUU‘WRWHDU FORWK ’ (3$ LhNHUMD 6NWNoWL‘WRGLPLQLVK’*N MGKTY‘WRFXW’ ,I WKH SUHIL[ Lh ZDV IROORZHG E\ D URRW LQLWLDO VN WKH QHZ FOXVWHU \LHOGHG$OEç çDM‘WRVSOLWWRFOHDYHWRVPDVKWREDWWHUWRFKRSXS’ (3$ Lh VNHGQMD ,( VNHG‘WRVSOLW’ 6NWVNKDGDWH*NUMGFCPPWOK çDO¬‘ODPH’ (3$ LhVNDOD *NUMQNKQX‘FURRNHG’/DWVFHOXV çDQG¬U ‘SURS VXSSRUW’ (3$ LhVNHQWUD WR ,( V NHQWURP *N MGPVTQP‘JRDG’ çDUV‘WRGHVWUR\WRVSRLO’ (3$ LhVNHUWMD 21VNHUD‘WRFXW’/LWK VN®UWLLG çHP‘WREULQJWROLJKWWRGLVFORVHWRUHYHDOWREURDFK’ (3$ Lh VNHSQD 6ODY h¨HSDWL‘WRVSOLW’ çMHUU‘WRWHDUXS’ (3$ LhVNHUD 2,UVFDUDLP‘WRVHSDUDWH’21 VNHUD‘WRFXW’/LWKVNLUL¸VN®UWL‘WRVHSDUDWH’ 0HGLDOO\ DQ RULJLQDO FOXVWHU ZLWK D “SXUH” YHODU VN GHYHORSHG LQWR $OE VKN WKH VDPH DSSOLHV WR WULFRQVRQDQWDO FOXVWHUV HQGLQJLQ VN DVKN¬ ‘ZRRG VSOLQWHU’ (3$ D N hN D GHULYDWLYH RI ,( DV ‘D[LV’ 6NW¢N¿D*NCEYP/DWD[LV EDVKN¬‘IOHHFH’ (3$ EDUhN EHUU‘VKHHSJRDW’ EDVKN¬‘WRJHWKHU’ (3$ EDNVN /DWIDVFLV‘EXQGOH’IDVFLD‘EDQG EDQGDJH’ 100 chapter one HVKNH‘NLGQH\’ (3$ DLhN 6ODY MÚVWRLGDQG21HLVWD‘WHVWLFOH’ RLGVWR ILVKNHP~ I\VKNHP‘WRZLWKHUWRIDGH’ (3$ VS hND /LWKS¸hNDV ‘EOLVWHUILQSLPSOH’/DWYSXVNV‘WXIW’ IODVKN¬W ‘VOXJJLVK ODPH’ SODVKN¬W (3$ SODNVND /LWK SO²Nh¨LDV ‘IODW’ 6ODY SORVNÙ LG DQG 6ODY SOR[Ù ‘IODW EDG HYLOSRRU’ 7KHFOXVWHU VZDVPHWDWKHVL]HGDQGJDYH$OEK WKHVDPHDSSOLHVWR WULFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUVHQGLQJLQ V 7KLVGHYHORSPHQWLVFRUURERUDWHG E\QXPHURXV$OEDQLDQYHUEVLQ VHR JUDK~JUDI‘WRVSXURQWRFDOOWRURDU’ (3$ JUDVND 6NWJodWL ‘WRFDOOWRLQYRNH’/LWKJLUL¸J®UWL‘WRSUDLVH’ JULK‘WR VKDUSHQ’ (3$ JUHLVND *N ZTKY ‘WR UXE WR DQRLQW WR SULFN’ /LWK JULHM¸ JULWL ‘WR VFRRS FUHDP IURP PLON WR WDNH KROGRI’ NUHK~NUHI‘WRFRPE’ (3$ JUHEVND /LWKJU{EWL‘WRUDNH’6ODY JUHE_ JUHEWL‘WRURZWRUDNH’ PHK ~PHI‘WR VRDN’ (3$ PHXVND /DWY PDûW ‘WR GLYH’ 6ODY P\WL‘WRZDVK’ QMHK ~ QMHI ‘WR FRXQW WR FRQVLGHU’ (3$ QHPVND *N PGOY ‘WR GLYLGH’*RWKQLPDQ‘WRWDNH’/DWQXPHUXV‘PHPEHUHOHPHQW QXPEHU’DQGQXPPXV‘FRLQPRQH\’ VKRK~VKRI‘WRVHH’ (3$ VNVND 6NWV¢FDWH‘WRDFFRPSDQ\WR IROORZ’*NGRQOCK/DWVHTXRU*RWKVDLxDQ‘WRVHH’ &OXVWHUV FRQVLVWLQJ RI DQ DIIULFDWH DQG V GHYHORS LQWR D VLPSOHDIIULFDWH GMDWKW¬‘ULJKW’ (3$ GHWVD GHWVVD ,( GHVLG 6NWG¢N¿LoD *NFGEKQX/DWGH[WHU LWK‘EHKLQG’ (3$ LWVDIRUPRI,( H½KV‘IURPRXWRI’ ,QROGGHULYDWLYHVZLWKWKHSUHYHUE LhZHFDQREVHUYHDSKHQRPHQRQ ZKLFKZDVODWHUREVFXUHGE\DQDORJLFDOSURFHVVHVWKHXQYRLFLQJRIWKH IROORZLQJYRLFHGFRQVRQDQWV VKNDE¬ ‘HDJOH’ (3$ LhJDE D SUHIL[DO IRUPDWLRQ UHODWHG WR JDERQM¬LG phonology 101 VKNDUGK¬ ‘GRJFKDLQ D ORQJ VWLFN DWWDFKHG WR D GRJ’V QHFN WR SUHYHQWLWIURPELWLQJLWVPDVWHU’ (3$ LhJDUG 6ODY MÚ] JRUGD‘IHQFH’ VKSLH‘WREULQJDZD\’ LhEHUDGHULYDWLYHRIELH‘WREULQJ’ &OXVWHUVRIWZRVWRSVQRUPDOO\ORVHWKHILUVWHOHPHQW EXW¬‘VRIWVPRRWK’ (3$ EXWD ,( EKXJKWRFRPSDUDEOHZLWK 1,UERJ‘VRIW’ EKXJKR$UPERZ‘EOXQW’ GMH‘\HVWHUGD\’ (3$ GH 6NWK\¢VLG*NZSGLLG/DWKHULLG GULW¬ISOGULWD‘OLJKWOXVWUHSXSLO RIDQH\H ’ (3$ GULNWEDVHG RQ,( GHU‘WRORRNFILQSDUWLFXODU2(WRUKW‘EULJKW’2+* ]RUDKW IOHW¬ ‘ZLQJ OHDI’ (3$ DZDOHNWD D SUHIL[HG GHULYDWLYH RI ,( OHN‘WRIO\’ /LWKOHNL¸O|NWL/DWYOªNW2+*OHFNHQ‘WRMXPS WRNLFN’ JMDW¬ JODW¬ ‘ORQJ’ (3$ GODWD FRQWLQXLQJ ,( GOJKWR FI G ORQJKR /DWORQJXV*RWKODJJV QDW¬ ‘QLJKW’ (3$ QDNWL FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR ,( QRNÆW LG 6NW Q¢NW*NPWE/DWQR[ WHW¬ ‘HLJKW’ (3$ DNWAWL ,( RWA LG 6NW D¿bd $UP RZ *N Q MVY &OXVWHUVRIWZRGHQWDOVKRZHYHU\LHOGHG(3$ WhWKURXJKDVHULHVRI HDUOLHUFKDQJHVIURP WhW WVW W VW EHV¬‘SOHGJHWUXFHWUXVW’ (3$ EDLWhFRQWLQXLQJWR,( EKRLGK WIXUWKHUFRQQHFWHGZLWK,( EKHLGK‘WRSHUVXDGHWRIRUFH’ SDVXU~ SDVXQ SDUWLFLSOHRINDP‘WRKDYH’ (3$ SDWhFRQWLQXLQJ SRWWRFI/DWSRWLRU‘WRWDNHSRVVHVVLRQRI’ 7KH$OEDQLDQZRUGIRU‘HDUWK’DWWHVWVDVSHFLILFGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHUDUH ,QGR(XURSHDQFOXVWHU GK½K GKH‘HDUWKODQG’)URP3$OE G]AUHIOHFWLQJ,( GK½KAP‘HDUWK’ +LWWWHNDQ7RFK$WNDP%NHP6NWN¿DP*NZSYP 102 chapter one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Õ ODN¬U~ODN¬Q‘FDEEDJHJUHHQV’ *NNCZCPQP‘JUHHQV’ Õ O¬SMHW¬‘RUDFKGRFN’ *NNCRCSQPLG Õ PRN¬U~PRN¬Q‘PLOOVWRQH’ *NOJZCPJ‘GHYLFHLQVWUXPHQW’ ,WLVDOVRLPSRUWDQWWRQRWLFHWKDW*NULVUHQGHUHGDV$OEVK Õ SUHVK‘OHHN’ *NRTCUQPLG $VIDUDVFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUVDUHFRQFHUQHGLWLVLQWHUHVWLQJWKDW*NRV GRHV QRW GHYHORS WKH VDPH ZD\ DV /DW SW 5DWKHU LW JLYHV DQ XQXVXDO UHVXOW$OEJ VHFRQGDULO\YRLFHGGXHWRWKHDVVLPLODWLRQZLWKWKHDQODXW FRQVRQDQW" Õ EDJ¬P‘RLOIRUDQRLQWPHQW’ *NDCRVKUOC‘EDSWLVP’ 7KHVDPHZRUGLOOXVWUDWHVWKHHYROXWLRQRI*NUOWR$OEP /DWLQORDQZRUGV ,Q/DWLQORDQZRUGVXQYRLFHGVSLUDQWVDUHQRUPDOO\UHIOHFWHGDV $OEVKLQDOOSRVLWLRQV phonology 103 G¬VKLURM‘WRZLVK’ Õ /DWGVGHUUH‘WRORQJIRUWRGHVLUH’ IXVK¬ ‘SODLQ RSHQ ILHOG PHDGRZ’ Õ /DW IRVVD ‘GLWFK WUHQFK JXWWHU’ SDVK ‘IDWKRP SDFH RXWVWUHWFKHG DUPV’Õ/DW SDVVXV ‘VWHS SDFH’ VKHVK‘SODLQSODQHIODWQHVVVTXDUH’ Õ /DWVHVVXV‘VHDW’ VKXOO¬~VKXOODˆ‘VXQQ\VSRW’ Õ /DWVROQXV ORFXV LG VKXVKXQM¬‘OHHFK’ Õ 5RP VDJXLVXQJLD /DWVDQJXLVXJDLG ,QVHYHUDOFDVHVVKZDVUHSODFHGE\çDWDODWHUVWDJHRIGHYHORSPHQW EDOç¬PEDOVK¬P‘EDOP’Õ /DWEDOVDPXPLG NDçLOHNDVKLOH‘EDVNHWKDQGEDVNHW’ Õ /DWTXDVLOOXP‘VPDOOEDVNHW’ NDçXOH‘KRRG’ Õ /DWFDVXOD‘KXW’ODWHU‘KRRGHGFRDW’ 2QHGLIILFXOWH[FHSWLRQVKRZV]KLQVWHDGRIVK ]KXUVKXU‘JUDYHO’ Õ /DWVDEXUUD‘VDQGEDOODVW’ 7KHUDUH/DWLQSKRQHPH] XVXDOO\LQWKHVXIIL[L]UH LVUHQGHUHGDV[ ~ ]: SDJ¬]RM‘WREDSWLVH’ Õ /DWEDSWL]DUHLG U¬Q[RM ‘WRFDXVHDKHUQLD’ Õ 5RP KHUQL]UH EDVHG RQ KHUQLD ‘UXSWXUHKHUQLD’ /DELDOFRQVRQDQWVDUHZHOOSUHVHUYHGLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV VHH DVIDUDVWKHUK\WKPLFUXOHLVFRQFHUQHG /DWEJLYHV$OEE ELVK¬‘EHDVWZLOGDQLPDO’ Õ /DWEVWLDLG EU\P¬‘IURVW’ Õ /DWEU PD‘FROGIURVW’ EXN¬ ‘EUHDG PHDO PHDOWLPH’ Õ /DW EXFFD ‘PRXWK’ LQ %DONDQ 5RPDQFH‘IRRG’ EXO¬‘EXG’ Õ /DWEXOOD‘EXEEOHERVVNQRE’ JMHOE¬U~ JMHOE¬Q‘JUHHQ’ Õ /DWJDOELQXV‘JUHHQLVK\HOORZ’ NRUEXOO‘NHJFDVNZRRGHQSDLO’ Õ /DWFRUEXOD‘OLWWOHEDVNHW’ /DWSLVUHQGHUHGDV$OES 104 chapter one NUHSXOO ‘LQHEULDWHG’ Õ 5RP FUSXOXV FI /DW FUSXOD ‘H[FHVVLYH ZLQHGULQNLQJLQHEULDWLRQ’ SDN‘DOLWWOHIHZ’Õ/DWSDXFXV‘IHZOLWWOH’ SDT‘SHDFH’Õ/DWSDFHPLG SMHUJXOO ‘YLQHDUERU SHUJROD’ Õ /DW SHUJXOD ‘VKHG ERRWK YLQH DUERU’ SULQG‘IDWKHUSDUHQW’Õ/DWSDUHQWHPLG WXUS‘VKDPH’Õ/DWWXUSHLG ,QRQHFDVH/DWSLVXQH[SHFWHGO\UHIOHFWHGDV$OEP P¬NDW‘VLQ’Õ/DWSHFFWXPLG $VLJQLILFDQWQXPEHURI/DWLQZRUGVZLWKLQLWLDOODELDOVXQGHUZHQWWKH SURFHVV RI XQYRLFLQJYRLFLQJ LQ $OEDQLDQ 7KHLU GHYHORSPHQW LV SUREDEO\ H[SODLQHG E\ YDULRXV DVVLPLODWLRQV DQG GLVVLPLODWLRQV ZLWK QHLJKERULQJFRQVRQDQWV ELVKWDM¬‘SRGKXOOSHDJUHHQEHDQ’Õ5RP SLVWOLDFI/DWSLVWUH ‘WRSRXQG’ EMHVKN¬ ‘PRXQWDLQ SDVWXUH’ Õ 5RP SDVWLFD EDVHG RQ /DW SDVWXV ‘SDVWXUH’ EXOE¬U‘VWUHHWGXVW’Õ/DWSXOYHUHP‘GXVW’ SDJ¬]RM‘WREDSWLVH’Õ/DWEDSWL]DUHLG SURN¬‘QDLOIRUN’Õ5RP EURFFD EURFFLD‘IRUNURDVWLQJVSLW’ /DWILVUHIOHFWHGDV$OEI IDW‘IDWH EULGHJURRPKXVEDQGIULHQG’Õ/DWIWXP I¬PLM¬‘FKLOGIDPLO\VSRXVH’Õ/DWIDPOLD‘IDPLO\’ IORN‘KDLU’Õ/DWIORFFXV‘ORFNIORFN’ IRUW¬‘VWURQJ’Õ/DWIRUWLVLG IXQG‘ERWWRPHQG’Õ/DWIXQGXV‘ERWWRP’ IXUN¬‘GLVWDIIIRUN’Õ/DWIXUFD‘IRUN’ /DWLQGHQWDOVWRSVDUHZHOOSUHVHUYHGLQ$OEDQLDQ/DWG\LHOGHG $OEGLQDQODXW GHQM¬‘ZRUWK’Õ/DWGLJQXVLG GHW\U¬‘GXW\GHEW’Õ5RP GHELW UDLG phonology 105 G¬P~GDP‘GDPDJH’Õ/DWGDPQXP‘KXUWKDUPGDPDJH’ GLVKW¬GLVKN¬Õ/DWGLVFXV‘GLVN’ GUDJXD~GUD Q JXH‘GUDJRQ’Õ5RP GUDQFAQHPFI/DWGUDFAQHP LG GXURM‘WREHSDWLHQW’Õ/DWG UUHLG ,QWKHLQWHUYRFDOLFSRVLWLRQDQGDIWHUU/DWGEHFDPH$OEGK NRUGK¬‘JXWVWULQJ’Õ/DWFKRUGD‘JXWFDWJXW’ ODUGK‘IDWEDFRQ’Õ/DWOULGXPOUGXPLG PRGK‘EXVKHO’Õ/DWPRGXV‘PHDVXUH’ SURGKRM‘WRSURGXFH’Õ/DWSUAGUHLG VKXUGK¬UVKXUGK¬W‘GHDI’Õ/DWVXUGXVLG YHUGK¬‘\HOORZ’Õ/DWYLULGLV‘JUHHQ’ /DWW\LHOGHG$OEWLQDOOSRVLWLRQV IVKDW‘YLOODJH’Õ/DWIRVVWXP‘GLWFK’ ‘VXUURXQGHGE\DGLWFK’ N¬UUXW¬‘HZHZLWKKRUQV’Õ/DWIHPDGMFRUQ WD‘KRUQHG’ W¬UPHW‘HDUWKTXDNH’Õ5RP WHUUDHPAWXVLG WPHUU‘KRUURUIULJKW’Õ/DWWLPAUHPLG WXUP¬‘FURZGKHUG’Õ/DWWXUPDLG WXUS‘VKDPH’Õ/DWWXUSHLG ,QRQHFDVHKRZHYHU/DWWEHFDPHYRLFHGLQLQLWLDOSRVLWLRQ G¬VKPRM‘WRWHVWLI\’Õ5RP WHVWLPAQLUHLG ,Q WKH LQODXW /DW W FRXOG EH GURSSHG ZKHQ IROORZLQJ WKH VWUHVVHG V\OODEOHRISURSDUR[\WRQDLIWKHIROORZLQJFRQVRQDQWZDVF,QIDFWWKH YRZHO RI WKH VHFRQG V\OODEOH ZDV UHGXFHG WR ]HUR DQG WKH UHVXOWLQJ FOXVWHUWFJDYH$OEN&IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV NUHN¬‘PDSOH’Õ/DW DFHU &UWLFXP‘&UHWDQPDSOH’ VKHP¬U~VKHP¬UN‘PLVWUHVVFRQFXELQHULYDO’Õ VXEPDUWLFDFI /DWPDUWD‘PDUULHGZRPDQ’ /DWJLVUHQGHUHGDV$OEJ 106 chapter one JU¬P¬UDW¬ ‘EHHVWLQJV FORWV RI FXUGOHG PLON’ Õ /DW JORPHUWXP SDUWLFLSOH RI JORPHUUH ‘WR ZLQG LQWR D EDOO WR JDWKHU LQWR D URXQGKHDS’ JULJM‘IORFNKHUG’Õ/DWJUHJHPLG JXVKW‘$XJXVW’Õ/DWDXJXVWXVLG P¬UJRM‘WRH[LOHWRGULYHDZD\’Õ/DWPHUJHUH‘WRWKUXVWWRSXVK’ PXUJ~PXQJ‘PRQN’Õ/DWPRQDFKXVLG UUHJXOO‘UXOHQRUP’Õ/DWUJXODLG /DWFDQGTXJDYH$OEN DUN‘ERZ’Õ/DWDUFXVLG G¬NRM ‘WR KLW WR VWULNH’ Õ /DW LQGLFHUH LQ LWV VSHFLILF PHDQLQJ ‘WR LPSRVHWRLQIOLFW’! ‘WRLQIOLFWSDLQ’ NDUULJ¬‘FKDLU’Õ/DWTXDGUJD‘VHWRIIRXU’ KHUH‘RIIRXUOHJV’ N¬UNRM‘WRORRNIRUWRVHHN’Õ5RP FLUFUHLG NUHVKP¬‘IDVW’Õ/DWTXGUJVLPD‘/HQWIDVWRIIRUW\GD\V’ NXT‘UHG’Õ5RP FRFFHXVFI/DWFRFFLQHXV‘VFDUOHW’ 6RPHWLPHV /DW F FRXOG EH YRLFHG DV D UHVXOW RI D FRPSOLFDWHG DVVLPLODWLRQDVLQWKHIROORZLQJFDVHZKHUHDIWHUWKHIDOORIDYRZHO GF\LHOGHGGJDQGWKHQJ P¬JDVKW¬U‘VDJH’Õ5RP PHGLFVWHUUHIOHFWHGLQ,WDOPHGLFDVWUR +RZHYHU LQ VHYHUDO FDVHV /DW F ZDV YRLFHG IRU XQNQRZQ UHDVRQV LQ DQODXW J¬UVK¬U¬ ~ J¬UVKDQ¬ ‘VFLVVRUV’ Õ 5RP FDUVQLD DQ LUUHJXODU SKRQHWLFWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRI FDHVQLD J¬VKWHQM¬‘FKHVWQXW’Õ/DWFDVWDQHDLG JM¬PRMÕ/DWFOPUH‘WRFU\WRVKRXW’ 7KHUH LV QR H[SODQDWLRQ IRU WKH IDOO RI LQWHUYRFDOLF F LQ WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHXQOHVVLWLVLQIDFWDODWHUERUURZLQJIURP5RPDQFH JULOO‘OXPS\VRLOZDVWHODQGVODWH’Õ/DWJUDFLOLV‘SRRU RIVRLO ’ ,QLWLDO/DWKZDVORVWLQ$OEDQLDQ2FFDVLRQDOO\WKHIROORZLQJ YRZHOZDVORVWDVZHOO phonology 107 MDY¬‘ZHHN’Õ/DWKHEGRPDVLG VKWLM¬‘VSHDUUD\’Õ/DWKDVWOH‘VSHDU’ XUUHM‘WRKDWH’Õ/DWKRUUUH‘WREHDIUDLGWREHDVWRQLVKHG’ +RZHYHUDQHZSURWKHWLFKUHDSSHDUHGLQ$OEDQLDQVRPHWLPHVLQWKRVH $OEDQLDQZRUGVZKHUHRULJLQDOKKDGEHHQORVW KHU¬‘WLPHPRPHQWRIWLPHKRXU’Õ/DWKAUD‘KRXU’ KLQJ¬O‘JLUWK’Õ/DW KLQQLFXODGHULYDWLYHRI/DWKLQQXV‘PXOH’ $OEKDOVRDSSHDUVLQPDQ\ZRUGVZKHUH/DWLQQHYHUKDGK KDUNDUN‘ERZ’Õ/DWDUFXVLG KDUP¬VKRU ‘VWDOOLRQ VWXGKRUVH’ Õ 5RP DUPHVVULXV D SKRQHWLF YDULDQWRI/DWDGPLVVULXVLG KDUURM‘WRIRUJHW’Õ/DWDEHUUUH‘WRIRUJHW IRUDWLPH ’ KHUPRM ‘WR GLJ’ Õ 5RP H[UPU ‘WR KRH WR GLJ RXW’ FI /DW UPU‘WRKRH’ KHWRM ‘WR VHDUFK WR LQTXLUH WR GLVFRYHU’ Õ /DW GLFWUH ‘WR DQQRXQFH’ 3URWKHWLFKFDQDOVRDSSHDULQ$OEDQLDQZRUGVRIGLIIHUHQWRULJLQ DMN¬‘FUHDP’!KDN¬LG DUU¬]¬~ DQ¬]¬‘ZDVS’!KDQ¬]¬LG \OO‘VWDU’!K\OOLG /DWLQGHQWDOVYHODUVDQGVRQRUDQWVZHUHSDODWDOL]HGLQFHUWDLQ SRVLWLRQV MXVW OLNH WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ FRQVRQDQWV LQ ZRUGV RI ,QGR (XURSHDQRULJLQ /DWLQGHQWDOVZHUHSDODWDOL]HGEHIRUHM JUDSKLFDOO\/DWLRUH /DWGM \LHOGHG$OE] JD]‘MR\ODXJKWHU’)URP/DWJDXGLXP‘MR\’ P¬U]HM ‘WR UHVW DW QRRQ RI DQLPDOV ’ Õ /DW PHULGLUH ‘WR WDNH D PLGGD\QDS’ PL]RM‘WRUDJHWRVQDUOWRKDWH’Õ5RP LQYLGLUHLG UUH]H‘UD\VSRNH’Õ/DWUDGLXVLG VKSX]¬‘KRWDVKHV’Õ/DWVSRGLXP‘DVK’ 108 chapter one ]¬U¬ ~]DQ¬ ‘JRGGHVV RI IRUHVWV IDLU\ EHDXWLIXO PDLGHQ’ Õ /DW 'DQD ,QRQHFDVHKRZHYHUGMXQH[SHFWHGO\JLYHVJM DJM¬URM~DJM¬QRM‘WRIDVW’Õ5RP DGL QUHLG /DWWMDQGWULFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUVLQWMEHFDPH$OEV PDUV‘0DUFK’Õ/DW0DUWLXVLG QXVH ‘EULGH \RXQJ ZRPDQ \RXQJHU GDXJKWHULQODZ’ Õ5RP Q SWLD D ORFDO YDULDQW RI /DW Q SWD ‘PDUULHG ZRPDQ ZLIH EULGH’ IRUWKHIRUPDWLRQFIQ SWLDH‘ZHGGLQJ’ S¬VRM‘WRVXIIHUWRHQGXUH’Õ5RP SDWLUHFI/DWSDWLRULG SMHV¬‘SDUW’Õ5RP SHWLDLG SXV‘ZHOOIRXQWDLQ’Õ/DWSXWHXV‘ZHOO’ VKNRUV¬‘UXJPDGHRIJRDWZRRO’Õ/DWVFRUWHDIHPDGM‘PDGHRI IXURURIKLGH’ YHV‘EDGKDELW’Õ/DWYLWLXP‘IDXOWGHIHFWYLFH’ $IHZZRUGVSUHVHUYHWKHLQWHUPHGLDWHVWDJHEHWZHHQWMDQG$OEVZKLFK VHHPVWREH WV!F OXF¬‘PXGPLUH’Õ/DWOXWHD‘PXGG\’ PDOFRM‘WRLQIODPHWRPDNHVRUH’Õ5RP PDOLWLUHFI/DWPDOLWLD ‘EDGQHVVVSLWH’ 9HODUV ZHUH SDODWDOL]HG EHIRUH M DQG IURQW YRZHOV LQFOXGLQJ WKHIURQWYRZHOVRIDFFXVDWLYHDQGREOLTXHFDVHVLQ/DWLQIRUPVZKLFK ODWHUJHQHUDOL]HGWRWKHZKROH$OEDQLDQSDUDGLJPDVZHOODVWKHIURQW YRZHOVUHVXOWLQJIURP$OEDQLDQXPODXW /DWFFKDQJHGWRT IDTH‘IDFHFKHHN’Õ/DWIDFLV‘IDFH’ ITLQM¬‘QHLJKERU’Õ5RP YFQLXVEDVHGRQ/DWYFQXVLG LULT‘KHGJHKRJ’Õ/DWULFLXVLG NXPHUT‘WROOGXW\’Õ/DWFRPPHUFLXP‘WUDGHFRPPHUFH’ NXT‘UHG’Õ5RP FRFFHXVFI/DWFRFFLQHXV‘VFDUOHW’ THOT‘JODVV’Õ/DWFDOLFHP‘ERZOFXS’ ,QGLDOHFWVTZDVRFFDVLRQDOO\UHSODFHGE\çDQGHYHQE\VK phonology 109 çLPN¬TLPN¬‘EXJ’Õ/DWFPLFHPLG PO\çPO\VK‘NLQGRIILVKSLNH’Õ5RP PDULVO FLXV‘VHDSLNH’ $QDORJLFDO SURFHVVHV OHDGLQJ WR WKH JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ RI WKH SDODWDOL]HG IRUPLQDSDUDGLJPFRXOGDOVRZRUNWKHRWKHUZD\URXQGWKRXJKOHVV IUHTXHQWO\ VKRNVKRT‘FRPUDGHIULHQG’Õ/DWVRFLXV‘FRPUDGHFRPSDQLRQ’ /DWJEHFDPH$OEJM JMHO‘URRVWHU’Õ/DWJDOOXVLG JMLQGHSO‘SHRSOH’Õ/DWJHQWHPLG OLJM‘ODZ’Õ/DWOJH P LG P¬QJML ~ PDQJML ‘VRUFHU\ ZLWFKFUDIW PHGLFLQH’ Õ /DW PDJD ‘PDJLFVRUFHU\’ ZLWKVHFRQGDU\QDVDOL]DWLRQ UHJM‘NLQJ’Õ/DWUJHPLG XQJMLOO‘JRVSHO’Õ/DWHYDQJHOLXPLG ,QDIHZFDVHVWKHUHVXOWLQJJMGHYHORSHGLQWRM SOODM¬‘XSODQGJHQWOHVORSH’Õ5RP SODJLDLG 7KHVRQRUDQWVUDQGOUHPDLQHGXQDIIHFWHGEHIRUHIURQWYRZHOV DQG M ,Q FRPELQDWLRQ ZLWK M /DW O ZRXOG QRUPDOO\ JLYH $OE O ZKLFK RIWHQFKDQJHVWRM IDM‘JXLOWVLQ’Õ5RP IDOOLDGHULYDWLYHRI/DWIDOOHUH‘WRGHFHLYH WRWULFN’ PHO‘PLOOHW’Õ/DWPLOLXPLG PLO¬PLM¬‘WKRXVDQG’Õ/DWPOLDLG UU¬VKDM¬‘3HQWHFRVW’Õ/DW5AVOLD‘5XVDOLHV’ VKN¬QGLM¬‘VSDUN’Õ5RP VFLQWLOLDLGLQVWHDGRIWKHPRUHZLGHO\ NQRZQ/DWVFLQWLOODLG W¬UIRM¬‘WUHIRLOVKDPURFN’Õ/DWWULIROLXPLG /DWQM DQG5RP QMIURPYDULRXV/DWLQVRXUFHV LVDOZD\VUHIOHFWHGDV $OEQM 110 chapter one ITLQM¬‘QHLJKERU’Õ5RP YFQLXVEDVHGRQ/DWYFQXVLG J¬VKWHQM¬‘FKHVWQXW’Õ/DWFDVWDQHDLG NXQM‘SHJZHGJH’Õ/DWFXQHXV‘ZHGJH’ OLQM¬‘OLQHQVKLUW OLQHQ’Õ/DWOQHXP‘OLQHQJDUPHQW’ WHQM¬‘PRWKZRRGHQJUDYHU’Õ/DWWLQHD‘PRWKZRUP’ 7KHGHYHORSPHQWRI/DWLQFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUVLQ$OEDQLDQLV TXLWHZHOODWWHVWHG &OXVWHUVZLWKMZHUHSDUWO\GHVFULEHGDERYH7ULFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUVDUH PRVWO\ VLPSOLILHG E\ ORVLQJ WKHLU ILUVW HOHPHQW DQG E\ XQGHUJRLQJ SDODWDOL]DWLRQ:HRQO\KDYHDIHZDWWHVWDWLRQVRIWKLVGHYHORSPHQW ELVK¬‘EHDVWZLOGDQLPDO’Õ/DWEVWLDLG JXOçRM‘WRZRUU\WRGLVWXUE’Õ5RP FROOXFWLUHFI/DWFROOXFWUL ‘WRVWUXJJOHWRFRQWHQG’ PDUDM‘IHQQHO’Õ5RP PDUDWKULXPGHULYDWLYHRI/DWPDUDWKUXP LG 7KHUDUHFOXVWHUEMVHHPVWRKDYHXQGHUJRQHDSHFXOLDUGHYHORSPHQWWR YJMLQWKHIROORZLQJFDVH YJMH ~YJMê ‘SLQH’ Õ /DW DELHJQXP ‘UHODWHG WR ILU’ GHULYDWLYH RI DELHWHP‘ILU’ &OXVWHUVFRQWDLQLQJ/DWY JUDSKLFDOO\XRUY DUHQRWQXPHURXV,QWKH RQHFDVHZKHUHYIROORZVDYHODULWLVGURSSHG LQVRIDUDVWKHFOXVWHUJY ZDVLQIDFWRQHSKRQHPH>Þ@!>J@LQ/DWLQ O¬QJRM ‘WR ZHDNHQ WR ODQJXLVK’ Õ /DW ODQJXUH ‘WR EH IDLQW ODQJXLG’ ,QWKHPLGGOHRIWKHZRUGFOXVWHUVOYDQGUYJDYH$OEOEDQGUE XQOLNH WKH/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQ OZDQG UZ EXOE¬U‘VWUHHWGXVW’Õ/DWSXOYHUHP‘GXVW’ NRUE‘UDYHQ’Õ/DWFRUYXVLG VK¬OERM‘WRVDYHWRGHOLYHU’Õ/DWVDOYUHLG VK¬UEHM‘WRVHUYH’Õ/DWVHUYUHLG phonology 111 +RZHYHULQWKHQHZDQODXWFUHDWHGE\WKHDSKHUHVLVRIWKHLQLWLDOYRZHO OYDQGUY\LHOGHG OO!Q E\GLVVLPLODWLRQ DQGUU QXOO¬I‘JXP’Õ/DWDOYHROXP‘GHQWDODOYHROH’ UU\O¬~UULOO¬‘OHQWLO’Õ/DWHUYLOODLG ,QVLPLODUFRQGLWLRQV/DWQYSURGXFHG$OEP P¬VRM‘WRWHDFKWRWUDLQ’Õ5RP LQYLWLUHLG PL]RM‘WRUDJHWRVQDUOWRKDWH’Õ5RP LQYLGLUHLG &OXVWHUV FRQWDLQLQJ OLTXLG VRQRUDQWV DUH QXPHURXV WKRXJK WKHLUKLVWRU\LVQRWDOZD\VFOHDU ,QDQODXW/DWEUDQGGUZHUHSUHVHUYHG EUHN¬‘SDQWV’Õ/DWEUFDH‘WURXVHUVEUHHFKHV’ EUHWN‘IURJ’Õ5RP EURWDFXVLG EU\P¬I‘IURVW’Õ/DWEU PD‘FROGIURVW’ GUDJXD~GUD Q JXH‘GUDJRQ’Õ5RP GUDQFAQHPFI/DWGUDFAQHP LG +RZHYHU PHGLDOO\ YRLFHG ODELDOV DQG GHQWDOV ZHUH GURSSHG EHIRUH U \LHOGLQJU U IDUN¬‘VPLWK\’Õ/DWIDEULFD‘ZRUNVKRS’ KDUURM‘WRIRUJHW’Õ/DWDEHUUUH‘WRIRUJHW IRUDWLPH ’ NDUULJ¬‘FKDLU’Õ/DWTXDGUJD‘VHWRIIRXU’ KHUHRIIRXUOHJV NUHVKP¬‘IDVW’Õ/DWTXGUJVLPD‘/HQWIDVWRIIRUW\GD\V’ O¬UXVKN¬ ~ ODUXVKN¬ ‘ZLOG YLQH NLQG RI JUDSH FOHPDWLV’ Õ /DW OEUXVFD‘ZLOGYLQH’ VKXUXNRM‘WRWKXQGHUWRPDNHQRLVH’Õ5RP VXEUDXFDUH‘WRPDNH KRDUVH’ ,QRQHFDVHKRZHYHUEU\LHOGV JU!JM ¬ U HJM¬U‘/ROLXPWHPXOHQWXP’Õ/DWHEULDI‘GUXQN’ 7KHJURXSVUZDVUHGXFHGWRU 112 chapter one PMHU¬‘XQKDSS\XQIRUWXQDWH’Õ/DWPLVHUHPLG!5RP PLVUHP ,QDQODXWFOXVWHUVUVSRUDGLFDOO\GLVDSSHDUHGDIWHUXQYRLFHGVWRSV N¬VKW¬U~N¬VKW¬Q‘&KULVWLDQ’Õ/DWFKULVWLQXVLG SDOOS¬UUDOO‘WRMHVWWRWULIOH’EDVHGRQS¬UUDOO¬‘WDOHVWRU\’Õ/DW SDUDEROD‘SURYHUEVSHHFK’ 7KH/DWLQFOXVWHUUQJDYHUU RURFFDVLRQDOO\U LQ$OEDQLDQ IHUU‘KHOO’Õ/DWLQIHUQXPLG IXUU‘RYHQ’,IXUU¬LGÕ/DWIXUQXVLG IXUULN‘FKLFNHQFRRSIRZOSHQURRVWQHVWLQJER[’Õ/DWIRUQLFHP ‘DUFKYDXOW’ N¬UUXW¬‘KRUQHGHZH’Õ/DWIHPDGMFRUQ WD‘KRUQHG’ OXTHU¬‘ODPSODQWHUQ’Õ/DWOXFHUQDLG Y¬UUL ~ Y¬UUî ‘ZLQWHU SDVWXUH’ Õ 5RP KLEHUQQXP GHULYDWLYH RI /DWKLEHUQXP‘ZLQWHU’ ,QWULFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUV/DWUZDVXVXDOO\ORVWLQWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKH FOXVWHU SMHVKN¬‘SHDFK’Õ5RP SHVFD /DWSHUVLFDLG /DWLQ FOXVWHUV FRQVLVWLQJ RI YHODUV IROORZHG E\ O UHPDLQHG XQFKDQJHGWLOOWKHHQGRIWKH0LGGOH$JHV/DWHULQVRPHGLDOHFWVOJDYH MZKLFKSDODWDOL]HGYHODUV\LHOGLQJJMDQGT7KHXQYRLFHGSDODWDOZDV WKHQGHSDODWDOL]HGLQDQHYHQPRUHOLPLWHGQXPEHURIGLDOHFWVUHVXOWLQJ LQ N 6RPH ZRUGV ZLWK N /DW FO ZHUH RFFDVLRQDOO\ DEVRUEHG E\ VWDQGDUGOLWHUDU\GLDOHFWVRI$OEDQLDQ JMHOE¬U~JMHOE¬Q‘JUHHQ’Õ/DWJDOELQXV‘JUHHQLVK\HOORZ’ JMHU‘GRUPRXVH’Õ/DWJOUHPLG JM¬QG¬U~JMDQG¬U‘JODQG’Õ/DWJODQGXOD‘JODQGRIWKHWKURDW’ZLWK WKHGLVVLPLODWLRQRIOLTXLGD N¬VK\UH‘PRXQWDLQSDWKSDWKLQWKHUDYLQH’Õ/DWFODXV UDFO V UD ‘ORFNEDUEROW FDVWOHIRUW’ NLVK¬TLVK¬‘FKXUFK’Õ/DWHFFOVLDLG TDUW¬‘FOHDU’Õ/DWFOUXVLG THQJM‘ODPE’Õ5RP FLQJ X OXV /DWJQLFXOXVLG phonology 113 TXP¬VKWNOXP¬VKW‘PLONZKH\’Õ5RP FRORVWUXP /DWJOEHFDPHMOLQWHUYRFDOLFDOO\ ]PRMOH ‘IDOORZ ODQG ’ Õ 5RP H[PXOJLD D GHULYDWLYH RI /DW [ PXOJUH‘WRPLONRXWWRGUDLQRXW’ 7KH /DWLQ FOXVWHU OF LQLWLDOO\ EHFDPH ON /DWHU O FKDQJHG WR M LQ PRVW GLDOHFWV EXMNEXON‘SHDVDQW’Õ/DWEXEXOFXV‘SORXJKPDQKHUGVPDQ’ IDMNXD~IDMNXH‘IDOFRQ’Õ/DWIDOFAQHPLG $WOHDVWLQRQHFDVHM OZDVGURSSHGEHIRUHDYHODU IXTL‘SRZHUVWUHQJWKIRUFH’Õ5RP IXOFLXVGHULYHGIURPIXOFUH ‘WRSURSXSWRVXSSRUWWRPDNHVWURQJ’ ,QWKHLQLWLDOSRVLWLRQ/DWPO HPHUJLQJDIWHUWKHORVVRILQODXWYRZHOV FKDQJHGWR$OEEO EOHW¬ ‘EHH VZDUP KLYH’ Õ 5RP PHOHWWXPFIPHOODULXP ‘EHH KLYHDSLDU\’ EOXDM~EOXHM‘WRJULQG’Õ/DWPROHUHLG ,QWKHLQLWLDOSRVLWLRQ/DWVODQGVFOQRUPDOO\JDYHVKTRUIRUUHDVRQV XQFOHDUVT VKTXIXU VTXIXU ‘VXOSKXU’ Õ 5RP VOXIXUHP LQVWHDG RI /DW VXOSKXUHP VKTD‘%XOJDULDQ’Õ/DWVFODYXV‘6ODY’ VKTHSRM‘WREHODPH’Õ5RP VFOASXV 7ULFRQVRQDQWDO FOXVWHUV ZLWK LQLWLDO O DSSHDULQJ DIWHU WKH ORVV RI RI LQODXWYRZHOV GURSWKHLUPLGGOHHOHPHQW NXOWH ‘ZDWHU PHORQ JRXUG’ Õ 5RP FXFXOELWD D YDULDQW RI /DW FXFXUELWD‘JRXUG’ NXOW¬U‘SLOORZFXVKLRQ’Õ/DWFXOFLWUDLG 114 chapter one +RZHYHULQRQHFDVHWKLVSURFHVVZDVDFFRPSDQLHGE\WKHYRLFLQJRI DQXQYRLFHGRFFOXVLYH YLJMH ‘JLIWV RQ PDUULDJH RU ELUWK GLQQHU RQ WKH WKLUG GD\ DIWHU FKLOG’VELUWK’Õ/DWYFWXOLD‘YLFWXDOV’ /DW PQ GURSSHG WKH VHFRQG QDVDO DQG RFFDVLRQDOO\ D VHFRQGDU\KRPRUJDQLFRFFOXVLYHIRUPHG G¬P~GDP‘GDPDJH’Õ/DWGDPQXP‘KXUWKDUGDPDJH’ VKN¬PE ~ VKNDPE ‘VHDW WKURQH URFN’ Õ /DW VFDPQXP ‘EHQFK WKURQH’ ,QFOXVWHUVFRQVLVWLQJRIDQDVDOVRQRUDQWDQGDQXQYRLFHGVWRSWKHODWWHU EHFDPHYRLFHG JMLQGH‘SHRSOH’Õ/DWJHQWHPLG JMXYHQJ¬‘KDUORW’Õ/DWIHPMXYHQFD‘\RXQJ’DOVR‘\RXQJFRZ’ N¬PERU¬~N¬PERQ¬‘EHOO’Õ5RP FDPSRQDDGHULYDWLRQDOYDULDQW RI/DWFDPSDQDLG PEUHW‘NLQJ’Õ5RP LPSHUWXVIRU/DWLPSHUWRU‘HPSHURU’ UU¬PEHM‘WRUREWRVHL]H’Õ/DWUXPSHUH‘WRWHDUWRWHDUDZD\’ VK¬QGRVK‘KHDOWK\’Õ5RP VDQLWAVXVLG WUXQJ‘WUXQN’Õ/DWWUXQFXVLG ,QKHWHURUJDQLFFOXVWHUVUHJUHVVLYHDVVLPLODWLRQVWRRNSODFH PEHV¬‘QLHFHJUDQGGDXJKWHU’Õ/DWQHSAWLDLG PEXORM‘WRFRYHUWREXU\’Õ5RP PDQLSXOUH‘WRGLJLQKDQGIXOV’ FI/DWPDQLSXOXV‘KDQGIXO’ &OXVWHUVZLWKYRLFHGRFFOXVLYHVGLGQRWFKDQJHVLJQLILFDQWO\+RZHYHU QJ EHIRUH IURQW YRZHOV KDYLQJ FKDQJHG WR H[SHFWHG QJM IXUWKHU GHYHORSHGLQWRQM P¬QMLOO‘YLJLO IDVW’Õ5RP YLQJLOLDFI/DWYLJLOLD‘YLJLO’ VKXVKXQM¬‘OHHFK’Õ5RP VDJXLVXQJLD /DWVDQJXLVXJDLG XVKXQM¬~XVKûMI‘ODUG’Õ/DWD[XQJLDLG phonology 115 2ULJLQDOQJMIURPQJRUIURPDVVLPLODWHGQJ QGZDVRQO\UHWDLQHGLQD OLPLWHGQXPEHURIZRUGV PDOO¬QJMHM ‘WR WRXFK WR PRYH WR VWLU’ Õ /DW PDOXP DQJHUH ‘WR FDXVHSDLQ’ UU¬QJMHM‘WRVKLQH’Õ/DWUHQGUH‘WRVKLQH’ &OXVWHUVZLWKQDVDOVIROORZLQJJKDYHDFRPSOLFDWHGKLVWRU\%HIRUHP WKHYRLFHGYHODUZDVORVW WLP¬U~WLP¬Q‘ZHIWZRRI’Õ/DWWHJPLQHP‘FRYHU’ ,Q VRPH ZRUGV WKH VDPH GHYHORSPHQW FKDUDFWHUL]HG JQ 7KLV FOXVWHU FKDQJHG WR Q DQG FRXOG GLVDSSHDU DW WKH HQG RI WKH ZRUG H[DFWO\ OLNH VLPSOHQ NXQDW~NXQHW¬Q‘EURWKHULQODZ’Õ/DWFRJQWXV‘NLQVPDQEORRG UHODWLRQ’ YJMH ~YJMê ‘SLQH’ Õ /DW DELHJQXP ‘UHODWHG WR ILU’ GHULYDWLYH RI DELHWHP‘ILU’ ,QRWKHU ROGHU" ORDQZRUGV/DWJQ\LHOGVQM GHQM¬‘ZRUWK’Õ/DWGLJQXVLG VKHQM¬‘VLJQ’Õ/DWVLJQXPLG ,QDQRWKHUFDVHZHILQGQJUHIOHFWLQJ/DWJQ SHQJ‘SOHGJHSDZQ’Õ/DWSLJQXVLG 7KHFOXVWHUQVZDVUHJXODUO\VLPSOLILHGDQGFKDQJHGWRVK LVKXOO‘LVODQG’Õ/DWLQVXODLG P¬VKHUH‘VPDOOSLHFHRIFKHHVH’Õ5RP PHQVAUDIRU/DWPHQV UD ‘PHDVXUH’ P¬VKRM‘WREHKHDY\WREHDUGRZQ’Õ5RP SHVUH /DWSHQVUH ‘WRZHLJK’ SHVK¬‘ZHLJKW VWRQHERXOGHU’Õ/DWSHQVXPLG WUDVK¬JRM‘WRLQKHULW’Õ/DWWUQVLJHUH‘WRUHDFKDQDFFRUGWRFDUU\ RXWWUDQVDFWLRQ’ 116 chapter one 1XPHURXVWULFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUV PDQ\RIWKHPUHVXOWLQJIURPWKHORVV RI XQVWUHVVHG LQWHUFRQVRQDQWDO YRZHOV FRQWDLQLQJ QDVDO VRQRUDQWV GHYHORSHGDVVXFK EHNRM‘WREHQHGLFW’Õ/DWEHQHGFHUHLG NXPW¬U‘JRGIDWKHU’Õ/DWFRPSDWHULG N¬QJ¬~NDQJ¬‘VRQJ’Õ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¬IWRM‘WRVKRZWRSRLQW’Õ5RP LQGLFWUHLG IWXD ~ IWXH ‘TXLQFH’ Õ 5RP FRWAQHXP LG QDPHO\ ‘&\GRQLDQ DSSOH’ JM\PW\U¬‘MRLQWOLPE’Õ/DWMXQFW UD‘MXQFWXUHMRLQW’ OXIW¬‘ILJKWZDU’Õ/DWOXFWD‘ZUHVWOLQJ’FI5XPOXSW:‘ILJKW’ WDIW‘VWHQFK VFRUFKLQJKHDW’Õ/DWWFWXV‘WRXFKIHHOLQJ’ WDIWDU‘IXQQHO’Õ5RP WUDLHFWULXPLGFI/DWWUDLHFWAULXPLG WURIW¬‘WURXW’Õ/DWWUXFWDLG $GLIIHUHQWGHYHORSPHQWRIQFWÖIWLVIRXQGLQWKHIROORZLQJFDVH SXIW¬ ‘HPSW\ KROORZ’ RQO\ LQ WKH H[SUHVVLRQ DUU¬ SXIWH ‘HPSW\ QXW’ Õ/DWIHPSXQFWD‘SXQFWXUHGKDYLQJDKROH’ ,QDOORWKHUFDVHVFWFKDQJHGWRMWDQGQFWWR Q MWDFFRUGLQJWRWKH:HVW %DONDQ DQG:HVW5RPDQFH QRUP GUHMW¬‘VWUDLJKWULJKW’Õ/DWGLUHFWXPLG phonology 117 PDMW¬ ~PDˆMW¬ ‘OHIW’ Õ 5RP PDQFWXV EDVHG RQ /DW PDQFXV ‘PDLPHGLQILUP’ SDMWRM‘WRDSSHDVHWRUHFRQFLOHWRKLUHWRHQJDJH’Õ5RP SFWUH VKHQMW¬‘VDLQW’Õ/DWVDQFWXVLG VKWUHQMW¬ ‘GHDU H[SHQVLYH’ Õ 5RP VWULQFWXV ‘QDUURZ’ 5XP VWUîPW9HQHWVWUHQWR6,WDOVWULQWR WUDMWRM‘WRGHDOZLWKWRWUHDW’Õ/DWWUDFWUHLG /DWHU M ZDV ORVW VR WKDW FW \LHOGHG W DQG QFW JDYH QG LI WKH FOXVWHU IROORZHGHLXRU IOXWXURM ‘WR IO\’ Õ 5RP IOXFWXOUH /DWIOXFWXUH ‘WR PRYH LQ ZDYHVWRPRYHWRDQGIUR’ IU\W‘IUXLW’Õ/DWIU FWXVLG I\W\U¬‘IDFH’Õ/DWIDFW UD‘IRUPDWLRQFUHDWXUH’ KHWRM ‘WR VHDUFK WR LQTXLUH WR GLVFRYHU’ Õ /DW GLFWUH ‘WR DQ QRXQFH’ NXQGRM‘WRKHVLWDWH’Õ/DWFXQFWULLG SLWH‘KRQH\FRPE’Õ/DWSHFWHQ‘FRPE’ VKDW‘KRH’Õ/DWVHFWRU‘FXWWHU’ VKHWH‘EUDQ’Õ/DWVHFWXPSDUWLFLSOHRIVHFA‘WRFXW’ XQG\U¬‘IDW’Õ/DWXQFW UD‘RLQWPHQW’ YLWRUH‘P\WKLFDOVHUSHQW NHHSHURIWKHKRXVH IDLU\IDWH PRWKHURI PDQ\FKLOGUHQ’Õ/DWYLFWRULD‘YLFWRU\’ 7KH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOH DSSHDUV WR EH DW YDULDQFH ZLWK WKLV UXOH +RZHYHUWKLVLVLOOXVRU\,QWHUYRFDOLFJZDVORVWEHIRUHWKHUHGXFWLRQRI XQVWUHVVHGYRZHOVDQGWKHVHTXHQFHRIWZRYRZHOVFRQWUDFWHG7KHIRUP EHORZQHYHUKDGWKHFOXVWHUJW!FW NXMWRM‘WRUHPHPEHUWRWKLQN’ NXLWRMÕ/DWFAJLWUH 6HFRQGDU\T WEHIRUHDIURQWYRZHODSSHDUVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH SOLT ‘WZLVWHG ZRROOHQ FRUG’ Õ /DW SOHFWD ‘ERUGHU RI LQWHUZRYHQ OLQHVLQUHOLHI SODLW’ 2QH PRUH FDVH VHHPV WR SUHVHUYH N LQ WKH FRQVRQDQWDO JURXS IRU DQ XQNQRZQUHDVRQ 118 chapter one OLNW\U¬I‘URSHIRUELQGLQJDEXQGOHRIZRRG EDQGEDQGDJH’Õ/DW OLJW UD‘EDQGEXQFK’ 7KH/DWLQFOXVWHUWWUHIOHFWVDVVLPSOHWLQ$OEDQLDQ EOHW¬‘EHHVZDUPKLYH’Õ5RP PHOHWWXPFIPHOODULXP‘EHHKLYH DSLDU\’ EXW‘ELJEDUUHO’Õ/DWEXWWLVLG JXW¬‘JRXW’Õ5RP JXWWD‘GURS’XVHGDVDQDPHRIWKHGLVHDVHFI 5XPJXW:LG /DWSW\LHOGHG$OEIW DIW¬‘FDSDEOHSURSHU’Õ/DWDSWXVLG TLIW‘NLWHNLQGRIYXOWXUH’Õ/DWDFFLSLWHU‘YXOWXUH’ ,Q RQH FDVH SW ZDV SUHVHUYHG DIWHU WKH IDOO RI WKH LQODXW YRZHO 7KLV DOORZVXVWRHVWDEOLVKUHODWLYHFKURQRORJ\RIWKHSURFHVV OHSW\U¬‘PXGG\SODFH’Õ5RP OLSSLW UDFI/DWOLSSLW GR‘EOHDU HGQHVVUKHXP’ 7KHIROORZLQJFDVHFDQEHH[SODLQHGRQO\LIZHSUHVXPHDFKDLQRIDVVL PLODWLRQVDQGUHFRPELQDWLRQVIURPEDSWWR SDEW! SDJG! SDJ SDJ¬]RM‘WREDSWLVH’Õ/DWEDSWL]UHLG &OXVWHUVFRQWDLQLQJVUHIOHFWDFRPSOLFDWHGSLFWXUH*URXS[ FV \LHOGHGWZRUHIOH[HV,QVRPHZRUGVIVK [LVIRXQGVLPLODUWRIW FW,WSUHVXPDEO\SDVVHGWKURXJKWKHVWDJHRI SVK NRIVK¬‘KLSWKLJK’Õ/DWFR[D‘KLS’ ODIVK¬‘FUHVW RIELUG FRPE’Õ/DWOD[D FXWLV ‘ORRVH VNLQ ’ P¬QGDIVK‘VLON’Õ/DWPHWD[D‘UDZVLON’ ZLWKVHFRQGDU\Q ,QRWKHUFDVHVWKHUHIOH[LVVK7KLVGHYHORSPHQWLVSDUDOOHOWRWKDWRIFW LQWRMWW&IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV EXVK‘ER[ZRRG’Õ/DWEX[XVLG IUDVK¬U~IUDVK¬Q‘DVKWUHH’Õ/DWIUD[LQXVLG phonology 119 SURVKPRMSUR]KPRM‘WRVODQGHUWROLEHO’Õ/DWSUR[LPUH‘WRFRPH QHDUWRDSSURDFK’ VKLM~VKî ‘WRWKUHVK’Õ/DWH[LJHUH‘WRGULYHDZD\WRSXVKRXWWR WKURZ’ VKTLSRM‘WRVSHDNFOHDUO\WRXQGHUVWDQG’Õ/DWH[FLSHUHLG ,QRQHFDVHUHSUHVHQWLQJDERUURZLQJRIDODWHUGDWH[EHFDPHYRLFHG] EHIRUHDVRQRUDQW ]PRMOHI‘IDOORZ ODQG ’ Õ 5RP H[PXOJLD D GHULYDWLYH RI /DW H[PXOJUH‘WRPLONRXWWRGUDLQRXW’FI5XP]PXOJH 7KHFOXVWHUSV\LHOGHGIVKLQ$OEDQLDQMXVWOLNHVRPHRIWKHZRUGVZLWK FV JULIVK¬‘MD\PDJSLH’Õ5RP JULSVDEDVHGRQ/DWJU\SV‘JULIILQ’ NDIVKRM‘WRELWH’Õ/DWFDSHVVHUH~FDSLVVHUH‘WRVHL]HWRVQDWFKDW’ /DWVWLVQRUPDOO\UHIOHFWHGDV$OEVKW SDVKWUDN‘SDVWXUHUHQWSDVWXUDJHPRQH\’Õ5RP SDVW UFXVEDVHG RQ/DWSDVW UD‘SDVWXUH’ SRVKW¬‘GRZQEHORZ XQGHU’Õ/DWSRVWSRVWH‘EHKLQGEDFN’ VKWDOO¬‘VWDOO’Õ/DWVWDEXOXPLG VKWDW‘ILJXUHLPDJH’Õ/DWVWDWXV‘KHLJKWVWDWXUH’ 2FFDVLRQDOO\KRZHYHU/DWVW!VKWLVUHSODFHGE\ç çPRM‘WRHVWLPDWH’Õ/DWDHVWLPUHLG 7ULFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUVEHJLQQLQJZLWKV LQFOXGLQJWKRVHUHVXOWLQJIURP WKHORVVRILQODXWYRZHOV WHQGWRORVHWKHLUVHFRQGGHQWDOHOHPHQWFIWKH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHV EMHVKN¬ ‘PRXQWDLQ SDVWXUH’ Õ 5RP SDVWLFD EDVHG RQ /DW SDVWXV ‘SDVWXUH’ G¬VKPRM‘WRWHVWLI\’Õ5RP WHVWLPAQLUH PXVKOOLQ]¬ ‘FODPEHULQJ YHWFK’ EDVHG RQ PXVKOOî Õ 5RP PXV WOQDGHULYDWLYHRI/DWPXVWOD‘ZHDVHO’ 120 chapter one $OOWKUHHFRQVRQDQWVDUHSUHVHUYHGLQ/DWVWUÖ$OEVKW ¬ U NXOORVKW¬U‘ELHVWOLQJV’Õ/DWFRORVWUDLG PMHVKW¬U‘PDVWHUEXLOGHU’Õ/DWPDJLVWHU‘PDVWHU’ VKWUDW‘EHG OD\HU’Õ/DWVWUWXPLG VKWU¬QJRM‘WRSUHVVWRVTXHH]H’Õ/DWVWULQJHUH‘WRVWUHWFKWRSUHVV WRVTXHH]H’ YRVKW¬U‘/LJXVWUXPYXOJDUH’ *HJ ÕODWH/DW²OHDVWHU ,IWKHVHFRQGHOHPHQWZDVDODELDODWULFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUORVWLQLWLDOV SULIW‘SULHVW’Õ/DWSUHVE\WHULG 7KHJURXS[F FVF JLYHV$OEç çRM‘WREULQJWRULVHWRVHQG’Õ/DWH[FUHH[FLUH‘WRFDOORXWWR FDXVHWRZDNH’ 6ODYLFORDQZRUGV 6ODYLFRFFOXVLYHVDUHZHOOSUHVHUYHGLQ$OEDQLDQ7KHFKDQJH RI6ODY GDIWHUYRZHOVDQGUWR$OEGKFDQEHH[SODLQHGE\SRVLWLQJDQ HDUOLHUERUURZLQJSHULRG çHUGKH‘QHVW’Õ6ODY ¨HUGD‘URZKHUGIORFN’ J¬UPDGK¬‘UXLQ’Õ6ODY JURPDGD‘KHDSPDVV’ NRUGK¬‘VZRUG’Õ6ODY NRUÙGDLG VKN¬UGKHF‘NHJEDUUHO’Õ6ODY VNRYRUGÚFÚ‘SDQ’ ,QHDUO\6ODYLFERUURZLQJV6ODY NJLYHV$OEJ ERULJ¬‘NLQGRISLQH VSOLQWHU’Õ6ODY ERULND‘ILUWUHHSLQH’ JDMJ¬ ‘NLQG RI QXW’ Õ 6ODY JDOÚND GHULYHG IURP JDO’D ‘OXPS SHEEOH’ J¬OED]¬‘a OLYHULOOQHVVRIVKHHSFDXVHGE\ZRUPV’Õ6ODY NÙOEDVD ‘VWXIIHGJXWVDXVDJH’ J¬UçDN‘MXJSLWFKHU’Õ6ODY NÙU¨DJÙ‘FOD\YHVVHOSLWFKHU’ J¬UKDV‘WRVQRUH’Õ6ODY NÙU[DWL‘WRFRXJKWRH[SHFWRUDWH’ UDYJ¬‘SDWK LQPRXQWDLQV ’Õ6ODY URYÙNÙ‘GLWFK’ phonology 121 (DUO\6ODY VLVUHIOHFWHGDVVKLQ$OEDQLDQ NROHVKN¬‘FDUW’Õ6ODY NROHVÙNDLG VKDS ‘GLVHDVH RI WKH FDWWOH $SKWD HSL]RRWLFD’ Õ 6ODY VDSÙ ‘JODQGHUV’ VKDU¬‘RIIHQFH’Õ6ODY VRUDFI5XVVVVRUD‘URZ’ VÙVRUD VKDUN‘ZRROHQFORDN JUHHQVNLQRIQXWV’Õ6ODY VRUND‘VKLUW’ WULVKH‘VKRRWLQJVSURXW’Õ6ODY WUÚVÙ‘JUDSHVWDON’ 2QH6ODYLFDIIULFDWHLQHDUO\ORDQZRUGVKDVDQXQXVXDOUHIOH[LQ$OED QLDQ,QWKHHDUOLHVWORDQZRUGV6ODY ¨LVVXEVWLWXWHGE\(3$ Wh!$OE V ELVN‘EUDQFKWZLJ’Õ6ODY EL¨ÚNÙGHULYHGIURP EL¨Ú‘ZKLS’ EULVN‘UD]RUSHQNQLIH’Õ6ODY EUL¨ÚNÙGLPLQXWLYHRI EUL¨ÚLG SRURVLW‘WRRUGHUWRGHPDQG’Õ6ODY SRU_¨LWLLG /DWHUDWDVWDJHZKHQ$OEDQLDQKDVDOUHDG\GHYHORSHGDQHZDIIULFDWHF EXWVWLOOKDGQRç6ODY ¨ZDVUHIOHFWHGDV$OEF FDUH‘ZLWFK’Õ6ODY ¨DUD‘ZLWFKFUDIW’ FHUP¬‘DUWKULWLV’Õ6ODY ¨ÚUPÙ‘LQIODPPDWLRQ’ F¬ULO‘WKUXVK’Õ6ODY ¨ÚUQLGOR‘EODFN REMHFW ’ FXE‘ZLWKDVKRUWWDLOZLWKWKHWDLOFXWRII’Õ6ODY ¨XEÙ ‘WXIWRI KDLUVWXPSDFXWRIISLHFH’ N¬UF‘VWXPS’Õ6ODY NÙU¨ÚLG N¬UFDV ‘WR FU\ WR VKRXW WR UDWWOH WR WKXQGHU WR VRXQG’ Õ6ODY NUL¨DWL‘WRFU\WRVKRXW’ ,QRQHFDVHZHDOVRKDYH6ODY ÊUHSODFHGE\$OE] QR]LN¬ ‘NQLIH ZRUQ LQ WKH EHOW’ Õ 6ODY QRÊLNÙ D GLPLQXWLYH RI QRÊÚ‘NQLIH’ ,QDOLPLWHGQXPEHURI6ODYLFORDQZRUGVVHYHUDOFOXVWHUVFKDQJHGLQD ZD\ WKDW FRXOG LQGLFDWH WKHLU HDUO\ SUHVHQFH LQ $OEDQLDQ &I WKH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHV EXVKW¬U‘UDJLQJZLOG’Õ6ODY E\VWUÙ‘TXLFN’ GURPF¬‘FUXPEELW’Õ6ODY GUREÚQLFD‘WULIOHVPDOOREMHFW’ 122 chapter one JDUULV‘WRQHLJK’Õ6ODY JDYÚULWL~ JDYÚUDWL‘WRWHDVHWRVSRLO’ JRUULF¬‘ZLOGSHDU’Õ6ODY JRUÚQLFDLG NRF‘ERQHVNXOO’Õ6ODY NRVWÚLG Y¬UV¬~Y¬UF¬‘DJH’Õ6ODY YÚUVWD‘DJHNLQGNLQ’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Ç$%(- +\UMH 6W ,,, &$0$-$OE:RUWE 25(/=I%DON;;,,, 7KH GLVWULEXWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKHVH WZR W\SHV RI VWUHVV LV SDUWLFXODUO\ZHOOSUHVHUYHGLQ/DWLQORDQZRUGV$OOGLV\OODELFZRUGVDUH SDUR[\WRQD GHQM¬‘ZRUWK’Õ/DWGLJQXVLG NDUU¬‘FDUW’Õ/DWFDUUXP‘WZRZKHHOHGZDJRQ’ PDOO ‘KRPHVLFNQHVV ORQJLQJ DIIHFWLRQ’ Õ /DW PDOXP ‘HYLO PLVIRUWXQH’ QDS¬ ‘FORWK QDSNLQ WRZHO NHUFKLHI’ Õ 5RP QDSSD ! )U QDSSH ‘WDEOHFORWK’ SDN‘DOLWWOHIHZ’Õ/DWSDXFXV‘IHZOLWWOH’ SDOO¬‘SROHFOXEZDVKLQJVWLFNVZRUGPDOOHW’Õ/DWSOD‘VSDGH VKRYHO’ 2QH DOVR ILQGV QXPHURXV SDUR[\WRQD LQ ZRUGV ZLWK PRUH WKDQ WZR V\OODEOHV IDMNXD~IDMNXH‘IDOFRQ’Õ/DWIDOFAQHPLG 124 chapter two QDW\U¬‘QDWXUH’Õ/DWQW UDLG SDUUL]‘SDUDGLVH’Õ/DWSDUDGVXVLG SDVKWUDN ‘SDVWXUHUHQW SDVWXUDJH PRQH\’ Õ 5RP SDVW UFXV EDVHGRQ/DWSDVW UD‘SDVWXUH’ T\WHW‘FLW\’Õ/DWFYLWWH P LG U¬U¬~UDQ¬‘VDQG’Õ/DWDUQDLG 7KHVHFDVHVDUHRSSRVHGE\DODUJHJURXSRISURSDUR[\WRQD EDOç¬P‘EDOP’Õ/DWEDOVDPXPLG HPW¬‘DXQW’Õ/DWDPLWD‘SDWHUQDODXQW’ HQJM¬OO‘DQJHO’Õ/DWDQJHOXVLG OHSXUOHSXM‘KDUH’Õ/DWOHSRUHPLG PDVKNXOO‘PDQ’‘PDOH’Õ/DWPDVFXOXV‘PDOHPDVFXOLQH’ QGULNXOO‘JRGPRWKHU PLGZLIH’Õ/DWPWUFXODXVHGLQWKHVHQVHRI 5RP PWUQDLG!,WDOPDGULQD :KHQ ERUURZHG LQWR /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ /DWLQ ZRUGV SUHVHUYHG WKH SODFHRIWKHLUVWUHVV $VLPLODUSLFWXUHLVIRXQGLQWKH,QGR(XURSHDQYRFDEXODU\RI $OEDQLDQ$OOGLV\OODELFZRUGVDUHSDUR[\WRQD GDUN¬ ‘VXSSHU’ (3$ GDUN ,( GRUáRP UHIOHFWHG LQ Gk GRTRQPLG GKDOO¬ ~ GKDOOW¬ ‘EXWWHUPLON’ (3$ G]DO Gk ICNC JHQ ICNCMVQX‘PLON’ HGK‘KHJRDW’ (3$ DLG]D GkCKE‘JRDW’$UPD\FLG IDU¬‘VHHGVHPHQNLQ’ (3$ VSDU GkIHPURQTC‘VHHG’DQG IXUWKHU UHODWHG WR VSHU ‘WR VSLOO WR VRZ’ Gk URGKTY LG URGTOC‘VHPHQVHHG‘ JMDN‘EORRG’ (3$ VDND GkQRQX‘MXLFH’/LWKVDND&‘UHVLQ’6ODY VRNÙ‘MXLFH’ MHUP ‘GHOLULXP DEVHQWPLQGHGQHVV’ (3$ HUPD /LWK H¼PDV ‘PRQVWHU’ /DWY ?UPV ‘ZRQGHUIXO DSSDULWLRQ’ ?UPL ‘ZRQGHUV PLUDFOHV’ 7KHUHDOVRH[LVWSRO\V\OODELFSDUR[\WRQD morphonology and word-formation 125 JOHS¬‘PDWWHUIURPH\HVUKHXP LQH\HV ’ (3$ NDODLSGHULYHG IURP,( OHLS‘WRVPHDUZLWKIDW’ N¬SXUGK¬‘IXQJXVPXVKURRP’ (3$ NDSXUG /LWKNªSXU^‘FDS’ /DWYF?SXUHLG OXPDN‘EXGVKRRW OLFKHQPRVV’ OXEQDNDEDVHGRQ,( OHXEK‘WR SHHOWRVNLQ’ /LWKOXE£‘ERDUG RIDFHLOLQJ ’/DWYOXED‘EDUN ERDUG’23UXVOXEER‘ERDUG’6ODY OÙEÙ‘IRUHKHDGVNXOO’ P¬OOHQM¬ ‘EODFNELUG’ (3$ PHODQM IURP ,( IHP PHOiQ µε ‘EODFN’!Gk NCKPC LG FI DOVR 6NW PDOLQ¢ IHP PDOLQ ‘GLUW\XQFOHDQ/DWYP?ËQV‘EODFN’ WHW¬ ‘HLJKW’ (3$ DNWAWL ,( RWA LG 6NW D¿bd $UP RZ Gk QMVY XUHO¬‘ZDWHUSLW’ (3$ XUHO 21·U‘GUL]]OH’23UXVZXUV‘SRRO’ GkCPCWTQX‘GHYRLGRIZDWHU’ 2WKHUSRO\V\OODELFZRUGVDUHSURSDUR[\WRQD DWK¬W ‘KDUVK VRXU UDQFLG’ (3$ DWVHWD ,( D ‘VKDUS’ ZLWK VRPH GHULYDWLYHV GHYHORSLQJ WKH PHDQLQJ ‘VRXU’ VXFK DV /DW DFLGXV JDUEH ‘IORZHUSRW’ (originally, *‘pot’ (3$ JDULE FI 6ODY JÙUQÙ‘SRW’GHULYHGIURP,( ÞKHU‘WREXUQ’ PRGKXOO‘YHWFK FKLFNOLQJ FKLFNSHD’ (3$ PG]XOD FORVH WR /LWKPDʸOLV‘VPDOO’DQGIXUWKHUUHODWHGWR/LWKP¦ÊDVLG PRW¬U‘VLVWHU’ (3$ PWHU ,( PWHU‘PRWKHU’ 6NWPW¢UGk OJVJT/DWPWHU WMHW¬UMHW¬U‘RWKHU’ 3$OE HWHUD 6ODY HWHUÙ‘VRPHVRPHERG\’ WKHOE‘NHUQHO RIDQXW ’ (3$ WVDOLEDDGHULYDWLYHRI,( HO‘WR FRYHU’ $WDODWHUVWDJHXQVWUHVVHGSHQXOWLPDWHYRZHOVRISURSDUR[\WRQDZHUH UHGXFHG DQG ORVW ZLWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI WKH ZRUGV ZKHUH WKH YRZHOV ZHUHIROORZHGE\OLTXLGVRQRUDQWV FIH[DPSOHVDERYH ,W LV FOHDU WKDW—XQOLNH /DWLQ ORDQZRUGV—WKH RSSRVLWLRQ RI SDUR[\WRQDDQGSURSDUR[\WRQDLQWKH$OEDQLDQZRUGVRI,QGR(XURSHDQ RULJLQZDVQRWFDXVHGE\WKHTXDQWLW\RIWKHSHQXOWLPDWHYRZHO:LWKRXW DQ\GRXEWWKLVRSSRVLWLRQJRHVEDFNWRWKH(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQVWDJH ZKHQWKHVWUHVVPXVWKDYHEHHQSDUDGLJPDWLFDOO\PRELOH 126 chapter two ,Q /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ WKHUH UHPDLQ RQO\ D IHZ LQGLYLGXDO WUDFHV RI SDUDGLJPDWLFPRELOLW\$QLQWHUHVWLQJFDVHLVWKDWRIWMHW¬UMHW¬U‘RWKHU’ WKHIRUPWMHW¬UUHVXOWVIURPFUDVLVZLWKWKHSUHFHGLQJSDUWLFOHW¬DQGRU IURP WKH DQDORJLFDO LQIOXHQFH RI WKH SOXUDO ,W FRQWLQXHV /3$ ©WHUD ZLWK WKH VWUHVV RQ WKH LQLWLDO V\OODEOH +RZHYHU LWV LUUHJXODU SOXUDO LV WMHU¬ 7KH RQO\ UHDVRQDEOH H[SODQDWLRQ RI WKLV IRUP LV WR VXSSRVH D 3URWR$OEDQLDQ VRXUFH UHFRQVWUXFWHG DV HW©UDL ZLWK WKH VWUHVV RQ WKH SHQXOWLPDWHV\OODEOH7KXVWKH/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQSDUDGLJPFRQVLVWHG RIWZRRSSRVHGIRUPV VJ SO ©WHUD HW©UDL $QRWKHU LQWHUHVWLQJ H[DPSOH RI WKLV NLQG LV WKDW RI 7RVN Y¬VKW ~ *HJ YêVKW‘YLQH\DUG’$VLWLVFOHDUO\UHODWHGWRYHU¬~YHQ¬‘ZLQH’ ZDLQ HW\PRORJLFDOO\ZHVKRXOGUHFRQVWUXFW3URWR$OEDQLDQ Z¢LQHVWDDVLWV VRXUFH QRWHWKDWWKHSRVLWLRQRIWKHVWUHVVLVGHILQHGE\WKHQDVDOTXDOLW\ RI WKH *HJ YRZHO 2Q WKH RWKHU KDQG WKH SOXUDO IRUPV RI WKLV ZRUG 7RVN YUHVKWD ~ *HJ YQHVKWD FDQ EH RQO\ H[SODLQHG LI ZH DFFHSW D UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ RI 3URWR$OEDQLDQ ZDLQ©VWDL $JDLQ IXUWKHU HYLGHQFH IRUDFFHQWXDORSSRVLWLRQLQD/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQSDUDGLJP VJ SO Z¢LQHVWD ZDLQ©VWD (DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ6WUHVV :H DVVXPH WKDW WKH IHDWXUH RI SDUDGLJPDWLF PRELOLW\ ZDV LQKHULWHGIURP(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQDVWDJHIRUZKLFKRXUUHFRQVWUXF WLRQ FDQ EH PRUH GHWDLOHG $ PRUH RU OHVV IXOO UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ FDQ EH VXJJHVWHG IRU WKH QRPLQDO DFFHQW 7KH UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ RI WKH YHUE’V DFFHQWLVRIQRKLVWRULFDOYDOXHDVLWZDVSDUDGLJPDWLFDOO\IL[HGHYHQLQ (DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ /LWHUDWXUH 25(/ 6RY VODY /LQJY LVVOHG ,, =I%DON ;,; ;;,, ;;,,, morphonology and word-formation 127 $VGHVFULEHGLQ$OEDQLDQQRXQVFDQEHGLYLGHGLQWR WZRDFFHQWXDOSDUDGLJPVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWKHLUDXVODXW YRZHOV LQ VLQJXODU DQG SOXUDO IRUPV 2Q WKH RQH KDQG WKHUH H[LVWHG EDU\WRQLFQRXQVWKDWKDGWKHVWUHVVOLQNHGWRWKHVWHPRIWKHZRUGERWK LQ WKH VLQJXODU DQG LQ SOXUDO DFFHQWXDO W\SH $ FIWKHIROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV VJ GZ¢LJ! G©JD!GHJ¬‘EUDQFK’ SO GZ¢LJL! G©JDL!GHJ¬‘EUDQFKHV’ VJ G¢XVD V ! GDXh!GDVK‘UDP’ SO G¢XVDL! G¢XhL!GHVK‘UDPV’ 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHUHH[LVWHGPRELOHR[\WRQLFQRXQVZKLFKKDGWKH VWUHVVRQWKHVWHPLQWKHVLQJXODUEXWRQWKHHQGLQJLQWKHSOXUDO DFFHQ WXDOW\SH% VJ VN¢O‘ILVKERQH’! VN¢OD!KDO¬‘ILVKERQH’ SO VNDOdV‘ILVKERQHV’! VNDO¢ V !KDOD‘ILVKERQHV’ VJ PdWDV! PD° W!PRW‘\HDU’ SO PW¢L! PD° W©!PRWH‘\HDUV’ ,Q QXPHURXV PDVFXOLQD WKH RULJLQDO HQGLQJ H ZDV UHSODFHG GXH WR DQDORJ\E\DZKLFKZDVRULJLQDOO\FKDUDFWHULVWLFRIVWHPVRQO\ VJ G¢UMDV! G©UMD!GHUU‘SLJ’ SO GDUM¢L! GHUM©!GHUUDLQVWHDGRI GHUUH‘SLJV’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chapter two ORDQZRUGV THQ‘GRJ’SOTHQDQGW\SH%ORDQZRUGV ODIVK¬‘FUHVW RI ELUG FRPE’SOODIVKDPDM‘KDPPHU’SOPDMD 'HULYDWLYHVLQWK XVXDOO\GLPLQXWLYHV SUHVHUYHWKHDFFHQWXDO W\SHRIWKHRULJLQDOQRXQV1RXQVRIWKHW\SH$SURGXFHGHULYDWLYHVRI WKHW\SH$ EUL‘KRUQ’SOEULEULU¬¾EULUWK‘IHHOHUWHQGULO’SOEULUWK¬ OH]‘ZDUW’SOOH]¬¾O\WKLGO\WK¬ V\‘H\H’SOV\¾V\WK‘ORRSEXG’SOV\WK¬ WUD‘EHDPSRVW’SOWUHU¬WUDU¬WUHQM¾WUDWK‘ODWKVODW’SOWUDWK¬ XUL‘PROH’SOXULQM¾XULWKLGSOXULWK¬ YH‘HJJ’SOYH¾YHWK‘PDJJRW’SOYHWK¬ YHVK‘HDU’SOYHVK¬¾Y¬WK‘HDUULQJ’SOY¬WK¬ 1RXQVRIWKHW\SH%SURGXFHGHULYDWLYHVRIWKHW\SH% ELU¬‘KROH’SOELUD¾ELUWK‘SLPSOH’SOELUWKD KDO¬‘ILVKERQH’SOKDOD¾KDOWK‘QHHGOH’SOKDOWKD NDS‘FRYHU’SONDSD¾NDSWK‘SDWK LQDVZDPS ’SONDSWKD NUDQG ‘EUXVKZRRG WZLJ’ SO NUDQGH ¾ NUDQWK ‘OLWWOH OHDI’ SO NUDQWKD ODN‘WUDSVOLQJ’SOOHTH¾ODNWKLGSOODNWKHODNWKD VKWHJ ‘SDWK ZD\’ SO VKWLJMH VKWHJMH ¾ VKWHNWK ‘VLQFLSXW’ SO VKWHNWKD WKLQG‘EHDN’SOWKLQGD¾WKLPWK‘WKRUQ’SOWKLPWKD 7KHUHDUHDIHZH[FHSWLRQVZLWKGHULYDWLYHVRIWKHW\SH$EHORQJLQJWR WKHJHQHUDOO\PRUHSURGXFWLYHW\SH% JXU‘VWRQH’SOJXU¬¾JXUWKLGSOJXUWKD ]RJ‘ELUG’SO]RJM¾]RNWK‘OLWWOHELUG’SO]RNWKD $ VLPLODU GLVWULEXWLRQ LV IRXQG LQ VHFRQGDU\ SOXUDOV ROG FRO OHFWLYD LQ]1RXQVEHORQJLQJWRWKHDFFHQWXDOW\SH$GHYHORSDSOXUDO LQ¬] ELU‘VRQ’¾SOELMELM¬] GMDO¬‘ER\’¾SOGMHOGMHOPGMHOP¬] LM¬‘KLSVLGH’¾SOLM¬LM¬] morphonology and word-formation 129 QMHU‘PDQ’¾SOQMHUQMHU¬] WKXD‘QDLO’¾SOWKRQMWKRQ¬] YH‘HJJ’¾SOYHYH]YH¬] YHVK‘HDU’¾SOYHVK¬YHVK¬] +RZHYHUGLDJQRVWLFDOO\WKHVHSOXUDOVDUHLUUHOHYDQWVLQFHQRXQVRIWKH DFFHQWXDOW\SH%IRUPSOXUDOVLQD]EXWXVXDOO\ZLWKDSDUDOOHOIRUPLQ ¬] JUHU¬‘ZDVS’¾SOJUHUDJUHUD]JUHU¬] YDVK¬‘JLUO’¾SOYDVKDYDVKD]YDVK¬] YDUU‘WRPE’¾SOYDUUHYDUUD] ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV RQO\ SOXUDOV LQ D] FDQ VHUYH DV DQ LQGLFDWRU RI WKH RULJLQDODFFHQWXDOVWDWXVRIDQRXQ :LWK WKH H[FHSWLRQ RI D IHZ DGMHFWLYHV ZKLFK UHIOHFW DQ RSSRVLWLRQRIDFFHQWXDOSDUDGLJPVVLPLODUWRWKDWRIWKHQRXQVPRVWRI DGMHFWLYHVKDYHGHYHORSHGQHZDFFHQWXDOIHDWXUHV 7KH ROG GLVWULEXWLRQ RI DFFHQWV LV VWLOO UHSUHVHQWHG E\ WKH PDVFXOLQH DGMHFWLYHV PDGK ‘ELJ’ DQG OLJ ‘EDG HYLO’ :KLOH OLJ KDV WKH SOXUDO OLJM DQGEHORQJVWRWKHDFFHQWXDOW\SH$PDGKZLWKLWVSOXUDOP¬GKHQMEDVHG RQHDUOLHU P¬GKHUHIOHFWVDFFHQWXDOW\SH% $% VJ OLJ OJD PDGK P¢G]D SO OLJM OJDL P¬GKH PDG]¢L ,Q RWKHU DGMHFWLYHV ZH REVHUYH FRPSOHWHO\ GLIIHUHQW DFFHQWXDO VWUXF WXUHV0DVFXOLQHDGMHFWLYHV RVWHPV KDYH¬LQWKHVLQJXODUJRLQJEDFN WRVWUHVVHG(3$ ¢ ,( RV,QWKHSOXUDOHUHIOHFWV(3$ ¢L ,( RL ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV PDVFXOLQH DGMHFWLYHV EHORQJ WR DQ DFFHQWXDO SDUDGLJP ZKLFK LV XQDWWHVWHG LQ VXEVWDQWLYHV $OO IRUPV RI WKLV DFFHQWXDOW\SH & DUHR[\WRQLF$WWKHVDPHWLPHIHPLQLQHDGMHFWLYHV VWHPV KDYH¬IURPXQVWUHVVHG(3$ ,( LQWKHVLQJXODUDQG D LQ WKH SOXUDO IURP VWUHVVHG (3$ d V ,( V ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV IHPLQLQH DGMHFWLYHV EHORQJ WR WKH DFFHQWXDO W\SH % 0DVFXOLQH DQG IHPLQLQHIRUPVDUHDFFHQWXDOO\FRQWUDVWHG 130 chapter two 7KHVLWXDWLRQLVWRWDOO\GLIIHUHQWLQDGMHFWLYHVZLWKWKHVXIIL[HV PDQG L VDP ! VK¬P 0DVFXOLQH DGMHFWLYHV EHORQJ HLWKHU WR DFFHQWXDO W\SH $ LH KDYH D ]HUR HQGLQJ RU ¬ LQ WKH VLQJXODU IURP XQVWUHVVHG (3$ D ,( RV RUWRW\SH% ZLWKVWUHVVHG(3$ ¢LQWKHVLQJXODU DQGD]HURHQGLQJLQWKHSOXUDOIURPXQVWUHVVHG(3$ DL ,( RL 7KH YDULDWLRQVRIVWUHVVLQWKHVLQJXODUZLWKLWVVHFRQGDU\¬ZKDWHYHUWKH H[SODQDWLRQPLJKWEHLVRIQRUHOHYDQFHWRWKHDFFHQWXDOW\SH)HPLQLQH DGMHFWLYHVLQ PDQG L VDPKDYHHLQWKHVLQJXODUDQGLQWKHSOXUDO (YHQWKRXJKWKHUHLVQRFHUWDLQW\DVWRWKHVRXUFHRIWKLVHQGLQJ LWPD\ EHFRQQHFWHGZLWKVWHPVLQ MRULQ L M LWLVLQGXELWDEO\R[\WRQLF LHIHPLQLQHDGMHFWLYHVEHORQJWRWKHDFFHQWXDOW\SH& &IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV PLU¬‘JRRG’DQGNROP¬‘SUHWW\ZLQVRPH’ PDVF IHP PDVF IHP VJ PLU¬ PLU¢ PLU¬ PU NROP ¬ NOPD NROPH NOLPLMd SO PLUH PLU¢L PLUD PLUdV NROP ¬ NOPDL NROPH NOLPLMd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morphonology and word-formation 131 DFFHQWXDOSDUDGLJPV 7KLVFDQEHFRUURERUDWHGE\WKHIROORZLQJUHOH YDQWPDWHULDO &RQVRQDQWDQGURRWVWHPV NUL ~NUî SO NUL ~NUî ‘ZRRGZRUP PRWK’ (3$ NULZL 6ODY ¨ÚUYÚ‘ZRUP’ F 2$OEQMHUSOQMHU‘PDQSHUVRQKXPDQEHLQJ’ (3$ QHUD Gk CPJT‘PDQ’JHQCPFTQX LQ6DQVNULWWKHVWUHVVRIQ¢UFDQEH H[SODLQHGE\WKHJHQHUDOL]DWLRQRIWKHQRPLQDWLYH VVWHPV KL~Kî‘DVK’SOKL~KîKLQ (3$ VNLQD VNLQHV /DWFLQLV‘GXVW DVK’ FHQHV ZLWK DQ XQVWUHVVHG VKRUWHQHG YRZHO IURP V QHV XVWHPV JUXD~JUXHSOJUD‘ZRPDQZLIH’ (3$ JUZ GkITCW`X‘ROG ZRPDQ’ YDO¬SOYDO¬‘ZDYH’ (3$ ZDO 6ODY YDOÙLG F RVWHPV PDVFXOLQH EUL~EUîSOEULEULQMEULU¬~EULQ¬‘KRUQ’ (3$ EULQD *HUP ÉUHQÌ¢ 6ZHGEULQG‘GHHU’1RUZEULQJHLG GMDO¬SOGMHPGMHOPGLDOGMHO‘ER\\RXWK’ (3$ GHOD /DWYG?OV ‘VRQ’6ZHGGLDOGHOG¥O‘QLSSOH’ *HUP ÌO¢] GXDM~GXHMSO‘VKHDI’ (3$ GAQMD 6NWGKQ\¢‘JUDLQ’ GK¬PE ~ GKDPE SO GK¬PE¬ ~ GKDPE¬ ‘WRRWK’ (3$ G]DPED 6ODY ]_EÙLG F LQRWKHUODQJXDJHVWKLVZRUGLVEDU\WRQLFFI 6NWM¢PEKDLG7KH6ODYLFDFFHQWLVKDUGO\LQQRYDWLYH GK¬QG¬U~GKDQG¬USOGK¬QGXU¬~GKDQGXU¬‘EULGHJURRPVRQLQ ODZ’ (3$ G]HQUD 6NWMU¢‘VXLWRU’GkICODTQX‘VRQLQ ODZ’ HVKSOHVK¬‘KHGJHKRJ’ (3$ HG]MD ZLWKSKRQHWLFGLIILFXOWLHV /LWKHÊmVLG 6ODY HÊÚLG F $UUDQJHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHSDUDGLJPDWLFFODVVHVRI,QGR(XURSHDQSDUDOOHOVQRW3URWR $OEDQLDQVWHPV 132 chapter two JML~JMîSOJML~JMî‘EUHDVWFKHVW’ (3$ VLQD /DWVLQXV‘FXUYH IROG’ZLWKWKHVKRUWHQLQJRIXQVWUHVVHG JM\VKSOJM\VK¬JM\VK¬U~JM\VK¬Q‘JUDQGIDWKHU’ (3$ V VD 6NW V ¿d‘SURJHQLWRU’ NRK¬ SO NRK¬ ‘WLPH’ (3$ N[ 6ODY ¨DVÙ LG WUDFHV RI D PRELOH SDUDGLJP LQ 2OG 5XVVLDQ )URP WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ SHUVSHFWLYHWKHZRUGFRXOGEHDQROGQHXWHU SODN SO SOHT ‘ROG PDQ’ (3$ S H ODND SHOiNRV /LWK S®ONDV ‘JUH\’ SâiNRV WHUSOWHU¬WHUD‘EXOO’ WDXUD /LWKWD-UDVLG 6ODY WXUÙLG F GkVCW`TQXLGLVEDU\WRQLF XMN SO XMT XMT¬U~XMT¬Q ‘ZROI’ (3$ Z XOND /LWK YLËNDV LG 6ODY YÚONÙLG F DV RSSRVHG WR EDU\WRQLF 6NWY¤NDLG GkNWMQXLG YMHK¬UUSOYMHK¬UU‘IDWKHULQODZ’ (3$ VZHVXUD VZHWVXU Gk ∼ G MWTQXLG/LWKhH hXUDVLG 6ODY VYHNÙUÙLG F EXWFI EDU\WRQLF6NWyY¢yXUDLG2+*VZHKXULG *HUP VZ©[XUD] ]MDUP SO GLDO ]MHUP ]MHUP¬ LQQRYDWLYH ]MDUPH ‘ILUH’ (3$ GÊHUPD 6NW JKDUP¢ ‘VXQKHDW’ Gk SGTOQX ‘ZDUP’ $IJK IDUP¢‘QRRQKHDW’IUPi RVWHPV QHXWHU EDOO¬ SO EDOO¬ ‘IRUHKHDG’ (3$ EDO *N HCNQX ‘ZKLWH’ /LWK E¦ODV‘DQHPRQH’ FIWKHVDPHVHPDQWLFGHYHORSPHQWLQ6NW EKODLG23UXVEDOORLG GDVKSOGHVK ‘UDP’ (3$ GDXhD *PF ÌHX]¢Q ‘ZLOG DQLPDO’ *RWKGLXV21GØU 6ODY GX[Ù‘EUHDWKVSLULW’ F IMDO¬SOIMDO¬‘ZRUGVSHHFKWDOH’ (3$ VSHO *RWKVSLOO‘VWRU\ IDEOH’21VSMDOO‘VWRU\VSHHFK’2(VSHOOLG2+*VSHOVSHOO LG *PF VSHOO¢Q JUXU¬~JUXQ¬‘ZKHDW’ VLQJXODUL]HGSO (3$ JUXQ 6NWM Uo¢ MUo¢ ‘ROG GHFD\HG ZLWKHUHG’ $IJK ]i'D\ ‘VHHG’ EDVHG RQ ]iUQ¢P +RZHYHU/DWJUQXP2,UJU¢Q/LWKÊ®UQLV 6ODY ]ÚUQRDUHEDU\WRQLF JMXK¬SOJMXK¬‘WRQJXHODQJXDJH’ (3$ JXOV 21NDOO‘VKRXW’ *PF NDO]¢Q6ODY JROVÙ‘YRLFH’ F KLUU¬SOKLUU¬‘ZKH\’ (3$ NVLU 6NWN¿U¢‘PLON’ morphonology and word-formation 133 LVWHPV ERW¬ SO ERW¬ LQQRYDWLYH ERWD ‘HDUWK ZRUOG’ (3$ EZWL 6NW EK W‘H[LVWHQFH’/LWKE W®VLG ! ,UEXLWKLG ZLWKWKH VKRUWHQLQJRIWKHXQVWUHVVHGYRZHO GLW¬SOGLWGLW¬‘GD\’ (3$ GWL *PF WÌW]‘WLPH’ 2+*]W2( WG DQG6NWVXGW‘IDLUGD\’ JUDWKSOJUDWK¬‘WRRWKSURQJ RIDGHYLFH EULVWOH’GHPLQXWLYHRI (3$ JUDED 6ODY JUREÙ F JXUSOJXU¬‘VWRQHURFN’ (3$ JXUL 6NWJLU‘PRXQWDLQ’ JMROO¬SOJMROO¬‘FOHDULQJRUSDVWXUHZKHUHVDOWLVVWUHZQIRUVKHHS SDWFKRIJURXQGIRUVRZLQJ’ (3$ VOL 6ODY VROÚ‘VDOW’ F QDW¬SOQHWQHW¬‘QLJKW’ (3$ QDNWL 6ODY QRNWÚLG F RSSRVHG WREDU\WRQLF/LWKQDNW®VLGDQG6NWQ¢NW V\SOV\‘H\H’ (3$GXDO DWhZL /LWKDN®VLG GXDODN®6ODY RNRLG F GXDO R¨L YHVK SO YHVK¬ ‘HDU’ (3$ ZDXVL /LWK DXV®V LG /DWY £XVV 6ODY X[RLG F GXDO XhL ]HW‘WZHQW\’SO G\ ]HW‘IRUW\’ (3$ Z L GÊDWL 6NWYLayDWLG $IJKZhWLGGkGKMQUKLG VWHPV EDUU¬SOEDUU¬‘ORDGEXUGHQ’ (3$ EDU GkHQTC‘ORDG’ EDWK¬ SO EDWK¬ ‘EURDG EHDQ’ (3$ EDWV Gk HCMJ`‘GLVK RI OHQWLOV’HCMQX‘OHQWLO’ IDU¬SOIDU¬VHFRQGDU\IDUD‘VHHGVHPHQNLQ’ (3$ SVDU Gk URQTC‘VHHG’ JU\N¬ SO JU\N¬ VHFRQGDU\ JU\ND ‘WKURDW’ (3$ JUZN GHULYDWLYHRI JUZ 6NWJUYd‘QHFN’$IJKJiUZ¢‘FODYLFOH’ /DWYJU&YD‘ULYHUPRXWK’DQG6ODY JULYD‘PDQH’DUHEDU\WRQLF JXDOO SO JXDM ‘VKHOO VNXOO’ (3$ JOZD /LWK JDOY£ 6ODY JROYD F NDS¬ SO NDS¬ ‘DUPIXO RI FRUQ VKRFN SLOH’ (3$ NDS 6ODY NRSD‘PRZVKRFNVWDFN’ F EXW*NMCRJ‘PDQJHUFULE’LV EDU\WRQLF O¬QG¬ ~ ODQG¬ SO O¬QG¬ ~ ODQG¬ ‘ZRRG WLPEHU PDWHULDO’ (3$ OHQW *PF OHQÌWA‘OLQGHQ’ 2+*OLQWD2(OLQG /LWKOHQW£ ‘ERDUG’ ORS¬SOORS¬‘FRZ’ (3$ OS /DWYOX¶SV‘FDWWOH’ 134 chapter two Q¬P¬ ~ QDP¬ SO Q¬P¬ ~ QDP¬ ‘FXUVH’ (3$ QDP *N PQOJ ‘PHDGRZ’ %RWK ZRUGV GHVSLWH WKH VHPDQWLF GLIIHUHQFHV DUH FRQQHFWHGZLWKGkPGOY‘WRGLVWULEXWH’*RWKQLPDQ‘WRWDNH’ FILQSDUWLFXODU*NPGOGUKX‘ZUDWK’ SDO¬ SO SDO¬ ‘SDLU IROG JURXS FODVV SDUW\’ (3$ SDO 6ODY SROD‘IODSWDLO’ F SRUGK¬SOSRUGK¬‘IDUW’ (3$ SUG *NRQTFJLG WKHN¬SOWKHN¬‘IULQJH’ (3$ WVDN /LWKhDN£‘EUDQFK’ 6ODY VR[D‘EUDQFKSORXJK’ F 6NWydNK‘EUDQFK’LVEDU\WRQLF VKWD]¬VKW¬]¬~VKWDˆ]¬SOVKWD]¬VKW¬]¬~VKWâ]¬‘DQLPDO’ (3$ VWDGM ZLWK VHFRQGDU\ QDVDOL]DWLRQ *PF VWÌM¢ ‘VWHDG\ IDVW’ 2+*VWWL ]RUU¬SO]RUU¬‘JXW’ (3$ GÊUQ /LWKÊDUQ£LG 6HYHUDODUFKDLFIRUPVVKRZXVWKDWZRUGVEHORQJLQJWRDFFHQWXDOW\SH$ RULJLQDOO\KDGDWHQGHQF\RIVKLIWLQJVWUHVVWRWKHSUHFHGLQJFOLWLF LH WKHVWUHVVRIWKLVW\SHZDVRULJLQDOO\PRELOHDVLQRWKHU,QGR(XURSHDQ ODQJXDJHV VRQWH‘WKLVQLJKW’ (3$ WVM L QDNWLGDWORFVJ VRW‘WRGD\’ (3$ WVM L GWL GDWORFVJ G\]HW‘WZHQW\’ (3$ GXZAZLWVDWL 1RXQVEHORQJLQJWRDFFHQWXDOW\SH%FRUUHVSRQGWREDU\WRQLF ZRUGV LQ ,QGR(XURSHDQ 7KLV FDQ EH FRUURERUDWHG E\ WKH IROORZLQJ PDWHULDO &RQVRQDQWDOVWHPV JM¬~JMDˆSOJM¬UD~JMDQD‘WKLQJ’ (3$ VDQ V *PF V¢QÈ‘WUXH’ 21VDQQUVDÔU2(V²Ô NU\HSONUHU¬~NUHQ¬‘KHDG’ (3$ NU V Q *NMTCPC MGHCNJ $UHPDGHFRQVRQDQWDOVWHP PDGK‘ELJODUJH’SOP¬GKHQM EDVHGRQ P¬GKH (3$ PDG]D 6NWP¢KL‘JUHDWODUJH’GkOGICXLGQHXWOGIC WK¬UL~WK¬QLSOWK¬ULD~WK¬QLD WK¬UL~WK¬QLLVVHFRQGDU\ ‘ORXVH’ (3$ WVDQLG GkMQPKX‘QLW’ morphonology and word-formation 135 +HWHURFOLWLFVWHPV HOE SO HOE¬UD ~ HOE¬QD ‘EDUOH\’ (3$ DOEL Gk CNHK ‘NLQG RI JUDLQ’ HVKW¬SOHVKWD‘ILEUHPXVFOHILEUH’ (3$ DVWL 6NW¢VWKLLG QDQGUVWHPV GLP¬U~ GLP¬Q SO GLPUD~GLPQD‘ZLQWHU’ (3$ GHLPHQD 6NW K©PDQORF‘LQZLQWHU’GkZGK`OC‘ZLQWHU’ HP¬U~HP¬QSOHPUD~HPQD‘QDPH’ (3$ HQPHQ 6ODY MÚP? LG E" PRW¬U SO PRWUD‘VLVWHU’ (3$ PWHU $IJK PAU ‘PRWKHU’ /LWK P²W^LG /DWYP¦WHLG6ODY PDWLLG D +RZHYHUVHYHUDO ,QGR(XURSHDQ IRUPV DUH R[\WRQLF 6NW PW¢U Gk OJVJT OJVTQX UU\P¬ SO UU\PD ‘IORZ RI ZDWHU ’ (3$ VU P *N TGW`OC ‘VWUHDP’ VVWHPV DQJ‘IHDUQLJKWPDUH’ (3$ DQJD V 6NW¢PKDV‘IHDU’ HQG ‘SROOHQ’ (3$ DQGD V 6NW ¢QGKDV ‘KHUE’ Gk CPSQX ‘IORZHU’ HWKH SO ‘IHYHU’ (3$ DLGD V 6NW ©GKDV ‘ILUHZRRG IXHO’ Gk CK?SQX‘ILUH’ YLWYMHWSOYLWH‘\HDU’ (3$ ZHWD V GkGVQXLG ]MDUUSO]MDUUH‘ILUH’ (3$ GÊHUD V 6NWK¢UDV‘IODPHKHDW’Gk SGTQX‘VXPPHU’ XVWHPV PMHN¬USOPMHNUD‘FKLQEHDUG’ (3$ VPHNUX 6NWyP¢yUXLG RVWHPV PDVFXOLQH DUSODUD‘EHDU’ (3$ DUD 6NW¤N¿DLG$IJK\iÊLGGkCTMVQX LG GHUUSOGHUUD‘SLJ’ (3$ GDUMD GkZQK`TQXLG 136 chapter two GUDQJSOGUDQJMH‘EDUJHSROHSXQWLQJSROH \RXQJFUHDWXUHFXE’ (3$ GUDQJD /LWKGUD±JDV‘SHUFKSROH’ 6ODY GU_JÙ E JDUGK SO JDUGKH JMHUGKH ‘IHQFH’ (3$ JDUGD /LWK JD¼GDV ‘IHQFH’ ! 6ODY JRUGÙ‘WRZQIHQFH’ F KHOO SO KHOOH KHMHVHFRQGDU\ KHM ‘VSHDU VSLW’ (3$ VNAOD Gk UMY`NQX‘SRLQWHGVWDNHWKRUQ’ N¬UU SO N¬UUD ‘GRQNH\ DVV IRDO JUD\’ (3$ NDUD 6NW NK¢UD ‘GRQNH\’ NUHSSONUHSD‘URFN’ (3$ NUHSD *PF [U©ID]‘ERG\’ 2(KULI 2+*KUHI SUREDEO\DUHPDGHURRWQRXQ ODS¬SOODSD‘KDUGSLHFHRIPHDWRUVNLQ SHULWRQHXP OHDI’ (3$ ODS /LWKO¦SDV‘OHDI’ GkNQRQX‘VKHOOKXVNEDUN’ PDUGK¬‘FKLOOIURVWLFH’ (3$ PDUG]D:6ODY PRU]Ù‘IURVW’ D PLW¬SOPLWD‘VKRRW’ (3$ PHLWD /LWKPLWDV‘SRVWVWDNH’ THW¬SOTHWD‘ MDJJHG URFN’ (3$ NODLW /LWKhOD&WDV‘VORSH’ UULPHSOUULPH‘UDLQZRUP’ (3$ ZULPD *NTQOQX‘ZRUP’ VKWHJSOVKWLJMH‘SDWKURDG (3$ VWDLJD GkUVQK`ZQX‘URZOLQH’ VKWURK¬~ VKWURI¬SOVKWURKD~ VKWURID‘NHQQHO’ (3$ VWUM /DWY VWUDMD‘VWDOOFRYHUHGZLWKVWUDZ’6ODY VWURMÚ‘FRQVWUXFWLRQ’ WXOSOWXOHWXOD‘PHDWIOHVKSXOS’ (3$ WXOD GkVWNJ‘VZHOOLQJ’ 6ODY W\OÙ‘EDFNVLGH’ D WKHS SO WKHSD ‘SHDN SRLQW FRJ WRRWK’ (3$ WVDLSD 6NW y©SD ‘WDLOSHQLV’ YLGKSOYLGKD‘HOP’ (3$ Z Q G]D 6ODY Y?]ÙLG D ]¬ ~]â SO ]¬UD ~ ]DQD ‘YRLFH’ (3$ G]ZDQD 6ODY ]YRQÙ ‘ULQJLQJVRXQG’ D RVWHPV QHXWHU GDUN¬SOGDUND‘VXSSHU’ (3$ GDUN GkFQTRQPLG ¬QG¬UU~DQG¬UUSO¬QGUUD~DQGUUD‘GUHDPVOHHS’ (3$ DQUM GkQPGKTQPQPGKTQX JUDE¬ SO JUDED ‘HURVLRQ KROORZLQJ RXW’ (3$ JUDE 6ODY JUREÙ‘SLWWRPE’ E JUHOO¬SOJUHOOD‘GHHSSODFH’ (3$ JULWO 6ODY JÙUGOR‘WKURDW’ D ÊHUGOR‘ULYHUEHG RSHQLQJ’ E JMHWKSOJMHWK‘IROLDJHJUHHQOHDYHV’ (3$ JDG]D 6ODY JYR]GÙ ‘ZRRGIRUHVW’ E KXGK¬USOKXGKUD‘JDUOLF’ (3$ VNXUG GkUMQTQFQPLG morphonology and word-formation 137 VKWDJ¬ SO VKWDJD ‘SROH VWLFN’ (3$ VWDJ 6ODY VWRJÙ ‘PRZ VWDFN’ E LVWHPV EHV¬ SO EHVD ‘SOHGJH WUXFH WUXVW’ (3$ EDLWhL Gk RKUVKX ‘IDLWKIXOWUXVWZRUWK\’ KHUGKHSO‘WHVWLFOHV’ (3$ DUG]DL GkQTZKX NULPE~NU\PSONULPEDN¬UPLQM~NU\PD‘ZRUP’ (3$ NULPL 6NWN¤PL/LWKN®UPLVJHQNL¼PLHV ! PRWSOPRWH‘WLPHZHDWKHUVWRUPWKXQGHUEROW’ (3$ PWL 6NW PWL‘PHDVXUH’GkOJ`VKXLG Y¬QJ ~ YDQJ SO Y¬QJMH ~ YDQJMH ‘KRRS WLUH ULQJ ULP’ (3$ ZHQJ /LWKY®QJLV‘DUF’ ]RWSO]RW¬ULQM]RW¬U2$OE]RWD‘ORUGPDVWHUJRG’ (3$ Z L Wh SDWL 6NWYLyS¢WL‘ORUGRIWKHKRXVH’/LWKYLhSDWV‘ORUG’ DQGVWHPV EDUNSOEDUTH‘EHOO\ZRPEDEGRPHQ’ (3$ EDUXND DCT W!MC CKFQK`QPRCTC>6CTCPVKPQKX JULP¬ SO JULPD ‘FUXPE ELW’ (3$ JULP *N DTY`OJ‘IRRG PHDO’ KXUE¬SOKXUED‘VZDOORZPRXWKIXO’ (3$ VNXUE /DWYhNL¼ED ‘ILVVXUHVORW’6ODY h¨ÚUEDLG E NDUS¬ SO NDUSD ‘URFN’ (3$ NDUS /LWK N¢USD ‘ZDUW’ ND¼SDV ‘FXWKDFNQRWFK’ 0/*VFKDUI‘SRWVKHUG’ *PF VN¢UID] NHGKSONHGK¬NHGKD‘NLG’ (3$ NDG]D 6ODY NR]D‘VKHJRDW’ E NULS¬ ~NU\S¬ SO NULS¬UD ~NU\SQD ‘VDOW’ (3$ NU S 6ODY NUXSD‘JURDWV’ E NUXD~NUXHSONURMH VHFRQGDU\IRUPNURQM ‘VSULQJIRXQWDLQ’ (3$ NUQD *NMTJPJLG NXOS ‘LY\ FOHPDWLV’ SO NXOSD EDVHG RQ WKH SDUDGLJP RI WKH GLPLQXWLYH NXUWK SO NXUWKH (3$ NXOSD /LWK N®OSD ‘ORRS’ OHU¬SOOHUD‘KHDSRIVWRQHVSHEEOHEDQN’ (3$ ODXU *NNCWTC ‘DOOH\SDVVEHWZHHQURFNV’ OLQJ¬SOOLQJD‘VPDOOEHOO’ (3$ OLQJ /LWKO®QJ^‘IOH[LEOHSROH EHQG’ /DWYOL±JD‘ORRS’ 138 chapter two ORTHSOORTH‘SHQLV WHVWLFOHV’ (3$ OXND /LWKOLDXN£‘JODQG’ ! OO¬U¬~OODQ¬SOOO¬UD~OODQD OO¬U¬~OODQ¬LVVHFRQGDU\ ‘IRUHDUP HOO’ (3$ DOHQ GkYNGPJ‘HOERZ’ P¬OOHQM¬ SO P¬OOHQMD ‘EODFNELUG’ (3$ PHODQM Gk fem. OGNCKPC‘EODFN’/DWYP?ËQVLG%XW6NWPDOLQ¢LVR[\WRQLF PMDOF¬SOPMDOFD‘EHH’ (3$ PHOLWM *NOGNKUUC OGNKVMCLG PMHJXOO SO PMHJXOOD ‘FORXG’ (3$ PHJ X O Gk QOKZNJ ‘IRJ PLVW’/LWKPLJO£LG 6ODY PÚJOD‘GDUNQHVVPLVW’ E PRGKXOO SO PRGKXOOD ‘vHWFK FKLFNOLQJ FKLFNSHD’ (3$ PG]XOD /LWKPDʸOLV‘VPDOO’ SLGKSOSLGKH‘IHPDOHSXGHQGD’ (3$ S H L]GD 6ODY SL]GDLG E URV¬SOURVD‘GXFN’ (3$ DQWM *NPJ`UUC‘GXFN’ VRUU¬SOVRUUD‘FURZ’ (3$ WhUVQ $IJKNQ ‘OHIW’IHPNQD 6ODY ¨ÚUQÙ‘EODFN’IHP ¨ÚUQDRSSRVHGWR6NWN¿o¢‘EODFN GDUN’ WUDSSOWUDSD‘IHUU\’ (3$ WUDSD 6ODY WURSD‘SDWK’ E YHU¬~YHQ¬‘ZLQH’ (3$ ZDLQ GkQKPJ‘YLQH’ YH SO YD YHMD ‘ZLGRZ’ (3$ ZLGHZ 6NW YLGK¢Y LG 6ODY YÚGRYDLG E ]RQM¬‘ZLIH’SO]RQMD (3$ Z L WhSDWQM 6NWS¢WQLGVDS¢WQ ‘RQHRIWKHZLYHV’ &DVHV DW YDULDQFH ZLWK WKH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI $ DQG % DUH QRW QXPHURXV DU¬SODUD‘ILHOG’ (3$ DU /DWYDˆUDLG EHSOEH‘RDWK’ (3$ EDLG 6ODY EpGD‘GLVDVWHU’ E GHU¬SOG\HU‘GRRU’ (3$ GZAU 6NWGYdUGkSWTC JMDN SO JMDTH JMDNUD ~ JMDNQD ‘EORRG’ (3$ VDND Gk QRQX ‘MXLFH’/LWKVDND&‘UHVLQ’ 6ODY VRNÙ‘MXLFH’ F KDO¬ SO KDOD ‘ILVK ERQH VSOLQWHU SLQH’ (3$ VNDO /LWK VNDO£ ‘VWLFNRIILUHZRRG’ KX ~Kû SO KXQM ‘SLFNHW VWDNH SROH SHQLV’ (3$ VNXMD 6ODY [XMÚ‘SHQLV’ E THQJM¬ SO THQJMD ‘EHHKLYH’ (3$ NHQDJ *PF [XQDJ¢Q ‘KRQH\’ 21KXQDQJ2(KXQLJ2+*KRQDJ morphonology and word-formation 139 UUHWKSOUUDWK¬‘KRRSULP RIZKHHO FLUFOH’GLPLQXWLYHRIW\SH$ 6NWU¢WKD‘ZDJRQ’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¬‘VXSSHU’ (3$GDUNYVGD U VP¬ ‘ZHGGLQJ IHDVW’ (3$GDUWhLP UHIOHFWLQJ DQ DOWHUQDWLRQ N V (3$ N Wh $VLPLODUDOWHUQDWLRQRIYRLFHGFRQVRQDQWVJ ] (3$ J GÊ LVIRXQGLQGMHJ‘WREXUQ’YVQGH]D‘WRVHWDOLJKWWRLJQLWH’ (3$ HQ GDGÊMD7KLVDOWHUQDWLRQKRZHYHUFDQEHFKDUDFWHUL]HGDV“WUDGLWLRQDO” DQG “QRQSDUDGLJPDWLF” LQVRIDU DV LW KDV QRW EHFRPH D VWUXFWXUDOO\ UHOHYDQWGHYLFHLQZRUGIRUPDWLRQRUPRUSKRORJ\ /LWHUDWXUH '20,5(6;/9 WLPEUHDOWHUQDWLRQ '(61,&.$-$ ,), VXUYH\ RI DOWHUQDWLRQV /(.20&(9$ %DOFDQLFD W\SRORJLFDOSDUDOOHOVWRWKHWLPEUHDOWHUQDWLRQ 7KH PDLQ SURGXFWLYH DOWHUQDWLRQV RI FRQVRQDQWV LQ $OEDQLDQ ZHUH FUHDWHG LQ SDUDGLJPV RI YHUEV DQG QRXQV GXH WR WKH SKRQHWLF GHYHORSPHQWRIFOXVWHUVZLWK MDQGRUSDODWDOL]DWLRQRIFRQVRQDQWVLQ FHUWDLQIRUPVRIWKHSDUDGLJP 7KH DOWHUQDWLRQ W V LV ZLGHVSUHDG LQ WKH YHUEDO SDUDGLJPV RI *HJ ZKHUHWKHILUVWHOHPHQWRIWKHDOWHUQDWLRQDSSHDUVLQWKHVJSUHVHQW DQG LQ WKH DRULVW ZKLOH WKH VHFRQG HOHPHQW FKDUDFWHUL]HV WKH VJ SUHVHQW 7KH ILUVW HOHPHQW W FRQWLQXHV WKH ODVW FRQVRQDQW RI WKH (DUO\ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ YHUEDO VWHP W ZKLOH WKH VHFRQG HOHPHQW JRHV EDFN WR 140 chapter two (3$ WM,Q7RVNWKHVJSUHVHQWKDVEHHQDQDORJLFDOO\FKDQJHGXQGHU WKHLQIOXHQFHRIWKHVJ&IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV VJSUHV VJDRU VJSUHV ‘WRSUD\’ OXW OXWHW OXWD OXWD OXV OXWMD ‘WRPHDVXUH’ PDW PDWHW PDWD PDWD PDV PDWMD ‘WRXUJH’ QJXW HQJXWHW QJXWD HQJXWD QJXV HQJXWMD ‘WRSUDFWLVH’ U\W U WHW U\WD U WD U\V U WMD ‘WRSXOOXS’ UULW ZULWHW UULWD ZULWD UULV ZULWMD ‘WRIULJKWHQ’ WXW WXWHW WXWD WXWD WXV WXWMD $VLPLODUDOWHUQDWLRQLVHVWDEOLVKHGEHWZHHQQDQGGLDOQMMOLWM7KH VHFRQGHOHPHQWRIWKHDOWHUQDWLRQLVDWWHVWHGLQVJSUHVHQWZKLOHWKH ILUVW HOHPHQW GRPLQDWHV WKH UHVW RI WKH SUHVHQW SDUDGLJP WKH DRULVWLF IRUP KRZHYHU EHORQJ WR RWKHU PRUSKRORJLFDO W\SHV VRPHWLPHV EXLOW RQWKHEDVLVRIWKHVJSUHV VJSUHV VJDRU VJSUHV ‘WRPDWH’ ERQ E J QHW ERYD ERM E J QMD ‘WRJQDZ’ EUHQ EUHQHW EUHMWD EUHM EUHQMD ‘WRILQG’ JMHQ JDGQHW JMHWD JMHM JDGQMD ‘WRZDVK’ ODQ ODXQHW ODYD ODM ODXQMD ‘WRIHHG’ PDQ PD]GQHW PDMWD PDM PD]GQMD ‘WRGLYLGH’ QGDQ HQGDQHW QGDMWDQGDYD QGDM HQGDQMD $SURGXFWLYHDOWHUQDWLRQDWWHVWHGLQWKHQRPLQDOV\VWHPLVWKDW RIYHODUV SDODWDOL]HGYHODUVLHN TJ JM7KHVHFRQGHOHPHQWRIWKH DOWHUQDWLQJSDLUVDSSHDUVLQWKHSOXUDODVRSSRVHGWRWKHVLQJXODU VJ SO ‘WZLOLJKW’ DJ DXJD DJMH DXJDL ‘EHOO\’ EDUN EDUND EDUTH EDUNDL ‘EDUJHSROH’ GUDQJ GUDQJD GUDQJMH GUDQJDL ‘RDN’ GXVKN GXVND GXVKTH GXVNDL ‘ROGPDQ’ SODN SODND SOHT SODNDL ‘KHDS’ WRJ WJD WRJMH WDJDL morphonology and word-formation 141 7KHVDPHDOWHUQDWLRQRIYHODUVDQGSDODWDOL]HGYHODUVLVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQ WKH YHUEDO V\VWHP ZKHUH LW LV FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI WKH RSSRVLWLRQ EHWZHHQ SUHVHQWDQGDRULVWIRUPVRIFHUWDLQYHUEJURXSV SUHVHQW DRULVW ‘WREXUQ’ GMHJ GRJMD ‘WREDNH’ SMHN SRTD ‘WRIROORZ’ QGMHN QGRTD 2QH PRUH SURGXFWLYH DOWHUQDWLRQ LV IRXQG LQ WKH QRPLQDO V\VWHP EHWZHHQOODQGM7KHVRXUFHRIWKLVSDODWDOL]DWLRQLVPHGLDO OEHIRUH L LQ/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQ VJ SO ‘SHRSOH’ SRSXOO SRSXM ‘PXOOHW’ THIXOO THIXM ‘SLQH’ UUREXOO UUREXM ‘VHDPHGJH’ VNXQGLOO VNXQGLM ‘UDJFORWK’ VXNXOO VXNXM ‘WLWOH’ WLWXOO WLWXM $QRWKHU VRXUFH RI SURGXFWLYH DOWHUQDWLRQV LQ $OEDQLDQ FRQVRQDQWLVPLVWKHYRLFLQJRIXQYRLFHGRFFOXVLYHVDIWHUQDVDOV,WRIWHQ RFFXUVDWWKHMXQFWXUHEHWZHHQSUHIL[HVDQGQRPLQDOVWHPV ND‘RXW’ QJDid. NRUGK‘WRGLH RIDQLPDOV ’ QJRUGK‘WRGLH’ NXQMRM‘WRFORVHZLWKDSHJ’ QJXMRM‘WRHQFORVH’ SDV‘DIWHUEHKLQG’ PEDVLG SMHOO‘WREHJHW’ PEMHOO‘WRVRZ’ SURGK‘WRSURGXFH’ PEURGK‘WRKHOS’ 8QYRLFLQJLVIRXQGLQWKHSRVLWLRQDIWHUWKHSUHIL[VK ELH‘WREULQJWRFDUU\’ VKSLH‘WRFDUU\DZD\’ JDUGK¬‘IHQFH’ VKNDUGK¬‘GRJFKDLQ’ J¬UU\HM‘WRVFUDSH’ VKNU\HM‘WRPDNHGLUW\’ JOHS¬‘PDWWHUIURPWKHH\HV’ VKNOHS¬LG 142 chapter two 9RFDOLFDOWHUQDWLRQV 1XPHURXVYRFDOLFDOWHUQDWLRQVZHUHFDXVHGE\UHODWLYHO\UHFHQW IDFWRUVVXFKDVWKHUHGXFWLRQRIYRZHOVDQGGLSKWKRQJL]DWLRQRI3URWR $OEDQLDQORQJPRQRSKWKRQJV ,QWKHQRPLQDOV\VWHPRQHVXFKDOWHUQDWLRQLVWKDWEHWZHHQXD ~ XHDQGR VJ SO ‘IDOFRQ’ IDMNXD~ IDMNXH IDMNRQM ‘KRQH\FRPE’ KXDOO~ KXHOO KRMH ‘URHEXFN’ NDSUXDOO~ NDSUXHOO NDSURM ‘URRVWHU’ NDSXD~ NDSXH NDSRQM ‘VWDEOH’ NDWXD~ NDWXH NDWRQM ‘VSULQJ’ NUXD~ NUXH NURQM 7KHVDPHDOWHUQDWLRQLVSURGXFWLYHLQWKHYHUEDOPRUSKRORJ\,WFKDUDF WHUL]HVWKHSUHVHQW/DRULVWRSSRVLWLRQ SUHVHQW DRULVW ‘WREHDIUDLG’ GUXDM~ GUXHM GURYD ‘WRJULQG’ EOXDM~ EOXHM EORYD ‘WRSUHSDUH’ JDWXDM~ JDWXHM JDWRYD ‘WRKXQW’ JMXDM~ JMXHM JMRYD ‘WRVFUDWFK’ NUXDM~ NUXHM NURYD ‘WRZULWH’ VKNUXDM~ VKNUXHM VKNURYD ,Q ZRUGIRUPDWLRQ DQRWKHU UHODWLYHO\ UHFHQW DOWHUQDWLRQ LV EDVHG RQ WKH UHGXFWLRQ RI XQVWUHVVHG YRZHOV 7KH PRVW IUHTXHQW DOWHUQDWLRQW\SHLVD ¬DVLQWKHIROORZLQJSDLUV IDM‘JXLOWVLQ’ I¬MHM‘WRPDNHDPLVWDNH’ NDOE‘WROHWURW’ N¬OERTH‘VSXWXP’ NDOO‘WRLQVHUW’ N¬OODV‘WRSXWLQWR’ ODNXU‘QDNHG’ O¬NXU¬‘VNLQEDUN’ ODS‘WRVOXUS’ O¬SLM‘WROLFN’ ODS¬‘OHDI’ O¬SLWN¬‘VOLSSHU’ morphonology and word-formation 143 PDUGK¬‘FROGIURVW’ P¬UGKLM‘WRFKLOO’ $WWKHVDPHWLPHRWKHUSDLUVVXFKDVH ¬L ¬R ¬DQGX ¬DUHDOVR DWWHVWHG GHOO‘WHQGRQ’ G¬OOLQM¬‘MXQLSHU’ IXQG‘ERWWRPHQG’ I¬QG\HOO‘DZO’ ORS¬‘FRZ’ O¬SHF‘ROGR[RUFRZ’ OXIW¬‘ILJKW’ O¬IWRM‘WRILJKW’ UUHP‘IDOVH’ UU¬PDç‘OHIWKDQGHG’ UULS¬‘SUHFLSLFH’ UU¬SLU¬LG UUXIH‘lightning’ UU¬IHVKN‘NLQGRIWKLVWOH’ 9RFDOLFDOWHUQDWLRQV 8PODXW $OEDQLDQXPODXWGHYHORSHGLQWKH/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQSHULRG ZKHQXQVWUHVVHGDXVODXWYRZHOVORVWRQHPRUDDQG$OEDQLDQGLSKWKRQJV ZHUH PRQRSKWKRQJL]HG %RWK IDFWRUV OHG WR WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI IURQW YRZHOVLQWKHQRPLQDOHQGLQJV/DWHUXQGHUWKHLQIOXHQFHRIVWUXFWXUDO SDUDOOHOLVPVXPODXWZDVDOVRLQWURGXFHGLQWRVHYHUDO6ODYLFORDQZRUGV ,Q$OEDQLDQWZRW\SHVRIXPODXWDUHDWWHVWHG WKHUDLVLQJRI(3$ D!H DQGRI(3$ H!L /LWHUDWXUH 0(<(5 $OE *U H ! L EHIRUH FOXVWHUV 3(.0(=, Ç$%(-56KN/39,,9,,, JHQHUDOL]DWLRQRI H D DQG L H LQ QRPLQDO SDUDGLJPV Û,52.29 (Ê ™*8 '20, 5(6 ;/9 IROORZV 0(<(5 '2', &,(% '(61,&.$-$ 9-D *HUPDQLF SDUDOOHOV WR WKH $OEDQLDQ XPODXW ,), ÇABEJ St. III 114-115, 309-402 7KHXPODXWD HLVIRXQGLQQRXQVDQGLQYHUEV1RPLQDOO\LWLV FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI WKH SOXUDOV RI R DQG LVWHPV EXW RFFDVLRQDOO\ DOVR DSSHDUVLQRWKHUW\SHVRIVWHPV VJ SO ‘ERQH’ DVKW¬ HVKWUD~ HVKWQD ‘IDWKHU’ DW HW¬U~ HW¬Q ‘UDP’ GDVK GHVK ‘WUDSVQDUH’ ODN OHTOHTH ‘QLJKW’ QDW¬ QHW 144 chapter two ‘JRDW’ VTDS VTHSVTHSH ,QQXPHURXVQRXQVDZDVUHVWRUHGLQWKHSOXUDOE\DQDORJ\ VJ SO ‘WZLOLJKW’ DJ DJMH ‘EHOO\’ EDUN EDUTH ‘FDW’ GDF GDFD ‘JXLOW’ IDM IDMH ‘IDWKRP’ SDVK SDVK ‘HQFORVXUH’ WKDUN WKDUTWKDUTH ,Q PDQ\ RWKHU QRXQV WKH UDLVHG H D RI WKH SOXUDO ZDV JHQHUDOL]HG DQGDQLQQRYDWLYHSOXUDOLQDZDVRIWHQLQWURGXFHG VJ SO ‘VKHHSJRDW’ EHUU EDUZD EHUUD ‘\RXQJEXOO’ GHP GDPD GHPD ‘VTXLUUHO’ JHU JDXUD JHUD ‘IROLDJH’ JMHWK JD]GD JMHWK ‘URFN’ NUHS NUDSD NUHSD ‘EXOO’ WHU WDXUD WHU¬ ,QYHUEVWKHVDPHDOWHUQDWLRQD HLVZLGHO\DWWHVWHGLQSUHVHQW YHUEDOIRUPVLQ DWM DVZHOODVVRPHRWKHUOHVVIUHTXHQWW\SHV 7KH IRUPLQDFKDUDFWHUL]HVWKHVJLQ DWMDZKLOHWKHIRUPLQHDSSHDUV LQWKHVJLQ DWV DWW VJ VJ ‘WRVKRXW’ E¬UWDV E¬UWHW ‘WRJRRXW’ GDO GHO ‘WRWDON’ IODV IOHW ‘WRVZHOO’ PEXIDV PEXIHW ‘WRXUJH’ QJDV QJHW ‘WRNQRFN’ WURNDV WURNHW morphonology and word-formation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‘WRJRRXW’ GHO GLOQL GLOMD ‘WREXUQ’ GMHJ GLJMQL GLJMD ‘WREDNH’ SMHN SLTQL SLTMD ‘WRJLYHELUWK’ SMHOO SLOOQL SLOOMD ‘WRWXUQ’ VMHOO VLOOQL VLOOMD ‘WRGLH’ YGHV YGLVQL YGLVMD 7KHVDPHXPODXWDSSHDUVLQVRPHDRULVWVWHPV TXLWHRIWHQIROORZHGE\L RIWKHQH[WV\OODEOH VJSUHV VJDRU ‘WRURFN’ OXKHW OXKLWL ‘WRVZHOO’ PEXIHW PEXILWL ‘WRUDLVH’ QJUH QJULWL ‘WRVSULQNOH’ VS¬UNHW VS¬UNLWL ‘WRNQRFN’ WURNHW WURNLWL ‘WRGLH’ YGHV YGLT 'XH WR DQDORJ\ WKH XPODXW M H L ZDV WUDQVIHUUHG WR WKH QRPLQDO V\VWHP ZKHUH LW DIIHFWHG D UHODWLYHO\ VPDOO QXPEHU RI VXEVWDQWLYHV$OORUQHDUO\DOORIWKHPHQGLQDYHODU+HQFHWKHXPODXW LVSDUDOOHOHGE\WKHDOWHUQDWLRQRIYHODU SDODWDOL]HGYHODU6WUXFWXUDOO\ WKHXPODXW M H LLVLGHQWLFDOZLWKWKHXPODXWD HDVLWVXSSRUWVWKH RSSRVLWLRQVLQJXODUYVSOXUDO&IWKHIROORZLQJFDVHV 146 chapter two VJ SO ‘EDQNKLOO’ EUHJ EULJMHEUHJMH ‘SLJOHW’ GHUN GLUT ‘DYDODQFKH’ RUWHN RUWLTH ‘ILVK’ SHVKN SLVKTSHVKT ‘SDWK’ VKWHJ VKWLJMHVKWHJMH ,Q D IHZ ZRUGV L ZDV JHQHUDOL]HG DQG LV QRZ IRXQG LQ WKH IRUPV RI VLQJXODU7KLVVHHPVWREHWKHFDVHRILU¬‘GXQ’,ILWLVWREHFRQQHFWHG ZLWKHUU‘GDUNQHVV’WKHQWKHVRXUFHPXVWKDYHEHHQ(3$ DXVUD7KH ILUVWXPODXWFUHDWHGDSDUDGLJPRIVJ DU¬~ SO HU¬7KHHRIWKHSOXUDO ZDVJHQHUDOL]HG VJ HU¬~ SO HU¬)LQDOO\WKHUHZDVDVHFRQGXPODXW VJ HU¬~ SO LU¬)URPWKLVVWDJHWKHQHZVLQJXODULU¬ZDVH[WUDFWHG 9RFDOLFDOWHUQDWLRQV $EODXW $OEDQLDQ KDV WR D FRQVLGHUDEOH H[WHQW LQKHULWHG WKH ,QGR (XURSHDQV\VWHPRIDEODXW+RZHYHULWKDVEHHQVLJQLILFDQWO\PRGLILHG E\ SKRQHWLF IRUFHV 6RPH W\SHV RI DEODXW QRW VR LPSRUWDQW LQ ,QGR (XURSHDQKDYHIORXULVKHG2WKHUW\SHVRQFHSURGXFWLYHKDYHEHHQORVW DOWRJHWKHURUDUHVHYHUHO\IUDJPHQWHG /LWHUDWXUH 0(<(5,)9 ORQJJUDGHLQDRULVWV &$0$-$OE :RUWE ÇABEJ St. III 124 25(/=I%DON;;;,,, ORQJ JUDGHUHSODFLQJ]HURJUDGHLQQRXQV ,QGR(XURSHDQHJUDGHLVUHIOHFWHGLQQXPHURXVSUHVHQWVWHP IRUPV ELH ‘WR EULQJ’ (3$ EHUMD ,( EKHU ‘WR EULQJ WR FDUU\’ 6NW EK¢UDWL*NHGTY/DWIHUA EUHGK‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’ (3$ EUHGD 6ODY EUHG_ EUHVWL‘WR ZDGHWRIRUG’/LWKEUHQG¸EU®VWLLG GMHJ ‘WR EXUQ’ (3$ GHJD ,( GKHÞK ‘WR EXUQ’ 6NWG¢KDWL 7RFK$%WVDNWV¥N/LWGHJ¸GªJWL PEOHGK ‘WR JDWKHU WR FROOHFW’ (3$ DPELOHG]D ,( OH½ *N NGIYLG/DWOHJA‘WRUHDG WRJDWKHU’ PMHO‘WRPLON’ (3$ PHOJD *NCOGNIYLG/DWPXOJHALG/LWK P©OÊLXP©OÊWLLG morphonology and word-formation 147 VMHOO ‘WR EULQJ’ (3$ WhHOD ,( áHO 6NWF¢UDWL ‘WR PRYH WR ZDON’*NRGNY‘WRFRPHLQWRH[LVWHQFHWREHFRPH’/DWFROA ‘WRFXOWLYDWHWRWLOO’ ,QGR(XURSHDQHJUDGHLVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQDIHZQRXQV PLHOO‘IORXU’ (3$ PHOZD ,( PHOÆR 2+*P¬ORLG21PM_O LG6ODY PHOYR‘JUDLQIRUJULQGLQJ’ PMHGK¬U ‘PXOEHUU\ WDUHV’ D VXIIL[HG GHULYDWLYH RI PMHGK /LWK PGLV‘WUHH’/DWYPHÊV‘ZRRG’ 2FFDVLRQDOO\H[SHFWHGHJUDGHLVUHSODFHGE\D]HURJUDGH GMDO¬‘ER\\RXWK’ (3$ GHOD /DWYG?OV‘VRQ’/DWIOLXVLG OHK~OHI‘WREDUN’ (3$ ODMD 6NWUd\DWLLG/LWKO²MXO²WLLG6ODY ODMDWL QGXN ‘WR SOXFN RXW WR SXOO RXW WR WHDU’ (3$ HQGXND *RWK WLXKDQ‘WRSXOO’/DWG FALG +RZHYHU SUHVHQW VWHPV PRUH IUHTXHQWO\ VKRZ OHQJWKHQHG JUDGH 8VXDOO\ORQJJUDGHSUHVHQWVDUHGHULYDWLYHV RIWHQGHULYDWLYHVLQ QMD RULQ MD IURPRULJLQDOIXOOJUDGHSUHVHQWV ERMERKHW‘WRPDWH’ (3$ EJQMD /LWKE{JWL‘WRUXQ’/DWYEêJW LG23UXVEHJH\WHLG6ODY EpJWLLG*NHGDQOCKLG MRVK‘WRFXUOWRIRQGOHWRFDUHVV’ (3$ MXGVMD ,( HXGK 6NW \·GK\DWH‘WRILJKWWRVWUXJJOH’7RFK$\XWN‘WRWDNHFDUHRIWR WURXEOHDERXW’/LWKM¢XGLQWL‘WRH[FLWHWRDURXVH’ NUXDM~NUXHM‘WRVFUDWFK’ (3$ NUEQMDIXUWKHUFRQQHFWHGZLWK,( JKUHEK TXDM ~TXHM‘WR FDOO WR JLYH D QDPH’ (3$ NOXVQMD D GHQRPLQDWLYHEDVHGRQ ,( OHÆRV‘JORU\ ZRUG’ 6NWyU¢YDV *NMNGQX6ODY VORYR ,Q RWKHU W\SHV RI SUHVHQWV OHQJWKHQLQJ LV OHVV IUHTXHQW &I VRPH H[DPSOHV GXD~GXH‘WRORYH’ (3$ GXVQMD GXVQMD ,( ½HXV‘WRWDVWH’ 6NWM²¿DWL‘WREHIRQGRI’*NIGWQOCK 148 chapter two VKRK~VKRI‘WRVHH’ (3$ VNVND 6NWV¢FDWH‘WRDFFRPSDQ\WR IROORZ’*NGRQOCK/DWVHTXRU*RWKVDLxDQ‘WRVHH’ VKSRUU‘WRPRYHDZD\WRGULYHDZD\’ (3$ SUD 6NWSSDUWL‘WR EULQJRYHUWRVDYH’*NRGTCYRGKTY‘WRSHQHWUDWH’ /HQJWKHQLQJRIWKHIXOOJUDGHLVDOVRDWWHVWHGLQVHYHUDOQRXQV KXDM ~ KXHM ‘IRUHLJQ VWUDQJH’ (3$ NVQMD FRQQHFWHG ZLWK LVRODWHG*NEGPQX'RUEGP®QX‘VWUDQJHUJXHVW’ WRJ‘KHDSSLOH’ (3$ WJD *NVGIJ‘URRI’2,UWHFK‘KRXVH’ ,( WHJRV /HQJWKHQHG JUDGH LV W\SLFDO RI DRULVWV FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR WKHPDWLF SUHVHQWV ZLWK D SODLQ IXOO JUDGH ,W LV JHQHUDOO\ EHOLHYHG WKDW WKLV ORQJ JUDGH LV RI ,QGR(XURSHDQ RULJLQ UHODWHG WR WKH OHQJWKHQHG JUDGHVIRXQGDPRQJ*HUPDQLFVWURQJFODVV,9DQG9SUHWHULWHVDQGWR VRPHRIWKH/DWLQORQJYRZHOSHUIHFWV VJSUHV VJDRU ‘WRMXPS’ EUHGK EURGKD ‘WREXUQ’ GMHJ GRJMD ‘WRGUDZ’ KHT KRTD ‘WRVWULSRII’ UMHS URSD ‘WRWKURZ’ VKWMHOO VKWROOD ‘WRZHDQ’ ]YMHUGK ]YRUGKD ,Q 3URWR$OEDQLDQ WKH DRULVWLF OHQJWKHQLQJ EHFDPH SURGXFWLYH DQG VSUHDGEH\RQGWKHDRULVWVZLWKDFFRPSDQ\LQJWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWV VJSUHV VJDRU ‘WRJRRXW’ GDO GROD ‘WRWDNH’ PDUU PRUUD 6RPH OHQJWKHQHG JUDGHV KDYLQJ H[WHUQDO FRUUHVSRQGHQFHV WR RWKHU ,QGR(XURSHDQGLDOHFWV ORTH‘SHQLVWHVWLV’ VLQJXODUL]HGSO(3$OXNDLFORVHWR/LWKOLDXN£ ‘JODQG’ OXNORQJJUDGHRI OHXN‘ZKLWH’ morphonology and word-formation 149 ,Q $OEDQLDQ RJUDGH LV W\SLFDO RI GHYHUEDWLYH QRXQV HVSH FLDOO\QRPLQDDFWLRQLV GDN ‘ELJ UDP’ (3$ GZDND /LWK GY|NWL ‘WR EUHDWKH’ GY¦NDV ‘EUHDWK’ GDUN¬‘VXSSHU’ (3$ GDUN ,( GRUáRPUHIOHFWHGLQ*NFQTRQP LG PDUGK¬‘FKLOOIURVWLFH’ (3$ PDUG] 6ODY PRU]Ù‘IURVW’ Q¬P¬~QDP¬‘FXUVH’ (3$ QDP *NPGOY‘WRGLVWULEXWH’*RWK QLPDQ‘WRWDNH’ SDK‘VFDEGXVW’ (3$ SDXMD ,( SRXR $UPKRJL‘EUHDWK’ WUDS‘IHUU\’ (3$ WUDSD 6ODY WURSD‘SDWK’DQGIXUWKHUUHODWHGWR ,( WUHS‘WRWUHDG’ ,QPDQ\FDVHVRJUDGHLVFKDUDFWHULVWLFRISUHVHQWVWHPVVRPHRIWKHP EXWQRWDOO UHSUHVHQWLQJRULJLQDOFDXVDWLYHVDQGGHQRPLQDWLYHVLQ QMD ~ MD EUHM ~EUêM ‘WR JQDZ’ (3$ EUDLQMD ,( EKUHL ‘WR FXW’ 6NW EKUodWL‘ KH LQMXUHV’/DWIULA‘WRUXE’6ODY EULWL‘WRVKDYH’ OHM‘WRJLYHELUWK WREHERUQ WRULVH RIWKHVXQ ’ (3$ ODLGQMD /LWKO©LVWL‘WROHW’/DWYODîVWLG PEDM‘WRKROGWRFDUU\’ (3$FDXVDWLYH HQEDUQMD ,( EKHU‘WR EHDU’ QGH] ‘WR VHW DOLJKW WR LJQLWH’ (3$ HQGDGÊMD FDXVDWLYH ,( GKRÞKHA ,( GKHÞK‘WREXUQ’ UHJM‘WRWDQ’ (3$ UDXJMD 21UH\NU‘VPRNH’2+*URXKLG WHU‘WRPDNHGU\’ (3$ WDUVMD 6NWWDU¿¢\DWLLG/DWWRUUHALG21 ÈHUUDLG 6RPHRJUDGHQRXQVZHUHWUDQVIRUPHGLQWR]HURJUDGHVLQ$OEDQLDQ EUX] ‘EOXH LQGLJR’ (3$ EUXGMD ,( EKURXGK 6ODY EUXGÙ ‘GLUW’ EUXGÚQÙ‘GLUW\’ JMXK¬‘WRQJXHODQJXDJH’ (3$ JXO[FRQQHFWHGZLWKWKH,QGR (XURSHDQGLDOHFWDOZRUGIRU‘VRXQG’ JROVR 21NDOO‘VKRXW’ /LWKJDËVDV‘HFKR’6ODY JROVÙ‘YRLFH’ JMXUP¬‘WUDFH’ (3$ VXUPD 6NWV¢UPD‘IORZ’*NQTOJ‘DVVDXOW DWWDFN’IXUWKHUFRQQHFWHGZLWK,( VHU‘WRIORZ’ 150 chapter two 2QHQRXQDWWHVWVOHQJWKHQHGJUDGHLQSODFHRIDQRULJLQDORJUDGH ]RUU¬ ‘JXW’ (3$ GÊUQ ,( ÞHUi ‘WR VZDOORZ’ /LWK ÊDUQ£ ‘JXW’ 0DQ\$OEDQLDQWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWVDUHGHULYHGIURP]HURJUDGH VWHPV IODN ‘WR WKURZ WR IOLQJ’ (3$ DZDODND GHULYHG IURP ,( ON OiNWREHQGWRMXPS’ 0+*OHFNHQ‘WRWKURZEDFNWRVSULQJ’ /LWKOHNL¸O|NWL‘WRIO\’/DWYOªNW‘WRVSULQJWRMXPS’ QGXONHP‘WRULSHQ’ (3$ HQWXOND /LWKWHONL¸WHËNWL‘WRJDWKHUWR EULQJWRJHWKHU’6ODY WHONWL‘WREHDWWRSRXQG’ QJXO‘WRWKUXVWLQWRVWLFNLQ’ (3$ HQNXOD /LWKN¸OWL‘WRWKUHVK’ /DWYNXËW‘WRVWULNH’ VKWULM‘WRVSUHDGWRVWUHWFK’ (3$ VWULQMD 6NWVWQdWL‘WRVSUHDGWR VFDWWHU’*NUVQTPWOK‘WRVSUHDGWRVWUHWFK’/DWVWHUQALG WKHN ‘WR URDVW WR WRDVW EUHDG ’ (3$ WVDND ,( NFI *N MGIMGK RGKPC`^ MCIMQOGPJX EJTC`X VY`^ HQDY^ +HV RQNWMCIMJX‘EXUQLQJVWURQJO\’ +RP 7KH QXPEHU RI ]HUR JUDGH QRXQV LQKHULWHG IURP ,QGR(XURSHDQ LV LQVLJQLILFDQWFIIRUH[DPSOHWKHIROORZLQJIRUP EXUGK¬‘NLQGRIVDFN’ (3$ EXUG ,( EKGK 21ERUÔ‘ERDUG HGJH’2(ERUGLG 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGVHYHUDOROG]HURJUDGHQRXQVZHUHWUDQVIRUPHGLQWR OHQJWKHQHGJUDGHVRURJUDGHV EROOH ‘WHVWLFOHV’ (3$ EOQDL *N HCNNQX ‘SKDOOXV’ /DW IROOLV ‘EHOORZV’2,UEDOO‘OLPEPHPEHU’ GHOO‘WHQGRQ’ (3$ GDLVOD /LWKJØVOD‘EORRGYHVVHOWHQGRQ’6ODY ÊLOD‘WHQGRQ’ JUHU¬~JUHQ]¬‘ZDVSKRUQHW’ (3$ JUDLVQ /DWFUEUA‘KRUQHW’ 2+*KRUQDfLG/LWKhLUhX¶LG6ODY VÚUhHQÚLG N¬UP¬‘FDUFDVVFDULRQFDGDYHU’ (3$ NDUSQ 6NWN¤S‘VKDSH EHDXWLIXO DSSHDUDQFH’ /DW FRUSXV ‘ERG\’ 2+* KU¬I ‘EHOO\ ERG\’ morphonology and word-formation 151 VRUU¬ ‘FURZ’ (3$ WhUVQ 6NW N¿o¢ ‘EODFN GDUN’ 23UXV NLUVQDQ‘EODFN’6ODY ¨ÚUQÙLG 2FFDVLRQDOO\WKLVOHQJWKHQLQJLVFDXVHGE\DIROORZLQJVFKZD&IEROOH (3$ EOQD EKROiQRV $IIL[DWLRQ 7KH PDLQ LQVWUXPHQW RI ZRUGIRUPDWLRQ LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ LV DIIL[DWLRQ 1XPHURXV SUHIL[HV DQG VXIIL[HV ZHUH LQKHULWHG E\ 3URWR $OEDQLDQ IURP ,QGR(XURSHDQ 7KH SURFHVV RI DIIL[DWLRQ KDV VLQFH EHFRPHH[WUHPHO\SURGXFWLYH ,QVRPHDIIL[HVDQ$OEDQLDQPRUSKHPHDQGDERUURZHGHOHPHQWKDYH PHUJHG VR FRPSOHWHO\ WKDW ZH DUH XQDEOH WR GLIIHUHQWLDWH WKHP 7KXV $OE S¬UFRQWLQXHV ERWK (3$ SHU~ SUD DQG /DWSHU ~ SUA $OE VK JRHVEDFNWRERWK(3$ LVDQG/DWH[%RUURZHGDIIL[HVLQWURGXFHG YLD ORDQZRUGV KDYH DOVR EHFRPH SURGXFWLYH &I VXFK IRUPV DV SDOF¬ ‘PDUURZ’ GHULYHG IURP SDO¬ ‘SDLU IROG’ E\ PHDQV RI D 6ODYLF VXIIL[ ÚFDÖ$OEF¬ODMWKL‘KD]HOWUHHKD]HOQXW’EXLOWIURPODNWK~ ODTWK ‘ORRSQRRVH’ZLWKWKHKHOSRIWKH/DWLQVXIIL[LDÖ$OELDQGQG¬U]HM ‘WRPDWH’DGHULYDWLYHRIWKHOH[HPH]¬~]Dˆ‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVSWRWRXFK’ FRQWDLQLQJWKH/DWLQSUHIL[LQWHUÖ$OEQG¬U 6XIIL[DWLRQRIQRXQV 9HUEDO VXIIL[HV DUH GHVFULEHG LQ VHFWLRQV 1RPLQDO VXIIL[HVDUHFODVVLILHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLU“PDLQHOHPHQW”7KLVLVSXUHO\ DFRQYHQWLRQ2IWHQWKLV“PDLQHOHPHQW” happens to be, historically, an old suffix of Indo-European origin. /LWHUDWXUH ;+89$1,Ç$%(- 3UDSDVKW SDVVLP &$0$- $OE :RUWE '(61,&.$-$6UDYQ /DELDOVXIIL[HV 7KHQXPEHURIZRUGVSUHVXPDEO\FRQWDLQLQJWKHVXIIL[ E ,( EKR~ EK DVDWWHVWHGLQ%DOWR6ODYLF FI/LWKG¢UEDV‘ZRUN’ DQGHOVHZKHUHFI*NGNCHQX‘VWDJ’/DWPRUEXV‘LOOQHVV’EHVLGHPRULRU ‘WRGLH’ LVYHU\OLPLWHGLQ$OEDQLDQ 152 chapter two WKDUE¬W‘VRXU’EDVHGRQ WKDUE¬GHULYHGIURPWKDU‘WRDGGIHUPHQW WRPLON’ WKXPE‘VWLQJWKRUQ’GHULYHGIURPWKXD~WKXH‘ ILQJHU QDLO’ (3$ DWVQDWR,( D‘VKDUS’ VWUXFWXUDOO\VLPLODUZLWK*NCMCPQX ‘WKRUQ\IUXLW’CMCKPC‘WLSSRLQW’ $VLQ%DOWR6ODYLFLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQRQHILQGVDQXPEHURIH[DPSOHV FRQWDLQLQJ WKHPDWL]HG VXIIL[HV DE DQG LE 7KHVH VXIIL[HV DUH LGHQWLFDO ZLWK WKRVH IRXQG LQ WKH 6ODYLF QRPLQD DEVWUDFWD RE D DQG ÚE D FI 6ODY ]ORED ‘DQJHU’ ERUÚED ‘ILJKWLQJ’ DQG WKH %DOWLF QRPLQDDFWLRQLVIRXQGLQ/LWK\ED JDUEH‘IORZHUSRW’ (3$ JDULE ,( ÞKHU‘WREXUQ’ FI6ODY JÙUQÙ‘RYHQSRW’ N¬UUDE¬‘KRRNVWDIIVWDII’GHULYHGIURP NDU¬ (3$ NDU 6ODY NRUD‘EDUN’/LWKNHU¸N©UWL‘WREHFRPHVHSDUDWHG’DQGIXUWKHU ZLWK,( V NHU‘WRFXW’ OOXUE¬‘VHGLPHQWPXG’ (3$ OXU L EGHULYHGIURP OXUDFORVH WR/LWKOD-U^‘GLUW\SHUVRQ’ WKHOE‘NHUQHO RIDQXW ’ (3$ WVDOLEDDGHULYDWLYHRI,( HO‘WR FRYHU’FI2+*KXOVD‘VKHOO’2(KXOXLG 7KHXQYRLFHGODELDO SLVYHU\UDUHDVDVXIIL[,WKDVQRFOHDU ,QGR(XURSHDQSDUDOOHOV FXS ‘RGG XQHYHQ ’ (3$ WVXSD IURP ,( H XSR EDVHG RQ HX i ‘WRVZHOO’FI6NWy Q\¢‘HPSW\’ VKWDOS ‘UHQQHW’ (3$ VWDOSD *N UVGNNY ‘WR SXW WR VHW’ 2+* VWHOOHQ‘WRSXW’23UXVVWDOOW‘WRVWDQG’ 6HFRQGDU\VXIIL[HVEDVHGRQ SDUHDOVRYHU\UDUH N¬UF‘VWXPS’¾N¬UçHS‘VWXPSORJEUDQFK’ NDVKW¬‘VWUDZ’¾NDVKWXS‘VNLQRIFRUQFRE’ 'HQWDOVXIIL[HV 7KH ,QGR(XURSHDQ VXIIL[ GK LQ VRPH FDVHV GHILQLWHO\ FRQWLQXLQJ,( GK‘WRSXWWRVHW’ LVUHWDLQHGLQ$OEDQLDQDV(3$ G !GK morphonology and word-formation 153 KXUGK¬‘SRQGSRRO’ (3$ ZXUG 6ODY YLUÙ‘ZKLUOSRRO’ YDULWL ‘WRFRRN’/LWKY©UGXY®UWLLG N¬SXUGK¬‘IXQJXVPXVKURRP’ (3$ NDSXUG /LWKNªSXU^‘FDS’ /DWYF?SXUHLG 7KLV VXIIL[ VHHPV WR EH JHQHWLFDOO\ XQUHODWHG WR (3$ GM D DQG LWV GHULYDWLYHV 7KH ODWWHU LV FRQQHFWHG ZLWK *N -CF- -KF- FI PQOCX ‘SDVWXULQJ’CURKX‘VKLHOG’DQGWKHLU OHVVIUHTXHQW SDUDOOHOVLQ,QGR $U\DQDQG,WDOLF(3$ GM D !¬]LVRIWHQXVHGLQGHYHUEDWLYHV EOXDM‘WRJULQG’¾EOR]¬‘VRRW’ GUHGK‘WRWXUQ’¾QGUL]¬‘EDQGEDQGDJH’ OHM‘WRJLYHELUWK’¾OH]OHP]¬‘ELUWKPDUN’ UXDM~ UXHM‘WRJXDUGWRNHHS’¾UXD]¬‘JODVVEHDG’ VKNRM‘WRZDON’¾VKNR]¬‘EHHFK’ VKT\HM‘WREUHDN’¾VKTH]¬‘KDUURZ’ 4XLWHRIWHQ]¬¬]DSSHDUVLQGHQRPLQDWLYHVZKHUHLWUHIOHFWVWKHPDWLF (3$ DGMDRU DGM DP¬‘RGRU’¾DP¬]‘RGRU’ JMHOO¬‘IRRG’¾JMHOO¬]‘VDOW’ P¬OOHQM¬‘EODFNELUG’¾P¬OOH]¬‘EODFNELUG’ PLHOO‘IORXU’¾PLHOOD]¬‘ILQHVQRZ’ SH~ Sê‘WKUHDG’¾SHM]¬‘PXVFOHVLQHZ’ WKHOO¬‘GDUN’¾WK¬OO¬]¬‘SDUWULGJH’ YDM¬‘JLUO’¾YDM]¬‘JLUO’ 5DUHUIRUPVDUHEDVHGRQ(3$ LGMD!L] NXUU¾NXUUL]‘VSLQH’ PXUU¬W‘GDUN’¾PXUUL]‘EULDU’ 2QHRIWKHPRVWZLGHVSUHDGVXIIL[HVLQWKH$OEDQLDQQRPLQDO V\VWHPLV WD~ WZKLFKFRQWLQXHVWKH,QGR(XURSHDQYHUEDODGMHFWLYH VXIIL[ WR EXW¬’VRIWVPRRWK’ (3$ EXWD ,( EKXJKWRFRPSDUDEOHZLWK 1,UERJ‘VRIW’ EKXJKR$UPERZ‘EOXQW’ 154 chapter two IOHW¬‘ZLQJOHDI’ (3$ DZDOHNWD ,( OHN‘WRIO\’ /LWKOHNL¸ O|NWL/DWYOªNW2+*OHFNHQ‘WRMXPSWRNLFN’ KXW‘YDLQHPSW\’ (3$ XWDEDVHGRQ,( HXi Æ‘HPSW\’FI 6NW Q¢‘PLVVLQJ’/DWYQXV‘HPSW\’ ODW¬ ‘VPDOO D[H’ (3$ ODSW FORVH WR WKHPDWLF 6ODY ORSDWD ‘VSDGH’/LWKO²SHWDLGDQG DWKHPDWLF 23UXVORSWR ORW‘WHDU’ (3$ O L WDEDVHGRQ,( OL‘WRSRXUWRIORZ’ PXW‘H[FUHPHQW’ (3$ PXNWD 6NWPXNW¢‘UHOHDVHG’ 7KH VDPH VXIIL[ WD RU LWV WKHPDWLF YDULDQW DWD" LV SURGXFWLYH LQ $OEDQLDQDGMHFWLYHV GLDOEOHU¬‘JUHHQ’¾EOHUW¬LG FHUP¬‘FROG’¾FHPW¬LG 2$OEGMDWK¬‘ULJKW VLGH ’¾GMDWKW¬‘ULJKW’ KLGKHP‘WRMXPSWRRYHUIORZ’¾KLGK¬W‘ELWWHUVDG’ ODVK¬‘ROGHDUO\’¾ODVKW¬LG PHN‘WRPDNHZHW’¾PHN¬W‘ZHW’ &RUUHVSRQGLQJ WKHPDWLF VXIIL[HV LQ VXEVWDQWLYHV DUH UHODWLYHO\ UDUH 7KH\ LQFOXGH (3$ HWD!HW DQG DW!DW¬ 7KH ODWWHU LV LGHQWLFDO ZLWK WKH 6ODYLF VXIIL[ RI QRPLQD DEVWUDFWD RWD FI RUERWD ‘ZRUN ODERXU’ NUDVRWD‘EHDXW\’DQGWKHOLNH GHW ‘VHD’ (3$ GHXEHWD ‘GHSWK’ ,( GKHXE ‘GHHS’ FI *PF GHXSLÈA‘GHSWK’!0'XGLHSGH0/*GSHGH(GHSWK O¬JDW¬ ‘PDUVK’ (3$ OHXJDW ,OO\U GNQL .QWIGQP ZCNQWOGPQP 6WUDER /LWKOL JDV‘PDUVK’6ODY OXÊD‘SRRO’ O¬QJDW¬ OLJDW¬ ‘LOOQHVV VLFNQHVV DLOPHQW’ (3$ OLJDW GHULYHG IURP OLJD!OLJ‘LOOEDG’ (3$ XWD!XWLVDWWHVWHGRQO\RQFHWKRXJKLWLVSUREDEO\UHODWHGWR %DOWR6ODYLF ÙWÙ ÙWD PDNXW ‘JUHHG\ JOXWWRQRXV’ EDVHG RQ PDN GHULYHG IURP PDM ‘WR IHHG’ ,QDOLPLWHGQXPEHURIVXEVWDQWLYHVZHILQGWKHROGVXIIL[ WL FRQWLQXLQJ,( WLFI6NWVUXW‘IORZLQJVWUHDPLQJ’*NTWUKXLG/DW morphonology and word-formation 155 YWLV‘YLQH’2,UI©LWK‘VLQHZ’/LWKYØWLV‘WZLJRIZLOORZWUHH’DQGWKH OLNH πι EHV¬‘SOHGJHWUXFHWUXVW’ (3$ EDLWhLFORVHWRGk UVKX‘IDLWKIXO WUXVWZRUWK\’ ERW¬‘HDUWK ZRUOG’ (3$ EZWL 6NWEK W‘H[LVWHQFH’/LWKE W®V LG,UEXLWKLG GKXQ¬‘ODERUSDLQVVKDPHGLVJUDFH’ (3$ HGXQWLRU DGXQWL *N Q FWPJ‘ODERUSDLQV’$UPHUNQLG HW‘WKLUVW’ (3$ DONWL /LWK¢ONWL‘WREHKXQJU\’6ODY RONDWLLG 2+*LOJL‘KXQJHU’ +LVWRULFDOO\EDVHGRQ WLLV WMD~ WM GMHUV¬‘SHUVSLUDWLRQ’ (3$ ZLGHUWM *NKFTYXLG VÆLGUAWV GRV¬ ‘SLJ VRZ’ (3$ G L WM GHULYHG IURP ,( GK L ‘WR VXFNOH’ QXV‘WKUHDGVWULQJ’ (3$ VQXWMD 6NWVQdYDQ‘EDQGVLQHZ’DQG IXUWKHUWR,( VQHX‘WRWXUQWRVSLQ’ SOLV‘FORGRIHDUWKVRGSLHFHRIWXUI’ (3$ SOLWMD 6NWSK¢ODWL‘WR EXUVWWRVSOLW’/DWVSROLXP‘VWULSSHGVNLQRUKLGHVSRLO’ THUV¬ ‘IDOORZ ODQG’ (3$ NHUNWMD 6ODY NÙU¨Ú ‘VWXEEHG SORW’ /DWYN¸UNW‘WREHFRPHHPSW\ RIDWXUQLS ’23UXV&XUFKH‘WKH ODVWVKHDILQZKLFKDGHLW\KLGHV’ 7KHVHFRQGDU\VXIIL[ DWMLVEDVHGRQ WM G¬UUDV¬‘ERDUGVWRQHSODWH’ (3$ GHUDWMEDVHGRQ,( GHU‘WR WHDUWRVSOLW’ J¬UUHV¬ ‘VFUDSHU’ (3$ JDUDWM GHULYHG IURP JULM ‘WR FXW LQWR SLHFHV’ ,( ÞHU JM\VP¬JM\P ¬ V¬‘KDOI’ (3$ M PDWM /DWYMXPLV‘GRXEOHIUXLW’ 6NW \DP¢ ‘GXSOLFDWH WZLQ’ 0,U HPRQ ‘WZLQV’ /DW LPJA ‘LPLWDWLRQFRS\’ VKNOHV¬‘URRIVKLQJOH’ (3$ VNDODWMGHULYHGIURPVKNHO‘WRPDNH DVWHSWRZDON’ (3$ VNDOD 156 chapter two 9HODUVXIIL[HV :RUGVZKHUHZHILQGVXIIL[HVEDVHGRQDYRLFHGYHODU (3$ J ,( J DUHYHU\IHZ7KHVDPHVXIIL[LVUDWKHUZHOODWWHVWHGLQ %DOWR6ODYLFFI6ODY VWUXJD‘FXUUHQWVKLS’ ¨HWYÚUJÙ‘7KXUVGD\’7KH IROORZLQJWZRFDVHVDUHIDLUO\UHOLDEOH YDU‘WRKDQJ’¾YDUJ‘URZFKDLQULQJ’ P¬OO¬~ PXOO¬‘VZHOOLQJOXPS’¾P¬OOXJ¬‘VFDOHVFDUPDUN’ 7KHSULPDU\VXIIL[ NDUHODWHGWR,( NRLVDWWHVWHGLQPDQ\ $OEDQLDQZRUGV$PRQJWKHRWKHU,QGR(XURSHDQGDXJKWHUODQJXDJHVLW LV SUHVHUYHG QHDUO\ HYHU\ZKHUH FI 6NW GKN¢ ‘UHFHSWDFOH’ *N SJMJ LG/LWKS®ONDV‘JUH\’6ODY ]QDNÙ‘VLJQ’DQGWKHOLNH ∼ JDN‘ERDU’ (3$ JDXND ,( ÞAX‘FRZ’VLPLODUWR0DFHGγοταν γου∼ταν OHJ ·WP +HV ÞRXWR VDUN¬‘EXLOGIUDPHILJXUH RIKXPDQERG\ ’ (3$ WhHUNGHULYHG IURP,( áHU‘WRPDNHWREXLOG’ 6NWNDUeWL/LWKN¸UWL VKWUHN ‘FRUSVH FDUULRQ’ (3$ VWUHND GHULYHG IURP ,( VWHU ‘XQFOHDQOLTXLGPDQXUH’ WKDUN‘HQFORVXUH HVSHFLDOO\IRUPLONLQJ ’ (3$ WVHUNDGHULYHG IURP WKXU ‘WR IHQFH WR HQFORVH WR SODLW WR ZHDYH’ (3$ WVXUMD WKLN¬‘NQLIH’ (3$ WVLNGHULYHGIURP,( L‘WRVKDUSHQ’ 6NW yyWL‘WRZKHWWRVKDUSHQ’$UPVRZU‘VKDUS NQLIH’ WKLUTH‘FKLFNSHD’VLQJXODUL]HGSOXUDORI WKLUNGHULYHGIURPWKMHUU¬ ‘OHQWLO’ (3$ WVHU D QRQUHGXSOLFDWHG SDUDOOHO RI /DWFLFHU ‘SHD’$UPVLVHàQLG ,( LHU 7KLV VXIIL[ VHUYHG DV D EDVLV IRU WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI VHFRQGDU\ VXIIL[HV LN DQG XN VLPLODU WR /LWK LNDV XNDV 6ODY ÚFÚ DQG ÙNÙ ,( LNRLVSUHWW\ZHOODWWHVWHGFI6NWYdVDQWLND‘EHORQJLQJWRVSULQJ’ YdU¿LND ‘EHORQJLQJ WR WKH UDLQ\ VHDVRQ’ *N KRR-KMQX ‘EHORQJLQJ WR KRUVHV’PWOH-KMQX‘EULGDO’&IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHVRI LN EHUN‘EDVW’ (3$ EDUG]LNDGHULYHGIURP3$OE EDUG]D!EDUGK¬ ‘ZKLWH’ EUHQJ¬‘JULHIVRUURZ’ (3$ EUDLQLNFRQQHFWHGZLWK EUDLQMD! EUHM‘WRJQDZ’ morphonology and word-formation 157 EXQJ‘NLQGRIRDN4XHUFXVVHVVLIORUD’ (3$ EXQLNDGHULYHGIURP ,( EKHX‘WRJURZ’DQGFORVHO\UHODWHGWR$UPERZQ‘WUXQN’ JU\N¬‘WKURDW’ (3$ JUZ N ,( ÞUÆ‘QHFN’ 6NWJUYd$Y JUY/DWYJU&YD‘ULYHUPRXWK’6ODY JULYD‘PDQH’ SHWN‘FORWKHVJDUPHQW’ (3$ SDWLNDGHULYDWLYHRISHW¬‘OD\HU RI DIODN\SâW© PHWDOSODWH IODWVWRQH’ (3$ SDWL‘IODWREMHFW’ FRPSDUHGZLWK,( SHW~ SHWi‘WRVWUHWFK’ *NRGVCPPWOKLG /DWSDWHA‘WRVWUHWFKWREHVSUHDG’ VKWDON¬ ‘IUDPH’ (3$ VWDOLN QRPLQDO GHULYDWLYH EDVHG RQ ,( VWHOFI6NWVWK¢OD‘HOHYDWLRQ’*NUVQNJ‘HTXLSPHQW’0/* VWDOH‘SRVW’ (3$ XNLVOHVVIUHTXHQW EDUN‘EHOO\ZRPEDEGRPHQ’ (3$ EDUXND DCT W!MC CKFQK`QP RCTC>6CTCPVKPQKXFRQWLQXLQJ EKRUXNR EDUXN¬‘IOHHFH’ (3$ EDUXNGHULYHGIURP EDUZD!EHUU‘VKHHS JRDW’ 7KH RULJLQV RI WKH VXIIL[ DN ~ DN¬ DUH QRW TXLWH FOHDU ,W PD\ EH ERUURZHGIURP6ODYLFWKRXJK RQH FDQQRW H[FOXGH LWV FRQQHFWLRQ ZLWK VXFKPRUSKHPHVDV6ODY RNÙFRQWLQXLQJ,( RáUDWKHUWKDQ RN E¬UUDN¬‘PXGG\SRROSRQGVZDPS’ (3$ ELUDNGHULYHGIURP ELU¬‘KROH’ O¬PDTH‘H[SDQVHRIUXEEOHVWRQHVOLGHSLOHRIVWRQHV’VLQJXODUL]HG SOXUDO RI O¬PDN GHULYHG IURP O¬P¬ ~ ODP¬ ‘WKUHVKLQJIORRU ZLQHSUHVV’ (3$ ODP 2+* ODP ‘ODPH’ 6ODY ORPÙ ‘EUHDNLQJ FURZEDU EURNHQEUDQFKHV’ OXPDN‘EXGVKRRW OLFKHQPRVV’ (3$ OXEQDND ,( OHXEK‘WR SHHO WR VNLQ’ FI /LWK OXE£ ‘ERDUG RI D FHLOLQJ ’ /DWY OXED ‘EDUN ERDUG’ 23UXV OXEER ‘ERDUG’ 6ODY OÙEÙ ‘IRUHKHDG VNXOO’ $VWRWKHVXIIL[RN RURTLQVLQJXODUL]HGSOXUDOV LWFRQWLQXHV(3$ NLGHQWLFDO ZLWK *N -C E /DW FXV &HOW NRV /LWK RNDV 6ODY DNÙ FI *N PGC E ‘\RXWK’ /DW RSFXV ‘VKDGRZ\’ 2,U FXPDFKWDFK ‘PLJKW\’/LWKMXRG²NDV‘EODFNLVK’6ODY QRYDNÙ‘QRYLFH’ 158 chapter two KDUURN‘KHJRDW’ (3$ VNDUND /LWKVNHUmV‘UDP’/DWYhNULV LGIXUWKHUFRQQHFWHGZLWK*NUMCKTY‘WRVSULQJWRGDQFH’ N¬OERTH‘VSXWXP’VLQJXODUL]HGSOXUDORI N¬OERN (3$ NDOEND GHULYHGIURPNDOE‘WROHWURW’ WDURN‘\RXQJEXOO’ (3$ WDXUNDUHODWHGWRWHU‘EXOO’ WKHURN¬ ‘3DVVHULQD KLUVXWD VZHHSLQJV’ (3$ WVHUN GHULYHG IURPWKHU‘WRVODXJKWHUWRSLHUFH’ (3$ WVHUD 6NWyÖodWL‘WR VPDVKWRFUXVK’*NMJT‘GHDWK’2,UGRFHU‘ KH IHOO’ 2QHRIWKHPRVWSURGXFWLYHVXIIL[HVLQWKHV\VWHPRI$OEDQLDQ QRXQLVWKFRQWLQXLQJ(3$ WV ,( +RZHYHUWKHODWWHULVQHDUO\ QRQH[LVWHQWDVDQ,QGR(XURSHDQVXIIL[ ZLWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRIVXFKUDUH FDVHVDV6NW\XYDy¢ /DWLXYHQFXV‘\RXWKIXO\RXQJ’ ,QPDQ\FDVHV WKLVXVHGWRIRUPGLPLQXWLYHV NUDQG‘5HLVLJ%ODHWWHU]ZHLJ’¾NUDQWK‘OLWWOHOHDI’ ODN‘WUDSVOLQJ’¾ODNWKLG OH]‘:DU]H’¾O\WKLG V\‘H\H’¾V\WK‘0DVFKH.QRVSH’ XUL‘0DXOZXUI’¾XULWKLG YH‘HJJ’¾YHWK‘0DGH)OLHJHQPDGH’ ,QPDQ\RWKHUZRUGVLWDOWHUVWKHPHDQLQJRIWKHQRPLQDOVWHPFIWKH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHV ELU¬‘KROH’¾ELUWK‘SLPSOH’ EUL‘KRUQ’EULU¬¾EULUWK‘WHQWDFOH’ KDO¬‘ILVKERQH’¾KDOWK‘QHHGOH’ NDS‘OLGFRYHU’¾NDSWK‘path, mule track’ VKWHJ‘SDWKZD\’¾VKWHNWK‘parting (of hair)’ WUD‘EHDPSRVW’¾WUDWK‘URRIVODW’ YHVK‘HDU’¾Y¬WK‘HDUULQJ’ 6XIIL[HVLQV 2QH RI WKH PRVW IUHTXHQW VVXIIL[HV LQ $OEDQLDQ LV XV! X VKRULJLQDOO\UHIOHFWLQJWKHSHUIHFWSDUWLFLSOHIRUPDQW ÆHV~ XV morphonology and word-formation 159 DUJ¬VK ‘FUXGH UDIW VXSSRUWHG E\ VNLQ EODGGHUV FUXGH EULGJH RI FURVVEDUVKDUURZ’ (3$ DUJXVD 6NWDUJDOD‘EROW’2(UHFHG ‘EXLOGLQJKRXVH’ O¬SXVK¬‘PXOOHLQ EURDGOHDIHGSODQW’ ODSXVGHULYHGIURPODS¬ ‘KDUG SLHFH RI PHDW RU VNLQ SHULWRQHXP OHDI’ (3$ ODS /LWKO¦SDV‘OHDI’*NNQRQX‘VKHOOKXVNEDUN’ PHNVK ‘EXIIDORFDOI’ (3$ PDJXVD 2,U PDXJ ‘VODYH’ *RWK PDJXV‘\RXWK’ IURP,( PDJKX PDJKRV P¬UVK¬‘FRUSVHFDUULRQ’ (3$ PHUXVDEDVHGRQ,( PHU‘WRGLH’ 6NWPUL\¢WH/LWKPL¼WL6ODY PHUWL PRVK¬‘DJH’ (3$ PWXVGHULYHGIURP PWL!PRW‘WLPH’ UUXVK‘JUDSH’ (3$ UJXVD *NT CELG YLç‘FDOI’ (3$ YHWXVDIXUWKHUUHODWHGWR ZHWD!YLW‘\HDU’ ,QRQHFDVHWKHVDPHVXIIL[DSSHDUVZLWKDORQJYRZHO V!\VK N¬O\VK‘\RXQJRIDQLPDOFXE’ (3$ NXO VD *NMWNNC UMWNCE *NGK QK+HVIXUWKHUFRQQHFWHGZLWKUMWNCE‘\RXQJGRJFXE’ $UDUHVXIIL[(3$ HVMDLVXVHGWRIRUPQRPLQDDJHQWLV OXSHVK‘JOXWWRQ’ (3$ OXSHVMDGHULYHGIURPOOXS‘WRJXOSGRZQ WRVZDOORZ’ (3$ OXSD 6NWOXPS¢WL‘WREUHDNWRLQMXUH’/LWK O¸SWL‘WRSHHO’/DWYOXSW‘WRSHHO WRHDW’6ODY OXSLWL‘WRSHHO’ 6HYHUDOVXIIL[HVLQFOXGHVDVWKHLUILUVWHOHPHQW(3$ VN! VKN LV SUREDEO\ UHODWHG WR WKH IRUPDQW LQ *N FKUMQX ‘TXRLW’ DQUMJ ‘IRGGHU’ LIQRWIURP V GXVKNGUXVKN‘RDN’ (3$ GUXVNDDGHULYDWLYHRIGUX‘WUHH’ EDVKN¬‘IOHHFH’ (3$ EDUXVNGHULYHGIURPEHUU‘VKHHSJRDW’ (3$ EDUZD 7KH IROORZLQJ VXIIL[ LVN RULJLQDOO\ DQ DGMHFWLYDO VXIIL[ LV EDVHG XSRQ VNDQGFDQEHLPPHGLDWHO\FRPSDUHGZLWKDSURGXFWLYH%DOWR 6ODYLF DGMHFWLYDO IRUPDQW /LWK OLHW¸YLhNDV ‘/LWKXDQLDQ’ 6ODY GpWÚVNÙ ‘FKLOGLVK’ 160 chapter two GU\VKN ‘UXVW’ (3$ GU G]LVND GHULYHG IURP GU G]D ! GU\GK¬W ‘HDV\ WR SODQH RI ZRRG ’ (3$ GU G]D FORVH WR 6ODY GU\]JDWL GUX]JDWL‘WRVTXHH]HWRFUXVK’ NUHVKN¬ ‘IROLDJH’ (3$ NDUDQGLVN GHULYHG IURP NU¬QG ~ NUDQGH ‘IROLDJH EUXVKZRRG OHDYHV XVHG DV IRGGHU FKLSV EUDQFK ZLWKRXW OHDYHV’ (3$ NDUDQGD D SUHIL[ IRUPDWLRQ FRQQHFWHGZLWK,( UHQGK‘WRWHDU DVXQGHU ’DQGLQSDUWLFXODU ZLWK2+*ULQGDULQWD‘ULQG’2(ULQGHLG 6XIIL[ VWD~ VWZDVRULJLQDOO\DQDGMHFWLYDOVXIIL[,QVRPHFDVHVLW PLJKWEHFRQQHFWHGZLWK,( VW‘WRVWDQGWRSXW’ ELVKW‘WDLO’ (3$ E VWDGHULYDWLYHRI,( EK ‘WRJURZ’ EUHVKW¬ ‘ZLOG URXJK UXJJHG UXGH’ (3$ EUDLhWD GHULYHG IURP EUHM (3$ EUDLQMDIXUWKHUFRQQHFWHGZLWK,( EKUHL‘WRFXW’ 6NW EKUodWL ‘ KH LQMXUHV’ /DW IULA ‘WR UXE’ 6ODY EULWL ‘WR VKDYH’ ODJVKW¬‘ZHW’ ODJVWDGHULYHGIURPODJ‘WRZHW’ 6HYHUDO QRXQV ZLWK LQVWUXPHQWDO PHDQLQJ DUH IRUPHG ZLWK WKH VXIIL[ LVW JDVKW¬‘ZKHWVWRQH’ (3$ JDOLVWDVXIIL[HGGHULYDWLYHUHODWHGWR /LWKJ¦ODV‘HQG’/DWYJDOVLG KHVKW¬‘VSHDU’ (3$ VNAOLVWGHULYHGIURPKHOO‘VSHDU’ VNAOD NDELVKW ‘HDUZLJ’ (3$ NDELVWD /LWK NDE{WL ‘WR KDQJ’ NDED ‘FURRNHGWUHH’ NDVKW¬‘VWUDZ’ (3$ NDOVLVWGHULYDWLYHRINDOOL‘HDU RIJUDLQ ’ ODNVKWH‘GHZ’ (3$ ODXJLVWDGHULYHGIURPODJ‘WRZHWWRVRDNWR EDWKHWRZDVK’ (3$ ODXJD 1RXQV GHQRWLQJ ORFDWLRQ RU SHULRG RI WLPH DUH IRUPHG ZLWK WKH VXIIL[ HVW!VKWFI6ODY LVWMH! Lh¨H EOLVKW¬‘OLQGHQZRRG’ (3$ EOLQHVWEDVHGRQEOL‘OLQGHQ’ NRSVKW‘JDUGHQ’ (3$ NSHVWD *NMJ`RQXLG2+*KXRED‘SORW RIODQG’ Y¬VKW~YêVKW‘YLQH\DUG’ (3$ ZDLQHVWDGHULYHGIURP ZDLQ! YHU¬~YHQ¬‘ZLQH’ morphonology and word-formation 161 YMHVKW¬ ‘DXWXPQ’ (3$ ZHOHVW GHULYHG IURP YMHO ‘WR SOXFN IUXLW WRYLQWDJH’ (3$ ZHOD *NGKNY‘WRVKXWLQWRSUHVV’ /LWKVXYDOØWL‘WRKDUYHVWWRUHDS’ ,Q $OEDQLDQ ZH ILQG LVRODWHG WUDFHV RI D VXIIL[ VOD ZKLFK LV KLVWRULFDOO\LGHQWLFDOWR6ODY VOR PD]VOR‘EXWWHU’ SU?GVOR‘VSLQ GOH’DQG/DW VORLQOXP‘ZLOGJDUOLF’SUOXP‘ZLQHSUHVV’ TXOO‘SRUULGJH’ (3$ NOXVOD *NMNW\Y‘WRULQVH’/DWFOXA‘WR FOHDQ’ 6XIIL[HVLQOLTXLGD 7KHSULPDU\VXIIL[ OLVTXLWHSURGXFWLYHLQ$OEDQLDQ+LV WRULFDOO\ LW LV FRQQHFWHG ZLWK ,( OR FI *N UVW`NQX‘SLOODU’ /DW FDHOXP‘FKLVHO’*RWKVWROV‘VWRROVHDW’DQGWKHOLNH EXN¬O‘ZHDVHO’ (3$ EXNOFRQQHFWHGZLWKEXNXU‘EHDXWLIXO’ PLOO‘VKHDWK’ (3$ PHLOD 6NWPLQeWL‘WRIDVWHQ’2,UWXLGPHQLG SHOO¬‘FRPE’ (3$ SHWVO *NRGMY‘WRFRPE’/LWKSªhWL‘WRSXOO WRSOXFN’/DWSHFWHQ‘FRPE’ WROO¬‘EDOGVSRW GUXPPHPEUDQH’ (3$ WVO ,( WVO /DW WOD‘FORWK’2+*GHKVDOD‘D[H’6ODY WHVODLG YRJ¬O‘VPDOO’ (3$ ZJOD /DWYDJRU‘WRURDPDURXQG’2,UI¢Q ‘VORSH’ ÆJQR ]XO¬‘VKRXWJORU\’ (3$ G]XO ,( ½KHÆi‘WRFDOO’ 6NWK¢YDWH $Y]DYDLWL6ODY ]ÙYDWL $PRQJWKHVHFRQGDU\VXIIL[HVEDVHGRQ(3$ OWKHPRVWSURGXFWLYH LV XO HK‘WRVKDUSHQ’¾HKXOO‘LFLFOH’ JUHK‘WRFRPE’ YDULDQWRINUHK ¾JUHKXOO‘WKLFNHW’ KD‘WRHDW’¾KDPXOO‘VWXEEOHILHOG’ SHQG¬‘IHDWKHU’¾SHQGXOOLG SL]J¬‘VSOLQWHU’¾SL]JXOOLG VXN¬‘ORZKLOO’¾VXNXOO‘OXPS’ WKXPE‘WKRUQ’¾WKXPEXOO‘EXWWRQ’ XWK¬W‘VRXU’¾XWKXOO‘YLQHJDU’ 162 chapter two $QRWKHU LPSRUWDQW VXIIL[ LV LO ~ O 7KH ODWWHU FDQ EH FRPSDUHG ZLWK\ODLQ/LWKDNØODV‘REVHUYDQW’ ELM¬‘GDXJKWHU’ (3$ ELULOGHULYHGIURP ELUD!ELU‘VRQ’ N¬UPLOO‘VQDLOVOXJ’ (3$ NULPODGHULYHGIURPNULPE‘ZRUP’ (3$ NULPD N¬UUO¬‘VORSS\PXGVOLPH’ (3$ NDULO 21KRUU‘VQLYHO’2+* KRUR‘H[FUHPHQW’*NMQTW\C‘VQLYHO’ \OO‘VWDU’ (3$ VN ZLODDGHULYDWLYHRI VNLM!KLMH‘VKDGRZ’ ,Q D IHZ ZRUG ZH ILQG HO ZKLFK LV UHODWHG WR WKH IRUPDQW RI /LWK G®GHOLV‘JUHDW’SDUhOLV‘SLJOHW’ JREHOO¬ ‘GHHS SODFH LQ ZDWHU ’ (3$ JXEHO /LWK JD-EWL ‘WR FRYHUWRZUDS’6ODY JÙEQ_WL‘WREHQG’ XUHO¬ ‘ZDWHUSLW’ (3$ XUHO 21 U ‘GUL]]OH’ 23UXV ZXUV ‘SRRO’*NCP-CWTQX‘GHYRLGRIZDWHU’ 7KH ,QGR(XURSHDQ DGMHFWLYDO VXIIL[ UR LV FRQWLQXHG E\ (3$ UD ,Q ,QGR(XURSHDQ LW LV ZLGHO\ DWWHVWHG FI 6NW Y¢MUD ‘WKXQGHUEROW’ *N GNCHTQX‘OLJKW EULVN’ /DW VDFHU‘VDFUHG KRO\’ DQG WKHOLNH ODU¬‘ZKLWHVSRW’‘VSRWWHGPRWOH\’ (3$ ODXUEDVHGRQODM‘WR ZDVK’ (3$ ODXQMD *NNQWYLG/DWODYALG PDN¬UU ‘VWDJQDQW JUHHQ RQ SRQGV’ (3$ PDNUD GHULYHG IURP PDN¬‘JOXHVFXPVNLQ RQWKHPLONRURWKHUOLTXLGV ’&I6ODY PRNUÙ‘ZHW’ PLU¬ ‘JRRG’ (3$ PUD IRUPLQJ D VHSDUDWH LVRJORVV ZLWK 6ODY PLUÙ‘SHDFH’ UHODWHGWR,( PHL VKWDOE¬U‘ZRRGHQVQDUH’ (3$ VWDOEUD 21VWROSL‘EHDPJLUGHU’ /LWKVWXËEDV‘SRVWSROH’6ODY VWÙOEÙLG WKHPE¬U ‘KHHO’ (3$ WVDPEU ,( V DPE ‘WR EHQG’ *N UMCODQX‘EHQWFURRNHG’2,UFDPPLG $VHFRQGDU\VXIIL[ XULVUDWKHUSURGXFWLYH EOHKXU¬‘SDOH’ (3$ EODLGXUD 6ODY EOpGÙLG2(EOWLG EXNXU ‘EHDXWLIXO ILQH’ (3$ EXNXUD FRQQHFWHG ZLWK EXN¬O ‘ZHDVHO’ morphonology and word-formation 163 ODNXU‘QDNHG’ (3$ ODXNXUDGHULYHGIURP,( OHXN‘WRVKLQHWR EHZKLWH’ ,QDOLPLWHGQXPEHURIZRUGV,( WUR!(3$ WUDLVDWWHVWHG,WLV FRQQHFWHG ZLWK VLPLODU PRUSKHPHV LQ PDQ\ RWKHU ,QGR(XURSHDQ ODQJXDJHV FI *N TQRVTQP ‘WDPERXULQH’ /DW UAVWUXP ‘EHDN’ 2,U FULDWKDU‘VLHYH’/LWKY{WUD‘VWRUP’ NHW¬U ‘VTXLUUHO GRUPRXVH’ (3$ NANWUD /LWK NXRNDV ‘GDQFH’ UHFRQVWUXFWHGIURPNXRN®Q^‘GDQFLQJSDUW\’ DQG6ODY VNDNDWL ‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’ SLW¬U‘IUHTXHQW’ (3$ SLPWUD 2,U©LP‘TXLFNIDVW’21ILPULG WKDG¬U ‘D NLQG RI D GRXEOHVLGHG D[H’ (3$ WVHVWU 6NW yDVWU¢ ‘NQLIHVZRUG’ 6XIIL[HVLQQDVDOVRQRUDQWV 'HYHUEDWLYHDGMHFWLYHVDQGRWKHURULJLQDOO\DGMHFWLYDOGHUL YDWLYHVDUHIRUPHGZLWK(3$ PD ,( PR+LVWRULFDOO\WKHVDPH VXIIL[LVDOVRXVHGWRIRUPQRXQVIURPRULJLQDOYHUEVDQGQRXQV&ILQ RWKHU,QGR(XURSHDQODQJXDJHV 6NW¢MPD‘SDWKFRXUVH’*NHNQIOQX ‘EUDQG’*RWKGRPV‘MXGJHPHQWVHQWHQFH’ EDUP¬ ‘EDVW’ (3$ EDUG]P GHULYHG IURP EDUG]D ! EDUGK¬ ‘ZKLWH’ ELP¬‘SODQW’ (3$ E P ,( EK PR *NHW`OCLG EUDP‘UHVLGXHVFRULDUXVWHDUZD[’ (3$ EUDGPD 6NWEUDGKQ¢ ‘UHGGLVK\HOORZ’6ODY EURQÙ‘FRORUHG’ EURGQÙ EULP¬ ‘KROH’ (3$ EULPD DQ DGMHFWLYH LQ PR EDVHG RQ ,( EKHU JULP¬‘FUXPEELW’ (3$ JULPDGHULYHGIURPJULM~ JUîM‘WRFXW LQWRSLHFHVWRJQDZWRHDWDZD\’ ,( ÞHUi‘WRVZDOORZ’ 6NW JLU¢WL $UP HNHU /DW YRUA /LWK JHUL¸ J©UWL ‘WR GULQN’ 6ODY ÊHUWLLG VDP¬‘GRJ’VH[FUHPHQWV’ (3$ WVZD Q PDDGHULYDWLYHLQ PR RIWKH,QGR(XURSHDQZRUGIRU‘GRJ’FI6NWyY*NMWYP2,U F·/LWKhX¶ WHUP‘IRXQGDWLRQSORWRIODQG’ (3$ WDUVPDGHULYHGIURPWHU‘WR PDNHGU\’ (3$ WDUVMDFDXVDWLYHRI WHUVFI6NWWDU¿¢\DWL LG/DWWRUUHALG21ÈHUUDLG 164 chapter two ,Q D IHZ FDVHV (3$ PD VHHPV WR UHVXOW IURP WKH DQDORJLFDO PRGLILFDWLRQRI,( PHQFIIRUH[DPSOH KLPH ‘EUDQ’ (3$ VNHLGPD ,( VNHLGPHQ *RWK VNDLGDQ ‘WR GLYLGH’ /LWK VNHGÊX VNHVWL ‘WR PDNH WKLQ’ FI /LWK VNLHPX¶ ‘RSHQLQJXVHGWRLQVHUWWKHVKXWWOH’ VNHLGPHQ SMDOP ‘GXVW WKLQ GXVW ILQH IORXU’ (3$ SHOPD 6ODY SROP? ‘IODPH’ *NRCNJ‘ILQH IORXU’ 6NW SDODOD‘JURXQG VHVDPXP’ /LWKSHOHQD&‘DVKHV’/DWYS?OQLLG/DWSROOHQ‘GXVWILQHIORXU’ ,QVHYHUDOZRUGVDVHFRQGDU\VXIIL[ LPLVDWWHVWHGFI/LWKLPDVLQ DEVWUDFWYHUEDOVXEVWDQWLYHV /LWKVXN®PDV‘WXUQLQJ’ GDVP¬GDUVP¬‘ZHGGLQJ’ (3$ GDUWhLPGHULYHGIURPGDUN¬ KHOP ‘SRLVRQ JULHI VRUURZ’ (3$ VNDOLPDFRQQHFWHG ZLWK KDOO ‘WURXEOH PLVHU\ SOLJKW VRUURZ’ (3$ VNDOQD FI *PF VNDOOD]‘WKLQGU\VKDOORZ’ (VKDOORZ ~ [DOOD]‘ZHDNWLUHG’ 0+*KHOKHOOHF NROP¬‘SUHWW\ZLQVRPH’ (3$ NOLPDGHULYDWLYHRI,( NDO 6NW NDO\¢‘KHDOWK\’*N+RPMC NQX‘EHDXWLIXO’ OLVP¬‘VODWHIUDJLOHHDUWKVWRQ\ILHOGFOD\’ (3$ OLWhLPUHODWHG WR OLT ‘ZRRI ZHIW’ VLQJXODUL]HG SOXUDO RI OLN ,( OHLá ‘WR OHDYH WR UHPDLQ’ 6NW ULo¢NWL ‘WR OHDYH’ /DW OLQTXA LG 2+* OKDQ $Q LPSRUWDQW SURGXFWLYH VXIIL[ RI DGMHFWLYHV LV VK¬P ~ ç¬P (3$ L VDPDFRUUHVSRQGLQJWR,WDOLFDQG&HOWLFVXSHUODWLYHVLQ LVPR &IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV PHQç¬PPHQGVK¬P‘FOHYHULQWHOOLJHQW’½PHQG‘PLQG’ DUV\HVK¬P‘UHDVRQDEOH’ ½DUV\H‘UHDVRQ’ IXTLVK¬P‘QDWXUDO’ ½IXTL‘QDWXUH’ $QRWKHUW\SHRIGHYHUEDWLYHDGMHFWLYH ODWHUH[SDQGHGWRRWKHU W\SHVRIQRXQV LVUHSUHVHQWHGE\(3$ QDFRQWLQXLQJ,( QRFI6NW GLQ¢‘ERXQG’*NURCTPQX‘VFDWWHUHG’/DWSOQXV‘IXOO’ JMDOP‘URSHODFH’ (3$ VDOSQD 6ODY VROSLWL‘WRVWLFNRXW’/LWK LhVHOSLQ{WL‘WRJHWGLYLGHG’ morphonology and word-formation 165 JMHU¬~JMDQ¬‘EURDGZLGH’ (3$ VDLQD ,( VL‘ORQJODWH’FI 2( VG ‘ORQJ ZLGH’ *RWK VHLÈXV ‘ODWH’ 2,U VWK ‘ORQJ’ /DW VHUXV‘ODWH’ JM¬U ‘VRXS’ ~ *HJ JMDQ¬ ‘PXGEHG DOOXYLXP’ (3$ MDXVQD 6NW QHXW\ ¿‘VRXS’/DWL VLG/LWKMgh^‘ILVKVRXS’ NDUP¬ ‘URFN’ (3$ NDUSQ IXUWKHU UHODWHG WR NDUS¬ LG (3$ NDUS FI /LWK NHUS¸ NL¼SWL ‘WR FXW’ /DWY F®USW ‘WR VKHDU WR FOLS’21KDUIU‘KDUURZ’ OXP‘EOHVVHGKDSS\OXFN\IRUWXQDWH’ (3$ OXEQDDQDGMHFWLYHLQ QRGHULYHGIURP,( OHXEK‘WRORYHWRZLVK’ WUX ~ WUû ‘EUDLQ’ (3$ WDUXQD 6NW W¢UXoD ‘\RXQJ WHQGHU’ $Y WDXUXQD ‘\RXQJ’ FI DOVR *N VGTJP ‘WHQGHU’ VGTW CUSGPGX NGRVQP +HV W¬U¬ ~ WDQ¬ ‘ZKROH DOO’ (3$ WZDQD WÆRQR ,( WHXi ‘WR VZHOO’ FILQSDUWLFXODU/LWKWY®QWL‘WRULVHWRVZHOO RIZDWHU ’ WY¦QDV‘IORRG’ (3$ QD ZDV WKH EDVLV RQ ZKLFK WKH VHFRQGDU\ VXIIL[ HQD ZDV IRUPHG,WLVFRQQHFWHGZLWK6ODYLFSDUWLFLSOHVLQ HQÙ EUHVK¬U~EUHVK¬Q‘KDLO’ (3$ EUDXVHQD ,( EKUHXV‘WREUHDN’ 2,UEU·XLG0:EUHX‘IUDJLOH’2+*EURVPD‘FUXPE’ NXOS¬U~NXOS¬Q‘LY\FOHPDWLV’ (3$ NXOSHQD /LWKN®OSD‘ORRS’ /DWYFLËSDLG SUHK¬U ~ SUHK¬Q ‘ERVRP ODS DSURQ’ (3$ SUAMHQD ‘IURQW’ RULJLQDOO\ DQ DGMHFWLYH EXLOW RQ WKH EDVLV RI WKH ORFDWLYH *N RTYï´‘HDUO\LQWKHPRUQLQJ’ 2+*IUXRLLG $QRWKHUVHFRQGDU\VXIIL[ LQD!LLVIRXQGLQPDVFXOLQHQRXQV&I 6ODY ÚQÙ/LWKLQD /LWKN¸SLQDV‘KHDSHGXS’6ODY GÙOÊÚQÙ‘PXVW’ DUL ‘EHDU’ (3$ DULQD GHULYHG IURP DU LG 6NW ¤N¿D LG Gk CTMVQXLG EDUL‘VKHSKHUG’ (3$ EDULQD 2+*EDUR‘ IUHH PDQ’ NDOOL‘HDURIJUDLQ’ (3$ NDOVLQD 6ODY NROVÙ‘HDURIJUDLQ’ (3$ QMLVTXLWHSURGXFWLYH GU¬QM¬‘FRUQHOFKHUU\ KHDOWK\VRXQG’ (3$ GUDXQM ,( GUHX ‘WUHH’ 166 chapter two GULQM¬‘EUXVKZRRG’ (3$ GU QM ,( GUHX‘WUHH’ HQM¬‘MXQLSHU\HZ’ (3$ DLJQMUHODWHGWRWKH*HUPDQLFZRUGIRU ‘RDN’ 21HLN2+*HLK UU¬QM¬~UUDQM¬‘URRW RDN’ (3$ ZUDGQM *NTCFKE‘EUDQFK’/DW UG[‘URRW’:JZUDLGG (3$ QM LV XVHG LQ GHQRPLQDWLYHV GHULYHG IURP QRXQV RI ,QGR (XURSHDQRULJLQDVZHOODVIURPORDQZRUGV EHURQM¬ ‘EDUUHQ ZRPDQ KROO\ NLQG RI VHUSHQW’ (3$ EDUQM EDVHG RQ EDUD ‘QDNHG EDUUHQ’ ERUURZHG IURP *PF ED]D] 2+*EDU‘EDUH’21EHUULG ELORQM¬‘WZLJEUDQFK SUHWW\JLUORU\RXQJZRPDQ’ (3$ E OQM DGHULYDWLYHRI E OD *NHWNQP‘OHDI’ JDERQM¬‘HDJOH’ (3$ JDEQMUHODWHGWRVKNDE¬LG PLVKNRQM¬PXVKNRQM¬‘PLGJHJQDW’GHULYHGIURP PXVKN¬ZKLFK LVERUURZHGIURP/DWPXVFD‘IO\’ ,QRQHZRUGZHDOVRILQG DQM G¬OOLQM¬G¬OO¬QM¬‘MXQLSHU’ (3$ GDLVODQMUHODWHGWRGHOO‘VLQHZ’ GDLVO 7KH ROG ,QGR(XURSHDQ SUHVHQW DFWLYH SDUWLFLSOH VXIIL[ QWL FDQEHGHWHFWHGLQVHYHUDO$OEDQLDQQRXQV EDQ¬‘GZHOOLQJ’ (3$ EDQWLGHULYHGIURPE¬M‘WRPDNHWRGR’ U¬QG¬~UDQG¬‘KHDY\’ (3$ UDXQWLGHULYHGIURPWKHYHUEDOVWHP RIDRUUDVK¬ UDXVD‘WRIDOO’ WKLQG‘EHDNQLSSOH’ (3$ LQWL ,( L‘WRVKDUSHQ’ 6NWyyWL ‘WRZKHWWRVKDUSHQ’$UPVRZU‘VKDUS NQLIH’ 6HYHUDOQRXQVDUHIRUPHGZLWK(3$ XQN EDOOXQJ¬ ‘EXPS VZHOOLQJ’ (3$ EDOXQN GHULYHG IURP EDOO¬ ‘IRUHKHDG’ (3$ EDO 6NWEKODLG23UXVEDOORLG VKW¬OOXQJ¬‘IORFNRIZRRO’ (3$ VWHOXQNGHULYHGIURPVKWMHOO‘WR WKURZ’ (3$ VWHOD *NUVGNNY‘WRSXWWRVHW’2+*VWHOOHQ ‘WRSXW’23UXVVWDOOW‘WRVWDQG’ morphonology and word-formation 167 VKWUXQJ¬ ‘PLONLQJ HQFORVXUH’ (3$ VW H UXQN GHULYHG IURP VKWULM ‘WR VSUHDG WR VWUHWFK’ (3$ VWULQMD 6NW VWQdWL ‘WR VSUHDG WR VFDWWHU’ *N UVQTPWOK ‘WR VSUHDG WR VWUHWFK’ /DW VWHUQALG 6XIIL[HVLQ 7KHSURGXFWLYH3URWR$OEDQLDQVXIIL[ MD~ MJRHVEDFNWR ,( R FI 6NW J¢Y\D ‘ERYLQH’ *N FK`QX‘KHDYHQO\ JORULRXV’ 6ODY RYÚ¨Ú‘EHORQJLQJWRWKHVKHHS’ HQM¬~êM¬‘GDLU\JRDW’ (3$ DJQM *NCOPQX‘ODPE’/DWDJQXV LG JMD]¬‘ULYHUVLGHIRUHVW’ (3$ VHGMDDGHULYDWLYHRI,( VHG‘WR VLWWREHVHWWOHG’FI6ODY VDGÙ‘JDUGHQJURYH’ NHT‘EDGHYLO’ (3$ NDNMD *NMCMQX‘EDG’ PHV¬‘VNLQ RIRQLRQ PLONVNLQILOP’ (3$ PDWhMGHULYHGIURP PDN¬ ‘JOXH VFXP VNLQ RQ WKH PLON RU RWKHU OLTXLGV ’ (3$ PDN /LWKPDN©QWL‘WRZDONWKURXJKDVZDPS’6ODY PRNUÙ ‘ZHW’ PRNQ_WL‘WREHFRPHZHW’ WHVK¬‘VSHFNRIGXVWOLWWOHVSOLQWHU’ (3$ WDNVM ,( WHV 6NW WDN¿DWL‘WRFDUSHQWHUWRFXW’/DWWH[A‘WRZHDYH’/LWKWDhØWL‘WR KHZ’ YHU]¬‘JLOOEUDQFKLD’ (3$ ZDUGM /LWK YDUO|‘IURJ’ YDUG| /DWYYUGHLG YLVH ‘SODFH’ (3$ ZWVM ,( ÆHL *N QKMKC ‘GZHOOLQJ KRXVH’ 3UHIL[DWLRQ 3UHIL[HV DUH ZLGHO\ XVHG LQ $OEDQLDQ ZRUGIRUPDWLRQ HVSH FLDOO\LQWKHGHULYDWLRQRIYHUEV+LVWRULFDOO\LQ3URWR$OEDQLDQSUHIL[HV ZHUH VWLOO VHSDUDWH FOLWLFV ZKLFK V\QWDFWLFDOO\ SUHFHGHG QRXQV 7KH\ JUDPPDWLFDOL]HG DW D ODWHU VWDJH DV D UHVXOW RI XQLYHUEDWLRQ DQG RI FKDQJHVLQWKHQDWXUHRI$OEDQLDQVWUHVV /LWHUDWXUH ;+89$1,Ç$%(- 3DUDVKW SDVVLP &$0$- $OE :RUWE 25(/ /LQJXLVWLFD ;;,9 SUHIL[ ND ~ JD SUHIL[ DZD +$03)HVWVFKU.QREORFK SUHIL[] 168 chapter two 9HUEDO SUHIL[ DPEL FRQWLQXHV ,( DPEKL ‘DURXQG RQ ERWK VLGHV’ *NCOHK*DXODPELDQGWKHOLNH PEDWK‘WRSXWRQ VKRHV ’ (3$ DPE L DXWVD ,( DX~ RXLG $UPDJDQLP‘WRSXWRQ FORWKHV ’/LWKDXQ¸DWL6ODY XWL PEHV‘WRUHPDLQWRVWD\’ (3$ DPE L HWMDGHULYHGIURPMHV‘WR UHPDLQ’ (3$ HWMDDGHQRPLQDWLYHRIMHW¬‘OLIH’ (3$ HWD WKHLVRODWHGJURXSRI*NGVGQX‘WUXHUHDO’G VC C NJSJ`C ICSC +HV GVC\Y‘WRWHVW’ PE¬VKWHW‘WRVWDQGWRSURS’ (3$ DPEKLVWDWDEDVHGRQ VWDWD ,( VWiWRV‘VWDQGLQJ’FI6NWVWKLW¢*NUVCVQXLG/DWVWDWXV LG PEOHGK‘WRJDWKHUWRFROOHFW’ (3$ DPELOHG]D *NNGIYLG/DW OHJA‘WRUHDG’ ,( OH½‘WRJDWKHU’ PE\OO ‘WR VKXW WR IDVWHQ’ (3$ DPELZHOD RULJLQDOO\ ‘WR HQFLUFOH’ 6NW YDODWL ‘WR WXUQ’ *N GK NGY ‘WR UROO WLJKW XS WR FORVH’2,UILOOLG‘WREHQG’ PE\V ‘WR VWUDQJOH WR GURZQ WR NLOO’ (3$ DPELZWMD 6NW Y\¢WKDWH‘WRVZD\WRURFN’*RWKZLÈRQ‘WRSRXU’ 7KHYHUEDOSUHIL[ HQFRQWLQXHV,( HQ L ‘LQ’ *NGP/DWLQ *RWKLQ PEDM‘WRKROGWRFDUU\’ (3$FDXVDWLYH HQEDUQMD ,( EKHU‘WR EHDU’ QGDM~QGDˆM‘WRGLYLGHWRVHSDUDWH’ (3$ HQGDQMD 6NWG¢\DWHLG GdWL‘WRFXWWRGLYLGH’*NFCKQOCK‘WRGLYLGH’ QGH] ‘WR VHW DOLJKW WR LJQLWH’ (3$ HQGDGÊMD FDXVDWLYH ,( GKRÞKHA ,( GKHÞK‘WREXUQ’ QJDM‘WRUXQ’ (3$ HQJDQMD UHGXSOLFDWHG6NWM¢KWL‘WROHDYHWR DEDQGRQ’2+*JQJQ‘WRJR’ QJUH ‘WR OLIW WR UDLVH’ (3$ HQJUDGD /DW JUDGLRU ‘WR VWHS WR ZDON’ *RWK DFF JULG ‘VWHS’ 2,U LQJUHQQ ‘WR SXUVXH’ 6ODY JU?G_ JU?VWL‘WRZDON’ QJXV‘WRXUJHWRIRUFH’ (3$ HQNXWMD /LWKN¢XWL‘WRVWULNH’6ODY NRYDWL‘WRIRUJH’/DWF GA‘WRVWULNH’2+*KRXZDQLG QJMLV‘WRVWLFNWR’ (3$ HQJOHLWMD /LWKJOLHM¸JOLWL‘WRVPHDU’ JOLW¸V‘VWLFN\’*NINQKQX‘VWLFN\VWXII’ morphonology and word-formation 169 7KHQRPLQDOSUHIL[ NDFRQWLQXHV,( NRP‘QHDUE\ZLWK’ /DW FXP 6ODY NÙ ,Q 3URWR$OEDQLDQ LW GHYHORSHG WZR PDLQ SKRQHWLF YDULDQWV $OEN ¬ ~ ND&IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV NDçHO ‘ODPH’ (3$ NDhWhDOD GHULYHG IURP çDO¬ ‘ODPH’ (3$ hWhDOD *NUMQNKQX‘FURRNHG’/DWVFHOXV NDOHVK ‘KDLU\’ (3$ NDODLVD GHULYHG IURP OHVK ‘ZRRO IOHHFH KDLU’ (3$ ODLhD FRQQHFWHG ZLWK WKH %DOWR6ODYLF ZRUG IRU ‘IROLDJH’ /LWKOD&hNDV‘OHDI’/DWYOD&VND‘OHDIRQDOLQHQVWDON VWDON’6ODY OLVWÙ‘OHDI’ N¬QG¬ ~ NDQG¬ ‘SOHDVXUH DSSHWLWH’ (3$ NDDQW GHULYHG IURP ¬QG¬~DQG¬‘DSSHWLWHGHVLUHZLVK’ (3$ DQWFI*NCPVCK CPGOQKCPVCX RPQCX+HV NOODS¬‘SXGGOH’ (3$ NDODSIXUWKHUUHODWHGWROODS‘WRODSXS’ RI DQLPDOV (3$ ODSD *NNCRVY‘WRJXOSWRGULQNJUHHGLO\’ /LWKODS©QWL‘WRVZDOORZIRRG’ RISLJV 6ODY ORSDWL‘WRHDWXS’ NU¬QG~NUDQGH‘IROLDJH EUXVKZRRG OHDYHVXVHGDVIRGGHU FKLSV EUDQFK ZLWKRXW OHDYHV’ (3$ NDUDQGD D SUHIL[ IRUPDWLRQ FRQQHFWHGZLWK,( UHQGK‘WRWHDU DVXQGHU ’DQGLQSDUWLFXODU ZLWK2+*ULQGDULQWD‘ULQG’2(ULQGHLG 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGLQPDQ\ZRUGV ND\LHOGHGJ ¬ DQG JDZLWKDQ XQH[SODLQHG YRLFLQJ RI WKH LQLWLDO N 6RPHWLPHV ERWK YDULDQWV RI WKH SUHIL[FRH[LVWLQRQHZRUG&IWKHIROORZLQJZRUGV JDODPVK ‘ODPH SHUVRQ’ (3$ JDOHPHVMD GHULYHG IURP O¬PVK ~ ODPVK ‘EDOO RI ZRRO WKUHDG JOREH RI HDUWK SRRO VSHOOHW’ /DWY OHPHVLV ‘VKDUS HGJH RI WKH SORXJK’ 6ODY OHPHhÚ ‘SORXJKVKDUH’ JGKH~JGKê ‘JQDUONQRW’ (3$ JDGDLQD 6NWG¢\DWH‘WRGLYLGH’ *NFCKQOCKLG J¬VKWDOO¬ N¬VKWDOO¬ ‘VSOLQW SLHFH RI ZRRG’ (3$ JDVWDOQ ,( VWHO J¬WKHS‘JDUGHQVFLVVRUV FODZQLSSHU RIDVFRUSLRQ ’ (3$ JD WVDLSD WKHS‘SHDNSRLQWFRJWRRWK’ (3$ WVDLSD 6NWy©SD ‘WDLOSHQLV’/DWFLSSXV‘SROH’ JOHS¬‘PDWWHUIURPWKHH\HVUKHXP’ (3$ NDODLSGHULYHGIURP ,( OHLS‘WRVPHDUZLWKIDW’ JUHSJ¬UMHS¬‘KRRNILVKKRRN’ (3$ JDUHSDUHODWHGWRUMHS‘WR VWULSRII VNLQRUEDUN WRWHDURII’ (3$ UHSD ,( UHS *N 170 chapter two GTGRVQOCK‘WRHDW’/DWUDSLA‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVS’/LWKU{SWL‘WR JUDVS’ JORT‘PDWWHUIURPWKHH\HVUKHXPWHVWLV’ (3$ NDOXNMDWR,( OHXN‘WRVKLQH VKLQLQJZKLWH’ 7KHVDPH ND~ JDLVDOVRXVHGLQ PRVWO\GHQRPLQDWLYH YHUEV JGKHQG ‘WR SODQH’ (3$ JDGDLQWD GHULYHG IURP JGKH ~ JGKê ‘JQDUO NQRW’ (3$ JDGDLQD 6NW G¢\DWH ‘WR GLYLGH’ *N FCKQOCKLG JGKLM~JGKîM‘WRVWD\DZDNHDWQLJKW’ (3$ JDGHLQMD ,( GLQR ~ GHLQR‘GD\’ JMDM‘WRUHVHPEOHWREHOLNH WRVXLWWREHFRPH WRVHHP WRKDSSHQ’ (3$ JDODEQMDEDVHGRQ ODE /LWKO¦EDV‘JRRG’/DWYODEV LG N¬T\U‘WRORRNWRREVHUYH’ NDNHZLUDGHULYHGIURPT\U‘WRORRN’ (3$ NHZLUD *N MQGY ‘WR QRWH’ /DW FDYHA ‘WR EH DZDUH’ *RWKKDXVMDQ‘WRKHDU’ ,QVRPHFDVHV ZKHUHRULJLQDOH[SUHVVLYLW\FDQEHVXVSHFWHG WKHSUHIL[ NDGHYHORSHGDQRQHW\PRORJLFDOHSHQWKHWLFU N¬UELVKW‘VDFUXPVDFUDOERQH’ (3$ NDUE VWDGHULYHGIURPELVKW ‘WDLO’ (3$ E VWD ,( EK ‘WRJURZ’ N¬UOHVK‘WR VWDQG RQ HQG RI KDLU ’ NDUODLVD GHULYHG IURP OHVK ‘KDLU’ N¬UW\O‘WRILOOXSWRVDWLDWH’ (3$ NDUW OD /LWKWgODV‘PDQ\’*N VWNQX‘FRUQ’ N¬UYHVKHP‘WRJULQWRSXOOIDFHV’ (3$ NDUZHVMDGHULYHGIURP YHVK‘WRSXWRQ’ 7KH SUHIL[ DZD FRQWLQXHV ,( RÆR ~ DÆR FI 6NW ¢YD ‘RXW’ 6ODY X ,Q 3URWR$OEDQLDQ LW QRUPDOO\ DSSHDUV LQ YHUEV ,W GHYHORSHGLQWR$OEYH[FHSWEHIRUHOZKHUHLW\LHOGVI IOH~IOê ‘WRVOHHS’ (3$ DZDOHMD 6ODY OpM_ OpMDWL‘WRGR]HWR VOXPEHU’ YGHV ‘WR GLH’ (3$ DZDWDNMD WR WHá ‘WR UXQ WR IORZ’ 2,U WHFKLP‘WRIOHH’/LWKWHN¸WHN{WL‘WRUXQ’6ODY WHN_ WHNWL‘WR IORZWRUXQ’ morphonology and word-formation 171 Y¬VKWMHOO‘WRZUDS’ (3$ DZDVWHODGHULYHGIURPVKWMHOO‘WRWKURZ’ (3$ VWHOD *NUVGNNY‘WRSXWWRVHW’2+*VWHOOHQ‘WRSXW’ 23UXVVWDOOW‘WRVWDQG’ YUDS‘WRUXQWRKDVWH’ (3$ DZDUDSDGHULYHGIURPUMHS‘WRVWULS RII VNLQRUEDUN WRWHDURII’ YUDV‘WRNLOO’ (3$ DZDUDXWMD ,( UHX‘WRWHDUWRGHVWUR\’ 6NW UXW¢‘EURNHQ’/DWUXA‘WRIDOOGRZQWRUXVKGRZQ’ 7KHVDPHSUHIL[LVDWWHVWHGLQVHYHUDOGHYHUEDWLYHQRXQV IOHJ¬‘VSOLQWHU’ (3$ DZDODJ ,( OHJK‘WROLH’FI*NNQZQX ‘DPEXVK’ IOHW¬‘ZLQJOHDI’ (3$ DZDOHNWDGHULYHGIURP,( OHN‘WRIO\’ /LWKOHNL¸O|NWL/DWYOªNW2+*OHFNHQ‘WRMXPSWRNLFN’ IOXJ¬ ‘VKLQJOH’ (3$ DZDOXJD ,( OHX½ FI 6NW UXM¢WL ‘WR EUHDN’/DWO JHA‘WRPRXUQWRGHSORUH’ Y¬VKWLU¬‘KDUGGLIILFXOWEDGHYLO’ (3$ DZDVWLUDUHODWHGWRVKWLH ‘WRSRXULQWRSXWLQWRWKURZ’ (3$ VWHUDFI6NWVWodWL‘WR VSUHDG WR VFDWWHU’ *N UVQTPWOK ‘WR VWUHWFK WR VSUHDG’ /DW VWHUQA‘WRVSUHDG’6ODY VWÚU_ VWHUWLLG YU¬QG¬ ‘GUL]]OH’ (3$ DZDUHQWD GHULYHG IURP UHQG ‘WR UXQ WR KXUU\’ (3$ UHQWD *RWKULQQDQ‘WRUXQ’21ULQQDLG YU¬U¬W~YUDQ¬W‘FORXG\’ (3$ DZDUHQDEDVHGRQUH‘FORXG’ YUXJ‘UXVWPLOGHZEOLJKW’ (3$ DZDUXJD $YUDRJQD‘EXWWHU’ 21UM·PL‘FUHDP’ 7KH,QGR(XURSHDQDGYHUEV SHUL 6NWS¢UL*NRGTK DQG SUR 6NWSU¢‘IRUZDUG’2,UUR*RWKIUD GHYHORSHGLQWR(3$ SHUDQG SUDODWHUPHUJLQJLQWR$OES¬U,QVRPHFDVHVZHFDQQRWH[FOXGHWKH IDFWWKDW/DWSHUDQGSUAWKDWPD\DOVRKDYHWDNHQSDUWLQWKHIRUPDWLRQ RI $OE S¬U 7KH ODWWHU LV TXLWH SURGXFWLYH DQG QRUPDOO\ DSSHDUV LQ YHUEV S¬UJMRM ‘WR SU\ WR SHHS WR VS\’ (3$ SHUMJQMD GHULYHG IURP JMXDM~JMXHM‘WRKXQW’ (3$ MJQMDFI2+*MDJAQ‘WRKXQW’ S¬UNXO‘WREHQG’ (3$ SHUNXOD ,( áHO‘WRWXUQ’ S¬UPMHUU ‘WR XULQDWH’ (3$ SHUPHG]UD ,( PHL½K LG 6NW P©KDWL*NQOGKZY/DWPHLA21PJD S¬USXVK ‘WR SRNH WR VWLU XS’ (3$ SHUS U XVD GHULYHG IURP SUXVK‘KRWDVKHV’ 172 chapter two S¬UTHOO‘WRGHULGHWRPRFN’ (3$ SHUNHODGHULYHGIURPTHOO‘WR KDOWWRKROGXSWRFDUU\’ (3$ NHOD 6NWNDO¢\DWL‘WRLPSHO’ *NMGNQOCK‘WRGULYHRQ’ S¬UYMHO ‘WR IOLQJ RXW WR OHW IO\ WR WXUQ RYHU WR UROO XS WR FXW WKH IOHHFHRQDVKHHS’VEHOO\’ (3$ SHUZHODGHULYHGIURPYMHO ‘WRSOXFN IUXLW WRYLQWDJH’ (3$ ZHOD *NGKNY‘WRVKXWLQ WRSUHVV’/LWKVXYDOØWL‘WRKDUYHVWWRUHDS’ 7KHSUHIL[S¬ULVRFFDVLRQDOO\XVHGWRIRUPDGYHUEV S¬UPEL ‘RYHU’ (3$ SHUDPEL ZLWK WKH ILUVW HOHPHQW LGHQWLFDO ZLWKS¬UDQGWKHVHFRQGUHSUHVHQWLQJ(3$ DPEL S¬USMHW¬‘ULVLQJXSKLOOULVHVORSH’ (3$ SUDSHWD *NRTQRGVJX ‘SURPLQHQW’RTQRGVQOCK‘WRIO\IRUZDUGV’DQGIXUWKHUWR6NW S¢WDWL‘WRIO\WRVRDU’*NRGVQOCK‘WRIO\’ ,QDQXPEHURIFDVHVS¬UZDVSKRQHWLFDOO\WUDQVIRUPHGLQWRU U ¬ U¬SMHW¬‘VWHHS’~S¬USMHW¬‘ULVLQJXSKLOO’ U¬SRVK‘EHORZXQGHUQHDWK’~ S¬USRVKLG ,QDOLPLWHGQXPEHURIQRXQV(3$ WVD!WK ¬ LVDWWHVWHG,WV VRXUFHLV,( RP 6ODY VÙQ WK¬QJMLOO ‘KRW DVKHV’ (3$ WV D DQJLOD /LWK DQJO®V LG 23UXV DQJOLVLG6ODY _JOÚLG6NW¢JUDLG WKMHVKW¬‘VLPSOHHDV\’ (3$ WV D HNVWDEDVHGRQ HNVWD!MDVKW¬ ‘RXWVLGH’ WKQHJ¬O ‘DQW’ (3$ WV D DQJXO /DW DQJXLV ‘VQDNH’ /LWK DQJ®V LG 2+* DQJDU ‘NLQG RI PDJJRW’ HQJLULQH ‘ODUYD’ /LWK DQNhWLU~æ ‘PDJJRW’ WKXS¬U‘WZLJURG’ (3$ WV D XSHUD‘XSSHU’ 2+*REDURLG/DW VXSHULG ,( GLVSUHVHUYHGLQ/DWGLV*RWKGLV\LHOGHG(3$ GLV! GLh +DYLQJ ORVW LWV XQVWUHVVHG YRZHO Gh! Wh!$OEV EHIRUH XQYRLFHGSKRQHPHV ~ ] EHIRUHWKHYRLFHG (3$ GLVLVPDLQO\FRQ QHFWHGZLWKWKHIRUPDWLRQRIYHUEV morphonology and word-formation 173 VTDT ‘WR PDNH ZHDN’ (3$ GLVNHNMD /LWK N{NRV ‘VZLQJ’ /DWY NGHNXW‘WRVZLQJ’ VWHSHP‘WREHVORZWRVWRS’ (3$ GLVWDSD 21ÈHIMD‘WRVWDPSWR UDP’ ]EHM‘WRPDNHSDOH’ (3$ GLVEDQMD 6NWEKdWL‘WRVKLQH’2,UE¢Q ‘ZKLWH’ ]GUDM‘WRVZHOOWRPDNHVZHOO’ (3$ GLVG H UDQMD 6NWGodWL‘WR EXUVW’*NFGTY‘WRVNLQWRIOD\’ ]YMHUGK‘WRZHDQ’ (3$ GLVYHUG]D /LWKYHUÊL¸YH¼ÊWL‘WRODFHWR WLH’/DWYYU]W‘WRWXUQ’6ODY YHU]WL‘WRELQG’ +RZHYHUWKHSUHIL[ GLVLVDOVRXVHGLQQRPLQDOIRUPDWLRQ ]JDUE¬‘KROORZ LQ D WUHH ’ (3$ GLVJDUEGHULYHG IURP JDUE¬ ‘QRWFK QLFN’ (3$ JDUE 2,U JHUEDFK ‘ZULQNOHG’ 21 NRUSQD ‘WR JHW ZULQNOHG’ 23UXV JDUELV ‘PRXQWDLQ’ 6ODY JÙUEÙ‘KXPS’ ]JDY¬U ‘KROH’ (3$ GLVJDZLU ,( JHXU JRXU ‘EHQW FURRNHG’ ]JULS‘VLGHHGJHULP’ (3$ GLVJULSD 2+*NUDSIR‘KRRN’21 NUDSSU‘QDUURZ’ ]JMHGK¬‘R[\RNH’ (3$ GLVJDGUHODWHGWRJMHGK‘FDWWOH’ ]YHUN ‘RFFLSXW’ GLVZDUND EDVHG RQ YMHUU ‘WR KDQJ’ (3$ ZHUD *N C GKTY ‘WRUDLVHXS’ /LWK YHUL¸ Y©UWL ‘WR ZHLJK’ VYHUL¸VYH¼WL‘WRRSHQWRWKUHDG’ ,( H½KV DV DQ DGYHUE EHFDPH (3$ LWV!LWK ‘EHKLQG’ +RZHYHU DV D SUHYHUE LWV ORVW WKH ILUVW HOHPHQW RI LWV DIIULFDWH DQG EHFDPH LV ! Lh!VK 7KLV SUHIL[ LV RQH RI WKH PRVW SURGXFWLYH LQ $OEDQLDQ&IH[DPSOHVRIVKLQYHUEV VKNHS VKNUHS ‘WR UHVHPEOH’ (3$ LVNUHSD ‘ERG\’ 6NW NS ‘VKDSH EHDXWLIXO DSSHDUDQFH’ /DW FRUSXV ‘ERG\’ 2+* KUI ‘ERG\ODS’ VKNPHV ‘WR FOLS WR SUXQH EXVKHV WUHHV ’ (3$ LVNDPHWM GHULYHGIURPNPHV¬‘ELOOKRRNVLFNOH’ VKSLH ‘WR EULQJ DZD\’ LVEHUD GHULYHG IURP ELH ‘WR EULQJ WR FDUU\’ VKSLK~ VKSLI‘WRVODQGHUWRFDOXPQLDWH’ (3$ LVSHLNVND 2+* IHKDQ‘WRKDWH’/LWKSHLNL¸SH&NWL‘WREODPH’ 174 chapter two VKSRUU‘WRPRYHDZD\WRGULYHDZD\’ (3$ SUD 6NWSSDUWL‘WR EULQJRYHUWRVDYH’*NRGTCYRGKTY‘WRSHQHWUDWH’ VKTXDM~VKTXHM‘WRGLVFHUQWRVWUHVVWROHDUQ’ (3$ LVNOXVQMD GHULYHG IURP TXDM ~TXHM‘WR FDOO WR JLYH D QDPH’ (3$ NOXVQMDDGHQRPLQDWLYHEDVHGRQ,( OHÆRV‘JORU\ZRUG’ 6NWyU¢YDV*NMNGQX6ODY VORYR 7KHVDPHSUHIL[LVDWWHVWHGLQQXPHURXVQRXQV VKNDUGK¬‘GRJFKDLQ ORQJVWLFNDWWDFKHGWRDGRJ’VQHFNWRSUHYHQW LW IURP ELWLQJ LWV PDVWHU’ (3$ LVJDUG FRQQHFWHG ZLWK JDUGK¬‘IHQFH’ VKNOHS¬‘PDWWHUIURPWKHH\HVUKHXP’ (3$ LVJDODLSGHULYHG IURPJOHS¬LG (3$ JDODLS ,( OHLS‘WRVPHDUZLWKIDW’ VKNUXPE‘EODFNDVKHVDQ\WKLQJEXUQHGWRDVKHV’ (3$ LVNUXPD ,( NUHPDWWHVWHGLQ/DWFUHPA‘WREXUQ’ VKSDUGK‘RDN’ (3$ LVSDUG]D 21IRUNU‘VWLFNSROH’FRQWLQXLQJ ,( SHU½ VKSDW‘SUHFLSLFHPRXQWDLQIRUHVW’ (3$ LVSDWD 6NWS¢WDWL‘WRIO\ WRVRDU’*NRKRVY‘WRIDOO’ $IHZ$OEDQLDQZRUGVSUHVHUYHWKHSULYDWLYHSUHIL[ D ,( 6NWD*NC/DWLQ DPXOO ‘VWDJQDQW RI ZDWHU ’ (3$ DPXOZD /LWK PXËY^ ‘VLOW PDUVK’P¸OWL‘WRJHWGLUW\’ HJM¬OO ‘RQ DQ HPSW\ VWRPDFK’ (3$ DVDOZD JMHOO ‘IRRG’ JMDOO¬ ‘DOLYH’ HV¬OO ‘RQ DQ HPSW\ VWRPDFK’ (3$ DWhLOQD FRQQHFWHG ZLWK VLOO¬ ‘EUHDNIDVW’ 1XPHURXV SUHIL[HV LQ $OEDQLDQ DUH RI H[SUHVVLYH RULJLQ 7KHLUHW\PRORJLHVDUHXQFHUWDLQ+HUHRQO\VRPHRIWKRVHSUHIL[HVDUH DGGXFHG NDFD GUH‘GHHU’¾NDFDGUH~NDFDGUê ‘VWDJEHHWOHJUDVVKRSSHU’ JMHO‘URRVWHU’¾UULNDFDJMHO‘WREUDJ’ PLW¬ ] ‘URH’¾NDFDPLW‘VWDJ’ morphonology and word-formation 175 UURM‘WROLYHWRVWD\’¾NDFDUURM‘WRFOLPEWRFODPEHU’ UUXP‘PDL]HFREVWULSSHGRIFRUQV’¾NDFDUUXP‘FRUQFRE’ NDOD~ NDOL KXPE‘WROHDYHWRORRVHWRVSRLO’¾NDOLKXP‘GRZQZDUGV’ PDM‘WRIHHG’¾NDODPDQ‘FKLOG WLOOWKHDJHRI ’ PHQG‘PLQG’¾NDODPHQG‘WRFRQIXVH’ TDI¬‘QHFN’¾NDODTDI¬‘SLJJ\EDFN’ YDU‘WRKDQJ’¾NDOLYDUH‘WULFNOLQJGRZQ’ YHVK‘JUDSH’¾NDODYHVKLG NDUUD ELVKW‘WDLO’¾NDUUDELVKW‘HDUZLJ’ YHVK‘JUDSH’¾NDUUDYHVK‘VWLFN’ OD~ O¬ NXT‘UHG’¾ODNXT‘UHG RIHDUWK ’ WUHGK‘WRFDVWUDWH’¾ODWUHGK‘XQFDVWUDWHGUDP’ EDUGK¬‘ZKLWH’¾OEDUGK‘WRPDNHZKLWH’ EDUN‘EHOO\’¾O¬EDUNH‘G\VHQWHU\’ I\W‘WKURDWJXOOHW’¾O¬I\W‘SLSHWXEH’ PD]¬‘PLONVNLQ’¾O¬PD]¬‘WKLQVNLQVKHOO’ P¬ N¬PE¬~ NDPE¬‘OHJIRRW’¾P¬N¬PE~ P¬NDPE‘WRVHWXS’ NU\H‘KHDG’¾P¬NUHV¬‘WRPEVWRQH’ VKTHUU¬‘KHLIHU’¾P¬VKTHUU¬LG NHT‘EDG’¾PNHTHP‘WRJHWZRUVH’ SLOL NRU¬‘FUXVWEDUN’¾SLOLNXUL‘EDUHQDNHG’ SL]J¬‘ZLQGLQVWUXPHQW’¾SLOLSL]J¬‘NLQGRISLSH’ YHYRH‘HJJ’¾SLOLYHV¬SLOLYRHV¬‘GUDJRQIO\’ &IWKHH[SUHVVLYHSUHIL[ ODLQ6ODYLF 176 chapter two VKDUD QGXN‘WRSOXFNRXW’¾VKDUDQGXN‘WRSLQFK’ VK¬Q GULW¬‘OLJKW’¾VK¬QGULW‘WRVKLQH’ JMDK‘KXQWFKDVH’¾VK¬QJMHW¬‘EHVWSDUWRIKXQWLQJWURSKLHV’ W¬ DP¬‘VRXUFHULYHUEHG’¾WDP¬‘ZDWHUVRXUFH’ EDQ¬‘GZHOOLQJ’¾W¬EDQ¬‘VKHSKHUG’VKXW’ ¬PE¬O~ DPE¬O‘VZHHW’¾W¬PE¬O~ WDPE¬O‘VZHHWQHVV’ O¬QG¬~ODQG¬‘ZRRGWLPEHUPDWHULDO’¾WODQG¬U‘EXQGOH’ W¬U~ WHU IXUN¬‘IRUN’¾W¬UIXUN‘SLWFKIRUN’ KHT‘WRSXOOWRGUDZ’¾W¬UKHTLG SORW¬‘IXOO’¾WHUSORW¬‘ZLQQRZLQJVKRYHO’ SRVKW¬‘GRZQEHORZ’¾W¬USRVKW¬‘VORSH’ )RUVRPHRIWKHDERYHSUHIL[HVHW\PRORJLFDOFRUUHVSRQGHQFHVFDQEH WHQWDWLYHO\VXJJHVWHG$OEO¬PD\ILQGDSDUDOOHOLQ6ODY OD $OE W¬ PD\EHFRPSDUHGZLWK6NWWDW &RPSRXQGV $QFLHQW ,QGR(XURSHDQ FRPSRXQGV DUH LQ VRPH FDVHV SUHVHUYHG LQ $OEDQLDQ HYHQ WKRXJK WKH\ DUH QR ORQJHU SHUFHLYHG DV VXFK3URWR$OEDQLDQFRPSRXQGVKDYHDOVRDGGHGWRWKHYRFDEXODU\WKDW DOVREHFDPHOHVVWUDQVSDUHQW /LWHUDWXUH &$0$-$OE:RUWE OREL ZfBalk XXIII/1 67, 7273. 7KH IROORZLQJ FRPSRXQGV DUH LQKHULWHG IURP ,QGR(XURSHDQ DQGRU3URWR$OEDQLDQ E¬UU\O ‘HOERZ IRUHDUP’ (3$ EAUHL DO H Q WKH VHFRQG FRPSRQHQWLVDWWHVWHGLQOO¬U¬~ OODQ¬‘DUP’ morphonology and word-formation 177 WK¬QXN¬O ‘GRJEHUU\’ WK¬QXE¬O (3$ WVXQXDEAOD ‘GRJ’V DSSOH’ 'DF κινου´βοιλα ‘SODQW %ULRQLD DOED’ 'LRVF DQG/LWKh·QREXRODV‘GRJ’VSXPSNLQ’ Y¬OOD‘EURWKHU’ (3$ VZHODXGFRPSRVLWHRISURQRPLQDO,( VÆH DQG ODXG ,( OHXGK 2+*OLXW‘SHRSOH’6ODY OMXGÙLG \OEHU ‘UDLQERZ’ (3$ DO H Q EKAUD ‘UDLQERZ’ ‘FXUYH’ D PLUURUUHIOHFWLRQRI(3$ EKAUHLXO H Q!E¬UU\O ]RW‘ORUGPDVWHUJRG’ (3$ Z L WVSDWL 6NWYLySDWL‘ORUGRIWKH KRXVH’ 9DULRXV VWUXFWXUDO DQG VHPDQWLF W\SHV RI FRPSRXQGV DUH DWWHVWHGLQPRGHUQ$OEDQLDQ$OORIWKHPDUHUHFHQWLQQRYDWLRQV GLW¬]L‘XQOXFN\’½GLW¬‘GD\’]L‘EODFN’ GRU¬]DQ¬‘SOHGJH’½GRU¬‘KDQG’]DQ¬‘WDNHQ’ GUHGKDOHVK‘VSLQGOH’½GUHGK‘WRWXUQ’OHVK‘ZRRO’ JRM¬OLGKQL‘ZROI’½JRM¬‘PRXWK’OLGKXQ‘ERXQG’ JXQ¬GKLU¬ ‘FORDN PDGH RI JRDW ZRRO’ ½ JXQ¬ ‘FORDN’GKLU¬ ‘RI JRDW’ JM\VDPL‘EDW’½JM\V¬‘KDOI’PL‘PRXVH’ PDQDIHUU¬‘NLQGRIFKHUU\’½PDQ‘EHUU\’IHUU¬‘WKRUQ’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´*6.$ &;/9,,, GHULYHV VJ SUHV _ LQ 6ODYLF IURP LQMXQFWLYH RP 6&+0,'%DOW GLVDJUHHVZLWK0(,//(7 0(,')OH[LRQ morphology 179 SDVVLP VHFRQGDU\ HQGLQJV LQ &HOWLF FRQMXQFW SUHVHQW ÇABEJ +\UMH &,02&+2:6.,67,( VWHPVLQ QM +$03$QF,( VXSSRUWV 0(,//(7 :$7.,16 *HVFKLFKWH &HOWLF SUHVHQW %$'(5 %6/ /;;, RQ 7RFK $ VJ SUHV DP RP .257/$1'7 /LQJXD ;/,; 6ODY _ IURP SHUIHFWLYH D IROORZHG E\ P 0$11 +LVW *U 25(/ /LQJY LVVO ,, =I%DON;;,, &ODVV , DWKHPDWLF URRW VWHPV PLFRQMXJDWLRQ 7KLV FODVV LV YHU\VPDOODQGDUFKDLF,WLQFOXGHVWKHIROORZLQJYHUEV MDP‘WREH’NDP ‘WRKDYH’WKRP‘WRVD\’DQGYHWH~ YHWHP‘WRJR’ 7KHYHUEMDP ,( HVPL FI 6NW¢VPL *N GKOK FRQWLQXHV WKH ,QGR (XURSHDQSDUDGLJPRIWKHURRWSUHVHQWLQPRVWRILWVIRUPV VJ SO MDP HVPL MHPL HVP©L MH HVVL >MHQL@ ¬VKW¬~ DˆVKW HQVWL MDQ¬ HVQWL VJ FRQWDLQV DQ HSHQWKHWLF Q SUREDEO\ WKH UHVXOW RI WKH DQDORJLFDO SUHVVXUH IURP WKH SO SO FRUUHVSRQGV H[DFWO\ WR WKH %DOWLF SO HQGLQJ 2/LWK HVPL HVPLH HVPHL SO HVQWL UHIOHFWV DQ DQDORJLFDOEDFNIRUPDWLRQRQWKHEDVLVRIWKHVLQJXODURSSRVHGWRRWKHU ,QGR(XURSHDQFRQWLQXDQWVRI HVUHIOHFWLQJDWKHPDWL]HG VRQWL 6NW V¢QWL/DWVXQW 7KHDWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWRINDP NDSPLUHODWHGWRWKHPDWLF/DWFDSLA ‘WR VHL]H WR JUDVS’ *RWK KDEDQ ‘WR KDYH’ PD\ EH D 3URWR$OEDQLDQ LQQRYDWLRQ7KHUHH[LVWVWKHPDWLFNDS‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVS’ (3$ NDSD ,WVHHPVSUREDEOHWKDW NDSDZDVGUDZQLQWRWKHVSKHUHRIWKHDWKHPDWLF FRQMXJDWLRQ EHFDXVH LW UHSODFHG DQRWKHU ORVW SUHVHQW VWHP RU ZDV FRQQHFWHG ZLWK RWKHU DWKHPDWLF YHUEV RI WKH VDPH VHPDQWLF ILHOG 7KH WKLUG DWKHPDWLF YHUE LV WKRP ‘WR VD\’ WVQVPL FRQQHFWHG ZLWK /DW FQVHA ‘WR DVVHVV WR YDOXH’ ,Q ,UDQLDQ 23HUV SWL\ WKLV VWHP LV DWKHPDWLF 7KHODVWDWKHPDWLFYHUELVYHWH~ YHWHP‘WRJR’7KRXJKWKHHW\PRORJLFDO FRQQHFWLRQVRIWKLVYHUEDUHPRUHRUOHVVFOHDU FI/DWYGA‘WRJRWR 180 chapter three ZDON’,21YDÔDLGDQGSUREDEO\$UPJDP‘ , FRPH’ WKHVWUXFWXUHRI WKHSDUDGLJPLQVLQJXODULVSHUSOH[LQJ7KHRULJLQDOIRUPLVUHWDLQHGLQ SOYHPL ZDGPHL,QWKHVLQJXODUKRZHYHUZHKDYHWRVXSSRVHDQ DGGLWLRQDOPRUSKHPHWHKLVWRULFDOO\LGHQWLFDOZLWKWH‘WRZKHUHWKHUH’ (3$ WDLUHIOHFWLQJ,( WRL7KXVWKHRULJLQDOSDUDGLJP RQO\SDUWO\ DWKHPDWLFDVWKHVJ FDQQRW EH SKRQHWLFDOO\ GHULYHG IURP ZDGVL DQG ZDGWL LQWKHVLQJXODUZDVDVIROORZV YHP ZDGPL YH ZDGHVL YHW ZDGHWL 7KHQDQHZPRUSKRORJLFDOHOHPHQWZDVDGGHG YHPWH YHWH YHWWH ,QWKHSOWKHDERYHIRUPVGHYHORSHGLQWRWKHDWWHVWHGYHWH,Q*HJ WKHVJHYROYHGIURP YHPWHWRYHWH+RZHYHULQ7RVN YHPWHZDV WUDQVIRUPHGLQWRYHWHP ,WLVSUREDEOHWKDWWKHYHUELN‘WRJRDZD\WRUXQDZD\’ HLND ZLWKLWV YDULDQWLN¬MQRZEHORQJLQJWRWKH9,,DFODVV ZDVDWKHPDWLFLQ$OEDQLDQ DQG LWV RULJLQDO SUHVHQW ZDV HLPL LGHQWLFDO ZLWK *N GK?OK ,WV FXUUHQW SUHVHQWIRUPZDVGHULYHGIURPWKHDWKHPDWLFLPSHUDWLYHVJLN HL ND FRQQHFWHG ZLWK /LWKXDQLDQ LPSHUDWLYH H&N H&NL ‘JR’ 7KLV VXEVWL WXWLRQ LV UHPDUNDEO\ VLPLODU WR WKDW RI WKH DWKHPDWLF HLPL LQ 6ODYLF +HUH HLPLZDVUHSODFHGE\WKHLQQRYDWLYHSUHVHQW MÚG_‘ , JR’EDVHG RQ LGKLDQROGLPSHUDWLYHRI HLFI6NWLKL*NKSK &ODVV ,, WKHPDWLF URRW VWHPV 7KLV FODVV LQFOXGHV GR]HQV RI YHUEVZLWKHJUDGHLQSUHVHQW&IDIHZW\SLFDOH[DPSOHV EUHGK‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’ (3$ EUHGD 6ODY EUHG_ EUHVWL‘WR ZDGHWRIRUG’/LWKEUHQG¸EU®VWLLG GMHJ ‘WR EXUQ’ (3$ GHJD ,( GKHÞK ‘WR EXUQ’ 6NWG¢KDWL 7RFK$%WVDNWV¥N/LWGHJ¸GªJWL JMHVK‘WRNQHDG’ (3$ MHVMD 6NW\¢V\DWL‘WRERLO’*N\GY‘WRERLO WRFRRN’ morphology 181 SMHN‘WREDNHWRFRRN’ (3$ SHND ,( SHáLG 6NWS¢FDWL*N RGUUY/DWFRTXA6ODY SHN_ SHNWL SMHOO‘WREHJHWWRSURGXFHWREHDU’ (3$ SHOD /DWSHOOA‘WRGULYH WRSXVK’*NRCNNY‘WRSRLVHWRVZHOOWRVZLQJ’ UMHS‘WRVWULSRII VNLQRUEDUN WRWHDURII’ (3$ UHSD ,( UHS *NGTGRVQOCK‘WRHDW’/DWUDSLA‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVS’/LWKU{SWL ‘WRJUDVS’ WMHUU‘WRVSLQ’ (3$ WHUND 7RFK%W¥UN‘WRWXUQ’ RQO\DVSDUW SUHW /DWWRUTXHALG YGMHUU‘WROHDYH’ (3$ DZDGHUD‘WROHDYH’ ,( GHU‘WRUXQ’ 6NW GUdWL‘WRUXQWRKDVWHQ’*NDRUGFTC P‘WRUXQDZD\’ YMHGK ‘WR VWHDO’ (3$ ZHG]D ,( ÆH½K 6NW Y¢KDWL ‘WR GULYH’ /DWYHKA‘WREHDUWRFDUU\’*RWKJDZLJDQ‘WRVWHDO’ ]YMHUGK‘WRZHDQ’ (3$ YHUG]D /LWKYHUÊL¸YH¼ÊWL‘WRODFHWR WLH’/DWYYU]W‘WRWXUQ’6ODY YHU]WL‘WRELQG’ 2WKHUDEODXWJUDGHVLQWKHWKHPDWLFVWHPVDUHPXFKUDUHU,QRQHXQLTXH FDVHOHQJWKHQHGJUDGHLVDWWHVWHG VKSRUU‘WRPRYHDZD\WRGULYHDZD\’ (3$ SUD 6NWSSDUWL‘WR EULQJRYHUWRVDYH’*NRGTCYRGKTY‘WRSHQHWUDWH’ 7KH]HURJUDGHWXG¢WLW\SHLVUDWKHUIUHTXHQWWKRXJKLWVHHPVWRFRQVLVW PDLQO\RI3URWR$OEDQLDQLQQRYDWLRQV GDO‘WRJRRXW’ (3$ GDOD *NSCNNY‘WREORRP’ IODN‘WRWKURZWRIOLQJ’ (3$ DZDODNDGHULYHGIURP,( ON~ OiNWREHQGWRMXPS’ 0+*OHFNHQ‘WRWKURZEDFNWRVSULQJ’ /LWKOHNL¸O|NWL‘WRIO\’/DWYOªNW‘WRVSULQJWRMXPS’ JULVK‘WRLQYLWH’ (3$ JULVDD]HURJUDGHRI,( ÞHUiVFI6NW JodWL‘WRFDOOWRLQYRNH’/LWKJLUL¸J®UWL‘WRSUDLVH’ OHK~OHI‘WREDUN’ (3$ ODMD 6NWUd\DWLLG/LWKO²MXO²WLLG6ODY ODMDWL QGXN ‘WR SOXFN RXW WR SXOO RXW WR WHDU’ (3$ HQGXND *RWK WLXKDQ‘WRSXOO’/DWG FALG QGXONHP‘WRULSHQ’ (3$ HQWXOND /LWKWHONL¸WHËNWL‘WRJDWKHUWR EULQJ WRJHWKHU’ 6ODY WHONWL ‘WR EHDW WR SRXQG’ WÙONDWL ‘WR SXVK’ 182 chapter three WKHN ‘WR URDVW WR WRDVW EUHDG ’ (3$ WVDND ,( NFI*N MGIMGK RGKPC`^ MCIMQOGPJX EJTC`X VY`^ HQDY^ +HV RQNW- MCIMJX‘EXUQLQJVWURQJO\’ +RP 1XPHURXV YHUEV KDYH WKHPDWLF SUHVHQWV LQ RJUDGH EXW RQO\ VRPH RI WKHPFDQEHGHVFULEHGDVGHQRPLQDWLYHIRUPDWLRQV NDOE ‘WROHWURW’ (3$ NDOED GHULYHG IURP THOE ‘SXV’ NDOED VLQJXODUL]HGSOXUDO PEDU ‘WR EULQJ EDFN ’ (3$ HQEDUD EDVHG RQ WKH QRXQ EDUD UHODWHGWRELH‘WRFDUU\’ ,QPDQ\RWKHUYHUEVWKHRJUDGHLVXQPRWLYDWHG GHUGK‘WRSRXURXW’ (3$ GDUGDFORVHWR/LWKGDUG{WL‘WRUDWWOH’ /DWYG#UGêW‘WRFUHDN’:JRG\UGGX‘WRPXPEOHWRJUXPEOH’ KDS‘WRRSHQ’ (3$ VNDSD ,( VNHS‘WRFXWWRVSOLWWRGLJ’ ODJ ‘WR ZHW WR VRDN WR EDWKH WR ZDVK’ (3$ ODXJD ,OO\U GNQX .QW IGQPMCNQW OGPQP 6WUDER /LWKOL JDV‘PDUVK’6ODY OXÊD‘SRRO’ VKNHO ‘WR PDNH D VWHS WR ZDON’ (3$ VNDOD 6NW VNK¢ODWH ‘WR VWXPEOHWRWULS’ XO ‘WR ORZHU’ (3$ ZDOD *N GKNY ‘WR VKXW LQ WR SUHVV’ /LWK YDOØWL‘WRFOHDQ’LhYDOØWL‘WRFDUU\DZD\’ YUDS‘WRUXQWRKDVWH’ (3$ DZDUDSDGHULYHGIURPUMHS‘WRVWULS RII VNLQRUEDUN WRWHDURII’ &ODVV ,,, QDVDO SUHVHQWV 7KLV W\SH KDV EHFRPH UHODWLYHO\ OLPLWHGLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQ,QRQHFDVHZHILQGD]HURJUDGHRIDQDVDO SUHVHQWDWWHVWHG DVDIXOOJUDGH LQ%DOWLF THN‘WRPHQWLRQWRTXRWH’ (3$ NDND ,( NNRP /LWKNDQN¸ N£NWL‘WRVHL]HWRUHDFK’/DWYNDFW‘WRJUDVS’6ODY ¨HNDWL‘WR H[SHFWWRZDLW’ 7KHUH DOVR VHHPV WR EH DQ LQQRYDWLYH QDVDO LQIL[ LQ RQH GHQRPLQDWLYH IRUPDWLRQ morphology 183 P¬QG‘WRVXFNOHWRIHHG’ (3$ PDQ]GDEDVHGRQPDM~PDˆM‘WR IHHGWRIDWWHQ’ (3$ PD]GQMDFI,( PD]G‘IHHGLQJ’ 2+* PDVW6NWP©GDV‘IDWPDUURZ’ 7KHPDMRULW\RI3URWR$OEDQLDQQDVDOSUHVHQWVJREDFNWRYHUEDOURRWV ZLWK D GLSKWKRQJ &RUUHVSRQGLQJ QDVDO SUHVHQWV LQ IDFW VHHP WR EH LQQRYDWLRQVUHSODFLQJROGWKHPDWLFVWHPVFRQWDLQLQJGLSKWKRQJV ELQG ‘WR FRQYLQFH WR SHUVXDGH’ (3$ ELQGD ,( EKHLGK ‘WR SHUVXDGHWRIRUFH’ KXPE‘WROHDYHWRORVHWRVSRLOWRPLVVWRGURZQ’ (3$ VNXPED QDVDOSUHVHQWRI,( VNHXEK *RWKDIVNLXEDQ‘WRSXVKDZD\WR UHMHFW’/LWKVNXPE¸VN¸EWL‘WRKXUU\WRKDVWHQ’ OLQG‘WREHDUWREHJHW WREHERUQ’ OLQGDUHODWHGWROHM‘WRJLYH ELUWK’ ODLGQMD /LWKO©LVWL‘WROHW’/DWYODîVWLG PXQG ‘WR EH DEOH’ (3$ QDVDO SUHVHQW PXQGD /LWK PXG£ ‘SRVVLELOLW\’ PXG·RWL ‘WR WU\ WR DWWHPSW’ 6NW P²GDWH ‘WR UHMRLFHWREHPHUU\’ VKNXQG ‘WR VKDNH WR VZLQJ’ (3$ VNXQWD ,( VNHXW 0,U VFRWKDLG‘WRFXWRII’/LWKVNXW¸VN¸VWL‘WRVFUDSH’ WXQG‘WRPRYHWRVWLUWRVZLQJ’ (3$ WXQGD 6NWWXQGDWH‘WRSXVK WRVWULNH’/DWWXQGA‘WRSXVK’ &ODVV ,9 VWHPV LQ VN 2OG SUHVHQW VWHPV LQ VHR RUL JLQDOO\-LWHUDWLYHV DQG GXUDWLYHV ZHUH ZLGHVSUHDG LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ ZKHUH WKH VXIIL[ EHFDPH (3$ VN ! [ ! K ~ I ,Q $OEDQLDQ VWHPVLQ VHRDUHIRUPHGIURPURRWVHQGLQJLQRFFOXVLYHVRUYRZHOV WKRXJKQRWVRQRUDQWVZLWKWKHRQO\H[FHSWLRQRIQMHK 0RVWRIWKHVHSUHVHQWVKDYHHJUDGHYRFDOLVP GHK‘WRLQHEULDWH’ (3$ GHJVNDUHODWHGWRGMHJ‘WREXUQ’ (3$ GHJD ,( GKHÞK‘WREXUQ’ 6NWG¢KDWL7RFK$%WVDNWV¥N /LWGHJ¸GªJWL IVKHK ~ PVKHI PçHI ‘WR KLGH’ (3$ VNHSVND *N UMGRY ‘WR FRYHUWRVKLHOGWRVFUHHQ’ JULK‘WR VKDUSHQ’ (3$ JUHLVND *NZTKY‘WRUXEWRDQRLQWWR SULFN’ /LWK JULHM¸ JULWL ‘WR VFRRS FUHDP IURP PLON WR WDNH KROGRI’ 184 chapter three NUHK~NUHI‘WRFRPE’ (3$ JUHEVND /LWKJU{EWL‘WRUDNH’6ODY JUHE_ JUHEWL‘WRURZWRUDNH’ PHK ~PHI‘WR VRDN’ (3$ PHXVND /DWY PDXlW ‘WR GLYH’ 6ODY P\WL‘WRZDVK’ QGLK ~ QGLI ‘WR KHOS’ (3$ HQGHLVND *N FKGOCK ‘WR KXUU\ WR GULYH’6NWG\DWL‘WRIO\WRVRDU’ QMHK ~ QMHI ‘WR FRXQW WR FRQVLGHU’ (3$ QHPVND *N PGOY ‘WR GLYLGH’*RWKQLPDQ‘WRWDNH’/DWQXPHUXV‘PHPEHUHOHPHQW QXPEHU’DQGQXPPXV‘FRLQPRQH\’ VKSLK~VKSLI‘WRVODQGHUWRFDOXPQLDWH’ (3$ LVSHLNVND 2+* IHKDQ‘WRKDWH’/LWKSHLNL¸SH&NWL‘WREODPH’ ,QRQHDUFKDLFFDVHOHQJWKHQHGHJUDGH ! LVDWWHVWHGLQFRQWUDVW ZLWKRWKHU,QGR(XURSHDQODQJXDJHV VKRK~VKRI‘WRVHH’ (3$ VNVND ,( VHá‘WRIROORZWRVHH’ 6NWV¢FDWH‘WRDFFRPSDQ\WRIROORZ’*NGRQOCK/DWVHTXRU FILQSDUWLFXODU*RWKVDLxDQ‘WRVHH’ 7KHUHDUHWZRFDVHVZLWKWKH]HURJUDGHYRFDOLVP JUDK~JUDI‘WRVSXURQWRFDOOWRURDU’ (3$ JUDVND 6NWJodWL ‘WRFDOOWRLQYRNH’/LWKJLUL¸J®UWL‘WRSUDLVH’ UUDK‘WREHDWWRVWULNH’ (3$ ZUDJVND *NT CUUYLG $QXQXVXDOYRFDOLVPLVIRXQGLQQMRK~ QMRIZKLFKFDQEHH[SODLQHGDV DQH[WUHPHDUFKDLVPFRUUHVSRQGLQJWR$QDWROLDQGDWD QMRK~QMRI‘WRNQRZ’ (3$ JQVND ,( ½HQi~ ½QALGFI*N IKIPYUMY(SLGDXUIPYUMY/DW J QAVFAEXW2+LWWJDQHHV ]L‘WRILQGWRUHFRJQL]HWRNQRZ’ ½QH+VWL $PRQJWKHYHUEVLQ VHRZHILQGVHYHUDORJUDGHGHQRPLQDWLYHVDQG GHYHUEDWLYHV HK‘WRVKDUSHQ’ (3$ DNVNDGHULYHGIURP,( DRV‘VKDUS’ SODK~SODI‘WRFRYHU’ (3$ S H ODVNDWR*NRGNCX‘VNLQ’/LWK SDO£ ‘OLQHQ NHUFKLHI’ SOHQ| ‘WKLQ VNLQ PHPEUDQH’ 21 IMDOO ‘VNLQ’ SUHK‘WRVKDUSHQ’ SHUDNVNDFIHK morphology 185 VKNUHK ‘WR UHOHDVH VDIHW\ GHYLFH WULJJHU ’ LVNUDSVND GHULYHG IURPVKNUHS‘WRVWULNH ILUH WRUHOHDVH WULJJHU ’NUHS‘URFN’ (3$ NUDSD VKSUHK ‘WR H[SUHVV WR VSHDN’ (3$ LVSHUDNVND IXUWKHU FRQQHFWHGZLWKHK &ODVV9 VWHPVLQ M6HYHUDOGLIIHUHQW,QGR(XURSHDQW\SHV \LHOGHG3URWR$OEDQLDQSUHVHQWVWHPVLQ M7KHILUVWVRXUFHDUHWKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ LWHUDWLYHVFDXVDWLYHV LQ HHR XVXDOO\ ZLWK RJUDGH RWKHUFDXVDWLYHVZHUHUHSODFHGE\LQQRYDWLYHVWHPVLQ QMVHHEHORZ YRFDOLVP GKH]‘WRVHWRQILUHWREXUQ’ (3$ GDGÊMDFRQQHFWHGZLWKGMHJ‘WR EXUQ’ ,( GKHÞK IDˆM‘WRILOOWRFUDPWRVXUIHLW’ (3$ VSDQMD *PF VSDQQMDQ‘WR WLJKWHQ’ 21VSHQQDDQGWKHOLNH QGH]‘WRVHWDOLJKWWRLJQLWH’ (3$ HQGDGÊMDFIGKH] VKSHUU‘WRZLQ PRQH\ WRJDLQ’ (3$ VSDUMD *PF VSDUAMDQ‘WR OHDYHXQKDUPHGWRNHHS’ 21VSDUD2+*VSDUAQ2(VSDULDQ WHU‘WRPDNHGU\’ (3$ WDUVMD 6NWWDU¿¢\DWLLG/DWWRUUHALG21 ÈHUUDLG YHVK‘WRSXWRQ FORWKHV WRFRYHU’ (3$ ZHVMD 6NWYV¢\DWLDQG *RWKZDVMDQLG $QRWKHUJURXSLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\,QGR(XURSHDQYHUEVLQ HR6RPH RIWKHPDUHLQKHULWHGIURP,QGR(XURSHDQ2WKHUVVHHPWREHLQQRYD WLRQV,QWKLVJURXSHJUDGHYRFDOLVPLVH[WUHPHO\FRPPRQ ELH ‘WR EULQJ’ (3$ EHUMD ,( EKHU ‘WR EULQJ WR FDUU\’ 6NW EK¢UDWL*NHGTY/DWIHUA GKMHV‘WRGHIHFDWH’ (3$ G]HGWMD 6NWKDGDWLLG*NZG\YLG ¬M~DˆM‘WREORZWRVZHOO’ (3$ DQMD 6NW¢QLWL‘WREUHDWKH’*RWK XVDQDQ‘WREORZRXW’ IWRK ~ IWRI ‘WR FRRO WR PDNH FROG’ (3$ DZDWMD ,( W ‘WR PHOW’ 6ODY WDM_ WDMDWL2VVHWWDM\QLG QGHM~QGêM‘WRVWUHWFKRXWWRVSUHDG’ (3$ HQWHQMD *NVGKPY ‘WRVWUHWFK’GP-VGK PY‘WRVWUHWFKRXW’DQGIXUWKHUWR6NWWDQ²WL ‘WRH[SDQG’2+*GHQHQ‘WRVWUHWFK’ TDV ‘WR DSSURDFK’ (3$ NHWMD FRQQHFWHG ZLWK WKH LVRODWHG /LWK NH¨L¸N|VWL‘WRVWUHWFK’ 186 chapter three 6RPHRIWKHPVKRZ]HURJUDGHRURJUDGHYRFDOLVP E¬M~EDˆM‘WRGRWRPDNH’ (3$ EDQMD *NHCKPY‘WRDSSHDU’ IXV ‘WR SXW LQ WR WKUXVW LQ WR LQVHUW WR SODQW’ (3$ VSXWMD /DW SXWA‘WRWULPWRSUXQH’7RFK$%SXWN‘WRGLYLGH’ NHS‘WRKHZ’ (3$ NDSMD *NMQRVY‘WRKLWWRKHZ’/LWKNDSL¸ N£SWL‘WRKHZ’ UULV‘WRSXOOXSWRPRYHXSWRLQFUHDVHWRJURZ’ (3$ ZULWMD ,( ÆHUW ‘WR WXUQ’ 6NW YDUWDWH /DW YHUWA *RWK ZDLUÈDQ ‘WR EHFRPH’ $OEDQLDQ DOVR KDV QXPHURXV GHQRPLQDWLYH YHUEV LQ M VLPLODU WR %DOWLFDQG6ODYLFGHQRPLQDWLYHVLQ/LWK,WL~ Slav M_ LWL JGKLM~JGKîM‘WRVWD\DZDNHDWQLJKW’ (3$ JDGLQMDEDVHGRQ,( GLQR ~ GHLQR ‘GD\’ 6NW GQD ‘GD\’ 6ODY GÚQÚ LG /LWK GLHQ£LG/DWYG®HQDLG MHV ‘WR UHPDLQ’ (3$ HWMD D GHQRPLQDWLYH RI MHW¬ ‘OLIH’ (3$ HWD WKHLVRODWHG JURXS RIGk GVGQX ‘true, real’, G VC C NJSJ` C ICSC(Hes.), GVC\Y ‘to test’. OR]‘WRPRYHWRVKDNHWRSOD\’ (3$ OGMD 6ODY ODGLWL‘WRPDNH RUGHUWRPDNHSHDFH’EDVHGRQ ODGÙ‘RUGHUSHDFH’ QGHV‘WRKDYHWURXEOHV’ (3$ HQGDWhMDUHIOHFWLQJ,( GHáDQG UHODWHG WR WKH GHQRPLQDWLYH /LWK G£N\WL ‘WR PL[ XS WR SXW LQ GLVRUGHU’ SHOT‘WRVWLUXS ZDWHU ’ (3$ SHONMD S©ON^‘PDUVKVZDPS’/DWY SHËFH‘SXGGOH’ SODV ‘WR EXUVW WR VSOLW’ (3$ SODWMD D GHQRPLQDWLYH YHUE 6NW SWK·‘EURDGZLGH’*NRNCVWXLG/LWKSODW¸VLG WUHV ‘WR PHOW WR ORRVHQ WR GLVVROYH’ (3$ WUAWMD 6ODY WUDWM_ WUDWLWL‘WRVSHQGWRZDVWH’ ]¬M~]DˆM‘WRFDOO’ (3$ GÊDQMD 6ODY ]YRQM_ ]YRQLWL‘WRULQJ’ FI ]¬ ~]Dˆ ‘YRLFH’ (3$ GÊDQD $UP MDLQ ‘YRLFH’ 6ODY ]YRQÙ‘ULQJLQJVRXQG’ ,( ½KÆHQ &ODVV9, VWHPVLQ Q7KHVHVWHPVFRQWLQXH,QGR(XURSHDQ SUHVHQWVLQ QHR2QO\WZRRIWKHPKDYHHJUDGHYRFDOLVP morphology 187 çHP ‘WR EULQJ WR OLJKW WR GLVFORVH WR UHYHDO WR EURDFK’ (3$ hWhHSQD ,( VHS‘WRFXWWRVSOLW’ ]¬ ~]Dˆ ‘WR VHL]H WR JUDVS WR WRXFK’ (3$ GÊHLQD EDVHG RQ ,( ÞHi‘WRRYHUSRZHU’ 6NWM\d‘IRUFHSRZHU’M¢\DWL‘WRZLQWR FRQTXHU’*NDKJ‘SRZHU’ 6HYHUDO YHUEV LQ Q KDYH RYRFDOLVP 6RPH RI WKHP FRXOG EH LQWHU SUHWHG DV UHSODFLQJ ROGHU FDXVDWLYHV RU GHQRPLQDWLYHV LQ HRRU RULJLQDOYHUEVRI,,FODVV KDUU‘WRZHHGWRFXWGRZQ’ (3$ VNDUQDDGHQRPLQDWLYHRI,( VNHU ‘WR FXW’ FI *RWK XVVNDUMDQ ‘WR WHDU RXW’ /LWK VNLUL¸ VN®UWL NDOO ‘WR LQVHUW WR WKUXVW WR SODFH WR LQFLWH WR VHW RQ ILUH’ (3$ NDOQDFIVMHOO áHO O¬~ODˆ‘WROHW’ (3$ ODLGQD /LWKO©LVWLLG/DWYODîVWLG*RWKOHWDQ LG WDOO ‘WR ULGLFXOH WR GHULGH’ (3$ FDXVDWLYH WDOQD 2,U WXLOLG ‘WR VOHHS’ /LWK W\O¸ W®OWL ‘WR EHFRPH VLOHQW’ 6ODY WROLWL ‘WR SHUVXDGHWRPDNHTXLHW’ 7KHIROORZLQJ$OEDQLDQLQQRYDWLRQLVDQREYLRXVGHQRPLQDWLYH PDUU ‘WR WDNH WR JUDVS’ (3$ PDUQD EDVHG RQ WKH KHWHURFOLWLF ZRUGIRU‘KDQG’SUHVHUYHGLQ*NOCTJ/DWPDQXV $QRWKHULQQRYDWLRQLVEDVHGRQDQ,QGR(XURSHDQDGYHUE Y¬~Yê‘WRSXW’ (3$ DZHQDEDVHGRQ,( DÆH‘GRZQRII’ 6NW ¢YDLG 7KHUHDSSHDUVWREHRQHOHQJWKHQHGJUDGHQVWHP GXD~GXH‘WRORYH’ (3$ GXVQD ,( ½HXV‘WRWDVWH’FI6NW M²¿DWL‘WREHIRQGRI’*NIGWQOCK &ODVV9,, VWHPVLQ QM7KLVQHZFODVVRISUHVHQWVZDVYHU\ SURGXFWLYHLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQ,WUHSODFHGVHYHUDOROGW\SHVRISUHVHQW ,Q D IHZ FDVHV YHUEV LQ QM FRQWLQXH ,QGR(XURSHDQ FDXVDWLYHV LQ HHR 188 chapter three PEDM‘WRKROGWRFDUU\’ (3$ HQEDUQMDDFDXVDWLYHGHULYHGIURP EHUD!ELH ]LHM‘WRERLOWRFRRN’ (3$ GÊHUQMDGHULYHGIURP,( ÞKHU‘KRW’ 6RPHSUHVHQWVLQ QMJREDFNWR,QGR(XURSHDQVWHPVLQ QHRDQG SUHVHQWVZLWKDQDVDOLQIL[ EUHM ~EUêM ‘WR JQDZ’ (3$ EUDLQMD ,( EKUHL ‘WR FXW’ 6NW EKUodWL‘ KH LQMXUHV’/DWIULA‘WRUXE’6ODY EULWL‘WRVKDYH’ EXM ~EûM ‘WR DFFRPRGDWH D JXHVW WR VWD\ RYHUQLJKW’ (3$ EXGQMD /LWKEXQG¸‘WRZDNHXS’6ODY EÙGQ_‘WREHDZDNH’ JMHM~JMêM ‘WR ILQG’ (3$ JDGQMD JKG *NZCPFCPY DRU GZCFQP‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVS’/DWSUHKHQGALG21JHWDLG VKWULM‘WRVSUHDGWRVWUHWFK’ (3$ VWULQMD 6NWVWQdWL‘WRVSUHDGWR VFDWWHU’*NUVQTPWOK‘WRVSUHDGWRVWUHWFK’/DWVWHUQALG YHM ‘WR ZHDYH’ (3$ ZHEQMD 6NWXEKQdWL ‘WR ODFH XS’ 2+* ZHEDQ‘WRZHDYH’7RFK%ZSLG &HUWDLQ YHUEV LQ QM LQ IDFW JR EDFN WR YHUEV LQ HR LQFOXGLQJ GHQRPLQDWLYHV GDM‘WRGLYLGH’ (3$ GDQMD *NFCKQOCK‘WRGLYLGH’6NWG¢\DWH LG GUXDM~GUXHM‘WREHDIUDLG’ (3$ GUQMDGHULYHGIURPGUHGURH ‘IHDU’ 3$OE GUZ JMDM‘WRUHVHPEOHWREHOLNH WRVXLWWREHFRPH WRVHHP WRKDSSHQ’ (3$ JDODEQMDEDVHGRQ ODE /LWKO¦EDV‘JRRG’/DWYODEV LG OXDM~ OXHM‘WRPRYHWRVKDNHWRSOD\’ OGQMDFRQQHFWHGZLWKOR] LG (3$ OGMD 6ODY ODGLWL‘WRPDNHRUGHUWRPDNHSHDFH’ EDVHGRQ ODGÙ‘RUGHUSHDFH’ TDM~TDQM‘WRFU\WRZHHS’ (3$ NODXQMD *NMNCKY MNC®KY LG VKWRM‘WRLQFUHDVH’ (3$ VWQMD /LWKVW²MXVW²WLLG6ODY VWRM_ VWRMDWLLG WKDM‘WRGU\’ (3$ VDXVQMDDGHULYDWLYHRI,( VDXVR‘GU\’ *N CW=QX0+*VôU/LWKVD-VDV6ODY VX[Ù ,QRWKHUFDVHVYHUEVLQ QMJREDFNWRWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWV morphology 189 ERMERKHW‘WRPDWH’ (3$ EJQMD /LWKE{JWL‘WRUXQ’/DWYEêJW LG23UXVEHJH\WHLG6ODY EpJWLLG*NHGDQOCKLG çDM ‘WR VSOLW WR FOHDYH WR VPDVK WR EDWWHU WR FKRS XS’ (3$ hWhHGQMD ,( VNHG‘WRVSOLW’ 6NWVNKDGDWHLG*NUMGFCPPWOK LG NUHM‘WRSXOORXW’ (3$ NUHEQMD ,( JKUHEKFINUHK ODM~OâM‘WRZDVK’ (3$ ODXQMD *NNQWYLG/DWODYALG QJDM‘WRUXQ’ (3$ HQJDQMD UHGXSOLFDWHG6NWM¢KWL‘WROHDYHWR DEDQGRQ’2+*JQJQ‘WRJR’ QJLM~QJîM‘WRVDWHWRVXFNOH’ (3$ JOHLQMD /LWKJOLHM¸JOLHWL‘WR VPHDU’2+*NO¬QDQLG &ODVV9,,D VWHPVLQ DQM HQM LQM+LVWRULFDOO\DFODVV RI VHFRQGDU\ IRUPDWLRQV PDQ\ RI WKHP GHQRPLQDWLYHV EDVHG RQ WKH VXIIL[ QMRI&ODVV9,, IVKDˆM‘WRVLJK’ (3$ SXhDQMD /LWKS¸hNLQWL‘WRSXII’SXhN©QWL‘WR VSODVK’6ODY S\[DWL‘WREORZWRSXII’ J¬UGKLM‘WRVFUDWFK’ (3$ JUDGQMD ,( JKUGKFI2(JULQGDQ ‘WRJULQG’/LWKJU©QGÊLXJU©VWL‘WRVFUDSHWRVFUDWFK’ K\M ~K\HM ‘WR HQWHU’ (3$ HLZLQMD 6NW ©YD ‘VSHHG\’ /LWK DW H&YLVDW©LYD‘QHZFRPHUVWUDQJHU’SHUHLYLVS©UHLYD‘WUDPS YDJUDQW’ N¬VHQ ‘WR DFKH RI WKH VWRPDFK WR KDYH JULSLQJ SDLQV’ (3$ NDQWhHQMD /LWKNHQNL¸NH±NWL‘WRGDPDJHWRKDUP’21K¢‘WR WRUPHQW’ *PF [DQ[AQ NLM‘WRSUXQHWRWULP’ N¬LQM (3$ NDGLQMDDGHQRPLQDWLYHYHUE GHULYHGIURPNDGK¬‘SUXQLQJNQLIHELOOKRRNZLWKORQJKDQGOH’ (3$ NDG O\HM ‘WR VPHDU WR RLO’ (3$ HODLZDQMD EDVHG RQ HODLZ ERUURZHGIURP*NGNCKQP‘RLO’ PSLM ~PSîM ‘WR EHQXPE WR PDNH VWLII’ (3$ HQSJLQMD *N RJIPWOK ‘WR PDNH ILUP WR PDNH VWLII’ /DW SDQJA LG *RWK IKDQ‘WRFDWFK’ U\HM‘WRVXIIHU’ (3$ UDXGLQMD 6NWU²GLWL‘WRZHHSWRURDU’/DW U GA‘WRVKRXWWRFU\’/LWKUDXG£‘ZHHSLQJ’6ODY U\GDWL‘WR ZHHS’ UUHM~UUêM‘WRGHFHLYH’ (3$ DUQHQMD *NC TPGQOCK‘WROLH’ 190 chapter three &ODVV 9,,E VWHPV LQ QM 7KLV VXIIL[ LV D PRGLILFDWLRQ RI ,QGR (XURSHDQ VWHPVFI*NVKOCY‘WREULQJWRVKDPH’/DWSODQ WUH‘WRSODQW’FRUUHVSRQGWR6DQVNULWIRUPVLQ\D,Q$OEDQLDQ QM ZDVZLGHO\XVHGWRDGDSWORDQZRUGV VHHEHORZ ,QKHULWHG,QGR(XUR SHDQYRFDEXODU\IRUPVGHQRPLQDWLYHVZLWKVWHPVLQ QM KDUP L ‘EURNHQZLQGSXUVLQHVV’¾KDUPRM‘WRH[KDXVW’ NDOOD‘VODQGHUFDOXPQ\’¾NDOORM‘WRVODQGHUWRWHOOVWRULHV’ ODU¬‘ZKLWHVSRW’¾ODURM‘WRVSHFNOHWRYDULHJDWH WRIODWWHU’ O¬YRU]¬‘SHHOVNLQ’¾O¬YRU]RM‘WRSHHO’ ORG¬U‘JDPHSOD\’¾ORGURM‘WRVSULQJWRGDQFHWRSOD\’ SDU¬‘ILUVW’¾PEDURM‘WRHQGWRFRPSOHWH’ VKWHJ‘SDWKZD\’¾VKNRMVKWHNRM‘WRJR’ &ODVV 9,,, VWHPV LQ W $ IHZ SUHVHQW VWHPV W SUREDEO\ RULJLQDOO\ FRPLQJ IURP SDUWLFLSOHV LQ WR DQG ODWHU XVHG LQ GHQRPLQDWLYHV JGKHQG ‘WR SODQH’ (3$ JDGDLQWD GHULYHG IURP JGKH ~ JGKê ‘JQDUO NQRW’ (3$ JDGDLQD 6NW G¢\DWH ‘WR GLYLGH’ *N FCKQOCKLG PEDUW ‘WR EHDU WR FDUU\ EDFN ’ (3$ HQEDUWD GHULYHG IURP PEDU‘WREULQJ EDFN ’ (3$ HQEDUD UHQG ‘WR UXQ WR KXUU\’ (3$ UHQWD *RWK ULQQDQ ‘WR UXQ’ 21 ULQQDLG &ODVV,; VWHPVLQ WM,QFRQWUDVWWRVWHPVLQ WWKLVLVD SURGXFWLYHFODVV6RPHYHUEVUHWDLQWKHRULJLQDOHJUDGHYRFDOLVPRIWKH WKHPDWLFVWHPV çDUV‘WRGHVWUR\WRVSRLO’ (3$ hWhHUWMD ,( VNHU 21VNHUD‘WR FXW’/LWKVN®UWLLG QJU\V ‘WR GDUNHQ’ (3$ HQNU WMD 6ODY NU\WL ‘WR FRYHU’ /LWK NU¢XMXNU¢XWL‘WRSLOH’ QJMLV‘WRVWLFNWR’ (3$ HQJOHLWMD /LWKJOLHM¸JOLWL‘WRVPHDU’ JOLW¸V‘VWLFN\’*NINQKQX‘VWLFN\VWXII’ ,Q VHYHUDO YHUEV FRQWLQXLQJ WKH WXG¢WL W\SH" ]HUR JUDGH YRFDOLVP LV DWWHVWHG morphology 191 OXV‘WRSUD\WRLQYRNHWREHJ’ (3$ OXJWMD /LWKO J²WL‘WRDVNWR SUD\’/DWYO¸G]XO¸JW‘WRDVNWRLQYLWH’2+*ORFNAQ‘WROXUH WRHQWLFH’IXUWKHUFRQQHFWHGZLWK,( OHXJK‘WROLHWRFKHDW’ PDV‘WRPHDVXUH’ (3$ PDWMD ,( PLG 6NWPPWL7RFK$ PH QJXV‘WRXUJHWRIRUFH’ (3$ HQNXWMD /LWKN¢XWL‘WRVWULNH’6ODY NRYDWL‘WRIRUJH’/DWF GA‘WRVWULNH’2+*KRXZDQLG UUDV‘WRVTXHH]HWRSUHVVWRJHWKHU’ (3$ ZUDJWMD *NT CUUYLG UHIOHFWLQJ,( ÆUJK 4XLWHRIWHQVWHPVLQ WMIXQFWLRQDVFDXVDWLYHV QJDV‘WRXUJHWRLQFLWHWRDQQR\’ (3$ HQJDWMD QJDM‘WRUXQ’ FI6NWM¢KWL‘WROHDYHWRDEDQGRQ’2+*JQJQ‘WRJR’ QLV‘WRVWDUWWREHJLQWRSUHSDUHIRUMRXUQH\’ (3$ QHLNWMD /LWK VXQ®NWL‘WRVHWXSRQWRDWWDFN’6ODY QLNQ_WL‘WRULVHWRJURZ’ *NPGK`MQX‘TXDUUHOVWUXJJOH’ Q[LW‘WRXUJHWRVWLPXODWHWRKXUU\’ (3$ GÊLWD ,( Þ‘WROLYH’ 6NWMÀYDWL/DWYYA TLV‘WRSXOORXW’ (3$ NLWMD *NMKY‘WRJRWRPRYH’/DWFLHA‘WR PRYH’ &ODVV,;D VWHPVLQ HWM LWM DWM7KHUHDUHWKUHHNQRZQ YHUEVZKRVHGHULYDWLRQLVEDVHGRQWKHVXIIL[HV HWMDQG LWM ODSV ‘WR H[KDXVW WR ZDU\’ (3$ ODSLWMD *N NCRCTQX ‘ZHDN’ NCRα´ \Y‘WRZHDNHQ’ ODSV‘WRZLVKWRZDQW’ (3$ ODXELWMD 6NWO·EK\DWL‘WRZLVK’6ODY O’XELWL‘WRORYH’ SUHV‘WRFXW’ (3$ S H UHWMD /LWKSHUL¸SH¼WL‘WREHDWWRWKXPS’ *NRTKY‘WRVDZ’ 6WHPVLQ DWMRQWKHFRQWUDU\UHSUHVHQWDSURGXFWLYHW\SHHYHQWXDOO\ FRQQHFWHG ZLWK YHUEV LQ W 7KLV W\SH LQFOXGHV GHYHUEDWLYHV ZKLFK KDYHUHSODFHGVRPHRULJLQDOWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWVWHPV7KLVLVSDUWLFXODUO\ FOHDUDVPDQ\RIWKHVHYHUEVUHWDLQDRULVWVIRUPHGIURPSULPDU\VWHPV ZKLFK DUH XQDWWHVWHG LQ WKH SUHVHQW HJ IODV ZKLFK VKRXOG QRUPDOO\ FRUUHVSRQGWRSUHV IMHORU IDO 192 chapter three HF L HF¬M ‘WR JR WR UXQ’ HW¬V (3$ DLWDWMD EDVHG RQ D GHULYDWLYHLQ WRRI,( HL‘WRJR’ IODV‘WRVSHDN’ (3$ VSDODFIIMDO¬‘ZRUG’ VSHO J¬UVKDV‘WRLQYLWH’ JULVDWMD JULVKLG (3$ JULVDD]HURJUDGH RI,( ÞHUi 6NWJodWL‘WRFDOOWRLQYRNH’/LWKJLUL¸J®UWL‘WR SUDLVH’ N¬OODV ‘WR SXW LQWR WR LQVHUW WR GLJ WR LQVWLJDWH’ (3$ NDOQDWMD GHULYHGIURPNDOO‘WRLQVHUWWRWKUXVWWRSODFHWRLQFLWHWRVHWRQ ILUH’ (3$ NDOQD WUDV ‘WR SXOO D ERDW WR WKH FRDVW ’ (3$ W H UDWMD 6NW W¢UDWL ‘WR FURVVRYHU’ XPDV‘WREDUN’ (3$ ZDPDWMD 6NWY¢PLWL‘WRYRPLW’$YYDP‘WR VSLW’*NG OGY‘WRVSLWRXW’/DWYRPHA‘WRYRPLW’ Y¬UUDV‘WRVKRXW WREOHDW’ (3$ ZHUDWMD *NGKTY‘WRVD\’+LWW ÆHULD‘WRVRXQG’ YLODV ‘WR FXW GRZQ WUHHV ’ (3$ ZLODWMD GHULYHG IURP YMHO ‘WR SOXFN IUXLW WRYLQWDJH’ (3$ ZHOD *NGKNY‘WRVKXWLQWR SUHVV’/LWKVXYDOØWL‘WRKDUYHVWWRUHDS’ &ODVV; VWHPVLQ U$OEDQLDQKDVDIHZSUHVHQWVWHPVLQ U ZKLFK KDYH QR FOHDU HW\PRORJLFDO FRQQHFWLRQV HOVHZKHUH 7KHR UHWLFDOO\WKHLUGHULYDWLRQFRXOGEHIURP URVWHPQRXQVDOWKRXJKWKH ORQJYRFDOLVPRIVRPHRIWKHPPDNHVWKLVVFHQDULRXQOLNHO\ NRUU‘WRUHDSWRKDUYHVW’ (3$ NVUD /LWKNDV¸N£VWL‘WRGLJ’ 6ODY NRVD‘VF\WKH’ S¬UPMHUU ‘WR XULQDWH’ (3$ SHUPHJUD ,( PHL½K LG 6NW P©KDWL*NQ OGRKZY/DWPHLA21PJD T\U‘WRORRN’ (3$ NHZLUD *NMQGY‘WRQRWH’/DWFDYHA‘WREH DZDUH’*RWKKDXVMDQ‘WRKHDU’ VKRUU‘WRSUHVVWRJHWKHUWRVTXHH]H’ (3$ VMUD +LWWLhLD‘WR ELQG’6NWV\¢WL‘WRELQG’/LWKVHLM¸VLWLLG ;, FODVV 6WHPV LQ VM 7KLV LV DQRWKHU VPDOO FODVV RI YHUEV ZKRVH SUHVHQW VHHPV WR EH GHULYHG IURP RULJLQDO DRULVWLF RU IXWXUH VWHPV LQ V MRVK‘WRFXUOWRIRQGOHWRFDUHVV’ (3$ MXGVMD ,( HXGK 6NW \·GK\DWH‘WRILJKWWRVWUXJJOH’7RFK$\XWN‘WRWDNHFDUHRIWR WURXEOHDERXW’/LWKM¢XGLQWL‘WRH[FLWHWRDURXVH’ morphology 193 QGHVK‘WRPHHW’ (3$ HQGDVMD *NFJY‘WRILQG’ THVK‘WRODXJK’ (3$ NDNVMD 6NWN¢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¬ /,1'(0$1 )HVWVFKU .QREORFK *HUPDQLF SO SUHWHULW ZLWK OHQJWKHQLQJ +8/' 3URF,;8&/$ &ODVV, VLJPDWLFDRULVWV7KHVLJPDWLFVXIIL[DSSHDUVLQ$OED QLDQDVVK (3$ VGXHWRWKHJHQHUDOL]DWLRQRI V! hGHULYHG XQGHUWKHLQIOXHQFHRIWKH“UXNL” UXOHLQVXFKDRULVWVDV UDXVD! UDXhD !UDVK¬,QVHFRQGDU\VLJPDWLFDRULVWVGHULYHGIURPSUHVHQWVWHPVZKLFK HQGLQRFFOXVLYHVVKEHFDPHç $VLQRWKHU,QGR(XURSHDQODQJXDJHVWKHVLJPDWLFDRULVWZDVDWKHPDWLF LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ 7KLV LV FOHDU IURP WKH UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ RI WKH SDUD GLJP’V VLQJXODU IRUPV ,Q WKH SOXUDO WKH IRUP RI WKH QG SHUVRQ LV DVLJPDWLFDQGDWKHPDWLF,WLVQRWFOHDUZKHWKHUWKHVWDQGGSHUVRQV HYHU KDG WKH VLJPDWLF VXIIL[ &I WKH UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ RI WKH DRULVW SDUDGLJPRIGKDVK¬‘JDYH’ 194 chapter three VJ SO GKDVK¬ HGDVD HGiV GKDP¬ HGDPH HGi V PH GKH HGA V HGAVV GKDW¬ HGDWH HGiWH GKD HGDVW HGiVW GKDQ¬ HGDQWL HGi V QWL 7KHDERYHSDUDGLJPLVVWULNLQJO\FORVHWRWKH6ODYLFVLJPDWLFDRULVWRI GDWL‘WRJLYH’ LQWKHVLQJXODU VJ GD[Ù GAVVJ GD GAVV VJ GD GAVW =HURJUDGH ZKLFK DSSHDUV LQ WKH PDMRULW\ RI $OEDQLDQIRUPVLVOLNHO\WREHDQLQQRYDWLRQ :KLOH LQ VRPH GLDOHFWV VHFRQGDU\ VLJPDWLF DRULVWV EHFDPH YHU\ SURGXFWLYHRQO\DIHZVXFKIRUPVDUHROGDQGFRQWLQXH3URWR$OEDQLDQ VLJPDWLFIRUPV5HPDUNDEO\PDQ\RIWKHPDUHVXSSOHWLYHDVUHODWHGWR WKHSUHVHQWVWHPV GKDVK¬‘JDYH’ DRURIMDS (3$ HGDVD ,( GA‘WRJLYH’ ODVK¬‘OHIWOHWJR’ DRURIO¬~ ODˆ (3$ ODVD&RQQHFWLRQVIRUWKLV ZRUGDUHXQFHUWDLQ SDVK¬ ‘VDZ’ DRU RI VKRK ~ VKRI (3$ SDVD ,( S ‘WR SDVWXUHWRJXDUG’ UDVK¬ ‘IHOO’ DRU RI ELH (3$ UDXVD ,( UHX ‘WR WHDU’ 6NW U¢YDWH‘WRVPDVK’/DWUXA‘WRWHDUWRGLJRXW’ WKDVK¬ ‘VDLG’ DRU RI WKRP WVDQVD /DW FQVHA ‘WR DVVHVV WR YDOXH’ ,QRQHFDVHZKHUHWKHVLJPDWLFDRULVWLVZHOODWWHVWHGZHPXVWKRZHYHU LQWHUSUHWLWDVDQLQQRYDWLRQUHSODFLQJDQROGHUZDRULVWDVDWWHVWHGE\ ,WDOR$OEDQLDQ FRPSDUDWLYH HYLGHQFH 7KH LUUHJXODU YRFDOLVP DQG WKH XQXVXDO WKHPDWL]DWLRQ RI WKH VLJPDWLF DRULVW PDNH WKLV VFHQDULR PRUH OLNHO\ THVK¬‘ZDV’ DRURIMDP NOHVD ,( áHO‘WRWXUQ’&I,WDOR $OENOHYD‘ZDV’ NOHZD &ODVV ,, DVLJPDWLF DRULVWV $VLJPDWLF DRULVWV LQ $OEDQLDQ DUH WKHPDWLF 7KLV IRUPDWLRQ LV KLJKO\ SURGXFWLYH RIWHQ UHSODFLQJ ROGHU DRULVWIRUPDWLRQV2QO\LQDIHZFDVHVFDQZHEHFHUWDLQWKDWDVLJPDWLF DRULVWVDUHRI3URWR$OEDQLDQRULJLQ morphology 195 SUHVHQW DRULVW GXD~GXH GHVKD ‘WRORYH’ NDP SDWD ‘WRKDYH’ YLM~YLQM HUGKD ‘WRFRPH’ 7KLVLVDOVRWUXHRIDVLJPDWLFDRULVWVFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRYDULRXVSUHVHQWV LQ M&IWKHSUHVHQWVLQ WM SUHVHQW DRULVW çDUV çDUWD ‘WRGHVWUR\WRVSRLO’ N¬SXV N¬SXWD ‘WRWHDURIIWRSOXFN’ PDV PDWD ‘WRPHDVXUH’ PEHV PEHWD ‘WRUHPDLQWRVWD\’ SUHV SULWD ‘WRZDLWWRH[SHFW’ TLV TLWD ‘WRSXOORXW’ VKHV VKLWD ‘WRVHOO’ XPDV XPDWD ‘WREDUN’ 7KHVDPHLVWUXHRIYHUEVLQ QM ZLWKRUZLWKRXWWKHSUHFHGLQJYRZHO LQWKHVXIIL[ ZLWKROGDVLJPDWLFDRULVWV SUHVHQW DRULVW *HJ IVKDˆM IVKDQD ‘WRVLJK’ *HJ JGKîM JGKLQD ‘WRVWD\DZDNHDWQLJKW’ K\M~K\lM K\UD~K\QD ‘WRHQWHU’ LN¬M LN¬QD ‘WRJRDZD\WRUXQDZD\’ SULM~SUîM SULQD ‘WROHDG’ 9HUEV LQ DWM UHWDLQ WKHLU LQQRYDWLYH SUHVHQWV DQG WKH ROG IRUP RI DRULVWWRR SUHVHQW DRULVW J¬UVKDV JULVKD ‘WRLQYLWH’ N¬OWKDV NOLWKD ‘WRFU\’ N¬OODV NDOOD ‘WRSXWLQWR’ S¬OFDV SODVD ‘WREXUVWWRH[SORGH’ 196 chapter three S¬OODV SDOOD ‘WREUD\’ S¬UNDV SUHND ‘WRWRXFK’ Y¬UUDV YLUUD ‘WRVKRXW WREOHDW’ 6HFRQGDU\ DVLJPDWLF DRULVWV DUH IDLUO\ SURGXFWLYH DQG FRUUHVSRQGWRVHYHUDOSUHVHQW FODVVHV1XPHURXVDVLJPDWLFDRULVWVDUH IRUPHGIURPWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWVZLWKHJUDGHYRFDOLVP SUHVHQW DRULVW FHUN FHUND ‘WRKLW’ çHO çHOD ‘WRRSHQ’ GKHPE GKHPED ‘WRDFKH’ JMHUE JMHUED ‘WRJXOSWRGULQN’ JMHVK JMHVKD ‘WRNQHDG’ MHV MHWD ‘WRUHPDLQ’ YHVK YHVKD ‘WRSXWRQ FORWKHV ’ $VLJPDWLF DRULVWV DUH SDUWLFXODUO\ IUHTXHQW LQ YHUEV KDYLQJ WKHPDWLF SUHVHQWVZLWKRWKHUDEODXWJUDGHVPDLQO\ZLWK]HURJUDGH SUHVHQW DRULVW FXUU FXUUD ‘WRSULFNXS HDUV ’ ILN ILND ‘WRH[WLQJXLVK RIILUH ’ NUXS NUXSD ‘WRORDWKH’ QGXN QGXND ‘WRSOXFNRXW’ SLN SLND ‘WRILOOKROHVWRSLHUFH’ SXWK SXWKD ‘WRNLVV’ XO XOD ‘WRORZHU’ $OOQDVDOSUHVHQWVKDYHVHFRQGDU\DVLJPDWLFDRULVWV SUHVHQW DRULVW ELQG ELQGD ‘WRFRQYLQFHWRSHUVXDGH’ G\QG G\QGD ‘WRVKDNH’ IHQG IHQGD ‘WRIDUW’ KXPE KXPED ‘WROHDYH’ OLQG OLQGD ‘WREHDUWREHJHW’ morphology 197 PXQG PXQGD ‘WREHDEOH’ WXQG WXQGD ‘WRPRYHWRVWLU’ $OOSUHVHQWVLQ VNGHYHORSHGDVLJPDWLFDRULVWVZKLFKLQFRUSRUDWHGWKH VXIIL[ SUHVHQW DRULVW IVKHK~PVKHI IVKHKD~PVKHID ‘WRKLGH’ JUDK~JUDI JUDKD~JUDID ‘WRVSXURQ’ NUHK~NUHI NUHKD~NUHID ‘WRFRPE’ PLK~PLI PLKD~PLID ‘WRGLJWRKRH’ QGLK~QGLI QGLKD~QGLID ‘WRKHOS’ QMHK~QMHI QMHKD~QMHID ‘WRFRXQW’ QMRK~QMRI QMRKD~QMRID ‘WRNQRZ’ SODK~SODI SODKD~SODID ‘WRFRYHU’ SUHK~SUHI SUHKD~SUHID ‘WRVKDUSHQ’ ,QQRYDWLYH DRULVWV IRUPHG IURP SUHVHQWV LQ WM UHWDLQ WKH SUHVHQW VXIIL[WRR SUHVHQW DRULVW ODSV ODSVD ‘WRH[KDXVWWRZDU\’ QGHV QGHVD ‘WRKDYHWURXEOHV’ S¬UPE\V S¬UPE\VD ‘WRRYHUWXUQ’ SODV SODVD ‘WREXUVWWRVSOLW’ TDV TDVD ‘WRDSSURDFK’ TRV TRVD ‘WRHQGWRILQLVK’ UUDV UUDVD ‘WRVTXHH]H’ &ODVV ,,, DVLJPDWLF DRULVWV ZLWK OHQJWKHQLQJ $QRWKHU YDULHW\ RI WKH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ DVLJPDWLF DRULVW LV FKDUDFWHUL]HG E\ WKH ORQJ JUDGH RI WKH URRW YRZHO ,( +LVWRULFDOO\ LW LV FRPSDUDEOH WR VRPHRIWKH,WDOLFSHUIHFWVUHIOHFWLQJWKHVDPHDEODXWJUDGHFI/DWHGA ‘WRHDW’~ GDVZHOODV*HUPDQLFDQG&HOWLFSUHWHULWV WKH*HUPDQLF IRUPV KRZHYHU PLJKW EH WKHU UHVXOW RI ROG UHGXSOLFDWHG IRUPV ,Q FHUWDLQ FDVHV WKLV VLPLODULW\ FDQ EH FRUURERUDWHG E\ DQ HW\PRORJLFDO HTXDWLRQFIIRUH[DPSOHPEOHGKDRUPEORGKD‘WRJDWKHUWRFROOHFW’ DPE L OHG]DDRUDPELOG]D /DWOHJADRUOJLG QGMHNDRUQGRTD 198 chapter three ZLWKVHFRQGDU\T ‘WRIROORZ’ HQWHNDDRU HQWND 2,UWHFKLG ‘WRUXQ’SUHWW¢LFK 9HUEVHQGLQJLQYHODUVKDYHGHYHORSHGDVHFRQGDU\SDODWDOL]DWLRQRIWKH YHODU LQ WKHVH OHQJWKHQHG DRULVWV 2QH YHUE KDV JHQHUDOL]HG LW WR WKH SUHVHQWVWHP GHUJM DRUGRUJMD‘WROLHGRZQWROD\VLFNWREHLOO’,Q RQHFDVHDSUHVHQWVWHPZLWKH AZDVODWHUUHDQDO\]HGDVDOHQJWKHQHG JUDGHDRULVW NUHGK NUAGD~ DRUNURGKD‘WRSOXQJHWRLPPHUVHWR VWHHSWRVPRWKHUWREHVSDWWHU’ $RULVWV ZLWK OHQJWKHQLQJ DUH IRUPHG IURP WKHPDWLF SUHVHQWV ZLWK H JUDGH LQRQHFDVHZLWK]HURJUDGHFIGDO SUHVHQW DRULVW EMHUU ERUUD‘WRORVH’ EUHGK EURGKD‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’ GDO GROD‘WRJRRXW’ GMHJ GRJMD‘WREXUQ’ GMHUU GRUD‘WRGHVWUR\’ GUHGK GURGKD‘WRWXUQWRURWDWH’ KHGK KRGKD‘WRWKURZWRVKRRW’ KHT~ KHN KRTD~KRND‘WRGUDZWRSXOO’ PEMHOO PEROOD‘WRVRZ’ PEOHGK PEORGKD‘WRJDWKHUWRFROOHFW’ PMHO PROD‘WRPLON’ SMHN SRTD‘WREDNHWRFRRN’ SMHN SRTD‘WRWRXFKWRPHHW’ SMHOO SROOD‘WREHJHWWRSURGXFHWREHDU’ SMHUGK SRUGKD‘WRIDUW’ SMHUU SRUDSRUUD‘WREHQGWRLQFOLQH’ UMHS URSD‘WRVWULSRII VNLQRUEDUN WRWHDURII’ UUMHGK UURGKD‘WRIORZ’ VMHOO VROOD‘WREULQJ’ VKTHUU VKTRUUD‘WRWHDU FORWK ’ VKWMHOO VKWROOD‘WRWKURZ’ WMHUU WRUUD‘WRVSLQ’ WUHGK WURGKD‘WRFDVWUDWH’ YGMHUU YGRUUD‘WROHDYH’ YMHGK YRGKD‘WRVWHDO’ morphology 199 YMHO YROD‘WRSOXFN IUXLW WRYLQWDJH’ YMHOO YROOD‘WRYRPLW’ YMHUU YRUUD‘WRKDQJ’ ]YMHUGK ]YRUGKD‘WRZHDQ’ 2QH DUFKDLF GHQRPLQDWLYH YHUE IURP DQ QVWHP IRUPV LWV DRULVW E\ OHQJWKHQLQJWKHURRWYRZHO SUHVHQW DRULVW PDUU PRUD ‘WRWDNHWRJUDVS’ 1RWHWKDWZKLOHSUHVHQWKDVUU UQWKHDRULVWRQO\KDVU,QRWKHU ZRUGVWKHDRULVWGRHVQRWUHWDLQWKHVXIIL[RIWKHSUHVHQWVWHP &ODVV,9 DRULVWVLQ Z7KHVHIRUPVDUHJHQHWLFDOO\LGHQWLFDO ZLWK/DWLQSHUIHFWVLQXY)XUWKHUFRQQHFWLRQVDUHQRWDVFOHDUEXW PD\LQFOXGHWKHVJRIVRPH7RFKDULDQSUHWHULWVOLNH$yZ¥%yZD WKHVJRI6DQVNULWUHGXSOLFDWHGSHUIHFWVOLNHSDSDX‘WRGULQN’DVZHOO DVYDULRXVSUHWHULWVWHPVLQ%DOWR6ODYLFDQG*HUPDQLF 6ODY GDYDWL‘WR JLYH’ 2( ÈU¢ZDQ ‘WR GUDZ’ ,Q D IHZ FDVHV WKHVH SDUDOOHOV FDQ EH FRUURERUDWHG E\ HW\PRORJLFDO FRUUHVSRQGHQFHV FI IRU H[DPSOH DRU QMRYD‘WRNQRZ’ JQZD /DW J QAY2(FQ©RZ $RULVWVLQ ZDUHIRUPHGIURPSUHVHQWVLQ QMDVZHOODVVHFRQGDU\ SUHVHQWVLQ HQM LQM QMDQGWKHOLNH SUHVHQW DRULVW ERM ERYD ‘WRPDWH’ GDM GDYD ‘WRGLYLGH’ J¬ORM J¬ORYD ‘WREXUVWRXW’ N¬UFHM N¬UFHYD ‘WRGDQFHWRMXPS’ NLM NLYD ‘WRSUXQHWRWULP’ NUHM NUHYD ‘WRSXOORXW’ ODM~ODˆM ODYD ‘WRZDVK’ PELM~PEîM PELYD ‘WRWKULYHWRJURZ’ UXDM~UXHM URYD ‘WRJXDUGWRNHHS’ U\HM UHYD ‘WRVXIIHU’ WKDM WKDYD ‘WRGU\’ WK\HM WKHYD ‘WREUHDN’ 200 chapter three ,Q D IHZ SUHVXPDEO\ DUFKDLF FDVHV DRULVWV LQ Z FRUUHVSRQG WR SUHVHQWLQ WM SUHVHQW DRULVW GKMHV GKMHYD ‘WRGHIHFDWH’ SUHV SUHYD ‘WRFXW’ YUDV YUDYD ‘WRNLOO’ 7ZRYHUEVKDYHGHYHORSHGVHFRQGDU\DRULVWVLQ ZDVWKHLUSUHVHQWV ZHUHHUURQHRXVO\DQDO\]HGDVIRUPVLQ QM SUHVHQW DRULVW JGKLM~JGKîM JGKLYD~JGKLQD ‘WRVWD\DZDNHDWQLJKW’ SLSLM SLYD ‘WRGULQNWRVXFN’ 7KH YHUE QMRK ~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¬ DZDOH L WD RÆROH L W LVDWKHPDWLF SUHVHQW DRULVW GL GLWD ‘WRNQRZ’ IOH~IOê IOHW¬IMHWD ‘WRVOHHS’ QJUH QJULWD ‘WROLIWWRUDLVH’ 7KH VXIIL[ W EHFDPH H[WUHPHO\ SURGXFWLYH LQ DRULVWV IRUPHG IURP SUHVHQWVLQ QM,WZDVDGGHGGLUHFWO\WRWKHVXIIL[RIWKHSUHVHQWDQG DVDUHVXOWDQHZVXIIL[RIDRULVWMWLQZKLFKVXIIL[HVRISUHVHQWDQG DRULVWPHUJHGZDVFUHDWHG morphology 201 SUHVHQW DRULVW EXM~EûM EXMWD~EûMWD ‘WRDFFRPRGDWH DJXHVW ’ F¬ULM F¬ULWD ‘WRPHOWEXWWHU’ GUXDM~GUXHM GUXDMWDGURMWD ‘WREHDIUDLG’ JMDM JMDYDJMDMWD ‘WRUHVHPEOH’ OXDM~OXHM ORMWD~OXHMWD ‘WRPRYHWRVKDNH’ TXDM~TXHM TXDMWD~TXHMWD ‘WRFDOOWRJLYHDQDPH’ U\M U\MWD ‘WRHQWHU’ UUHM~UUêM UUHMWD ‘WRGHFHLYH’ 9HUEVWHPVRIORDQZRUGV 9HUEVERUURZHGWR/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQIURPRWKHUODQJXDJHV ZHUH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ DGDSWHG WR H[LVWLQJ SDWWHUQV RI $OEDQLDQ PRUSKRORJ\ 7KHPDMRULW\RI/DWLQYHUEVLQUHZHUHWUDQVIRUPHGWRVWHPV LQ QMFIIRUH[DPSOH G¬IWRM‘WRVKRZWRSRLQW’Õ5RP LQGLFWUHLG I¬UNRM‘WRUXE’Õ/DWIULFUHLG JXOWRM‘WRJHWULGRII’Õ/DWFROOXFWUL‘WRVWUXJJOHWRFRQWHQG’ N¬QGRM‘WRVLQJ’Õ/DWFDQWUHLG O¬VKRM‘WROHWWROHDYHWRIUHH’Õ/DWODVVUH‘WRUHQGHUIDLQWWRWLUH WROHW’ P¬QJRM‘WRULVHHDUO\’Õ/DWPQLFUH‘WRFRPHLQWKHPRUQLQJ’ QGLNRM‘WRLQIOXHQFH’Õ/DWLQGFUH‘WRLPSRVHWRLQIOLFW’ SHQGRM‘WRUHSHQW’Õ/DWSRHQLWHUHLG VKNDUNRM‘WRXQORDG’Õ GLVFDUULFUHLG XURM‘WRZLVKOXFNWRFRQJUDWXODWHWRDGRUH GHLW\ ’ $PXFKVPDOOHUJURXSRIYHUEVLQUH XVXDOO\ZLWKWKHVWHPHQGLQJLQ OLTXLGVRULQ/DWLM DSSHDUVLQ$OEDQLDQZLWKWKHVXIIL[ HQM VK¬IUHMVKXIUHM‘WRVXIIHU’Õ/DWVXIIHUUHLG P¬U]HM ‘WR UHVW DW QRRQ RI DQLPDOV ’ Õ /DW PHULGLUH ‘WR WDNH D PLGGD\QDS’ VKHPE¬OOHM‘WRUHVHPEOH’Õ/DWVLPLOUHLG 202 chapter three VKN¬PEHM‘WRFKDQJHWRH[FKDQJH’Õ5RP H[FDPELUHLG VKS¬UHM‘WRKRSH’Õ/DWVSHUUHLG WXUVKHM‘WREUHDNWRGHVWUR\’Õ5RP WU VLUH‘WRSXVKWRVWLU’ ,QRQHFDVHDYHUELQUHZDVDGDSWHGDVDWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWGHVSLWHWKH IDFWWKDWLWDOVRKDVDYDULDQWLQRM G¬OLUG¬OLURM‘WRFOHDQWRFOHDQVHWRGHOLYHU’Õ5RP GHOLEHUUH ,QDQRWKHU SUHVXPDEO\ODWH FDVH/DWUHZDVVXEVWLWXWHGE\DV VKW¬UUDVVKW¬UURM‘WRGLPLQLVKWRVKULQN’Õ/DWH[WHQXUH‘WRPDNH VPDOOHU’ 2OGHU ORDQZRUGV FRQWLQXLQJ /DWLQ YHUEV LQ UH UHSODFH WKH VXIIL[ZLWKRM çRM‘WREULQJWRULVHWRVHQG’Õ/DWH[FUHH[FLUH‘WRFDOORXWWR FDXVHWRZDNH’ PEORM‘WRILOO’Õ/DWLPSOUHLG TRM‘WRZDNHXS’Õ/DWFLUH‘WRPRYHWRDJLWDWH’ /DWHUYHUEVLQUHZHUHDGDSWHGDVVWHPVLQ HQM QGMHM QG¬OHM ‘WR SDUGRQ WR IRUJLYH’ Õ /DW LQGXOJUH ‘WR EH LQGXOJHQWWRFRQFHGH’ S¬OTHM‘WRSOHDVH’Õ/DWSODFUHLG UU¬QJMHM‘WRVKLQH’Õ/DWUHQGUH‘WRVKLQH’ XUUHM‘WRKDWH’Õ/DWKRUUUH‘WREHDIUDLGWREHDVWRQLVKHG’ YMHM~YLM‘WRQHHG’Õ/DWYDOUH‘WREHDEOHWREHKHDOWK\’ 7KHPDMRULW\RI/DWLQYHUEVRIWKH,,,FRQMXJDWLRQDVVXPHGWKH VXIIL[ QMLQ$OEDQLDQ EHNRM‘WREHQHGLFW’Õ/DWEHQHGFHUHLG I¬UJRM‘WRURDVWWRIU\’Õ/DWIUJHUHLG NDIVKRM‘WRELWH’Õ/DWFDSHVVHUH~FDSLVVHUH‘WRVHL]HWRVQDWFKDW’ PDOONRM‘WRFXUVHWRH[FRPPXQLFDWH’Õ/DWPDOHGFHUHLG P¬UJRM‘WRH[LOHWRGULYHDZD\’Õ/DWPHUJHUH‘WRWKUXVWWRSXVK’ morphology 203 QJXUURM‘WRKHVLWDWHWRIDOWHUWRVWRS’Õ/DWLQFXUUHUH‘WRFRPPLW D IDXOW ’ SUHPWRM‘WRSURPLVH’Õ/DWSUAPLWWHUH‘WRIRUERGHWRSURPLVH’ VKWU¬QJRM‘WRSUHVVWRVTXHH]H’Õ/DWVWULQJHUH‘WRVWUHWFKWRSUHVV WRVTXHH]H’ WUDVK¬JRM‘WRLQKHULW’Õ/DWWUQVLJHUH‘WRUHDFKDQDFFRUGWRFDUU\ RXWWUDQVDFWLRQ’ ,QDIHZ ROG FDVHVHUHLVUHQGHUHGDVHM PDOO¬QJMHM ‘WR WRXFK WR PRYH WR VWLU’ Õ /DW PDOXP DQJHUH ‘WR FDXVHSDLQ’ UU¬PEHM‘WRUREWRVHL]H’Õ/DWUXPSHUH‘WRWHDUWRWHDUDZD\’ /DWLQYHUEVLQUHDUHXVXDOO\UHSUHVHQWHGE\$OEDQLDQVWHPV LQ LQM SULM~SUîM‘WROHDG’Õ/DWSUDHUH‘WROHDGWRSUHFHGH’ TLM‘WRFRSXODWHWRKDYHVH[XDOLQWHUFRXUVH’Õ/DWFRUHLG VK¬OOLM~VK¬OOî‘WRVDOW’Õ/DWVDOUHLG YLM~YLQM‘WRFRPH’Õ/DWYHQUHLG 2QFHUHLVVXEVWLWXWHGE\HM VK¬UEHM‘WRVHUYH’Õ/DWVHUYUHLG 1HDUO\DOO6ODYLFYHUEVZHUHWUDQVIRUPHGLQWRSUHVHQWVWHPVLQ WM1XPHURXV6ODYLFYHUEVLQ LWLDSSHDULQ$OEDQLDQDVYHUEVLQLV JUDELV‘WRVWHDOWRURE’Õ6ODY JUDELWLLG PROLV‘WRPDNHWLUHGWRZHDNHQ’Õ6ODY PÙGÚOLWLLG QHYHULV‘WRGHVHUWWRQHJOHFW’Õ6ODY QHYpULWL‘QRWWREHOLHYH’ SRQLV‘WRKRQRUWRUHVSHFW’Õ6ODY SRPÚQLWL‘WRUHPHPEHU’ UDGLV‘WRSUHSDUHWRPDNHUHDG\ RIIRRG ’Õ6ODY UDGLWL‘WRVHWWOH WRDUUDQJHWRPDNHUHDG\’ VW¬UYLV‘WRWUDLQ’Õ6ODY VWÚUYLWL‘WREDLWWROXUHWRWUDLQ’ WXULV ‘WR IULJKWHQ RII DQLPDOV ’ Õ 6ODY WXULWL ‘WR GULYH DZD\ WR FKDVH’ YDGLV‘WRZDWHUWRLUULJDWH’Õ6ODY YDGLWLLG 204 chapter three 2QHYHUELQLWLZDVPRYHGWRWKHSUHVHQWFODVVLQDV JRGDV‘WRVWULNHWREHDW’Õ6ODY JRGLWLLG 7KH PDMRULW\ RI 6ODYLF YHUEV LQ DWL EHFDPH VWHPV LQ DVLQ $OEDQLDQ EXçDV‘WRURDUWRWKXQGHU’Õ6ODY EX¨DWLLG GLKDV‘WRSDQW’Õ6ODY G\[DWL‘WREUHDWKH’ KLWDV‘WRKXUU\’Õ6ODY [\WDWLLG NDUNDV‘WRTXDFN’Õ6ODY NÙUNDWL‘WRFDZWRFURDNWRTXDFN’ OXKDV‘WRURFNWRVZD\WRVZLQJ’Õ6ODY O’X[DWL‘WRVWULNH’ QXKDV‘WRVPHOOWRVQLII’Õ6ODY Q’X[DWLLG SLVNDV‘WRVKRXWWRFU\’Õ6ODY SLVNDWL‘WRSHHS’ $ IHZ YHUEV LQ DWL ZHUH WUDQVIHUUHG WR WKH PRUH SURGXFWLYH W\SH RI VWHPVLQLVLW OHEHWLV‘WRWUHPEOHWRVKXGGHUWREHIULJKWHQHG’Õ6ODY OHEHWDWL‘WR WUHPEOH’ P¬UP¬ULV‘WRPXUPXUWRPXWWHU’Õ6ODY PÙUPÙUDWLLG VK¬WLW‘WRJRIRUDZDON’Õ6ODY h?WDWL‘WRZDON’ 6HYHUDOVPDOOHUJURXSVRI6ODYLFYHUEVDOVRDSSHDULQ$OEDQLDQ DVVWHPVLQLVLW YHQLWHP‘WRSDOHWRZDQH’Õ6ODY Y?Q_WLLG Y¬UWLW‘WRWXUQ’Õ6ODY YÚUWpWLLG Y¬UYLW‘WRKXUOWRIOLQJ’Õ6ODY YÚUYpWLLG 7KHROGHVWOD\HURI6ODYLFORDQZRUGVLQFOXGHVWZRYHUEVZLWKWKHVXIIL[ QM JDWXDM~JDWXHM‘PDNHUHDG\SUHSDUH’Õ6ODY JRWRYDWL JRWRYLWL ‘PDNHUHDG\SUHSDUH’ S¬J¬M~SXJDˆM‘WRPDNHGLUW\WRVRLO’Õ6ODY SRJDQLWLLG morphology 205 &RQMXJDWLRQ 7KH $OEDQLDQ FRQMXJDWLRQ LV RI JUHDW LPSRUWDQFH IRU WKH KLVWRULFDO JUDPPDU RI ,QGR(XURSHDQ 7RJHWKHU ZLWK PXOWLSOH LQQRYDWLRQV LW FRQWDLQVDUFKDLVPVWKDWDUHVFDUFHO\DWWHVWHGHOVHZKHUH 3UHVHQW Two types of present conjugation are known in Albanian and Proto-Albanian: thematic and (rarely attested) athematic. /LWHUDWXUH %(/,C´ *6.$&;/9,,, LQMXQFWLYHDVDVRXUFHRI VJ SUHVHQW :$7.,16 *HVFKLFKWH VJ LQ &HOWLF DQG *HUPDQLF +$03$QF,( DWKHPDWLFSUHVHQW 6<729*UVWU WKHPDWLF YRZHO LQ DQG SO 0$11 +LVW *U SO QL FRPSDUHG ZLWK +LWW SO ZHQL SO WHQL %$'(5 %6/ /;;, SUHVHQW RI WKH YHUEXP VXEVWDQWLYXP ,9$129 6ODY VRXUFHV RI WKH HQGLQJ RI VJ .257/$1'7 /LQJXD ;/,; %DOWR6ODYLF SUHVHQW 25(/ /LQJY LVVO ,, ÈWLPRORJLMD %DOWLVWLFD;;,=I%DON;;,, The thematic present in Albanian cannot continue the Indo- European thematic present with its primaryHQGLQJV,( ARIWKHVJ ZRXOGKDYHJLYHQ$OEH LIVWUHVVHG RU¬ LIXQVWUHVVHG ,( HWLRIWKH VJ ZRXOG KDYH JLYHQ $OEHW 7KH PDMRULW\ RI IRUPV LQ WKH SUHVHQW SDUDGLJPLQ$OEDQLDQJREDFNWRDGLIIHUHQWVRXUFH,QSDUWLFXODULQWKH IRUPV RI WKH VLQJXODU RQH FDQ RQO\ UHFRQVWUXFW 3URWR$OEDQLDQ VKRUW YRZHOVIROORZHGRUQRWIROORZHGE\DFRQVRQDQW 7KHPRVWSODXVLEOHUHFRQVWUXFWLRQIRUVJNDS‘WRVHL]H’LV(3$ NDSD 7KHHQGLQJ DLVGHULYHGIURP,( RPDGHVLQHQFHFORVHWR7RFK$ DP GLDOHFWDO,( RPFIDOVRTXLWHSUREDEO\6ODYVJSUHV _ :HDNHUDOWHUQDWLYHH[SODQDWLRQVLQFOXGH(3$ D ,( ARUSHUIHFWLYH ZLWK D VHFRQGDU\ P DGGHG YLD DQDORJ\ $V WR WKH VJ NDS LW PLJKWEHGHULYHGIURP(3$ NDSHV WKRXJKQRW NDSHVL 7KHVJ NDS OLNHZLVH FRQWLQXHV NDSHW ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV DOO WKH IRUPV RI WKH VLQJXODU LQ WKH $OEDQLDQ WKHPDWLF SUHVHQW KDYH WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ secondary HQGLQJV7KH\GRQRWFRQWLQXHWKH,QGR(XURSHDQSUHVHQWDW OHDVWDVLWLVUHFRQVWUXFWHGLQWKHFODVVLFDOYHUVLRQRI,QGR(XURSHDQ ,QWKHSOXUDOWKHVLWXDWLRQLVVRPHZKDWPRUHFRPSOLFDWHG7KHHQGLQJRI WKHSOP ¬ FDQFRQWLQXHHLWKHU PHRU PHV7KHSOHQGLQJQ ¬ 206 chapter three FDQRQO\UHIOHFWWKHprimaryHQGLQJ QWL YDULDQWVP~ P¬DQGQ~ Q¬ DUHFRQGLWLRQHGE\WKHDXVODXWVRXQGRIWKHYHUEDOVWHP ,QERWKIRUPV WKHRULJLQDOWKHPDWLFYRZHO RZDVUHSODFHGE\LWKRXJKWKHUHDVRQLV XQFOHDU$VWUXFWXUDOIDFWRUFDQQRWEHH[FOXGHGKHUH DQROGRSSRVLWLRQ EHWZHHQWKHPDWLFYRZHOV HDQG RFRXOGKDYHEHHQUHSODFHGE\DQHZ DOWHUQDWLRQ H L $QRWKHU SRVVLEOH H[SODQDWLRQ LV FRQQHFWHG ZLWK WKH LQQRYDWLYH IRUPV RI SUHVHQWV LQ QM FI N¬UNRM ‘WR ORRN IRU’ - SO N¬UNRMP¬SON¬UNRMQ¬ZLWKRMRIWKHVJWUDQVIHUUHGWRWKHSOXUDODV D QHZ WKHPDWLF HOHPHQW 7KHPDWLF L PLJKW WKHQ EH GHULYHG IURP WKH SOXUDOVRIYHUEVLQLFISL‘WRGULQN’SOSLP¬SOSLQ¬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‘JHW WLHG’ DUH HTXDOO\ SRVVLEOH ,W VHHPV WKDW QL PXVW RULJLQDOO\ KDYH EHHQ D V\QWDFWLFDOO\ DXWRQRPRXV HOHPHQW D FOLWLF ZKLFK ZDV DW D FHUWDLQ VWDJH LQFRUSRUDWHG LQWR WKH YHUE7KHYHUEIRUPLWVHOIPXVWKDYHEHHQ OLGK,QRWKHUZRUGVWKH VJ DQG SO RI WKH WKHPDWLF SUHVHQW ZHUH LGHQWLFDO 7KLV FRXOG EH LQWHUSUHWHGDVD3URWR$OEDQLDQLQQRYDWLRQWKDWPHUJHGWKHVJDQG SOE\UHSODFLQJWKHODWWHUZLWKWKHVLQJXODUIRUP 7KH RULJLQ RI QL LV QRW FOHDU 2QH FRXOG GHULYH LW IURP WKH 3URWR $OEDQLDQDGYHUE Q ‘QRZ’LGHQWLFDOZLWK,( Q 6NWQ*NPWDQG WKHOLNH 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGZHFDQQRWLJQRUHDFHUWDLQDV\PPHWU\LQ WKHVWUXFWXUHRISSUHVHQWRIWKHPDWLFVWHPVDQG QMVWHPV VJ SO OLGK OLGKQL N¬UNRQ N¬UNRQL morphology 207 ,I WKH IRUP N¬UNRQL GRHV QRW FRQWLQXH HDUOLHU N¬UNRQQL RQH FRXOG DVVXPHWKDWLWVRULJLQDOVWUXFWXUHZLWKILQDOLZDVUHLQWHUSUHWHGDQGWKH QHZO\FUHDWHGPRUSKHPHQLZDVWUDQVIHUUHGWRRWKHUW\SHVRISUHVHQW 7KHHOHPHQWLFRXOGWKHQJREDFNWRDQDOOHJURYDULHW\RI(3$ MX V ‘\RX’QRUPDOO\DWWHVWHGDVMXLGFRUUHVSRQGLQJWR/LWKM VLG*RWKMXV LG*NW OGK`XLG6NWDFF\X¿PdQLG 7KHSDUDGLJPRIWKHWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWRIWKHYHUENDS‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVS’ FDQEHUHFRQVWUXFWHGDVIROORZV VJ SO NDSD NDSRP NDSDPH V NDSRPH V NDSH V NDSHV NDSH V Q NDSH V MX NDSHW NDSHW NDSDQWL NDSRQWL The athematic present has been described in 3.1.1.1. Most of its forms (1-3 sg. and 1, 3 pl.) stem from the primary HQGLQJV ZLWK WKH HQGLQJ RI WKH SO ILQGLQJ DQ LQWHUHVWLQJ SDUDOOHO LQ %DOWLF DQG FRUUHVSRQG WR WKH DWKHPDWLF FRQMXJDWLRQ RI RWKHU ,QGR(XURSHDQ ODQJXDJHV&IWKH3URWR$OEDQLDQSDUDGLJPUHFRQVWUXFWHGIRUWKHYHUE MDP‘WREH’ VJ SO HVPL HVPHL HVVL HVVLQ HVVLMX HQVWL HVWL HVQWL 2WKHUDWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWVIROORZWKHVDPHSDWWHUQ7KHRQO\LQWHUHVWLQJ H[FHSWLRQ LV WKRP ‘WR VD\’ ZKRVH SO WKRW¬ FDQQRW EH GHULYHG IURP WVQVWL EXW UDWKHU FRQWLQXHV WV Q WL ZKLFK LV KLVWRULFDOO\ LGHQWLFDO ZLWK23HUVSWL\LG ,Q FRQWUDVW WR WKH $OEDQLDQ WKHPDWLF SUHVHQW ZKLF RULJLQDWHV IURP DQ ,QGR(XURSHDQ SDUDGLJP WKDW KDV QRWKLQJ WR GR ZLWK WKH SUHVHQW WKH DWKHPDWLF SUHVHQW LQ $OEDQLDQ GRHV FRQWLQXH WKH ROG ,QGR(XURSHDQ SUHVHQWFRQMXJDWLRQ 208 chapter three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¬ /$0%(57= ,) /; VRXUFHVRIVJDRU D IROORZV0(<(5LQWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI WKH LPSHUIHFW '20, 5(6O ;/9 VJ DRU D DV DQ LQQRYDWLRQ UHSODFLQJ¬ 6<729*UVWU LPSHUIHFWRIMDP 0$11+LVW*U LPSHUIHFW FRPSDUHV DVLJPDWLF DRULVW ZLWK WKH ,WDOLFSHUIHFW VJLPSIWHH[SODLQHGDVDSURQRPLQDOHOHPHQW '(0,5$- )HVWVFKU .QREORFK RQ WKH RULJLQV RI SHUIHFW RI WKH KDEHRVFULSWXPW\SH 7KH LQLWLDO GK RI GKDVK¬ DRULVW RI MDS ‘WR JLYH’ FDQ RQO\ EH H[SODLQHGDVWKHUHVXOWRILQWHUYRFDOLFVSLUDQWL]DWLRQ,WV3URWR$OEDQLDQ DQFHVWRU PXVW KDYH EHHQ SUHFHGHG E\ D YRZHO 7KLV YRZHO ZDV OLNHO\ (3$ H ,( HWKHDXJPHQWDWWHVWHGLQ,QGR,UDQLDQ*UHHN3KU\JLDQ DQG$UPHQLDQ,QRWKHUDRULVWLFIRUPVLWZDVORVWDQGLWVSKRQHWLFHIIHFWV ZHUHREOLWHUDWHG 6LQJXODUIRUPVRIWKHDVLJPDWLFDRULVWDUHQRWYHU\RSDTXH,QPRGHUQ VWDQGDUG$OEDQLDQWKHDVLJPDWLFDRULVWKDVWKHIROORZLQJHQGLQJVLQWKH VLQJXODU DHLHJWKHYHUE‘WRJUDVSWRVHL]H’ZLOODSSHDULQ WKHDRULVWDVNDSDNDSHNDSL VJDFDQKDUGO\EHSURMHFWHGWRWKH3URWR$OEDQLDQSDUDGLJP,QGHHG HYHQ WKRXJK WKH SDUDGLJP RI WKH LPSHUIHFW UHSHDWV WKH HQGLQJV RI WKH DVLJPDWLFDRULVWLWKDVDGLIIHUHQWHQGLQJLQVJQDPHO\¬7KDWPD\ EHEHWKHROGHUIRUPRIWKHVJDRULVWWRR 2QO\WKHVJLVOLNHO\WREHLQKHULWHGGLUHFWO\IURP3URWR$OEDQLDQ$V IDUDVWKHVJLVFRQFHUQHGWKHUHDUHIRUPVZLWKRXWLDPRQJGLDOHFWV LH NDSLQVWHDGRINDSL DQG VRPH YDULDQWV RI WKH OLWHUDU\ VWDQGDUG morphology 209 PRUL DQG PXDUU VJ DRULVW RI PDUU ‘WR WDNH’ GROL DQG GXDO VJ DRULVWRIGDO‘WRJRRXW’ 0RUHRYHUWKHUHLVQRLLQWKHZDRULVWDQG WKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJPHGLRSDVVLYH,QVKRUWWKHUHDUHVHULRXVUHDVRQVWR EHOLHYHWKDWWKHLLVVHFRQGDU\LQWKHVJDQGWKDWLWVEDVLFIRUPKDGD ]HURHQGLQJLHNDSUDWKHUWKDQNDSL$VWRWKHRULJLQRIWKHPRUSKHPH LLWKDVEHHQVXJJHVWHGWKDWLWEHGHULYHGIURP(3$ LV LQGLUHFWO\" IURP,( LV ,QWKHDQGSOWKHDVLJPDWLFDRULVWKDVHQGLQJVZKLFKFRLQFLGHZLWK WKRVHRIWKHSUHVHQW7KHSOP ¬ FRQWLQXHVWKHPDWLF(3$ DPH ,( RPH SO Q ¬ JRHV EDFN WR primary (3$ DQWL ,( RQWL UHPDUNDEO\ HQRXJK $OEDQLDQ KDV QR WUDFHV RI Dsecondary HQGLQJ LQ WKHSODQ\ZKHUH 8QOLNHWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJSUHVHQWIRUPWKHSORI WKHDVLJPDWLFDRULVWKDVW¬GHULYHGGLUHFWO\IURP(3$ HWH ,( HWH 7KHSDUDGLJPRIWKHDVLJPDWLFDRULVWLVRSSRVHGWRWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWLQ WZR ZD\V DFFHQWXDOO\ DV LW UHIOHFWV D PRELOH DFFHQWXDO SDUDGLJP LWV PRELOLW\ FDXVHG E\ WKH DXJPHQW" DQG VWUXFWXUDOO\ LQ YLHZ RI WKH DXJPHQWDQGDGLVWLQFWDRULVWVWHPDWOHDVWLQWKHPRUHDUFKDLFVWHPV SDUDGLJPFDQEHUHFRQVWUXFWHGDVIROORZV VJ SO HNDS¢ HNDS R P HNDSDPH HNDSRPH HNDS© V HNDSHV HNDSHWH HNDSHWH HN¢SHW HNDSHW HNDSDQWL HNDSRQWL 7KH SDUDGLJP RI WKH VLJPDWLF DRULVW LV DWKHPDWLF $V DOUHDG\ PHQWLRQHGDERYHLWVVLQJXODULVUHPDUNDEO\FORVHWRWKDWRIWKH6ODYLF VLJPDWLFDRULVWZLWKRQHLPSRUWDQWH[FHSWLRQDGLIIHUHQWDEODXWJUDGH =HURJUDGHLQWKHPDMRULW\RI$OEDQLDQIRUPVFDQEHH[SODLQHGDVWKH LQIOXHQFHRIFRUUHVSRQGLQJSDUWLFLSOHVFIWKHSDUWLFLSOHRIMDS‘WRJLYH’ GK¬Q¬~ GKDQ¬ (3$ GDQWL ,( GiQWL $WOHDVWRQHIRUPLQWKHSDUDGLJPLVDVLJPDWLFWKHSO2WKHUSOXUDO IRUPVFRXOGEHVLJPDWLFRUDVLJPDWLFDVZHFDQQRWPDNHDGHWHUPLQD WLRQDERXWLWE\SKRQHWLFPHDQV $W\SLFDOSDUDGLJPLVUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHDRULVWRIMDS 210 chapter three VJ SO GKDVK¬ HGDVD HGiV GKDP¬ HGD V PH HGi V PH GKH HGA V HGAVV GKDW¬ HGDWH HGiWH GKD HGDVW HGiVW GKDQ¬ HGD V QWL HGi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¬ZLWKRULJLQDO H!MH 7KHLPSHUIHFWRIMDPFRQWLQXHVWKH,QGR(XURSHDQLPSHUIHFWRI HV,WV VJLVKDLVDWKHPDWLFDQGFDQEHGLUHFWO\FRPSDUHGZLWK6NWVDP*N J_C EXW WKH UHVW RI WKH SDUDGLJP LV WKHPDWLF +HQFH WKH VJ LVK¬ UHSUHVHQWVDWKHPDWL]DWLRQRI HHVV!6NWV7KHFRQMXJDWLRQRI WKH LPSHUIHFW FDQ EH UHFRQVWUXFWHG DV IROORZV WKH VHFRQG IRUPV DUH &KDPLDQ LVKDMHVK¬ HVD HV LVKLPMHVK¬P HVDPH HVRPH LVK¬MHVK¬ HVH V HVHV LVKLWMHVK¬W¬ HVHWH HVHWH LVK WH HVHW HVHW LVKLQLVKQ¬ HVDQWL HVRQWL ,Q WKH VJ WZR YDULDQWV RI WKH LPSHUIHFW FRH[LVW LVK DQG LVKWH 7KH ODWWHU LV REYLRXVO\ VHFRQGDU\ DQG UHVXOWV IURP WKH XQLYHUEDWLRQ RI WKH RULJLQDOLPSHUIHFWIRUPZLWKDSURQRPLQDOHOHPHQWWH7KHODWWHUFDQEH GHULYHGIURP(3$ WAG ,( WAGZKLFKDSSHDUVLQDVLPLODUIXQFWLRQ LQWKHIXWXUHLPSHUDWLYHFI6NW¢MDWG‘ \RXKH PXVWOHDG’/DWDJLWA 7KHGHYHORSPHQWRIVWRVKLQWKHLPSHUIHFWRIMDPLVSKRQHWLFDOO\ LUUHJXODU +RZHYHU WKHUH DUH QR UHDVRQV WR UHFRQVWUXFW V KHUH $SSDUHQWO\ VFKDQJHGWRVKLQWKRVHLPSHUIHFWV ODWHUUHSODFHGE\ QHZ LPSHUIHFW IRUPV ZKHUH LW IROORZHG L DQG X $ VLPLODU SURFHVV morphology 211 FDQ EH REVHUYHG LQ 6ODYLF ZKHUH WKH [ V RI DRULVWV DQG LPSHUIHFWVZDVJHQHUDOL]HGIDUEH\RQGWKHRULJLQDOOLPLWVRIWKH“UXNL” UXOH ,Q VHYHUDO YHUE FODVVHV WKH RULJLQDO LPSHUIHFW HJ SLTD RI SMHN ‘WR FRRN’ QGLTD RI QGMHN ‘WR IROORZ’ ZDV UHSODFHG E\ QHZ IRUPV ZLWK VXIIL[M SLTMDQGLTMD7KLVVXIIL[LVWKHUHVXOWRIDQHZPRUSKRORJLFDO VHJPHQWDWLRQRILPSHUIHFWVRIQMYHUEVLQZKLFKMZDVUHLQWHUSUHWHGDV DQDX[LOLDU\PRUSKHPHRIWKHLPSHUIHFW VJSUHV VJLPSI N¬UNRM N¬UNRMD N¬UNRM N¬UNRMD ,Q *HJ WKHUH H[LVWV DQRWKHU SDUDGLJP RI DQ LPSHUIHFW LQ VK 7KLV VXIIL[LVDWWHVWHGLQDOOIRUPVH[FHSWIRUVJZKHUHLWRQO\DSSHDUVLQ VRPH RI WKH GLDOHFWV 7KH VXIIL[ VK FRPHV IURP WKH SDUDGLJP RI WKH VLJPDWLFDRULVWDVWKH D[ÙRIWKH6ODYLFLPSHUIHFW 0RRGV ,PSHUDWLYHVXEMXQFWLYHRSWDWLYH $OEDQLDQQRQLQGLFDWLYHPRRGVDUHPRVWO\LQQRYDWLRQV2QO\D VPDOOSDUWRIWKHLUVWUXFWXUHUHIOHFWVLQKHULWHG,QGR(XURSHDQIRUPV /LWHUDWXUH 0(<(5 $OE *U H[SODLQV RSWDWLYH IURP /DWLQ SOXVTXDPSHUIHFWXP *21'$ 0RRGV 2OG ,QGLDQ VXE MXQFWLYH .85</2:,&= ,QIO &DW 0$11 +LVW *U VXEMXQFWLYHH[SODLQHGIURPWKHROGRSWDWLYH RSWDWLYH LPSHUDWLYH ,9$1296ODY LPSHUDWLYHHMDWR/XZLMD‘FRPH’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chapter three SDODWDOL]HGYHODUV ,IZHGHULYHEMHU ¬ DQGSLTLPSHUDWLYHVRIELH‘WR EULQJ’ DQG SMHN ‘WR FRRN’ IURP (3$ EHUH DQG SHNH ZKLFK FRPHV IURPWKHSKRQHWLFDOO\H[SHFWHG SHWhH WKH\FDQEHFRPSDUHGZLWKVXFK IRUPVDV/DWIHUDQG6NWSDFD 7KH VXSSOHWLYH LPSHUDWLYHV RI YLM ‘WR FRPH’ DUH RI JUHDW LQWHUHVW (MD JRHVEDFNWR(3$ MDZLWK DVHFRQGDU\ H XQGHU WKH LQIOXHQFH RIHF HF¬M‘WRZDON’" 7KLV3URWR$OEDQLDQIRUPLVZLWKRXWDGRXEWFRQQHFWHG ZLWK,( $QRWKHULPSHUDWLYHRIYLMLV7RVNMDNZKLFKJRHVEDFNWR WKH VDPH ,QGR(XURSHDQ URRW WKRXJK XVHV WKH LPSHUDWLYH SDUWLFOH N DOVRDWWHVWHGLQLNLN¬MVHHDERYH 7KHSUHVHQWRIVXEMXQFWLYHKDVDIRUPDOH[SUHVVLRQLQDFOLWLFW¬ RISURQRPLQDORULJLQ IURP(3$GDWVJ WDL" $FRQVLGHUDEOHSDUWRI WKH ROG SDUDGLJP ZDV ORVW DQG UHSODFHG E\ IRUPV RI WKH SUHVHQW LQGLFDWLYHZLWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRIVJZKHUHWKHROGHQGLQJV¬VKDQG ¬ZHUHUHWDLQHG7KHVHPRUSKHPHVUHIOHFWDUHPDUNDEOHFRQIXVLRQRI primary DQG secondary HQGLQJV DV WKH VJ OLGK¬VK FRQWLQXHV (3$ OLG]VL LGHQWLFDOZLWK/DWVJIXWOLJV ZKLOHVJOLGK¬FDQRQO\ UHIOHFW OLG]HW,IZHIROORZWKHZLGHO\DFFHSWHGYLHZRIWKH DUFKDLF QDWXUHRIsecondary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¬ HVHWL MHQ¬ HVRQWL morphology 213 7KHSUHVHQWRIRSWDWLYHLVDQ$OEDQLDQLQQRYDWLRQ,QIDFWLWLV LQ RULJLQ DQ LPSHUIHFW LQ VK EDVHG RQ DQ DRULVW VWHP RU LQ FDVH RI WKHPDWLFSUHVHQWVRQWKHSUHVHQWVWHP N¬QGRYVKD!N¬QGRIVKD 7KHRQO\LPSRUWDQWIHDWXUHRIWKHRSWDWLYHZKLFKLVGLIIHUHQWIURPWKH EDVLF LPSHUIHFW SDUDGLJP LV WKH ZD\ LQ ZKLFK WKH SO LV IRUPHG ,WV HQGLQJ VKL LV GHULYHG IURP WKH VJ LQ VK XVLQJ D VHFRQGDU\ SURQRPLQDOHOHPHQWLDVLQWKHVJSUHVHQW Q L 9RLFHV 0HGLRSDVVLYH 2QO\ WKH SUHVHQW DQG LPSHUIHFW RI WKH PHGLRSDVVLYH DUH V\QWKHWLF IRUPV 7KH UHVW RI WKH PHGLRSDVVLYH SDUDGLJP LV IRUPHG DQDO\WLFDOO\DQGXVHVDFOLWLFXDUHJXODUUHIOH[RI(3$ VZD P ,( DFF VÆRP /LWHUDWXUH %233 RQ WKH RULJLQ RI X 0(<(5 $OE *U GHULYHVSUHVHQWPHGLRSDVVLYHIURPDQDO\WLFDOIRUPVFRQVLVWLQJRIWKH YHUEVWHP DQG SUHVHQWRI MDP '20, 5(6O ;/9 HQGLQJV RI WKH PHGLRSDVVLYH 6<729*UVWU IROORZV0(<(5 0$11+LVW*U ,QWKHSUHVHQWRIWKHPHGLRSDVVLYHWKHVJDQGSOGLUHFWO\ RU LQGLUHFWO\ FRQWLQXH WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ PLGGOH 7KH $OEDQLDQ SKRQRORJ\ GRHV QRW DOORZ XV WR ILQG RXW ZKHWKHU WKH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ SDUDGLJPXVHGprimaryRUsecondaryHQGLQJVRIPLGGOH7KHRULJLQRI WKHWKHPDWLFYRZHOLQDOORSWDWLYHIRUPVUHPDLQVXQNQRZQ7KHRULJLQDO VWUXFWXUHORRNHGDVIROORZV VJ SO OLGKHP OLG]HPD L OLGKHVK OLG]HVR L OLGKHW OLG]HWR L OLGKHQ OLG]HQWR L 7KH IRUP RI WKH SO LQ PL VHHPV WR KDYH EHHQ LQIOXHQFHG E\ WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJIRUPRIWKHDWKHPDWLFSUHVHQWRIDFWLYH7KHSOLQQL ZKLOH L KDV EHHQ LQIOXHQFHG E\ WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ IRUPV RI DFWLYH %HVLGHV WKH IRUP LQ HVK WKH VJ DOVR KDV D SDUDOOHO IRUP LQ H FRUUHODWHGZLWKWKHSOLQHQL:HPLJKWDOVRH[SHFWD]HURHQGLQJLQ 214 chapter three WKHVJWDNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWWKHH[LVWHQFHRIWKHWKHSOLQL OLGKL NDSL $OOWKHVHYDULDQWVUHPDLQTXLWHXQFOHDU 7KH LPSHUIHFW RI WKH PHGLRSDVVLYH LV D QHZO\ IRUPHG SDUDGLJP IROORZLQJWKHSDWWHUQRIVKLPSHUIHFWRIDFWLYH $QDO\WLFDOIRUPVRIPHGLRSDVVLYHDUHEXLOWXVLQJWKHUHIOH[LYHSURQRXQ X‘VHOI’ (3$ ZD ,( VÆ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¬IURP ,( QR -2./ ,) ;;;9,, XU ~ XQ ,( RQR &,02 &+2:6.,'XVKPDQL RQSDUWLFLSOHVLQXDU~ XHP 6&+0,'7,) /;,; $QDWROLDQSDUWLFLSOHV .85</2:,&=,QIOFDW 0$03 %DOWLVWLFD,; IROORZV0(<(5 SDVVLP H[WHUQDOFRQQHFWLRQVRI $OEDQLDQSDUWLFLSOHVLQP 25(/=I%DON;;,, 3DUWLFLSOHVLQQ¬JREDFNWR,QGR(XURSHDQDFWLYHSDUWLFLSOHV LQ QW 6NWEK¢UDQW*RWKEDLUDQGV 7KH\DUHIRUPHGIURPVLJPDWLF DRULVWV H[FHSWIRUSDVK¬ VJDRU SDUWLFLSOH ‘WRJLYH’ GKDVK¬ GK¬QH~ GKDQ¬ GDQWL ‘WROHDYH’ ODVK¬ O¬Q¬~ ODQ¬ ODQWL ‘WREH’ THVK¬ T¬Q¬~ NOHQWL ‘WRIDOO’ UDVK¬ U¬Q¬~ UDXQWL ‘WRVD\’ WKDVK¬ WK¬Q¬~ WVDQ V QWL morphology 215 3DUWLFLSOHLQQ¬LVIRUPHGIURPKDQJUD WRKD‘HDW’ QJU¬Q¬~ QJUDQ¬ HQJUDQWL ,W LV DOVR TXLWH SUREDEOH WKDW RQFH WKHUH H[LVWHG D VLPLODU DWKHPDWLF SDUWLFLSOH RI ELH ‘WR EULQJ’ E¬Q¬ EHUQWL 7KLV LV VXJJHVWHGE\WKHGHULYDWLYHRIELHVKSLH‘WREULQJDZD\’ZKLFKKDVD SDUWLFLSOHVKS¬Q¬ LVEHUQWL 7KH RQO\ UHOLDEOH FDVH WKDW FDQ EH LQWHUSUHWHG DV D SDUWLFLSOH GHULYHG IURP DQ ROG YHUEDO DGMHFWLYH LQ WD WR LV UDW¬ UDXWD FRUUH VSRQGLQJ WR DRU UDVK¬ ‘WR IDOO’ 5HPDUNDEO\ WKLV DRULVW KDV DQRWKHU SDUWLFLSOH LQ $OEDQLDQ U¬Q¬ ~ UDQ¬ 7KLV SDLU RI SDUWLFLSOHV PD\ ZHOO UHIOHFWWKHRULJLQDOVLWXDWLRQLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQZKHUHDFWLYHSDUWLFLSOHV LQ QWZHUHRSSRVHGWRSDVVLYHSDUWLFLSOHVLQ WR ,Q D IHZ FDVHV 7RVN SUHVHUYHV SDUWLFLSOHV LQ U¬ QD ,( QR *N UVWIPQX ‘KDWHG’ URCTPQX ‘VFDWWHUHG’ FI YUDV ‘WR NLOO’ YUDU¬EOHM‘WRVHOO’EOHU¬,WLVEHOLHYHGE\VRPHWKDWDSURGXFWLYHW\SH RISDUWLFLSOHVLQXU~ XQLVUHODWHGWRSDUWLFLSOHLQ QRJRLQJEDFNWR RQR+RZHYHUWKLVZRXOGEHSKRQHWLFDOO\LPSRVVLEOH 9DULRXV DVLJPDWLF DRULVWV GHQWDO DRULVWV DV ZHOO DV DRULVWV LQ Z SURGXFHSDUWLFLSOHVLQXU~ XQ7KHPRUSKHPHDSSHDUVWRFRQWLQXHWKH ]HURJUDGHRIWKHQRPLQDOVXIIL[ ÆHQDVSUHVHUYHGLQ6NWd\XQ‘OLIH’ YVIXOOJUDGHSÀYDQ‘IDW’ 9HUEV LQ QM DV ZHOO DV YHUEV ZLWK D YRFDOLF DXVODXW KDYH GLIIHUHQW W\SHVRISDUWLFLSOHVLQ7RVNDQG*HJ,Q7RVNU QRLVDGGHGWRWKH DRULVWVWHP SXQRYU!SXQXDU,Q*HJWKHVDPHVWHPLVIROORZHGE\ PFRQWLQXLQJGHYHUEDWLYHDGMHFWLYHVLQ PR SXQRYP!SXQXHP,W VHHPVSUREDEOHWKDWZKLOH*HJUHWDLQVDQDUFKDLFSDUWLFLSOHLQWKLVFDVH 7RVNKDVVXEVWLWXWHGLWVIRUPVLQ PRZLWKQHZHUIRUPVLQ QR,Q *HJ KRZHYHU WKHUH H[LVWHG D VLPLODU WHQGHQF\ WKDW OHG WR WKH FRQWDPLQDWLRQRISDUWLFLSOHVLQ PRDQGSDUWLFLSOHVLQXU~ XQFIIRU H[DPSOH WKH SDUWLFLSOH RI SL ‘WR GULQN’SLPXQ EDVHG RQ SLP ¬ $OEDQLDQ SDUWLFLSOHV LQ PR DUH FORVH WR WKH SDVVLYH SDUWLFLSOHV RI %DOWR6ODYLF FI /LWKQhDPDV 6ODY QHVRPÙ ‘EURXJKW’ DV ZHOO DV WR WKH/XZLDQSDUWLFLSOHVLQ D PD FI/XZNHhDPD‘FRPEHG’ ,Q$OEDQLDQWKHUHH[LVWVRFDOOHG“VKRUW”SDUWLFLSOHV7KH\HQG LQ¬DQGKDYHWKHYRFDOLVPRIWKHSUHVHQW GMHJ‘WREXUQ’GMHJ¬E¬M‘WR GR WR PDNH’- E¬U¬ 6XFK IRUPV VHHP WR FRQWLQXH R[\WRQLF 3URWR 216 chapter three $OEDQLDQ QRXQV ZLWK HJUDGH YRFDOLVP GMHJ¬ (3$ GHJ¢ ,W LV SRVVLEOHKRZHYHUWKDWWKHURRWYRZHOLQVXFKQRXQVLVVHFRQGDU\DQG PXVWEHH[SODLQHGDVDUHVXOWRIWKHLQIOXHQFHRIWKHILQLWHIRUPV,I(3$ GHJ¢LVGHULYHGIURP,( GKRÞK²VWKH“VKRUW”SDUWLFLSOHVFRXOGUHIOHFW ,QGR(XURSHDQR[\WRQLFQRPLQDDJHQWLVVLPLODUWR*NVQOQX 1RXQ The Albanian nominal system has radically reduced the original Indo-European declension types and lost several important grammemes typical of Indo-European paradigms. On the other hand, new gramma- tical meanings were developed in Proto-Albanian (such as the opposition of definite and indefinite) and new productive types of nouns came to dominate the formation of substantives and adjectives. 1RPLQDOVWHPV 6HYHUDO ,QGR(XURSHDQ VWHP W\SHV ZHUH DOWRJHWKHU ORVW LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ2WKHUW\SHV—HYHQWKRXJKSURGXFWLYH—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¬ 6$1')(/'/%DON QHXWHUQRXQV LQ%DONDQODQJXDJHV 72*(%<&DKLHUV3X×cariu II 121-131 (neuter in Albanian and Rumanian);&,02&+2:6.,/3,,, LVWHPVFKDQJLQJ WR VWHPV LQ $OEDQLDQ ,9 IROORZV -2./ 6WXGLHQ 3,6$1, 6DJJL UHFRQVWUXFWV ALQ$OEDQLDQUDQGQVWHPV Ç$%(-/39,, 9,,, VLQJXODUL]DWLRQ LQ $OEDQLDQ 0$11 +LVW *U +$03 .= /;9,, LVWHP LQ QDW¬ '(0,5$- 3UREO KLVW 5RPDQFH LQIOXHQFH RQ WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI $OEDQLDQ QHXWHU '(61,&.$-$ *UVWU RQQDW¬ QRXQVLQ L i SDVVLP VLQJXODUL]DWLRQ *(25*,(97UDNLWH IROORZV3,6$1, Û$5$329$ 5% QHXWHULQ%DONDQ5RPDQFHDQG$OEDQLDQ morphology 217 ,QYHU\UDUHFDVHVDFRQVRQDQWVWHPUHPDLQHGPRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQWDFWLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQ GKH ‘HDUWK ODQG’ (3$ G]A UHIOHFWLQJ ,( GK½KAP ‘HDUWK’ +LWW WHNDQ7RFK$WNDP%NHP6NWN¿DP*NZSYP 7KH PDMRULW\ RI ROGHU FRQVRQDQW VWHPV ZHUH UHGLVWULEXWHG EHWZHHQ R DQGRVWHPVRQWKHRQHKDQGDQGVWHPVRQWKHRWKHU7KHIROORZLQJ FDVHVDUHH[DPSOHVRIQHZRDQGRVWHPVUHSODFLQJFRQVRQDQWVWHPV GUX‘WUHH ZRRG’ (3$ GUXZD ,( GUXLG 6ODY GUÙYR‘ZRRG’ 6NWGUXLG$YGUXLG*NFTW`X‘WUHHRDN’ JM¬ ~JMDˆ ‘WKLQJ’ (3$ VDQD VDQ V *PF V¢QÈ ‘WUXH’ 21 VDQQUVDÔU2(V²Ô PDGK ‘ELJ ODUJH’ (3$ PDG]D 6NW P¢KL ‘JUHDW ODUJH’ Gk OGICXLGQHXWOGIC PXDM ~ PXHM ‘PRQWK’ (3$ PAVQMD IURP WKH PHWDWKHVLV RI ,( PQV‘PRRQPRQWK’ 6NWPV*NOJP/DWPQVLV2,UP QMHUL2$OEQMHU‘PDQSHUVRQKXPDQEHLQJ’ (3$ QHUD 6NWQ¢U ‘PDQ’GkCPJTLG ,QRWKHUFDVHVZHILQGVWHPVVXEVWLWXWLQJURRWVWHPVLQ$OEDQLDQ GHU¬ ‘GRRU’ (3$ GZAU ,( GKÆHU LG 6NW GYdU *N SWTC 7RFK%WZHUH GRU¬ ‘KDQG’ (3$ G V U ,( ½KHVU LG *N ZGK`T +LWW NHhhDU $UPMHUQ GKDOO¬‘EXWWHUPLON’ (3$ G]DO G]DODNW *NICNCLG NU\H‘KHDG’ (3$ NU V Q *NMTCPC MGHCNJ WK¬UL~WK¬QL‘ORXVH’ (3$ WVDQLGD WVDQLGFIGkMQPKX‘QLW’ +HWHURFOLWLFVWHPVFKDQJHGWRLVWHPV HOE‘EDUOH\’ (3$ DOEL GkCNHK‘NLQGRIJUDLQ’ HVKW¬‘ILEUHPXVFOHILEUH’ (3$ DVWL 6NW¢VWKLLG 7KHFDVHRIWKHZRUGIRU‘QLJKW’ZKLFKEHFDPHDQLVWHPLVGLVFXVVHG EHORZWRJHWKHUZLWKWKHRWKHULVWHPV7KHFKDQJHRIWKHPRUSKRORJLFDO W\SHWRRNSODFHRQWKHDUHDO,QGR(XURSHDQVFDOHUDWKHUWKDQLQ3URWR $OEDQLDQLWVHOI 218 chapter three 6WHPVLQVRQRUDQWVEHFDPHRVWHPV,QDOOVXFKFDVHVWKHVXIIL[ LVDWWHVWHGLQWKHHJUDGHLHZLWKWKHYRFDOL]DWLRQRIREOLTXHFDVHV GLP¬U ~ GLP¬Q ‘ZLQWHU’ (3$ GHLPHQD 6NW K©PDQ ORF ‘LQ ZLQWHU’GkZGK`OC‘ZLQWHU’ GK¬QG¬U ~ GKDQG¬U ‘EULGHJURRP VRQLQODZ’ (3$ G]DQUD ,( ½HQiU‘VRQLQODZ’ /DWJHQHU HP¬U~HP¬Q‘QDPH’ (3$ HQPHQDFORVHWR6ODY MÚP?LG JMDUS¬U ~ JMDUS¬Q ‘VQDNH’ (3$ VHUSHQD ,( VHUS ‘WR FUDZO’ /DWVHUSQV‘VQDNHVHUSHQW’VHUSA‘WRFUDZO’ NHW¬U ‘VTXLUUHO GRUPRXVH’ (3$ NANWHU /LWK NXRNDV ‘GDQFH’ UHFRQVWUXFWHGIURPNXRN®Q^‘GDQFLQJSDUW\’ DQG6ODY VNDNDWL ‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’ 2QO\IHPLQLQHDQLPDWHVXEVWDQWLYHVUHWDLQHGWKHLURULJLQDO VHPDQWLFDOO\ PRWLYDWHG JHQGHUDQGDSSHDUDV$OEDQLDQVWHPV PRW¬U‘VLVWHU’ (3$ PWHU ,( PWHU‘PRWKHU’ 6NWPW¢U*N OJVJT/DWPWHU ,Q RQH FDVH WKH IRUP RI WKH QRPLQDWLYH RI D VWHP LQ D VRQRUDQW ZDV JHQHUDOL]HGDQGWKHZRUGPHUJHGZLWKWKHVWHPV UU\P¬ ‘IORZ RI ZDWHU ’ (3$ VU P UHSODFLQJ VU PD ,( VU P *N TGW`OC ‘VWUHDP’ 21 VWUDXPU LG /LWK VUDXPX¶ ‘IDVWVWUHDP’ 6WHPVLQHVZHUHORVW,QWKHQRPLQDWLYHWKH\ORRNHGOLNHR VWHPV ZKLFK OHG WR WKHLU FRPSOHWH PHUJHU ZLWK WKH ODWWHU &I WKH IROORZLQJH[DPSOHV DQJ‘IHDUQLJKWPDUH’ (3$ DQJD V FRUUHVSRQGLQJWR6NW¢PKDV ‘IHDU’/DWDQJRU‘XQUHVWIHDU’ DQ½KRV HQG ‘SROOHQ’ (3$ DQGD V 6NW ¢QGKDV ‘KHUE’ Gk CPSQX ‘IORZHU’ HWKH‘IHYHU’ (3$ DLGD V 6NW©GKDV‘ILUHZRRGIXHO’GkCK?SQX ‘ILUH’ KL~Kî‘DVK’ (3$ VNLQD V /DWFLQLV‘GXVWDVK’ FHQHV YLWYMHW‘\HDU’ (3$ ZHWD V GkGVQXLG morphology 219 ]MDUU ‘ILUH’ (3$ GÊHUD ,( ÞKHUHV 6NWK¢UDV ‘IODPH KHDW’ *NSGTQX‘VXPPHU’$UPÎHULG 6WHPVLQXDQGLQ ZHUHQRWSUHVHUYHGHLWKHU7KH\ZHUH VXEVWLWXWHGE\RDQGVWHPV DFDU ‘VWHHO’ (3$ DWVDUD ‘VKDUS’ DWVDUX /LWK DhU¸V ‘VKDUS’ 6ODY RVWUÙLG PMHN¬U‘FKLQEHDUG’ (3$ VPHNU VPHUX 6NWyP¢yUXLG 7KH ZRUG IRU ‘PRWKHULQODZ’ ZDV PRUSKRQRORJLFDOO\ FKDQJHG XQGHU WKHLQIOXHQFHRIWKHPDVFXOLQHIRUP VZHWVXUD!YMHK¬UU‘IDWKHULQODZ’ YMHK¬UU ‘PRWKHULQODZ’ (3$ VZH[XU ZLWK DVVLPLODWLRQ IURP H[SHFWHG VZHWVXU ,( VÆHU 6NWyYDyUgPRWKHULQODZ’ /DWVRFUXVLG $V ZH KDYH PHQWLRQHG DERYH LVWHPV SUHVXPDEO\ H[LVWHG LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ HYHQ WKRXJK ZH FDQ RQO\ LGHQWLI\ VRPH RI WKHP E\ WUDFHVRIXPODXWDQGRWKHUSKRQHWLFIHDWXUHV,Q/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQL VWHPVZHUHUHGLVWULEXWHGEHWZHHQRDQG OHVVIUHTXHQWO\ VWHPV&I VHYHUDOH[DPSOHVRILVWHPVFKDQJHGWRRVWHPV JXU‘VWRQHURFN’ (3$ JXUD JXUL ,( ÞHUi‘PRXQWDLQ’ 6NW JLU $Y JDLUL /LWK JLUL£ ‘ZRRG’ /DWY G]LULD LG 6ODY JRUD ‘PRXQWDLQZRRG’ NUL ~NUî ‘ZRRGZRUP PRWK’ (3$ NULZD NULZL WR ,( áÆL 6ODY ¨ÚUYÚ‘ZRUP’ NULPE~NU\P‘ZRUP’ (3$ NULPD NULPL ZLWKXQH[SODLQHG *HJ\ ,( áPLLG 6NWN¤PL/LWKN®UPLV OHGK‘PXGDOOXYLXPFOD\ ZDOOHDUWKPRXQG ULYHUPRXWKEDON’ (3$ ODLGD 23UXVOD\GLV‘FOD\’ PRW ‘WLPH ZHDWKHU VWRUP WKXQGHUEROW’ (3$ PWL 6NW PWL ‘PHDVXUH’*NOJ`VKXLG YHVK‘HDU’ (3$ ZDXVD ZDXVL /DWDXULV/LWKDXV®V/DWY£XVV ]RW‘ORUGPDVWHUJRG’ (3$ Z L WVSDWD Z L WVSDWL 6NWYLy SDWL‘ORUGRIWKHKRXVH’ 6RPHRWKHULVWHPVFKDQJHGWRVWHPV 220 chapter three EHV¬ ‘SOHGJH WUXFH WUXVW’ (3$ EDLWh EDLWhL Gk RKUVKX ‘IDLWKIXOWUXVWZRUWK\’ ERW¬ ‘ZRUOG’ (3$ EZW EZWL 6NW EK W ‘H[LVWHQFH’ /LWK E W®VLG,UEXLWKLG JMROO¬‘FOHDULQJRUSDVWXUHZKHUHVDOWLVVWUHZQIRUVKHHS SDWFKRI JURXQGIRUVRZLQJ’ (3$ VO VOL 6ODY VROÚ‘VDOW’ GLW¬‘GD\’ (3$ GW GW *PF WGL]‘WLPH’ 2+*]W2(WG DQG6NWGWL‘EULJKWQHVVVSOHQGRU’ QDW¬‘QLJKW’ (3$ QDNW QDNWLFRUUHVSRQGLQJWR/LWKQDNW®V /HWWQDNWV23UXVQDNWLQ6ODY QRNW’Ú ERW¬ (3$ EZWLFI6NWEK W‘H[LVWHQFH’/LWKE W®VLG,UEXLWK LG JMROO¬SOJMROO¬‘FOHDULQJRUSDVWXUHZKHUHVDOWLVVWUHZQIRUVKHHS SDWFKRIJURXQGIRUVRZLQJ’ (3$ VOLFI6ODY VROÚ‘VDOW’ 3URWR$OEDQLDQLVWHPVLQFOXGHGDJURXSRIQXPHUDOVLQW¬ WLZKLFK FRUUHVSRQGWR6DQVNULWGHFDGVLQWL ¿D¿WL‘VL[WHQV’DQGWKHOLNH DV ZHOODVWKHZRUGIRU‘WZHQW\’ JMDVKW¬‘VL[’ (3$ VHNVWLFORVHWR6NW¿¢¿*NGE/DWVH[ WHW¬‘HLJKW’ (3$ DNWAWL 6NWD¿bd$UPRZ*NQMVY Q¬QW¬~QDQG‘QLQH’ (3$ QHXQWL ZLWKDQDORJLFDOUHVWUXFWXULQJ LQ7RVN WR6NWQ¢YD/DWQRYHP*RWKQLXQ GKMHW¬‘WHQ’ (3$ GHWV D WL 6NWG¢yD*NFGMC/DWGHFHP VKWDW¬ ‘VHYHQ’ (3$ VHSWDWL FRUUHVSRQGLQJ WR 6NW VDSW¢ *N /DWVHSWHP GRVC ]HW ‘WZHQW\’ (3$ Z L WVDWL ,( ÆLWL LG 6NW YiPyDW *N GKMQUK/DWYJLQW ,QGR(XURSHDQVWHPVLQ DUHUHSUHVHQWHGLQ(DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQDV VWHPVLQ EX]¬ ‘OLS HQG HGJH EDQN VWLWFK URFN’ (3$ EXGM /LWK EXG| ‘WUHHIXQJXVWLQGHUZKHWVWRQH’ 2QHRIWKHPRVWSURGXFWLYHPRUSKRORJLFDOW\SHVLQ$OEDQLDQLV UHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHPDVFXOLQHRVWHPV0DQ\RVWHPVKDYHEHHQLQKHU LWHGIURP,QGR(XURSHDQ&IVHYHUDOW\SLFDOH[DPSOHV morphology 221 GDVK ‘UDP’ (3$ GDXhD ,( GKRXVR ~ GKHXVR *RWK GLXV ‘ZLOG DQLPDO’ /LWK SO GD-VRV ‘SDUDGLVH’ 6ODY GX[Ù ‘EUHDWK VSLULW’ GHP ‘\RXQJ EXOO’ (3$ GDPD 2,U GDP ‘R[’ DQG *N FCOCNQL ‘FDOI’ GK¬PE~GKDPE‘WRRWK’ (3$ G]DPED ,( ½RPEKR‘SHJWRRWK’ 6NWM¢PEKD‘ELWSHJ’*NIQOHQX‘SHJ’7RFK$NDP‘WRRWK’ %NHPHLG/DWY]¸REVLG6ODY ]_EÙLG JDUGK ‘IHQFH’ (3$ JDUGD *RWK JDUGV ‘KRXVH’ /LWK JD¼GDV ‘IHQFH’6ODY JRUGÙ‘WRZQIHQFH’ JMDN‘EORRG’ (3$ VDND *NQRQX‘MXLFH’/LWKVDND&‘UHVLQ’6ODY VRNÙ‘MXLFH’ MHUP ‘GHOLULXP DEVHQWPLQGHGQHVV’ (3$ HUPD /LWK H¼PDV ‘PRQVWHU’/DWY?UPV‘ZRQGHUIXODSSDULWLRQ’ N¬UU‘GRQNH\DVVIRDOJUD\’ (3$ NDUD 6NWNK¢UD‘GRQNH\’$Y [DUALG6F\WK [DUD2VVHW[æUæJLG VKWHJ‘SDWKURDG (3$ VWDLJD ,( VWRLJKR‘ZD\’ *NUVQK`ZQX ‘URZ OLQH’ *RWK VWDLJD ‘ZD\’ /DWY VWD&JD ‘ZDONLQJ’ VWîJD ‘SDWK’6ODY VWÚ]DLG XMN‘ZROI’ (3$ Z XOND ,( ÆâáRVLG 6NWY¤ND*NNWMQX/DW OXSXV*RWKZXOIV 6WHPV LQ R DUH D SURGXFWLYH VXEJURXS RI RVWHPV 7KH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHVLOOXVWUDWHWKLVW\SH GHUU‘SLJ’ (3$ GDUMD *NZQK`TQXLG ,( ½KRURV GXDM ~ GXHM ‘VKHDI’ (3$ GAQMD 6NW GKQd ‘JUDLQ FHUHDOV’ GKQ\¢‘JUDLQ’/LWKG·RQD‘EUHDG’ KXDM ~ KXHM ‘IRUHLJQ VWUDQJH’ (3$ NVAQ Z MD *N EG PQX 'RU EG P®QX‘VWUDQJHUJXHVW’ KX ~Kû ‘SLFNHW VWDNH SROH SHQLV’ (3$ VNXMD 6ODY [XMÚ ‘SHQLV’ NHT‘EDGHYLO’ (3$ NDNMD *NMCMQX‘EDG’ P¬]~ Pâ]‘IRDO’ (3$ PDQGMDGHULYHGIURPP¬QG‘WRIHHGWR VXFNOH’ ,( PD]G QXV‘WKUHDGVWULQJ’ (3$ VQXWMD 6NWVQdYDQ‘EDQGVLQHZ’ 0DQ\$OEDQLDQVWHPVFRQWLQXHVLPLODU,QGR(XURSHDQIRUPV 222 chapter three KDO¬ ‘ILVK ERQH VSOLQWHU SLQH’ (3$ VNDO /LWK VNDO£ ‘VWLFN RI ILUHZRRG’/DWYVNDOD‘VSOLQWHU XVHGWRIXUQLVKOLJKW ’ NURGK¬‘EHHKLYH’ (3$ NUG 6ODY NUDGD‘KHDSSLOH’ O¬QG¬~ODQG¬‘ZRRGWLPEHUPDWHULDO’ (3$ OHQW *PF OHQGW A ‘OLQGHQ’ 2+*OLQWD2(OLQG /LWKOHQW£‘ERDUG’6ODY OO¬U¬~OODQ¬‘IRUHDUPHOO’ (3$ DOHQ *NYNGPJ‘HOERZ’/DW XOQD2+*HOLQD PMHJXOO‘FORXG’ (3$ PHJO *NQ OKZNJ‘IRJPLVW’/LWKPLJO£ LG6ODY PÚJOD‘GDUNQHVVPLVW’ UUXGK¬‘ZULQNOH’ (3$ UXG] /DWU JDLG WROO¬‘EDOGVSRW GUXPPHPEUDQH’ (3$ WVO WVO /DWWOD ‘FORWK’2+*GHKVDOD‘D[H’6ODY WHVODLG WKHN¬‘IULQJH’ (3$ WVDN 6NWydNK‘EUDQFK’/LWKhDN£LG YH‘ZLGRZ’ (3$ ZLGHZ 6NWYLGK¢Y LG /DW YLGXD LG *RWK ZLGXZRLG 6WHPV LQ DUH DOVR ZHOO DWWHVWHG LQ $OEDQLDQ &I WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV GRV¬‘SLJVRZ’ (3$ G L WM ,( GK L ‘WRVXFNOH’ HQM¬‘MXQLSHU\HZ’ (3$ DLJQMUHODWHGWRWKH*HUPDQLFZRUGIRU ‘RDN’ 21HLN2+*HLK HQM¬~êM¬‘GDLU\JRDW’ (3$ DJQM *NCOPQX‘ODPE’/DWDJQXV LG PMDOF¬‘EHH’ (3$ PHOLWM *NOGNKUUC OGNKVMCLG YLVH ‘SODFH’ (3$ ZWVM ,( ÆHL VLPLODU WR *N QKMKC ‘GZHOOLQJKRXVH’ $ IHZ ROG PDVFXOLQH RVWHPV FKDQJHG WR VWHPV LQ $OEDQLDQ 7KLV SURFHVVPD\EHVRPHKRZFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHIDWHRIROGQHXWHURVWHPV LQ$OEDQLDQ VHHEHORZ &IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV NRK¬‘WLPH’ (3$ N[ 6ODY ¨DVÙLG ODS¬ ‘KDUG SLHFH RI PHDW RU VNLQ SHULWRQHXP OHDI’ (3$ ODS /LWKO¦SDV‘OHDI’*NNQRQX‘VKHOOKXVNEDUN’ 7KHUHDUHDOVRH[DPSOHVRIWKHUHYHUVHGHYHORSPHQWDQVWHP\LHOGLQJ DQRVWHPLQ$OEDQLDQ DJ‘WZLOLJKWGXVN’ (3$ DXJD ,( DXJ *NCWIJ‘UD\RIOLJKW’ morphology 223 NXOS NXOS¬U ~ NXOS¬Q ‘LY\ FOHPDWLV’ (3$ NXOSD /LWK N®OSD ‘ORRS’/DWYFLËSDLG SLGK‘IHPDOHSXGHQGD’ (3$ S H L]GD 6ODY SL]GDLGDQG23UXV SHLVGD‘ERWWRP’ ,QGR(XURSHDQ QHXWHU SOXUDO RVWHPV ZHUH UHLQWHUSUHWHG DV IHPLQLQHVWHPVLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQ EDOW¬‘VZDPSPDUVKGLUWHDUWK’ (3$ EDOW ,( EKROiWRPLG 6ODY EROWRFI/LWKE¢OWDV‘ZKLWH’ ELP¬‘SODQW’ (3$ E P ,( EK PRP *NHW`OCLG GDUN¬‘VXSSHU’ (3$ GDUN ,( GRUáRPUHIOHFWHGLQ*NFQTRQP LG ¬QG¬UU ~ DQG¬UU ‘GUHDP VOHHS’ (3$ DQUM ,( RQHURP *N QPGKTQPQPGKTQX$UPDQRZUÎ IMDO¬‘ZRUGVSHHFKWDOH’ (3$ VSHO *PF VSHOODQ *RWKVSLOO ‘VWRU\IDEOH’21VSMDOO‘VWRU\VSHHFK’2(VSHOOLG2+*VSHO VSHOOLG DQG$UPDàDVSHO‘IDEOH’ KLUU¬‘ZKH\’ (3$ NVLU 6NWN¿U¢‘PLON’2VVHWæ[hLULG KXGK¬U‘JDUOLF’ (3$ VNXUG *NUMQTQFQPLG 8QGHU WKH LQIOXHQFH RI (DVW %DONDQ 5RPDQFH /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ GHYHORSHG D QHZ JUDPPDWLFDO V\QWDFWLF FDWHJRU\—QHXWHU RI VXE VWDQWLYHV 7KHVH QRXQV ZKRVH VLQJXODUV ZHUH PDVFXOLQH EXW SOXUDOV IHPLQLQH DEVRUEHG VRPH RI WKH ROG ,QGR(XURSHDQ QHXWHUV +RZHYHU WKHUHZDVQRGLUHFWFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKH,QGR(XURSHDQQHXWHUDQG WKH QHZ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ QHXWHU LQVRIDU DV PDQ\ PDVFXOLQHV DQG IHPLQLQHV ZHUH LQYROYHG LQ WKH IRUPDWLRQ RI WKH QHZ QHXWHU FRUUH VSRQGLQJ WR WKH VHPDQWLF FDWHJRU\ RI “GHILQLWH PDVV” IURP WKH YHU\ EHJLQQLQJ&IDIHZH[DPSOHVRIROGQHXWHUVIXQFWLRQLQJDVQHXWHUVLQ $OEDQLDQ EDOO¬‘IRUHKHDG’ (3$ EDOWR6NWEKODLG23UXVEDOORLG GULWK¬ ‘JUDLQ’ (3$ GULWV ,( ½K]G /DW KRUGHXP ‘EDUOH\’ 2+*JHUVWDLG JUXU¬ ~JUXQ¬‘ZKHDW’ (3$ JUXQ ,( ½¹QRP ‘JUDLQ’ /DW JUQXP2,UJU¢Q*RWKNDXUQ/LWKÊ®UQLV6ODY ]ÚUQR 1XPHURXVSOXUDOVWHPVZHUHVLQJXODUL]HGLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQDV D UHVXOW RI /DWH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ XPODXW 8PODXW FUHDWHG SDUDGLJPV LQ 224 chapter three ZKLFKWKHVWHPRIWKHSOXUDOZDVGLIIHUHQWLDWHGIURPWKDWRIWKHVLQJXODU 6XFK LUUHJXODULW\ ZDV RIWHQ QHXWUDOL]HG E\ PHDQV RI JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ SOXUDOVWHPVRIWHQRXVWHGWKHLUVLQJXODUFRXQWHUSDUWV7KLVSURFHVVFDQ EHLOOXVWUDWHGE\WKHKLVWRU\RIWKHZRUGWHU‘EXOO’ VJ SO 6WDJH, WDXUD WDXUDL WDUD WDUDL 6WDJH,, WDUD WHUDL 6WDJH,,, WHU WHU¬ /LNHZLVH VLQJXODU VWHPV RXVWHG SOXUDO VWHPV LQ WKH VDPH IDVKLRQ WKRXJKWKLVSURFHVVZDVOHVVIUHTXHQW&IWKHKLVWRU\RIWKHZRUGGUDQJ ‘SROH’ VJ SO 6WDJH, GUDQJD GUDQJDL 6WDJH,,, GUDQJD GUHQJDL 6WDJH,9 GUDQJ GUDQJM +RZHYHUERWKWHQGHQFLHVGLGQRWFRYHUDOO$OEDQLDQQRXQVZLWKXPODXW 6RPHRIWKHPUHWDLQHGWKHSDUDGLJPZLWKYRFDOLFDOWHUQDWLRQFIJDUGK ‘IHQFH’ VJ SO 6WDJH, JDUGD JDUGDL 6WDJH,,, JDUGD JHUGDL 6WDJH,9 JDUGK JMHUGKH 7KH PDMRULW\ RI /DWLQ ORDQZRUGV ZHUH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ DGDSWHGLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQDFFRUGLQJWRWKHLUGHFOHQVLRQW\SHV1RXQVRI WKHVWGHFOHQVLRQDSSHDUDVVWHPVLQ$OEDQLDQ DUP¬‘ZHDSRQ’Õ/DWDUPDLG ELVK¬‘EHDVWZLOGDQLPDO’ Õ /DWEVWLDLG EXN¬ ‘EUHDG PHDO PHDOWLPH’ Õ /DW EXFFD ‘PRXWK’ LQ %DONDQ 5RPDQFH‘IRRG’ morphology 225 EXO¬‘EXG’ Õ /DWEXOOD‘EXEEOHERVVNQRE’ GHW\U¬‘GXW\GHEW’Õ5RP GHELW UDLG I¬PLM¬‘FKLOGIDPLO\VSRXVH’Õ/DWIDPOLD‘IDPLO\’ IXUN¬‘GLVWDIIIRUN’Õ/DWIXUFD‘IRUN’ IXVK¬ ‘SODLQ RSHQ ILHOG PHDGRZ’ Õ /DW IRVVD ‘GLWFK WUHQFK JXWWHU’ OXIW¬‘ILJKWZDU’Õ/DWOXFWD‘ZUHVWOLQJ’FI5XPOXSW:‘ILJKW’ SMHUJXOO ‘YLQHDUERU SHUJROD’ Õ /DW SHUJXOD ‘VKHG ERRWK YLQH DUERU’ 0DVFXOLQHQRXQVRIWKHQGGHFOHQVLRQEHFDPHRVWHPVLQ$OEDQLDQ DUN‘ERZ’Õ/DWDUFXVLG IORN‘KDLU’Õ/DWIORFFXV‘ORFNIORFN’ IXQG‘ERWWRPHQG’Õ/DWIXQGXV‘ERWWRP’ JXVKW‘$XJXVW’Õ/DWDXJXVWXVLG PDUV‘0DUFK’Õ/DW0DUWLXVLG PRGK‘EXVKHO’Õ/DWPRGXV‘PHDVXUH’ PXUJ~PXQJ‘PRQN’Õ/DWPRQDFKXVLG SXV‘ZHOOIRXQWDLQ’Õ/DWSXWHXV‘ZHOO’ VKHVK‘SODLQSODQHIODWQHVVVTXDUH’ Õ /DWVHVVXV‘VHDW’ YHV‘EDGKDELW’Õ/DWYLWLXP‘IDXOWGHIHFWYLFH’ 0RVWQHXWHUQRXQVRIWKHQGGHFOHQVLRQEHFDPHRVWHPVWRR G¬P~GDP‘GDPDJH’Õ/DWGDPQXP‘KXUWKDUPGDPDJH’ IDW‘IDWH EULGHJURRPKXVEDQGIULHQG’Õ/DWIWXPLG IVKDW‘YLOODJH’Õ/DWIRVVWXP‘GLWFK’ ‘VXUURXQGHGE\DGLWFK’ JD]‘MR\ODXJKWHU’Õ/DWJDXGLXP‘MR\’ NDQJMHO‘VRQJ’Õ5RP FDQWLFHOOXPLG ODUGK‘IDWODGHQEDFRQ’Õ/DWOULGXPOUGXPLG TLHOO‘VN\KHDYHQ’Õ/DWFDHOXPLG VKT\W‘VKLHOG’Õ/DWVF WXPLG ([FHSWLRQVDUHUDUH JU¬P¬UDW¬ ‘EHHVWLQJV FORWV RI FXUGOHG PLON’ Õ /DW JORPHUWXP SDUWLFLSOH RI JORPHUUH ‘WR ZLQG LQWR D EDOO WR JDWKHU LQWR D URXQGKHDS’ N¬QJ¬~NDQJ¬‘VRQJ’Õ/DWFDQWLFXPLG SHVK¬‘ZHLJKW VWRQHERXOGHU’Õ/DWSHQVXPLG 226 chapter three /DWLQ QHXWHU LQDQLPDWH VXEVWDQWLYHV RIWHQ WXUQHG LQWR QHZ $OEDQLDQ QHXWHUIRUPV&IDW\SLFDOH[DPSOH YDM~ YRM‘RLO’Õ/DWROHXPLG 1HDUO\DOOQRXQVRIWKHGGHFOHQVLRQEHFDPHRVWHPVLQ$OEDQLDQ EXOE¬U‘VWUHHWGXVW’Õ/DWSXOYHUHP‘GXVW’ GUDJXD~GUD Q JXH‘GUDJRQ’Õ5RP GUDQFAQHPFI/DWGUDFAQHP LG JULJM‘IORFNKHUG’Õ/DWJUHJHPLG OLJM‘ODZ’Õ/DWOJH P LG PHQG‘PLQG’Õ/DWPHQWHPLG SDT‘SHDFH’Õ/DWSDFHPLG SULQG‘IDWKHUSDUHQW’Õ/DWSDUHQWHPLG T\WHW‘FLW\’Õ/DWFYLWWH P LG WPHUU‘KRUURUIULJKW’Õ/DWWLPAUHPLG WXUS‘VKDPH’Õ/DWWXUSHLG &IDQH[FHSWLRQDOFDVHRIDQRXQRIWKHGGHFOHQVLRQDGDSWHGDVDQ VWHP VKWLM¬‘VSHDUUD\’Õ/DWKDVWOH‘VSHDU’ ,Q VRPH FDVHV WKH PRUSKRORJLFDO W\SH RI WKH ORDQZRUG ZDV GHWHUPLQHGQRWE\WKHVWHPRIWKHVRXUFHZRUGEXWE\LWVUHLQWHUSUHWHG QRPLQDWLYH,QRWKHUFDVHVQRPLQDWLYHVHQGLQJLQUDQGQZHUHHUUR QHRXVO\ WUHDWHG DV $OEDQLDQ SOXUDOV 1HZ QRPLQDWLYH VLQJXODUV ZHUH WKHQEDFNIRUPHG&IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV MDY¬‘ZHHN’Õ/DWKHEGRPDVLG NXOP‘ULGJHSHDN ZDYH’Õ/DWFXOPHQLG PEUHW‘NLQJ’Õ/DWLPSHUWRU‘HPSHURU’ VKDW‘KRH’Õ/DWVHFWRU‘FXWWHU’ VKHP¬‘VZDUP RIEHHV ’Õ/DWH[PHQ‘VZDUP’ 6ODYLF ORDQZRUGV ZHUH PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ DGDSWHG LQ D ZD\ TXLWHVLPLODUWRWKDWRI/DWLQ6ODYLFIHPLQLQDDSSHDULQ$OEDQLDQDV VWHPV morphology 227 QHYRM¬‘QHHG’Õ6ODY QHYRO’D‘ODFNRIIUHHGRPQHFHVVLW\’ SHOHQ¬‘GLDSHU’Õ6ODY SHOHQD‘FRYHUQDSNLQ’ SMDYLF¬‘OHHFK’Õ6ODY SLMDYLFDLG UDTLW¬‘EURRP EXVK ’Õ6ODY RUN\WDLG UHN¬‘EURRNULYXOHW’Õ6ODY UpND‘ULYHU’ UHS¬‘WXUQLS’Õ6ODY UpSDLG VHU¬‘WDU’Õ6ODY VpUD‘VXOSKXU’ YHULJ¬‘FKDLQULQJ’Õ6ODY YHULJD‘FKDLQ’ Y¬UV¬~Y¬UF¬‘DJH’Õ6ODY YÚUVWD‘DJHNLQGNLQ’ 6ODYLFPDVFXOLQHRVWHPVUHPDLQHGRVWHPVLQ$OEDQLDQ NDç‘ZHDYHU’Õ6ODY WÙND¨ÚLG OLN‘OHYHO’Õ6ODY OLNÙ‘IDFHVXUIDFH’ QHPHF‘GXPEVWXWWHULQJSHUVRQ’Õ6ODY QpPÚFÚLG RERUU‘\DUGFRXUW’Õ6ODY REYRUÙLG SHOLQ‘ZRUPZRRG’Õ6ODY SHO\QÙLG UHG‘URZ’Õ6ODY U?GÙLG UUDVROO‘SLFNOHV’Õ6ODY RU]VROÙ‘SLFNOHV EULQH’ VKDS ‘GLVHDVH RI WKH FDWWOH $SKWD HSL]RRWLFD’ Õ 6ODY VDSÙ ‘JODQGHUV’ XJDU‘ODQGXQXVHGIRUWZR\HDUV’Õ6ODY XJDUÙ‘IDOORZJURXQG’ ]DEHO‘OLWWOHZRRG’Õ6ODY ]DEpOÙLG ]KHJ‘KHDW’Õ6ODY ÊHJÙLG 1HXWHUVXEVWDQWLYHVERUURZHGIURP6ODYLFEHFDPH$OEDQLDQVWHPV OLM¬‘VPDOOSR[’Õ6ODY OL[R‘HYLO’ PHWDOH‘VQRZGULIW’Õ6ODY PHWDGOR‘KHDS’ PLW¬‘EULEHWLS’Õ6ODY P\WR‘SD\PHQW’ VDQ¬‘KD\’Õ6ODY VpQRLG VLW¬‘VLHYH’Õ6ODY VLWRLG XOLVKW¬ ‘VPDOO WXE’ Õ 6ODY XOLh¨H GHULYDWLYH RI XOÚMÚ ‘KLYH WURXJK’ YHG¬U‘SDLO IRUPLON ’Õ6ODY YpGUR‘SDLO’ ,Q D IHZ FDVHV HVSHFLDOO\ LQ HDUO\ ORDQZRUGV WKH JHQGHU RI 6ODYLF ZRUGVZDVFKDQJHG 228 chapter three OORK¬ ‘UDLQ ZLWK VQRZ VQRZ EURWK GDPSQHVV’ Õ 6ODY ORMÚ ‘DQ\WKLQJOLTXLG’!‘IDWODUG’ SOHQJ‘EDQGDJH’Õ6ODY SHO H QÙNDLG UDY¬‘SDWK LQPRXQWDLQVRUVQRZ ’Õ6ODY URYÙ‘GLWFK’ UDYJ¬‘SDWK LQPRXQWDLQV ’Õ6ODY URYÙNÙ‘GLWFK’ 2FFDVLRQDOO\WKHSOXUDOIRUPVRI6ODYLFORDQZRUGVZHUHUHDQDO\]HGDV VLQJXODUVDVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH YLUXD~YLUXH‘EURRNULYXOHW’Õ6ODYSO YLURYHRI YLUÙ‘ZKLUO SRROZDWHUSLW’ )RUPDWLRQRIWKHSOXUDO ,Q3URWR$OEDQLDQ DVZHOODVLQPRGHUQ$OEDQLDQ WKHSOXUDO VWHPV RI PRVW VXEVWDQWLYHV DUH LGHQWLFDO ZLWK WKH VLQJXODU VWHPV DQG EHORQJWRWKHVDPHSDUDGLJP VHH ,Q3URWR$OEDQLDQQRXQVRIWHQ GHYHORSHG QHZ SOXUDO VWHPV E\ WKH UHDQDO\VLV RI ROG GHULYDWLRQDO VXIIL[HV6XFKQHZSOXUDOVZHUHGHULYHGIURPWKHRULJLQDOVLQJXODUVE\ PHDQVRIVSHFLDOVXIIL[HV /LWHUDWXUH 0(<(5$OE6W,SDVVLP -2.//.8%$ SOXUDOVLQ] RQ SOXUDOV LQ LQM 0©ODQJHV 3HGHUVHQ SOXUDO LQ P &,02&+2:6., %86K7 ;,,, ,OO\ULDQ SDUDOOHOV WR SOXUDOV LQ LQM &$0$-$OE:RUWE SOXUDOLQ ] Ç$%(-6W,,, '(61,&.$-$*UVWU UD~ QDFUHDWHGRQWKHEDVLVRISO HP¬UD~ HP¬QDUHVWUXFWXUHGDVHP¬UD~ HP¬QD SOXUDOLQ¬U~ ¬Q RI/DWLQORDQZRUGV 0$11 +LVW*U /$==(521,66/9, RQ,( LGR 2QHRIWKHPRVWSURGXFWLYHSOXUDOVXIIL[HVLVUD~ QD,WIRUPV SOXUDOVZKLFKFRQVLVWRIWZRVHPDQWLFJURXSV ERG\SDUWVDQGmaterial substantives. The first group is relatively small: DVKW¾HVKWUD~HVKW¬QD‘ERQH’ JLVKW¾JLVKW¬UD~JLVKWQD‘ILQJHUWKXPE’ SLGK¾SLGK¬UD~SLGKQD‘IHPDOHSXGHQGD’ morphology 229 7KH VHFRQG JURXS LQFOXGHV D FRQVLGHUDEOH QXPEHU RI VXEVWDQWLYHV GHQRWLQJYDULRXVPDWHULDOVDQGRWKHUXQFRXQWDEOHV EDU¾EDU¬UD~EDU¬QD‘JUDVV’ ERU¬¾ERU¬UD~ERUQD‘VQRZ’ GMDWK¬¾GMDWK¬UD~GMDWKQD‘FKHHVH’ GULWK¬¾GULWK¬UD~GULWKQD‘JUDLQ’ GKH¾GKHUD~GKHQD‘HDUWKODQG’ GKMDP¬¾GKMDP¬UD~GKMDPQD‘ DQLPDO IDWODUGVXHWWDOORZ’ HOE¾HOE¬UD~HOE¬QD‘EDUOH\’ HU¬¾HU¬UD~HU¬QD‘ZLQG’ IODN¬¾IODN¬UD~IODN¬QD‘IODPH’ IUDT¾IUDTUD~IUDTQD‘ELWLQJFROGIURVW’ IVKDW¾IVKDWUD~IVKDWQD‘YLOODJH’ JUDP¾JUDPUD~JUDPQD‘FRXFKJUDVVNQRWJUDVV’ JMDN¾JMDNUD~JMDNQD‘EORRG’ NULS¬~NU\S¬¾NULS¬UD~NU\SQD‘VDOW’ OHVK¾OHVKUD~OHVKQD‘ZRROIOHHFHKDLU’ P¬QGDIVK¾P¬QGDIVKUD~P¬QGDIVKQD‘VLON’ PLHOO¾PLHOOUD~PLHOOQD‘IORXU’ PLVK¾PLVKUD~PLVKQD‘IOHVKPHDW’ PXW¾PXWUD~PXWQD‘H[FUHPHQW’ SOHK~SOêK¾SOHKUD~SOêKQD‘VZHHSLQJVGXQJUXEELVK’ THOE¾THOEUD~THOEQD‘SXV’ VKL¾VKLUD~VKLQD‘UDLQ’ VKSLUW¾VKSLUW¬UD~VKSLUWQD‘VRXOVSLULW’ VKWDW¾VKWDWUD~VKWDWQD‘ILJXUHLPDJH’ XM¬¾XM¬UD~XMQD‘ZDWHU’ YDM~YRM¾YDMUD~YRMQD‘RLO’ 7KLVPRUSKHPHPLJKWEHGHULYHGIURPDQROGFROOHFWLYHVXIIL[ Q ZKLFK LV DWWHVWHG LQ *N ,RQ$WW KPJ /DW QD /LWK \QD 6ODY LQD 7KXV WKH SOXUDO RI EDU ‘JUDVV’ EDU¬UD ~ EDU¬QD FRXOG EH KLVWRULFDOO\ LGHQWLFDOZLWK/DWIDUQD‘IORXU’GHULYHGIURPIDU‘VRUWRIJUDLQVSHOW’ $QRWKHULPSRUWDQWW\SHRISOXUDOLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHVXIIL[ ¬U ~ ¬Q 7KLV W\SH LQFOXGHV QXPHURXV PDVFXOLQH /DWLQ DQG 6ODYLF ORDQZRUGVGHQRWLQJKXPDQEHLQJV GUHT¾GUHT¬U~GUHT¬Q‘GHYLO’ 230 chapter three NDç¾NHç¬U~NHç¬Q‘ZHDYHU’ NXQDW¾NXQHW¬U~NXQHW¬Q‘EURWKHULQODZ’ ODE¾OHE¬U~OHE¬Q‘/DELQKDELWDQWRI/DEHULD’ PEUHW¾PEUHW¬U~PEUHW¬Q‘NLQJ’ QLS¾QLS¬U~ QLS¬Q‘QHSKHZJUDQGVRQ’ SULQG¾SULQG¬U~SULQG¬Q‘IDWKHUSDUHQW’ 6RPHZKDWUDUHUDUHWKRVHQRXQVRIWKHVDPHVHPDQWLFFDWHJRU\ PRVWRI WKHP—NLQVKLS WHUPV ZKLFK EHORQJHG WR WKH RULJLQDO ,QGR(XURSHDQ OH[LFRQ DW¬¾HW¬U~DW¬QHW¬Q‘IDWKHU’ JM\VK¾JM\VK¬U~JM\VK¬Q‘JUDQGIDWKHU’ Y¬OOD¾Y¬OOH]¬U~Y¬OOD]¬Q‘EURWKHU’ :RUGVRIGLIIHUHQWVHPDQWLFFDWHJRULHVDUHIHZ ULV¾ULV¬U~ULV¬Q‘O\Q[’ VKWUDW¾VKWUHW¬U~VKWUHW¬Q‘EHG OD\HU’ XMN¾XMT¬U~XMT¬Q‘ZROI’ ,W VHHPV WKDW WKH ROGHVW IRUPV RI WKLV NLQG DUH UHSUHVHQWHG E\ WKH ROG NLQVKLSWHUPVLQKHULWHGIURP,QGR(XURSHDQ HYHQWKRXJKLQY¬OODWKLV W\SH RI SOXUDO LV FOHDUO\ VHFRQGDU\ FI EHORZ ,Q WKHVH ZRUGV WKH HQGLQJ ¬U ~ ¬Q VHHPV WR VWHP IURP (3$ LQD ,( LQR *N DWDNKPQX ‘PDGH RI SDS\UXV’ ZWVTKPQX ‘RI FOD\’ /LWK ¢XNVLQDV ‘JROGHQ’ 6ODY Yp¨ÚQÙ ‘HWHUQDO’ 3KRQHWLFDOO\ WKH HQGLQJ ¬U ~ ¬Q FDXVHV XPODXW $ FORVH SDUDOOHO RI WKLV W\SH RI SOXUDO FDQ EH IRXQG EHWZHHQHW¬U~ DW¬QHW¬Q‘IDWKHUV’ (3$ DWLQDDQGWKH6ODYLFUHODWLYH DGMHFWLYH RWÚQÙ‘IDWKHU’VSDWHUQDO’FRUUHVSRQGLQJWR RWÚFÚ‘IDWKHU’ ,QVHYHUDOQRXQVZHILQGSOXUDOVLQLQM ERVKW¾ERVKWLQM‘VSLQGOHD[LVD[OH’ GUDS¬U~GUDS¬Q¾GUDSLQMG¬US¬QM‘VLFNOH’ NRF¾NRFLQM‘ERQHVNXOO’ NULPE~NU\P¾N¬UPLQM‘ZRUP’ SULIW¾SULIWLQM‘SULHVW’ VWDS¾VWDSLQM‘VWLFNVWDII’ morphology 231 $UDUHIRUPRIWKLVSOXUDOVXIIL[LV¬QMHQM O¬P¬ ~ ODP¬ ¾ O¬P¬QM ~ ODP¬QM O¬PHQM ~ ODPHQM ‘WKUHVKLQJ IORRU’ OXP¬¾OXPHQM‘ULYHU’ SODI¾SO¬I¬QM‘ZRROEODQNHWUXJ’ 7KLVVXIIL[FDQEHFRPSDUHGZLWK/DWLQFROOHFWLYHQRXQVLQLQLXPDV ZHOODVZLWK,OO\ULDQLQLXPDWWHVWHGLQSODFHQDPHVFI'HOPLQLXP 7KHUHJXODUSOXUDORIQRXQVZLWKVWHPVHQGLQJLQQKDVQMLQPRGHUQ $OEDQLDQGXHWRWKH/DWH3URWR$OEDQLDQSDODWDOL]DWLRQRI QDL! QL !QM VHH $VDUHVXOWQMKDVEHFRPHDSOXUDOVXIIL[,WFOHDUO\ KDVQRKLVWRULFDOFRQQHFWLRQZLWKLQM EOL~EOî¾EOLQM‘OLQGHQ’ GUDJXD~GUD Q JXH¾GUDJRQM~GUDQJRM‘GUDJRQ’ NDWXD~NDWXH¾NDWRQM‘VWDEOHEDVHPHQWFHOODU’ PL~Pî¾PLQM‘PRXVH’ S¬UUXD~S¬UUXH¾S¬UUHQMS¬UURQM‘EURRN ULYHUEHG’ U¬P¬U~U¬PHQ¾U¬P¬QM‘9DODFKLDQ VKHSKHUG’ WKXD~WKXH¾WKRM~WKRQM‘ ILQJHU QDLO’ 6HYHUDOSOXUDOVXIIL[HVDUHYHU\UDUH,QWZRZRUGVSOXUDOVDUH IRUPHGE\PHDQVRI¬]~ H]~ D] QMHUL¾QMHU¬]‘PDQSHUVRQKXPDQEHLQJ’ Y¬OOD¾Y¬OOH]¬U~Y¬OOD]¬Q‘EURWKHU’ 7KLVVXIIL[FDQEHFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHVXIIL[RIDEVWUDFWD]¬ ,QRQHFDVHSOXUDOLW\LVH[SUHVVHGE\WKHVXIIL[P (3$ PD ,( PR GMDO¬¾GMHPGMHOP‘ER\\RXWK’ 7KH DGMHFWLYDO GHULYDWLYH LQ KDV EHHQ UHDQDO\]HG DV WKH SOXUDO PDUNHULQWKHIROORZLQJFDVH VKSHQG¾VKSH]¬‘IRZO’ 232 chapter three 'HFOHQVLRQ 7KH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ GHFOHQVLRQDO V\VWHP LV UHIOHFWHG LQ WKH PRGHUQ $OEDQLDQ “LQGHILQLWH” GHFOHQVLRQ WKRXJK QRW WKH “definite” GHFOHQVLRQ ZKLFK KDV D GLIIHUHQW RULJLQ $GMHFWLYHV ORVW WKH HQWLUH GHFOHQVLRQDOV\VWHPUHWDLQLQJRQO\WKHRSSRVLWLRQRIVLQJXODUDQGSOXUDO IRUPV LQ2OG$OEDQLDQWKHGHFOHQVLRQRIDGMHFWLYHVFRUUHVSRQGHGWRWKDW RIQRXQV 7KH “LQGHILQLWH”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¡%.( DSXG -2./ ,) ;;;9,, R[\WRQHVLVLQQRPVJRI RVWHPV LQ ¬ 3('(56(1 .= ;;;9, JHQDEO V!JHQGDWVJ VWHPVH REOXLQIOXHQFHGE\ QRP VJ RI WKH “GHILQLWH” GHFOHQVLRQ REO L ,( GDW AL DJUHHVZLWK0(<(5$OE6W,,, -2./,);;;9,, QRPVJRIR VWHPV LQ ¬ DV D JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ RI WKH ROG DFFXVDWLYH LQ RP ! ¬ )HVWVFKU .UHWVFKPHU ]HUR HQGLQJ RI SOXUDO 6.2. $$UE6W ,,, DJUHHVZLWK3('(56(1 GHULYHVYHIURP ÆAPRIXVWHPV &$3,'$1$URP YRFDWLYHLQ%DONDQ5RPDQFH %8%(10) ;;,; 6ODYLF RULJLQV RI WKH $OEDQLDQ YRFDWLYH %$5,Ç +\PMH JHQGDW VJ VWHPV IURP DEO RI VWHPV LQ V ORF SO HVK VAP ,VW JHQGDW VJ H AP YH AP DIWHUDYRZHO 3,6$1,6DJJL IROORZV%ARIÇ +\PMH IROORZV 0(<(5$OE6W,,, +$03.=/;;9 QRPSOH FROOHFWLYH,( 5,=$%86K7;,,, H[SODLQVREOXSKRQHWLFDOO\ NDX‘EXOO’ NDYL NDL 32/.2UELV;,, IROORZV%8%(1 '20,5(6O ;/9 IROORZV %ARIÇ); 6&+0,77%5$1'7 .UDW\ORV ;,, UHFRQVWUXFWV DWKHPDWLF DVDVRXUFHRIDFFVJLQRVWHPV '(61,&.$-$36)LO HQGLQJVRISOXUDO *UVWU QRPSOØ ,( RLQRPSO¬ IURPROGFROOHFWLYHV QRPVJVWHPV =Y VWURM PRUSKRQRORJ\RIREOL X '(0,5$-ǬVKWMH ]HUR HQGLQJRISOXUDO 0RUIKLVW QRPSOLQH ,( V JHQ morphology 233 GDW VJ VWHPV IURP L H YH RLV 92521,1$ *U VWU 2OG $OEDQLDQ GHFOHQVLRQ RI DGMHFWLYHV 0$11 +LVW *U 25(/ 6RY VODY =I%DON ;,; UHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIWKH$OEDQLDQQRPLQDOLQIOH[LRQ RVWHPV ,QWKHVLQJXODUWKH3URWR$OEDQLDQRVWHPQRPLQDWLYHHQGHGLQ D ,( RV,QWKHPDMRULW\RIQRXQVWKLVHQGLQJZDVXQVWUHVVHGDQG WKHUHIRUHLWZDVDOWRJHWKHUORVWLQ$OEDQLDQ QRPVJGHP‘\RXQJEXOO’ (3$ G¢PD ,( GDPRV QRPVJJMDN‘EORRG’ (3$ V¢ND ,( VRáRV QRPVJSODN‘ROGPDQ’ (3$ S H O¢ND ,( S H OiNRV QRP VJ SUXVK ‘HPEHU JORZLQJ FRDO’ (3$ SU·hD ,( SUXVRV QRPVJVKL‘UDLQ’ (3$ VgMD ,( V RV nom. sg. WUDS‘IHUU\’ (3$ WU¢SD ,( WURSRV ,Q D IHZ FDVHV KRZHYHU $OEDQLDQ UHIOHFWV D 3URWR$OEDQLDQ R[\WRQLF VWUHVV ZKLFK SUHVHUYHG WKH HQGLQJ DV ¬ QRW WR EH FRQIXVHG ZLWK WKH SDVVDJHRIVRPHRIROGRVWHPVWRVWHPV nom. sg. EUXP¬‘GRXJK’ (3$ EUXP¢ ,( EKÖPRV nom. sg. EXUU¬‘PDQKXVEDQG’ /3$ EXU¢ *HUPDQLFORDQ ZRUG nom. sg. GMDO¬‘ER\\RXWK’ (3$ GHO¢ ,( GK L ORV nom. sg. JMXP¬‘VOHHS’ (3$ VXSQ¢ ,( VXSQRV nom. sg. OXP¬‘ULYHU’ (3$ OXP¢ ,( OXPRV $OEDQLDQKDVDYRFDWLYHIRUPLQRXVHGERWKE\RDQGVWHPV QHQR ‘RK PRWKHU’ EXUUR ‘RK KXVEDQG’ $ VLPLODU IRUP H[LVWV LQ %DONDQ 5RPDQFHFI5XPIDWR‘RKJLUO’7KLVYRFDWLYHKDVEHHQERUURZHGIURP 6RXWK6ODYLFZKHUHRFKDUDFWHUL]HVWKHYRFDWLYHRIVWHPV GpYR‘RK PDLGHQ’ ÊHQR‘RKZRPDQ’ )RUPVRIWKHDFFXVDWLYHRIRVWHPVFRLQFLGHZLWKWKHQRPLQD WLYH 7KH\ KDG DOUHDG\ EHFRPH LGHQWLFDO LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ ZKHUH WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ HQGLQJ RP PHUJHG ZLWK WKH QRPLQDWLYH RVLQWR (3$ D$FFHQWXDOO\WKHDFFXVDWLYHGLGQRWGLIIHUIURPWKHQRPLQDWLYH 234 chapter three KHQFHWKHVDPHGLVWULEXWLRQRIWKHPRUHIUHTXHQW]HURHQGLQJDQGOHVV IUHTXHQW¬ DFFGHP‘\RXQJEXOO’ (3$ G¢PD ,( GDPRP DFFJMDN‘EORRG’ (3$ V¢ND ,( VRáRP DFFSODN‘ROGPDQ’ (3$ S H O¢ND ,( S H OiNRP DFFSUXVK‘HPEHUJORZLQJFRDO’ (3$ SU·hD ,( SUXVRP DFFVKL‘UDLQ’ (3$ VgMD ,( V RP acc. WUDS‘IHUU\’ (3$ WU¢SD ,( WURSRP 2[\WRQLFIRUPV acc. EUXP¬‘GRXJK’ (3$ EUXP¢ ,( EKÖPRP acc. GMDO¬‘ER\\RXWK’ (3$ GHO¢ ,( GK L ORP acc. JMXP¬‘VOHHS’ (3$ VXSQ¢ ,( VXSQRP acc. OXP¬‘ULYHU’ (3$ OXP¢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“regular” WKHPDWLF RL JHQGDWDEOGHPL‘\RXQJEXOO’ (3$ GDPHL ,( GDPHL JHQGDWDEOJMDNX‘EORRG’ (3$ VDNHL ,( VRáHL JHQGDWDEOSODNX‘ROGPDQ’ (3$ S H ODNHL ,( S H OiNHL JHQGDWDEOSUXVKL‘HPEHUJORZLQJFRDO’ (3$ SUXhHL ,( SUXVHL JHQGDWDEOVKLX‘UDLQ’ (3$ V MHL ,( V HL gen.-dat.-abl. WUDSL‘IHUU\’ (3$ WUDSHL ,( WURSHL morphology 235 ,Q1RUWK*HJWKHUHH[LVWVDVSHFLDOIRUPRIWKHDEODWLYHLQW DEOPRWLW ‘\HDU’ ,WKDVEHHQWUDQVIHUUHGIURPWKH“GHILQLWH” GHFOHQVLRQ ,Q SOXUDO WKH RVWHP QRPLQDWLYH KDV VHYHUDO HQGLQJV H ¬ ]HURDQGD7KHVHHQGLQJVUHIOHFWDQLQWHUDFWLRQRIWZRGLVWLQFW3URWR $OEDQLDQHQGLQJVLQGLIIHUHQWDFFHQWXDOFRQGLWLRQV (3$ AFRQWLQXLQJ ,( AV DQG WKH LQQRYDWLYH (3$ DL FRQWLQXLQJ ,( RL RULJLQDOO\ FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI WKH SURQRPLQDO GHFOHQVLRQ 7KH ILUVW HQGLQJ H FDQ UHIOHFWERWKVWUHVVHG(3$ ADQG DL QRP SO GUDQJMH ‘EDUJHSROH’ (3$ GUDQJA GUDQJDL ,( GKURQJKAV GKURQJKRL QRP SO JDUGKH ‘IHQFH’ (3$ JDUGA JDUGDL ,( ½KRU GKAV ½KRUGKRL QRPSOJMDTH‘EORRG’ (3$ VDNA VDNDL ,( VRáAV VRáRL QRPSOKHOOH‘VSHDUVSLW’ (3$ VNAOA VNAODL ,( VNAOAV VNAORL QRPSOUULPH‘UDLQZRUP’ (3$ ZULPA ZULPDL ,( ÆÖ PAV ÆÖPRL nom.pl. WUHSH ‘IHUU\’ (3$ WUDSA WUDSDL ,( WURSAV WURSRL 8QVWUHVVHG A\LHOGHG¬ QRPSOEULU¬~EULQ¬‘KRUQ’ (3$ EULQA ,( EKÖQAV QRP SO GK¬PE¬ ~ GKDPE¬ ‘WRRWK’ (3$ G]DPEA ,( ½KRPEAV QRPSOGK¬QGXU¬~GKDQGXU¬‘EULGHJURRPVRQLQODZ’ (3$ G]HQUA ,( ½HQiUAV QRPSOHVK¬‘KHGJHKRJ’ (3$ HG]MA ,( H½KAV QRPSOJM\VK¬‘JUDQGIDWKHU’ (3$ V VA ,( V VAV QRPSOWHU¬‘EXOO’ (3$ WDXUA ,( WDXUAV 8QVWUHVVHG DLDSSHDUVDVD]HURHQGLQJ QRPSOJML~JMî‘EUHDVWFKHVW’ (3$ VLQDL ,( VLQRL QRPSOOXJM‘WURXJK’ (3$ OXJDL ,( OXJKRL QRPSOSOHT‘ROGPDQ’ (3$ S H ODNDL ,( S H OiNRL QRPSOXMT‘ZROI’ (3$ Z XONDL ,( ÆâáRL QRP SO YMHK¬UU ‘IDWKHULQODZ’ (3$ VZHVXUDL ,( VÆHXURL 236 chapter three QRPSOGLDO]MHUP‘ILUH’ (3$ GÊHUPDL ,( ÞKHUPRL $VWRWKHHQGLQJDLWUHSODFHGWKHRULJLQDOHQGLQJHLQPDQ\RVWHPV XQGHUWKHLQIOXHQFHRIWKHVWHPV QRPSODUD‘EHDU’ (3$ DU ,( ÖWV QRPSOGHPD‘\RXQJEXOO’ (3$ GDP ,( GDPV QRPSOGHUUD‘SLJ’ (3$ GDUM ,( ½KRUV QRPSON¬UED‘WXEEDUUHO’ (3$ NDUE ,( NRUEKV QRPSONUHSD‘URFN’ (3$ NUHS NUHSV QRPSOWKHSD‘SHDNSRLQW’ (3$ WVDLS ,( RLSV 7KHDERYHGLVWULEXWLRQRIHQGLQJVLVFRUURERUDWHGE\WKHIDFWWKDWERWK XPODXW DQG WKH SDODWDOL]DWLRQ RI YHODUV DUH PXFK PRUH W\SLFDO RI VXEVWDQWLYHVZLWKD]HURSOXUDO IURP/3$ L (3$ DL WKDQRIIRUPV ZLWKRWKHUHQGLQJV 7KHIRUPRIWKHDFFXVDWLYHLQSOXUDOLVLGHQWLFDOZLWKWKDWRIWKH QRPLQDWLYH SOXUDO $FFXVDWLYHV LQ ¬ DQG LQ ]HUR FRLQFLGH ZLWK WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJQRPLQDWLYHV7KHHQGLQJRIWKHRVWHPDFFXVDWLYHSOXUDO RQVORVWLWVILQDOFOXVWHUDQG\LHOGHG(3$ D VWUHVVHGRUXQVWUHVVHG !$OE¬RU]HUR DFFSOEULU¬~EULQ¬‘KRUQ’ (3$ EULQD ,( EKÖQRQV DFF SO GK¬PE¬ ~ GKDPE¬ ‘WRRWK’ (3$ G]DPED ,( ½KRPERQV DFFSOHVK¬‘KHGJHKRJ’ (3$ HG]MD ,( H½KRQV DFFSOWHU¬‘EXOO’ (3$ WDXUD ,( WDXURQV DFF SO YMHK¬UU ‘IDWKHULQODZ’ (3$ VZHVXUD ,( VÆHXURQV DFFSOGLDO]MHUP‘ILUH’ (3$ GÊHUPD ÞKHUPRQV 7KHDERYHSURFHVVOHGWRWKHDQDORJLFDOH[WHQVLRQRIQRPLQDWLYHSOXUDO IRUPDWLRQV LQWR DOO DFFXVDWLYH SOXUDOV $FFXVDWLYHV FRLQFLGHG ZLWK QRPLQDWLYHV UHSURGXFLQJ WKH SKHQRPHQD SKRQHWLFDOO\ MXVWLILHG RQO\ LQ WKHQRPLQDWLYH SDODWDOL]DWLRQRIILQDOYHODUVXPODXW DQGUHSHDWLQJVXFK HQGLQJVRIWKHQRPLQDWLYHDVHDQGD DFFSOGUDQJMH‘EDUJHSROH’IURPQRPSOGUDQJMH DFFSOJDUGKH‘IHQFH’IURPQRPSOJDUGKH morphology 237 DFFSON¬UED‘WXEEDUUHO’IURPQRPSON¬UED DFFSONUHSD‘URFN’IURPQRPSONUHSD acc. pl. WUHSH‘IHUU\’IURPnom. pl. WUHSH DFFSOWKHSD‘SHDNSRLQW’IURPQRPSOWKHSD 7KHJHQLWLYHGDWLYHKDVWZRIRUPDQWVLQWKHSOXUDO2QHRIWKHP LVHZKLFKLVDGLUHFWFRQWLQXDWLRQRIWKHVWUHVVHG,(JHQSO AP 6NW Y¤NP/DWGHXP !(3$ A JHQGDWSOGHPH‘\RXQJEXOO’ (3$ GDPA ,( GDPAP gen.-dat. pl. GMDOH‘ER\\RXWK’ (3$ GHOA ,( GK L OAP JHQGDW SO GK¬PEH ~ GKDPEH ‘WRRWK’ (3$ G]DPEA ,( ½KRPEAP JHQGDWSOJDUGKH‘IHQFH’ (3$ JDUGA ,( ½KRUGKAP JHQGDWSOSUXVKH‘HPEHUJORZLQJFRDO’ (3$ SUXVA ,( SUXVAP JHQGDWSOWKHSH‘SHDNSRLQW’ (3$ WVDLSA ,( RLSAP 7KH RWKHU JHQLWLYHGDWLYH HQGLQJ LV YH ,W LV SUREDEOH WKDW WKLV PRU SKHPH LV IURP WKH ROG XVWHP GHFOHQVLRQ ZKHUH WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ HQGLQJ APIROORZHGWKHDEODXWLQJVWHPIRUPDQW H X ,( ÆAP! (3$ ZA!$OEYH/DWHUYHZDVH[WHQGHGWRWKHRVWHPVZKHUHLW ZDVDPDOJDPDWHGZLWKRULJLQDOH!HYH JHQGDWSOJDUGKHYH‘IHQFH’UHSODFLQJJDUGKH JHQGDWSOKHOOHYH‘VSHDUVSLW’UHSODFLQJKHOOH JHQGDWSOUHQGHYH‘URZ’UHSODFLQJUHQGH JHQGDWSOUULPHYH‘UDLQZRUP’UHSODFLQJUULPH JHQGDWSOWUHSHYH‘IHUU\’UHSODFLQJWUHSH JHQGDWSO]DMHYH‘ULYHUVDQGULYHUEDQN’UHSODFLQJ]DMH 7KHRVWHPDEODWLYHSOXUDOPDUNHULVHVK (3$ DLVX ,( RLVX 6NW H¿X *N QKUK /DW LV 6ODY p[Ù &I WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHV DEOSOGHPHVK‘\RXQJEXOO’ (3$ GDPDLVX ,( GDPRLVX DEOSOGK¬PEHVK~GKDPEHVK‘WRRWK’ (3$ G]DPEDLVX ,( ½KRPERLVX DEOSOJDUGKHVK‘IHQFH’ (3$ JDUGDLVX ,( ½KRUGKRLVX DEOSOKHOOHVK‘VSHDUVSLW’ (3$ VNAODLVX ,( VNAORLVX 238 chapter three DEOSOSUXVKHVK‘HPEHUJORZLQJFRDO’ (3$ SUXhDLVX ,( SUXVRLVX DEOSOWUDSHVK‘IHUU\’ (3$ WUDSDLVX ,( WURSRLVX VWHPV 7KHVWHPQRPLQDWLYHVLQJXODUHQGVLQ¬ (3$ ,( FI6NW¢yY*N$WWZYTC&IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV nom. sg. EDUU¬‘ORDGEXUGHQ’ (3$ EDU ,( EKRU nom. sg. JULP¬‘FUXPEELW’ (3$ JULP ,( ÞÖP nom. sg. KXUE¬ ‘VZDOORZ PRXWKIXO’ (3$ VNXUE ,( VNÖEK nom. sg. NDUS¬‘URFN’ (3$ NDUS ,( NRUS nom. sg. SDO¬‘SDLU IROG’ (3$ SDO ,( SRO nom. sg. ]RUU¬‘JXW’ (3$ GÊUQ ,( ÞUQ 7KH DFFXVDWLYH VLQJXODU RI WKH VWHP GHFOHQVLRQ LV LGHQWLFDO ZLWKLWVFRUUHVSRQGLQJQRPLQDWLYH7KHIRUPJRHVEDFNWR(3$ ,( P 6NW SUL\dP *N $WW ZYTCP 6/DY ÊHQ_ 7KH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOHVLOOXVWUDWHWKLVGHYHORSPHQW acc. sg. NURGK¬‘EHHKLYH’ (3$ NUG ,( NUGP acc. sg. O¬QG¬~ODQG¬‘ZRRGWLPEHUPDWHULDO’ (3$ OHQW ,( OHQWP acc. sg. OO¬U¬~OODQ¬‘IRUHDUPHOO’ (3$ DOHQ ,( ROHQP acc. sg. UUXGK¬‘ZULQNOH’ (3$ UXG] ,( UX½P acc. sg. WROO¬ ‘EDOG VSRW GUXP PHPEUDQH’ (3$ WVO ,( WVOP acc. sg. WKHN¬‘IULQJH’ (3$ WVDN ,( RNP 7KHJHQLWLYHGDWLYHDQGDEODWLYHVLQJXODUVKDUHWKHHQGLQJH ZKLFKFRQWLQXHVWKH,QGR(XURSHDQGDWLYHORFDWLYHHQGLQJ L gen.-dat.-abl. sg. DUH‘ILHOG’ (3$ DUL ,( DUL gen.-dat.-abl. sg. KDOH‘ILVKERQHVSOLQWHU’ (3$ VNDOL ,( VNROL gen.-dat.-abl. sg. PMDOFH‘EHH’ (3$ PHOLWML ,( PHOLWL gen.-dat.-abl. sg. UU\PH‘IORZ RIZDWHU ’ (3$ VU PL ,( VU PL morphology 239 gen.-dat.-abl. sg. YHUH ~ YHQH ‘ZLQH’ (3$ ZDLQL ,( ÆRLQL gen.-dat.-abl. sg. ]RQMH‘ZLIH’ (3$ Z L WhSDWQML ,( ÆL SRWQL 'HSHQGLQJRQWKHSODFHRIVWUHVVLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQ,( V! (3$ RIWKHQRPLQDWLYHSOXUDOFRXOGJLYH¬RUD,QQRXQVRIWKH DFFHQWXDOW\SH$WKHHQGLQJLV¬ QRPSOEDUU¬‘ORDGEXUGHQ’ (3$ EDU ,( EKRUV QRPSOEDWK¬‘EURDGEHDQ’ (3$ EDWV ,( EKDV QRPSOIDU¬‘VHHGVHPHQNLQ’ (3$ VSDU ,( VSRUV QRPSOJU\N¬‘WKURDW’ (3$ JUZN ,( ÞUÆNV QRPSOO¬QG¬~ODQG¬‘ZRRGWLPEHUPDWHULDO’ (3$ OHQW ,( OHQWV QRPSOQ¬P¬~QDP¬‘FXUVH’ (3$ QDP ,( QRPV 1RXQVRIWKHDFFHQWXDOW\SH%KDYHD nom. pl. JULPD‘FUXPEELW’ (3$ JULP ,( ÞÖPV nom. pl. KXUED ‘VZDOORZ PRXWKIXO’ (3$ VNXUE ,( VNÖEKV nom. pl. NDUSD‘URFN’ (3$ NDUS ,( NRUSV nom. pl. NURGKD‘EHHKLYH’ (3$ NUG ,( NUGV QRPSOOHUD‘KHDSRIVWRQHVSHEEOHEDQN’ (3$ ODXUV nom. pl. OO¬UD~OODQD‘IRUHDUPHOO’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¬LVQHWFOHDUO\JRLQJEDFNWR(3$ QDNWHMH ,( QRáW 240 chapter three HHVDQROGLVWHP$WWKHVDPHWLPHWKHUHVWRIWKLVQRXQ’VQRPLQDO SDUDGLJPVKRZVRQO\VWHPWHUPLQDWLRQV 7KH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ R DQG VWHP SDUDGLJPV FDQ EH VXPPDUL]HG DV IROORZV ([DPSOHV ]MDUP ‘ULYHU’ GÊDUPD HVK ‘KHGJHKRJ’ HG]MD NDUS¬ ‘URFN’ NDUS RVWHPV VJ SO QRP GÊDUPD HG]MD GÊDUPDL HG]MA DFF GÊDUPD HG]MD GÊDUPD HG]MD JHQGDW GÊDUPHL HG]MHL GÊDUPA HG]MA DEO GÊDUPHL HG]MHL GÊDUPDLVX HG]MDLVX VWHPV VJ SO QRP NDUS NDUS DFF NDUS NDUS JHQGDW NDUSL DEO NDUSL 3URQRXQV 3URWR$OEDQLDQLQKHULWHGWKHEDVLFSHUVRQDODQGGHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQV RI ,QGR(XURSHDQ $W WKH VDPH WLPH QHZ V\QWDFWLF 3URWR $OEDQLDQVWUXFWXUHVGHYHORSHGZKLFKUHSODFHGWKHLQKHULWHGSRVVHVVLYH SURQRPLQDOV\VWHPDQGFUHDWHGDQHZJUDPPDWLFDOFDWHJRU\RIGHILQLWH LQGHILQLWHSURQRXQV,QVLPLODUFRQGLWLRQVDQHZSDUWRIVSHHFKDUWLFOH ZDVGHYHORSHG /LWHUDWXUH %233 UHIOX VÆRP X‘,’ H½KRP RULJLQVRIDLDMR '2=21 ,WDOR$OEXWK 0(<(5=IURP3K ;,— DIURP/DWDWTXH $OE6W,,, DFFRINXVK :E morphology 241 NXVK ERUURZHG IURP /DW TXLV H LQ PHMH WHMH IURP DEO RI VWHPV X ERUURZHG IURP 5RP HR /DW HJR ‘,’ 3('(56(1 $OE 7H[WH REOLTXH FDVHV RI NXVK )HVWVNU 7KRPVHQ .=;;;9, VJDFFW\ WÆH MRIURP,( V “GHILQLWH” GHFOHQVLRQ SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQV LQWHUURJDWLYHSURQRXQV RULJLQRILP~ HP 3URQ DIURP ,( DX /$3,$1$6W9DULD X ,( VÆH -2./ ,);;;9,, “GHILQLWH” GHFOHQVLRQ ;/,; RULJLQ RI PXD ~ PXH 6SUDFKH ,; GDWQDH ,( QRVAP 6WXGLHQ DIURP/DWDG /.8%$ D IURP ,( DG 0(,//(7 ,GJ -E , RQ NXVK ;+89$1, Ç$%(- %86K7 ;, SDUWLFOH D LQ VJ ,( H R 3,6$1, 6DJJL HQFOLWLF Q¬ DUFKDLF GDW QDH 6&+0,77%5$1'7 .UDW\ORV ;,, GHI DFF VJ JXULQ JXUWRP 0$11 +LVW JU LGHQWLILHVQ¬ZLWK*NGIY-PJ ÇABEJ%86K7 ;9,,, SRVVHVVLYHSURQRXQV 6W, ODFNRIDSKHUHVLVLQVJ SURQRXQV 92521,1$ 0HVKDUL “GHILQLWH” GHFOHQVLRQ 25(/ 6RY VODY 3ULW SRVVHVVLYHSURQRXQV /%;;; 7RFKDULDQ SDUDOOHO WR NXVK +$03 55/ ;;, VLPLODULW\ LQ YRFDOLVPEHWZHHQXDQG+LWWXJJD‘,’ .257/$1'766*/; MR ,( LMRU HM '(0,5$-$( NXVKIURP áXV 3HUVRQDOSURQRXQV $OEDQLDQORVWWKHRULJLQDO,QGR(XURSHDQQRPLQDWLYHIRUPRI WKHVJSHUVRQDOSURQRXQZKDWHYHULWVH[DFWSKRQHWLFVKDSHDFWXDOO\ ZDV FI/DWHJA*NGIY6.WDKDP+LWWXJJD ,WZDVUHSODFHGE\X (3$ VZD ,( VÆRPDUHIOH[LYHSURQRXQ VHHEHORZ :KLOHWKLVX KDVEHHQSUHVHUYHGLQVRPHGLDOHFWVWKHFOLWLFQ¬ LGHQWLFDOZLWK*NPCK PJ UHLQIRUFHVLWLQWKHOLWHUDU\ODQJXDJHDQGPRVWGLDOHFWV XQ¬ ,WDOR $OEDQLDQKDVVXEVWLWXWHGWKHGLPLQXWLYHXWKIRULW 2WKHU IRUPV RI WKH VJ SHUVRQDO SURQRXQ DUH GHULYHG IURP ,( PH 7KH DFFXVDWLYH DQG GDWLYH KDYH PHUJHG DVPXD ~ PXH (3$ PP ZKLFKLVLGHQWLFDOZLWKWKH,QGR(XURSHDQDFFXVDWLYH PP 6NWPP $YPuP23UXVPLHQ6ODYP?7KHFRUUHVSRQGLQJDWRQLFIRUPP¬FRQ WLQXHVXQVWUHVVHG(3$ PPRUWKH,(HQFOLWLF PH 7KHVJDEODWLYHLVPHMH,WLVFOHDUWKDWWKLVIRUPLVUHODWHGWRWKH,QGR (XURSHDQ ORFDWLYH PHL ZKLFK LV DWWHVWHG LQ 6NW PH PD\L +RZHYHU 242 chapter three WKHGHYHORSPHQWRI(3$ MVHHPVWREHSKRQHWLFDOO\LUUHJXODU)LQDOH PXVWEHDQDORJLFDOWRWKHDEODWLYHGHVLQHQFHHRIWKHRVWHPV ,QWKHVJWKHQRPLQDWLYHLVWLFRQWLQXLQJ(3$ W ,( W FI 6NW Wg $Y W *N UW /DW W 2,U W· 2+* G 6ODY W\ DQG RWKHU VLPLODU IRUPV *HJ DWWHVWV DQ DOWHUQDWH IRUP WLQ¬ ZKLFK KDV EHHQ DQDORJLFDOO\IRUPHGLQGXFHGIURPWKHVJXQ¬ 7KHIRUPRIWKHGDWLYHDFFXVDWLYHLV W\ (3$ W X Z ,(DFF WÆP 6NWWYdP$YSZuP23UXVWLHQDQG6ODY W?DWWHVWDQDOWHUQDWH WP 7KHDEODWLYHWHMHLVWREHH[SODLQHGDVDUHVXOWRILQIOXHQFHRIPHMH7KH RULJLQDOIRUPPXVWKDYHEHHQ WHLRU WÆHL 7KHDUFKDLFIRUPRIWKHQRPLQDWLYHSOLVQD (3$ QD ,( QRVFI6NWQDV,WZDVKRZHYHUUHSODFHGE\QHZKLFKUHIOHFWV(3$ QA ,( QAVZKHUHWKHOHQJWKHQHGRJUDGHLVWKHUHVXOWRIDQDORJLFDO SUHVVXUHIURPWKHDFFXVDWLYH7KHDFFXVDWLYHQHUHIOHFWV(3$ QAV ,( QAVFI$YQA6ODY Q\7KHDWRQLFDFFXVDWLYHIRUPQDFRQWLQXHV(3$ QD ,( QRVFIHQFOLWLF6NWQDV7KHDWRQLFDFFXVDWLYHPD\EHFRP SDUHGZLWK23UXVDFFPDQV QRQV 7KHGDWLYHDQGDEODWLYHIRUPVQHYHDQGQHVKDUHUHFHQWIRUPDWLRQVEXLOW XSRQWKHVXEVWDQWLYH’VSDUDGLJPV,Q2OG$OEDQLDQZHILQGDQDUFKDLF GDWLYHQDH QRVAPFI23UXVQRXVRQ6ODY QDVÙ 7KHSOQRPLQDWLYHMXKDVERUURZHGWKHVKRUWYRFDOLVPRIWKH DFFXVDWLYH7KHODWWHU—ERWKWRQLFDQGDWRQLF—LVMX (3$ MXZKLFKLV LGHQWLFDOZLWK/LWKDFFM¸V 7KH VXEVWDQWLYH SDUDGLJP KDV LQIOXHQFHG WKH GDWLYH MXYH$PRUH DUFKDLFIRUPLVX (3$ ZDV ,( ÆRV7KHDEODXWJUDGHLVIURPWKH SURQRPLQDO VWHP ÆHV 7KLV IRUP KDV EHHQ RXVWHG RQ DFFRXQW RI KRPRSKRQ\ ZLWK WKH VJ DQG UHIOH[LYH SURQRXQV 7KH DEODWLYH MXVK KRZHYHUFDQJREDFNGLUHFWO\WR(3$ MXVXDIRUPQHDUO\VXSHULP SRVDEOHXSRQWKH/LWKORFMgVX7KH$OEDQLDQIRUPWKRXJKKDVXQGHU JRQHDQDORJLFDOVKRUWHQLQJRIWKHRULJLQDO 7KH UHIOH[LYH SURQRXQ X XVHG LQ SDUWLFXODU LQ DQDO\WLFDO IRUPV RI WKH PHGLRSDVVLYH JRHV EDFN WR (3$ ZD ,( VÆRP DFF ‘VHOI’ morphology 243 7KHVJSHUVRQDOSURQRXQVD\~ DLDW¬FRQVLVWRIWZRSDUWV SURFOLWLFD (3$ D DQG SURQRXQV SURSHU 7KH IDFW WKDW D ZDV QRW ORVW GXH WR DSKHUHVLVSURYHVWKDWLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQWKLVPRUSKHPHIXQFWLRQHGDVD VHSDUDWH ZRUG +LVWRULFDOO\ LW LV FRQQHFWHG ZLWK WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ SDUWLFOH H R 6NW DV¢X ‘WKDW’ 6ODY RQÙ LG 7KH DFFXVDWLYH DQG DEODWLYH VJ SURQRXQV DSSHDU ZLWKRXW D ZKHQ IROORZLQJ FHUWDLQ SUHSRVLWLRQV 7KH SURQRPLQDO PDVFXOLQH IRUPV FRQWLQXH ,( HL 6NW D\¢P ‘KH’ /DW LV 2/DW HLV 7KH IHPLQLQH VWHP FRQWLQXHV ,( WKH IHPVJRIWKHGHPRQVWUDWLYH R7KHREOLTXHFDVHVFRQWLQXH,( WR DQG R 7KHSDUDGLJPRIWKHSHUVRQFDQEHUHFRQVWUXFWHGDVIROORZV PDVFQHXW IHP QRP D\~ DL (3$ HL L LG DMR (3$ M DFF DW¬~ DWê, DWDˆ (3$ WD DW¬~ DWê, DWDˆ (3$ WP JHQGDW DWLDWLM (3$ WHL DVDMDVDMH (3$ WVMDL DEO DWLDWLM (3$ WHL DVRDFR (3$ WVMV 7KHGSOSDUDGLJPLVGHULYHGIURPWKHSURQRPLQDOVWHPV WR DQG R 7KH RULJLQDO IRUP RI WKH PDVFXOLQH QRPLQDWLYH KDV EHHQ LQIOXHQFHG E\ DFFXVDWLYH 7KH SDUDGLJP LV WR EH UHFRQVWUXFWHG DV IRO ORZV PDVF IHPQHXW QRP DWD>IURPDFF@ DWR (3$ W WV W DFF DWD (3$ WD WRQV DWR (3$ W WV W JHQGDW DW\UH~ DW\QH>RIXQNQRZQRULJLQ@ DEO DVLVKDFLVK (3$ WVM D LVX DVRVKDFRVK (3$ WVMVX 3RVVHVVLYHSURQRXQV (YHU\SRVVHVVLYHSURQRXQLVFRPSRVHGRIDGHPRQVWUDWLYHSUR QRXQDQGDSHUVRQDOSRVVHVVLYHHOHPHQW7KHGSHUVRQSRVVHVVRUIRUPV DUHRSDTXHO\DQDO\WLFDO7KH\FRQVLVWRIDQDUWLFOH GHPRQVWUDWLYHSUR QRXQ FRXSOHGZLWKWKHJHQLWLYHRIWKHSHUVRQDOSURQRXQ7KHSRV VHVVRU IRUPDWLRQV DUH DOVR WKH UHVXOW RI JUDPPDWLFDOL]DWLRQ WKRXJK RI 244 chapter three ROGHUPRUSKRORJLFDOVWUXFWXUHV,QWZRFDVHVROGSRVVHVVLYHSURQRXQV KDYHEHHQSUHVHUYHGLQIRUPDQGIXQFWLRQ ,QRUGHUWRH[SUHVVWKHVJSRVVHVVLYH$OEDQLDQHPSOR\VWKHIROORZLQJ IRUPVVJIRUPV PDVFLP~ HPIHPLPH~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~ PRLHKLFKLV DWWHVWHGLQ/DWPHXV23UXVPDLV6ODY PRMÚ 7KHVJSRVVHVVLYHVKRZVWZRIRUPV PDVF\WDQGIHPMRWH VHFRQGDU\ DQDORJLHV DFFRXQW IRU PDVF MRW DQG IHP \WH 7KHVH FRQ WLQXH(3$ HLLWH HLVLVWHDQG MWH MVWHZKHUH WHLVWKHDWRQLF DFFXVDWLYHRIWKHVJSHUVRQDOSURQRXQ7KHLQLWLDOHOHPHQWRIWKHVHWZR IRUPV DUH ROG GHPRQVWUDWLYH SURQRXQ JHQLWLYHV 7KH UHPDLQLQJ PDVFXOLQHFDVHIRUPVFRLQFLGHGLQW¬QG~ WDQGZKLFKUHIOHFWVWKHDFF WDPWH WRPWH7KHIHPLQLQHDFFXVDWLYHW¬QGH~ WDQGHZLWKLWVVHF RQGDU\HUHIOHFWV WPWH LQERWKFDVHVWKHDXVODXWQDVDOLVSUHVHUYHG EHFDXVHRIWKHXQLYHUEDWLRQ 7KHIHPLQLQHJHQLWLYHGDWLYHDEODWLYHVDWH WVMWHZKLFKRULJLQDOO\ZDVWKHJHQLWLYDOIRUPDWLRQ VWH ,Q FDVH LI WKH SRVVHVVLYH VKRXOG EH LQ WKH SOXUDO WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ IRUPVDUHPDVFWXDQGIHPWXD7KH\IXQFWLRQVLPLODUO\WRPLPLDDQG JREDFNWR(3$ WXZDDYDULDQWRI,( *W H ÆRV, cf. Gk VGQX, Lat WXXV /LWKW¦YDV 7KH SO SRVVHVVLYH SURQRXQV DUH PDVF\Q¬ IHP MRQ¬ FRQ WLQXLQJ HLL QD HLLV QRV DQG M QD V QRV ZLWK QRV UHSUH VHQWLQJWKHDWRQLFIRUPRIWKHDFFXVDWLYHRIWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJSHUVRQDO SURQRXQ,QWKHPDVFXOLQHRWKHUFDVHVPHUJHGLQWRQ¬ (3$ WDQD WRQVQRVZLWKRLQGXFHGE\WKHSDUDGLJPRIIHPLQLQH,QWKHIHPLQLQH DFF WRQ¬ LV D UHJXODU UHIOH[ RI (3$ W QD WP QRV 2WKHU FDVHV morphology 245 JHQLWLYHGDWLYHDQGDEODWLYH KDYHVRQ¬FRQWLQXLQJ(3$ WVMQD L QRV :KHQWKHSRVVHVVHGLVSOXUDOWKHIRUPVDUHPDVFWHQ¬~ WDQ¬DQGIHP WRQD$VWRWRQDZLWKLWVDERUURZHGIURPWKHDGMHFWLYDOSDUDGLJPLWV RULJLQDO IRUP PXVW KDYH EHHQ WRQ¬ (3$ W QD WV QRV 7KH PDVFXOLQHIRUPFRQWLQXHV WDQD WRVQRV&RUUHVSRQGLQJPDVFXOLQH DQGIHPLQLQHDFFXVDWLYHVDUHWDQ¬ (3$ WDQD WRQVQRVDQGWRQ¬ (3$ WQD WVQRV7KHVHIRUPVZHUHWKHQH[WHQGHGWRRWKHUFDVHV 7KHSOSURPRXPDWWHVWVWKHIROORZLQJIRUPV PDVFMXDM~ MXHMMXMLIHPMXDM~ MXHMMXMD*HJMXMLDQGMXMDDUHREYLRXVO\VHFRQGDU\ DQGDUHQRWKLQJEXW“GHILQLWH” IRUPVRIMXHMWUHDWHGDVDGMHFWLYHV7KH RULJLQDOIRUPVMXDM~ MXHMJREDFNWR(3$ LZD HLLÆRVDQG MZD VÆRV7KHILQDOMWKDWUHPDLQVXQH[SODLQHG :KHQWKHSRVVHVVHGLVSOXUDOZHKDYHPDVFWXDM~ WXHMDQGIHPWXDMD~ WXHMD 7KH IHPLQLQH IRUP KDV EHHQ PRGLILHG DV DQ DGMHFWLYH ,Q PDVFXOLQHWKHQRPLQDWLYHJRHVEDFNWR WDZDDQG WZDIURP WRVÆRV DQG WVÆRV 'HPRQVWUDWLYHDQGUHODWLYHSURQRXQV'HILQLWHIRUPV $VLQGLFDWHGEHIRUHGHPRQVWUDWLYHVZLWKSURFOLWLFDDUHXVHG LQ$OEDQLDQDVSHUVRQDOSURQRXQVRIWKHGSHUVRQ7KHVHVDPHIRUPV FDQEHXVHGDVGHPRQVWUDWLYHVRIGLVWDQWGHL[LV)RUSUR[LPDOGHL[LVWKH VDPHVWHPVDUHXVHGEXWSUHFHGHGE\WKHHQFOLWLFN¬ PDVFN\ M IHP NMRN¬MR7KHPRUSKHPHN¬FRQWLQXHV(3$ ND ,( áRFI6NWN¢ ‘ZKR"’*RWKxDVLG ,QWHUURJDWLYHNXVK‘ZKR"’LVDFRPSRXQGRI(3$ NXVDFRQVLVWLQJRI,( áX D PRUSKRQRORJLFDO YDULDQW RI áR DQG WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ GHPRQVWUDWLYH VR 7KH $OEDQLDQ IRUP LV WKXV YHU\ FORVH WR WKDW RI 7RFK$NXVLG%NXVHLG áXVR$FFXVDWLYHYDULDQWVVKRZTXLWH FOHDUO\ WKDW 3URWR$OEDQLDQ SRVVHVVHG WZR SDUDOOHO IRUPV DQ LQWHUUR JDWLYH SURQRXQ SURSHU DQG D V\QWDFWLF FRPSRXQG LQFOXGLQJ D GHPRQ VWUDWLYH2QWKHRQHKDQGZHILQGDFFN¬~ NDˆUHIOHFWLQJLQGHSHQGHQW (3$ NDP ,( áRP2QWKHRWKHUKDQGWKHVDPHPRUSKRORJLFDOUROH LVH[SUHVVHGE\WKHDFFN¬QG~ NDQG (3$ NDQWDQ ,( áRPWRP 7KHVDPHN¬QG~ NDQGIXQFWLRQVDVDQLQGHILQLWHSURQRXQ‘VRPHERG\’ 246 chapter three $OO REOLTXH FDVHV KDYH PHUJHG LQWR RQH IRUP KDYLQJ WKH IROORZLQJ YDULDQWV NXMNXMWNXMQDM2IWKHVHIRUPVNXMWDQGNXMQDMDUHVHFRQGDU\ LQQRYDWLRQV LQIOXHQFHG E\ WKH “GHILQLWH” GHFOHQVLRQ $V WR NXM LWV DXVODXWMDSSHDUVWRJREDFNWRLVRWKDWNXMFDQEHH[SODLQHGIURP NXL NXGL FRQWLQXLQJ ,( áXGKL RU IURP NXL NXHL ,( áXHL VLPLODUWR23UXVTXHL‘ZKHUH’ 7KH SURQRXQ ç ¬ ‘ZKDW"’ LV QRW GHFOLQHG ,W FRQWLQXHV (3$ WhL ,( áLGFI+LWWNXLW*NVK/DWTXLG7KHUHODWLYHLQWHUURJDWLYHVHZKLFK LV XVHG DV D FRQMXQFWLRQ DQG DV DQ LQWHUURJDWLYH SURQRXQ DIWHU FHUWDLQ SUHSRVLWLRQVUHIOHFWV(3$ Wh M A DEO áAG7KHVDPHVWHPLVIRXQG LQVD‘KRZPDQ\’ (3$ Wh H MD DFF áHRP DQGVL‘KRZ’ (3$ WhHL LQVWU áHL %HVLGHV NXVK WKH VDPH VWHP NX áX LV UHIOHFWHG LQ WZR PRUH SURQRPLQDOIRUPV NX‘ZKHUH"’ áXZKLFKLVFORVHWR6NWNgLG$Y N LG0:FZLGDQGNXU‘ZKHQ"’ZKLFKFDQEHFRPSDUHGZLWK/LWK NX¼ ‘ZKHUH"’ DQG $UP RZU LG 7KLV IRUP LV LQ IDFW D FRPSRXQG RI áXDQGDORFDWLYDOSDUWLFOH U Ö 7KH“GHILQLWH”GHFOHQVLRQDOUHDG\H[LVWHGLQLWVIXOO\GHYHORS HG IRUP LQ 2OG $OEDQLDQ ,W HYROYHG RXW RI 3URWR$OEDQLDQ V\QWDFWLF FRQVWUXFWLRQV FRQVLVWLQJ RI QRXQV IROORZHG E\ SRVWSRVLWLRQHG GHPRQ VWUDWLYHSURQRXQV6LPLODUVWUXFWXUHVH[LVWLQVHYHUDOQHLJKERXULQJODQ JXDJHV 5XPDQLDQ 0RGHUQ *UHHN DQG %XOJDULDQ ,W LV FOHDU WKDW “GHILQLWH”GHFOHQVLRQLVDQDUHDOIHDWXUHEXWLWKDVQRWEHHQHVWDEOLVKHG ZKDW ODQJXDJH ZDV WKH FHQWUH RI LWV LUUDGLDWLRQ ,W FDQQRW EH H[FOXGHG WKDW 5XPDQLDQ *UHHN DQG %XOJDULDQ GHYHORSHG “GHILQLWH” GHFOHQVLRQ XQGHUWKH$OEDQLDQLQIOXHQFH,ILQGHHGWKHSKHQRPHQRQRISRVWSRVLWLRQ DO GHPRQVWUDWLYHV ZDV RULJLQDOO\ FKDUDFWHULVWLF RI $OEDQLDQ LW LV UHPDUNDEOHWKDWVLPLODU EXWQRWLGHQWLFDO SURFHVVHVRIXQLYHUEDWLRQRI DGMHFWLYHVDQGGHPRQVWUDWLYHVDUHDWWHVWHGLQ%DOWLFDQG6ODYLF ,QWKHRVWHPVWKH“GHILQLWH”GHFOHQVLRQFDQEHH[SODLQHGLQWKHIROORZ LQJ ZD\ 1RP VJ PDOL ‘WKH PRXQWDLQ’ FRQWLQXHV (3$ PDOD L PRORP LV $FF VJ PDOLQ LV DQ DQDORJLFDO WUDQVIRUPDWLRQ RI PDO¬Q H[SODLQHGIURP(3$ PDODPWD P PRORPWRP,QRWKHUFDVHVZH KDYHPDOLW (3$ PDOHLWHL PROHLWHL6WHPVHQGLQJLQYRZHOVRU YHODUV KDYH L UHSODFHG E\ X D VHFRQGDU\ PRUSKRQRORJLFDOO\ FRQ GLWLRQHG YDULDQW ,Q SOXUDO WKH YRZHO RI WKH HQGLQJ RI WKH QRPLQDWLYH morphology 247 ZDV JHQHUDOL]HG DQG LV QRZ UHSHDWHG WKURXJK WKH ZKROH SDUDGLJP +HQFHQRPSO PDOHWDQGGHVKW¬‘UDPV’JREDFNWR(3$ PDOAWDL PDOAVWRLDQG(3$ GDXVDLWDL GKRXVRLWRL7KH$OEDQLDQ DFFXVD WLYHVFRQWLQXH(3$ PDODWDDQG GDXVDWD PRORQVWRQVDQG GKRX VRQVWRQV2EOLTXHFDVHVKDYHDQREYLRXVO\LQQRYDWHGPDOHYHW ,Q WKH VWHPV WKH QRP VJ KDOD UHSUHVHQWV D FRQWUDFWHG IURP (3$ VNDOM VNRO$VWRWKHDFFVJKDO¬QLWUHIOHFWV(3$ VNDOP W P VNROPWP7KHIRUPRIREOLTXHFDVHVLVKDO¬V (3$ VNDOL WVML VNROLL,QWKHSOXUDOQRPLQDWLYHDQGDFFXVDWLYHKDODWNHHSV WKHROGIRUP(3$ VNDOW VNROVWV2EOLTXHFDVHVDUHSUHVHQWHG E\DQLQQRYDWLRQ—KDODYH W 7KH,QGR(XURSHDQGHPRQVWUDWLYHVZHUHDOVRXVHGLQWKHGHYHORSPHQW RI $OEDQLDQ LVRODWHG DQG OLQNLQJ DUWLFOHV ZKLFK IXQFWLRQ FRUUHVSRQG LQJO\DVGHWHUPLQHUVDQGV\QWDFWLFHOHPHQWVFRRUGLQDWLQJWKHQRXQZLWK LWVDWWULEXWH7KHOLQNLQJDUWLFOHPXVWKDYHEHHQIRUPHGQRWORQJEHIRUH WKHILUVWZULWWHQWH[WVLQ$OEDQLDQDVLQ2OG$OEDQLDQLWHLWKHUPLVVLQJ RUVWLOOIXQFWLRQVDVDQRSWLRQDOHOHPHQW 1XPHUDOV $OEDQLDQQXPHUDOVKDYHFKDQJHGFRQVLGHUDEO\IURPWKHLU,QGR (XURSHDQSUHGHFHVVRUV,PSRUWDQWLQQRYDWLRQVDQGVWUXFWXUDOSULQFLSOHV KDYHEHHQERUURZHGIURPRWKHUODQJXDJHV /LWHUDWXUH %233 LGHQWLILHV SDU¬ ‘ILUVW’ ZLWK SDU¬ ‘EHIRUH’ 0(<(5$OE6W,, :E NDW¬UIURP/DWTXDWWXRU ε{´ QM¬FRPSDUHGZLWK6NWDQ\¢‘RWKHU’*N PKQK‘VRPH’ SDU¬FRPSDUHGZLWKWKH,QGR(XURSHDQZRUGIRU‘ILUVW’ SHV¬ SHQáW 0(<(5/¡%.( ,GJ $Q] ,, RQ VDQGKL LQ GKMHW¬ 3('(56(1 .= ;;;9, G\ ,( GÆAH -2./ ,) ;;;9,, SDU¬WR6NWSgUYDLG 6.2.$$UE6W,, G\ GXL %$5,Ç$56W - QM¬ VHP Ç$%(-=I3KRQHWLN,; ]HWIURP HXJ WUHODWHGWR XJRP‘\RNH’ 6W,,, QRQ,QGR(XURSHDQVRXUFHRI WKH YLJLWHVLPDO V\VWHP -8&482,6 /H 0XV©RQ /;;9,,, QXPHUDOV ‘’‘ ’ FRPSDUHG ZLWK 6DQVNULW FROOHFWLYHV LQ WL 6=(0(5É1<,1XPHUDOV +8/' QM¬DVDEDFNIRUPDWLRQ IURPIHP VPH+ +$03$QF,( IROORZV0(<(5DQGFRQQHFWV QM¬ZLWK0HVVDSHQQDQ 1XPHUDOV 248 chapter three 7KHILUVWWHQFDUGLQDOQXPEHUVFDQEHGLYLGHGLQWRWKUHHJURXSV DFFRUGLQJ WR WKHLU RULJLQ DQG VWUXFWXUH 7KH ILUVW JURXS LQFOXGHV WKH QXPHUDOQM¬‘RQH’,WUHSUHVHQWVWKHDGMHFWLYH(3$ DLQMDGHULYHGIURP WKH ,QGR(XURSHDQ ZRUG IRU ‘RQH’: ,( RLQR LG FI /DW QXV *RWK DLQV23UXVDLQV 7KHVHFRQGJURXSLQFOXGHVWKHQXPEHUVIURP‘WZR’WR‘ILYH’7KH\DUH GLUHFWFRQWLQXDQWVRIWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJ,QGR(XURSHDQQXPHUDOV G\ ‘WZR’ (3$ GXZA WR ,( GÆA X LG 6NW GY¢X $Y GYD *N FWY/DWGXR WUH‘WKUHH’ (3$ WUHMH ,( WUHHVLG 6NWWUD\Då*NVTGK`X/DW WUV NDW¬U‘IRXU’ (3$ NDWXU ,( áHWXU~ áHWÆHULG 6NWFDWYdUD *NVGUUCTGX/DWTXDWWXRU SHV¬~SHlV¬‘ILYH’ (3$ SHQWhH ,( SHQáH‘ILYH’ 6NWS¢±FD*N RGPVG/DWTXQTXH ,QWKHWKLUGJURXSQXPEHUVIURP‘VL[’WR‘WHQ’DUHGHULYHGIURP,QGR (XURSHDQ QXPHUDOV ZLWK D VXIIL[ W¬G¬ WL LQ 7RVN Q¬QW¬ W¬LV UHVWRUHGE\DQDORJ\ZLWKRWKHUIRUPV 7KLVVXIIL[LVVRPHWLPHVFRP SDUHGZLWK6NWWLIRXQGLQYDULRXVGHFDGIRUPDWLRQV JMDVKW¬‘VL[’ (3$ VHNVWLGHULYHGIURP,( V Æ HV‘VL[’ 6NW ¿¢¿*NGE/DWVH[ VKWDW¬ ‘VHYHQ’ (3$ VHSWDWL GHULYHG IURP ,( VHSW LG 6NW VDSW¢*NG RVC/DWVHSWHP WHW¬ ‘HLJKW’ (3$ DNWA WL WR,( RWA‘HLJKW’ 6NWD¿bd$UPRZ *NQMVY Q¬QW¬~QDQG‘QLQH’ (3$ QHXQWLWR,( QHÆLG 6NWQ¢YD/DW QRYHP*RWKQLXQ GKMHW¬‘WHQ’ (3$ GHWV W L ,( GH ‘WHQ’ 6NWG¢yD *N FGMC /DWGHFHP 7KH QXPEHUV IURP ‘HOHYHQ’WR‘QLQHWHHQ’ KDYH WKH IROORZLQJ VWUXFWXUH QM¬PE¬GKMHW¬‘RQHRQWHQ’G\PE¬GKMHW¬‘WZRRQWHQ’DQGVR RQ 7KLV SDWWHUQ LV DQ LQQRYDWLRQ WKDW FDQ EH SODXVLEO\ H[SODLQHG DV D FDOTXH RI WKH FRUUHVSRQGLQJ 6ODYLF H[SUHVVLRQV FI HGLQÙ QD GHV?WH morphology 249 ‘HOHYHQ’ ‘RQHRQWHQ’ GÙYDQDGHV?WH‘WZHOYH’ ‘WZRRQWHQ’DQGVR RQ 'HFDGVDUHSDUWO\FRPSRVHGDFFRUGLQJWRWKHSDWWHUQRIWULGKMHW¬‘WKLUW\’ ‘WKUHHWHQV’SDUWO\ DFFRUGLQJWRWKHSDWWHUQRI QM¬ ]HW‘WZHQW\’ ‘RQH WLPH WZHQW\’ WKH VDPH VWUXFWXUH LV VKDUHG E\ G\]HW ‘IRUW\’ ZLWK ]HW FRQWLQXLQJ(3$ ZG]DWDQGUHSUHVHQWLQJDQROG,QGR(XURSHDQZRUG IRU‘WZHQW\’,( ÆW 6NWYLayDW*NGKMQUK/DWYJLQW :RUGV IRU‘KXQGUHG’DQG‘WKRXVDQG’ ZHUH ERUURZHG IURP /DWLQ TLQG ‘KXQGUHG’Õ/DWFHQWXPLGPLM¬‘WKRXVDQG’Õ/DWPOLDLG 7KHRUGLQDOQXPEHUV—ZLWKWKHH[FHSWLRQRIWKHQXPHUDOSDU¬ ‘ILUVW’—DUHIRUPHGE\WKHDGMHFWLYDOVXIIL[W¬ (3$ WD WRFI G\W¬ ‘VHFRQG’ VKWDW¬ ‘VHYHQWK’ DQG VR RQ 7KH VDPH SDWWHUQ LV ZHOO DWWHVWHGLQ*HUPDQLFDQG%DOWR6ODYLF 2UGLQDO QXPEHU SDU¬ ‘ILUVW’ LV KLVWRULFDOO\ LGHQWLFDO ZLWK DGYHUESUH SRVLWLRQSDU¬SDUD‘EHIRUH’,WFRQWLQXHV(3$ SDUD ,( SHU‘EHIRUH IRUZDUG’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Ç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ommon Germanic-Balto-Slavic (including Germanic-Baltic and Germanic-Slavic) isoglosses with Albanian are fairly numerous. Quite a few of them are connected with wood or objects made of wood. EHUU‘VKHHSJRDW’~21ERUJU‘KRJ’2+*EDUXJEDUXKLG~ 6ODY ERUYÙ‘ERDU’ EOHKXU¬‘SDOH’~2(EOWLG~ 6ODY EOpGÙLG EUXVKWXOO ‘KHDWKHU’ ~26EUXVWLDQ ‘WR VKRRW WR VSURXW’ ~ 6ODY EUÙVWÚ‘VSURXWEXG’ vocabulary 251 GDVK‘UDP’~*PF GWHX]DQ‘ZLOGDQLPDO’ ~/LWKSOGD-VRV‘SDUD GLVH’~6ODY GX[Ù‘EUHDWKVSLULW’ GHUJM‘WROLHGRZQWROD\VLFNWREHLOO’~ *PF WDUJMDQ‘WRWHDU’~ /LWKG®UJLQWL‘WRPRYH’G®UJWL‘WRORVHHQHUJ\WREHFRPHZHDN’ ~6ODY GÚUJDWL‘WRSOXFNWRSXOO’ GUD ~GUDˆ ‘RLOFDNH PHOWHG EXWWHU’ ~ 21 SO GUHJJLDU ‘\HDVW’ ~ 23UXV GUDJLRV ‘\HDVW’ 2/LWK GUDJ^V LG /HWW GLDO GUDG]L ‘VHGLPHQWLQPHOWHGEXWWHU’~6ODY GURÊGÊL‘\HDVW’ GUDQJ‘EDUJHSROHSXQWLQJSROH \RXQJFUHDWXUHFXE’~ 21GUDQJU ‘VWRQH SLOODU’ ~ /LWK GU¢QJD ‘SHUFK SROH’ ~ 6ODY GU_JÙ ~ GU_JD HW‘WKLUVW’~ 2+*LOJL‘KXQJHU’ ~ /LWK ¢ONWL‘WR EH KXQJU\’ ~ 6ODY RONDWLLG IOHW¬‘ZLQJOHDI’~ 2+*OHFNHQ‘WRMXPSWRNLFN’~/LWKOHNL¸O|NWL /DWYOªNW J¬UGKLM‘WRVFUDWFK’~2(JULQGDQ‘WRJULQG’~/LWKJU©QGÊLXJU©VWL ‘WRVFUDSHWRVFUDWFK’ JMHWK ‘IROLDJH JUHHQ OHDYHV’ ~ 2+* TXHVWD ‘WXIW’ 21 NYLVWU ‘EUDQFK’~ 6ODY JYR]GÚ‘ZRRGIRUHVW’ JMXK¬‘WRQJXHODQJXDJH’~21NDOO‘VKRXW’~ /LWKJDËVDV‘HFKR’~ 6ODY JROVÙ‘YRLFH’ KLU‘JUDFHIDYRUPHUF\’~ *RWKVNHLUV‘FOHDU’~ 6ODY h¨LUÙ‘FOHDQ’ KXPE ‘WR OHDYH WR ORVH WR VSRLO WR PLVV WR GURZQ’ ~ *RWK DI VNLXEDQ ‘WR SXVK DZD\ WR UHMHFW’ ~ /LWK VNXPE¸ VN¸EWL ‘WR KXUU\WRKDVWHQ’ N¬VHQ‘WRDFKH RIWKHVWRPDFK WRKDYHJULSLQJSDLQV’~ 21K¢‘WR WRUPHQW’~/LWKNHQNL¸NH±NWL‘WRGDPDJHWRKDUP’ NULS¬ ~NU\S¬‘VDOW’ ~ /LWK NUDXS¸V ‘URXJK’ NUDXSLV ‘VFDE’ /DWY NUD-SLV‘IUDLOEULWWOH’~ 6ODY NUXSD‘JURDWV NURGK¬‘EHHKLYH’~*RWKKURW‘URRI’~ 6ODY NUDGD‘KHDSSLOH’ O¬QG¬ ~ ODQG¬ ‘ZRRG WLPEHU PDWHULDO’ ~ *PF OHQGWA ‘OLQGHQ’ ~ /LWKOHQW£‘ERDUG’~6ODY O_WÙ‘EDVW’ O¬P¬~ODP¬‘WKUHVKLQJIORRUZLQHSUHVV’~ 2+*ODP‘ODPH’~ 6ODY ORPÙ‘EUHDNLQJ FURZEDU EURNHQEUDQFKHV’ OXV‘WRSUD\WRLQYRNHWREHJ’~ 2+*ORFNAQ‘WROXUHWRHQWLFH’~ /LWKO J²WL‘WRDVNWRSUD\’/DWYO¸G]XO¸JW‘WRDVNWRLQYLWH’ PLHOO‘IORXU’~2+*P¬ORLG21PM_OLG~ 6ODY PHOYR‘JUDLQIRU JULQGLQJ’ VKSLK~VKSLI‘WRVODQGHUWRFDOXPQLDWH’~2+*IHKDQ‘WRKDWH’~ /LWKSHLNL¸SH&NWL‘WREODPH’ 252 chapter four VKT\PE‘WRH[WLQJXLVKWRGHVWUR\’~ *RWKDIVNLXEDQ‘WRSXVKEDFN WR UHMHFW’ ~ /LWK VNXPE¸ VN¸EWL ‘WR KXUU\ XS’ ~ 6ODY VNXE_ VNXEDWL‘WRSXOOWRWHDU’ VKWDOE¬U ‘ZRRGHQ VQDUH’ ~ 21 VWROSL ‘EHDP JLUGHU’ /LWK VWXËEDV ‘SRVWSROH’6ODY VWÙOEÙLG VKWDQJ‘KDUG’~21VWLQJD‘WRSXWWRVWLFN’~/LWKVW©QJLXVW©QJWL‘WR EHDEOH’VWL±JWL‘WREHFRPHKDUG’/DWYVWL±JWLG VKWUDS ‘VWDJQDQW JUHHQ RQ SRQGV’ ~ 0+* VWUDI ‘WLJKW’ ~ /LWK SDU VWUDS®QWL‘WRGUDJRQHVHOIEDFN’ ]L‘EODFN’~0+*TXW‘GLUW’2(FZ©DG‘EDG’~ /LWKJ{GD‘VKDPH’ ~ 6ODY JDGÙNÙ‘GLVJXVWLQJ’ JDGÙ‘UHSWLOHZRUP’ The most important and significant group of isoglosses represents the connection of Albanian to Baltic and Slavic. The following are isoglosses attested both in Baltic and Slavic. EDOW¬‘VZDPSPDUVKGLUWHDUWK’~ /LWKE¢OWDV‘ZKLWH’~ 6ODY EROWR ‘VZDPSPDUVK’ EUHGK‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’~/LWKEUHQG¸EU®VWL‘WRZDGHWRIRUG’ 6ODY EUHG_ EUHVWLLG GDQJ¬‘EHOO\’~ /LWKGDQJ£‘WDEOHFORWKFRYHU’/DWYGD±JD‘SXGGOH PDUVKODQG’~ 6ODY G_JD‘DUF’ GLN¬‘GHVLUHOXVW’~/LWKGmNDV‘LGOHHPSW\’~ 6ODY GLNÙ‘ZLOG’ HQG‘WRZHDYH’~/LWKL±GDV‘YHVVHO’/DWYHQGDV‘SDUWRIVOHGJH’~ 6ODY _GD‘ILVKLQJURG’ IODVKN¬W‘VOXJJLVKODPH’~/LWKSO²Nh¨LDV‘IODW’~ 6ODY SORVNÙLG 6ODY SOR[Ù‘IODWEDGHYLOSRRU’ JDPXOH‘KHDS’~ /LWKJ¦PXODV‘EDOHOXPS’~ 6ODY JRPRODLG JUHOO¬‘GHHS SODFH’ ~ /LWK JXUNOmV‘FURS’ 23UXV JXUFOH‘WKURDW’ ~ 6ODY JÙUGORLGFIDOVR ÊHUGOR‘ULYHUEHG RSHQLQJ’ NHW¬U ‘VTXLUUHO GRUPRXVH’ ~ /LWK NXRNDV ‘GDQFH’ UHFRQVWUXFWHG IURP NXRN®Q^ ‘GDQFLQJ SDUW\’ ~ 6ODY VNDNDWL ‘WR MXPS WR VSULQJ’ NROO¬‘FRXJK’~/LWKNRVXOmVLG~ 6ODY NDhOÚLG NUHK~NUHI‘WRFRPE’~/LWKJU{EWL‘WRUDNH’~6ODY JUHE_ JUHEWL ‘WRURZWRUDNH’ ODW¬‘VPDOOD[H’~ /LWKO²SHWDLG23UXVORSWR~ 6ODY ORSDWDLG OHVK~OHVKQD‘ZRROIOHHFHKDLU’ ~ /LWK ODæhNDV‘OHDI’ /DWY ODæhND ‘OHDIRQDOLQHQVWDON VWDON’~6ODY OLVWÙ‘OHDI’ O¬JDW¬‘PDUVK’~ /LWKOL JDVLG~ 6ODY OXÊD‘SRRO’ vocabulary 253 O¬PVK~ODPVK‘EDOO RIZRROWKUHDG JOREH RIHDUWK SRROVSHOOHW’ ~ /DWY OHPHVLV ‘VKDUS HGJH RI WKH SORXJK’ 6ODY OHPHhÚ ‘SORXJKVKDUH’ OO¬QM¬]‘PXGVLOW’~ /LWKVOLQDV‘VDOLYDPXFXVVOLPH’~6ODY VOLQD ‘VDOLYD’ PDN¬ ‘JOXH VFXP VNLQ RQ WKH PLON RU RWKHU OLTXLGV ’ ~ /LWK PDN©QWL ‘WR ZDON WKURXJK D VZDPS’ ~ 6ODY PRNUÙ ‘ZHW’ PRNQ_WL‘WREHFRPHZHW’ QGXONHP‘WRULSHQ’~/LWKWHONL¸WHËNWL‘WRJDWKHUWREULQJWRJHWKHU’ ~ 6ODY WHONWL‘WREHDWWRSRXQG’ SLGK ‘IHPDOH SXGHQGD’ ~ 23UXV SHLVGD ‘ERWWRP’ ~ 6ODY SL]GD ‘IHPDOHSXGHQGD’ SMHUU‘WREHQGWRLQFOLQH’~/LWKSHUL¸SH¼WL‘WRVWULNH’~ 6ODY SÚU_ SHUWL‘WRSUHVV’ UDQJ¬‘KRPHZRUN’~/LWKUDQN£‘KDQG’SDUDQN£‘JDWKHULQJ’UHQN¸ UL±NWL‘WRJDWKHU’~ 6ODY U_ND‘KDQG’ VKTDUU‘PDUWHQ’~/DWYVNDUD‘FXUO\IXU’~ 6ODY VNRUD‘KLGH’ VKWURK¬~VKWURI¬‘NHQQHO’~ /DWYVWUDMD‘VWDOOFRYHUHGZLWKVWUDZ’ 6ODY VWURMÚ‘FRQVWUXFWLRQ’ ]YMHUGK‘WRZHDQ’~/LWKYHUÊL¸YH¼ÊWL‘WRODFHWRWLH’/DWYYU]W ‘WRWXUQ’~ 6ODY YHU]WL‘WRELQG’ Separate Albanian-Germanic isoglosses are rather rare: EDUU¬‘IHWXV’~*PF EDUQDQ‘FKLOG’ ELU‘VRQ’~*RWKEDXU‘VRQ’ GHW ‘VHD’ ~ *PF GWHXSLÈA ‘GHSWK’ 0'X GLHSGH 0/* GSHGH ( GHSWK * IDˆM ‘WR ILOO WR FUDP WR VXUIHLW’ ~ *PF VSDQQMDQ ‘WR WLJKWHQ’ 21VSHQQD KDOO ‘WURXEOH PLVHU\ SOLJKW VRUURZ’ ~ *PF VNDOOD] ‘WKLQ GU\ VKDOORZ’ (VKDOORZ DQG [DOOD] ‘ZHDN WLUHG’ 0+* KHO KHOOHF KHGK‘WRWKURZWRVKRRW’~ 21VNM²WD2+*VFLRfDQLG N¬QDT‘WRSOHDVHWRVDWLVI\’~*RWKJDQDK‘WREHHQRXJK’2+*JL QDKLG ODVKW¬ODVK¬‘ROG HDUO\SUHPDWXUH RIIUXLW ’~*RWKODXV‘HPSW\ ORRVH’ THQJM¬‘EHHKLYH’~*PF [XQDJDQ‘KRQH\’ 21KXQDQJ2(KXQLJ 2+*KRQDJ 254 chapter four T\H‘VXPPLWSHDN’~ *RWKJHQSOKODLQH‘KLOO’ UHQG‘WRUXQWRKXUU\’~*RWKULQQDQ‘WRUXQ’21ULQQDLG VKSHUU ‘WR ZLQ PRQH\ WR JDLQ’ ~ *PF VSDUAMDQ ‘WR OHDYH XQKDUPHGWRNHHS’ 21VSDUD2+*VSDUAQ2(VSDULDQ W\P‘VPRNH’~ *PF ÌXPD]‘EUHDWK’ Lexically, Albanian proves to be particularly close to Baltic. The following isoglosses demonstrate the specifically close Albanian- Baltic relations. DPXOO‘VWDJQDQW RIZDWHU ’~/LWKPXËY^‘VLOWPDUVK’P¸OWL‘WRJHW GLUW\’ EOL~EOî‘OLQGHQ’~ /LWKEOLQG®VEOHQG®V‘6DOL[FDSUHD’ EUH]‘EHOW’~/LWKEULDXQ£‘HGJH’ EX]¬ ‘OLS HQG HGJH EDQN VWLWFK URFN’ ~ /LWK EXG| ‘WUHHIXQJXV WLQGHUZKHWVWRQH’ GDN‘ELJUDP’~/LWKGY|NWL‘WREUHDWKH’GY¦NDV‘EUHDWK’ GUXDM ~ GUXHM ‘WR EH DIUDLG’ ~ /DWY GUXYDV ‘IHDU’ /LWK GUDXGÊL¸ GUDVWL‘WRIRUELGWRGHWHUWRVFDUHRII’ GUXGKH ‘FUXPE’ ~ /LWK GU¸]JDV ‘VSOLQWHU IUDJPHQW’ GU¸ÊWL ‘WR EHFRPHZHDN’ ILN‘WRH[WLQJXLVK RIILUH WREULQJPLVIRUWXQHWRUXLQ’~ /LWKSH&NWL ‘WR GHVSLVH WR VFROG’ SmNWL ‘WR EH DQJU\’ /DWY SHæNW ‘WR EH VSRLOW’ JDQG ‘DFFLGHQW YLFH GHIHFW’ ~ /LWK JD±GDV ‘UXPRU’ JD±GLQWL ‘WR IULJKWHQ’/DWYJD±GêW‘WRVSRLO’ JDUJXOO‘IXOO’~ /LWKJD¼JDODVJDUJ¶ODV‘WKLFNHQLQJNQRWWHGWKUHDG WKUHDG’ JUDY¬ ‘FDYH GHQ ODLU’ ~ /LWK JULRY£ /DWY JUDYD JPU¨DYD ‘UDYLQH SUHFLSLWRXVYDOOH\’23UXVJUDXZXV‘VLGH’ JMLMH‘VWDEOHKRXVH’~/LWKVHQD‘ZDOO’/DWYVLHlQDLG KDO¬‘ILVKERQHVSOLQWHU SLQH’~/LWKVNDO£‘VWLFNRIILUHZRRG’/DWY VNDOD‘VSOLQWHU XVHGWRIXUQLVKOLJKW ’ LN¬M‘WRJRDZD\WRUXQDZD\’~/LWKH&NH&NLLPSHU‘JR’ MHUP ‘GHOLULXP DEVHQWPLQGHGQHVV’ ~ /LWK H¼PDV ‘PRQVWHU’ /DWY ?UPV‘ZRQGHUIXODSSDULWLRQ’?UPL‘ZRQGHUVPLUDFOHV’ NDSWK‘SDWKPRXQWDLQSDWK’~/LWKN¦SDV‘JUDYH’NRS£‘GXQH’/DWY N¦SD‘GXQH’ N¬SXUGK¬‘IXQJXVPXVKURRP’~/LWKNªSXU^‘FDS’/DWYF?SXUHLG NRW‘XVHOHVVYDLQ’~/LWKNRNW¸V‘GLVJXVWLQJ’ vocabulary 255 NUXS‘WRORDWKH’~/LWKNUDXS¸V‘HDVLO\VFDUHG’NUXS¸VLGNUgSWL‘WR VFDUH’ NXOS¬U~NXOS¬Q‘LY\FOHPDWLV’~/LWKN®OSD‘ORRS’/DWYFLËSDLG NXQJXOO‘PDUURZSXPSNLQERWWOH’~/LWKNX±NXODV‘EXEEOH OH SDUWLFOH RI MXVVLYH ~ /LWK OD& SDUWLFOH RI RSWDWLYH DQG SHUPLVVLYH /DWYO£LOHî23UXVODL OHU¬‘GLUWPXG’~/LWKOD-U^‘GLUW\SHUVRQ’ OLO¬ ‘VPDOO LURQ ULQJ ORRSULQJ OLQN’ ~ /LWK OH&ODV ‘WKLQ VXSSOH IOH[LEOH’ ORTH‘SHQLV WHVWLFOHV’~ /LWKOLDXN£‘JODQG’ PDO‘PRXQWDLQ’~ /LWKPDO£‘ODQG’/DWYPDOD‘EDQNVKRUH’ PLV‘OLPEPHPEHU’~/LWKP®NODV‘VXSSOH’PLWU¸VLG PRGKXOO‘YHWFKFKLFNOLQJFKLFNSHD’~/LWKPDʸOLV‘VPDOO’ PXJXOO‘VKRRWEXGVSURXW’~/LWK PXJXODVRQZKLFKPXJXOL·RWL ‘WRPRYH’ PXUJ ‘GDUN JUH\’ ~ /LWK P¢UJDV ‘PXOWLFRORUHG’ PLUJ·RWL ‘WR VSDUNOHWRVKLQH’/DWYPLUJD‘JOHDP’P¸UJV‘IDQWDVWLFLPDJH’ QGHV‘WRKDYHWURXEOHV’~ /LWKG£N\WL‘WRPL[XSWRSXWLQGLVRUGHU’ G£NQ\WLLGG£NDQRWLLG QJU\GK~QJULGK‘WRZRUNXSWRIRPHQWWRIHUPHQW’UHIO‘WREHLQ KHDW RIKRUVHV ’~/LWKJUgÊLXJUgVWL‘WRVWDPSWRSXQFK’/DWY JUûVWLG QJXO‘WRWKUXVWLQWRVWLFNLQ’~ /LWKN¸OWL‘WRWKUHVK’/DWYNXËW‘WR VWULNH’ SHOT‘WRVWLUXS ZDWHU ’ ~ /LWK SHON{WL‘WR EHFRPH PDUVK\’ S©ONH• ‘PDUVKVZDPS’/DWYSHËFH‘SXGGOH’SHOFêW‘WRXULQDWH’ SOLVK‘NLQGRIUHHG3KUDJPLWHVFRPPXQLV’~/LWKSO L h®V‘UHHG’ TDV‘WRDSSURDFK’~ /LWKNH¨L¸N|VWL‘WRVWUHWFK’ TLN¬O‘SRLQWVSLNHSHDN’~ /LWKNNXODV‘OXPSFOXVWHU’/DWYF?NXOV ‘IRUHORFNFOXVWHU’ TXUUD‘VQRWVQLYHO’~ /LWKhOL¸UWL‘WREHFRPHGLUW\’ UUDJ‘DSURQ’~ /LWKVU·RJD‘VNHLQKDQN WXIWKDLUORFN’VUDXJDLG UUHN‘WRVWUDLQWRERWKHU’~ /LWKUHLN£‘QHHGQHFHVVLW\’UHæNWL‘WREH QHFHVVDU\’ UURM‘WROLYHWRVWD\’~ /LWKU²MXU²WL‘WRFRSHWREHUHDG\’ VXUP¬‘GDUNJUH\’~/LWKhL¼PDV‘JUH\’ WHVKD ‘EHORQJLQJV XWHQVLOV WKLQJV’ ~ /LWK WLHVL¸ WLVWL ‘WR PDNH ULJKWWREXLOGWRVHW’WHLV¸V‘ULJKW’ W¬U¬ ~ WDQ¬ ‘ZKROH DOO’ ~ /LWK WY®QWL ‘WR ULVH WR VZHOO RI ZDWHU ’ WY¦QDV‘IORRG’ 256 chapter four WUDVK¬‘WKLFNIDW’~/LWKWUuh¸V‘IDWIHUWLOH RIVRLO ’ WKLUU‘VRRW’~/LWKhL¼YDV‘JUD\’ YHU]¬‘JLOOEUDQFKLD’~/LWKYDUO|‘IURJ’ YDUG|/DWYYUGH ]RUU¬‘JXW’~ /LWKÊDUQ£LG Separate Albanian-Slavic isoglosses are not as frequent as Baltic ones: EDF ‘HOGHU EURWKHU XQFOH’ ~ 6ODY EDW’D EDWMD ‘HOGHU EURWKHU IDWKHU’ EDKH‘VOLQJ’~6ODY ERMÚ‘ILJKW’ EUHGK‘ILUWUHH’~6ODY EUHGÙ‘ZLOORZ’ EUX]‘EOXHLQGLJR’~ 6ODY EUXGÙ‘GLUW’ EUXGÚQÙ‘GLUW\’ GU\GK¬W ‘HDV\ WR SODQH RI ZRRG ’ ~ 6ODY GU\]JDWL GUX]JDWL‘WR VTXHH]HWRFUXVK’ IOH~IOê‘WRVOHHS’~ 6ODY OpM_ OpMDWL‘WRGR]HWRVOXPEHU’ KX~Kû‘SLFNHWVWDNHSROHSHQLV’~6ODY [XMÚ‘SHQLV’ NDOOL‘HDURIJUDLQ’~ 6ODY NROVÙ‘HDURIJUDLQ’ NHGK‘NLG’~ 6ODY NR]D‘VKHJRDW’ NRK¬‘WLPH’~6ODY ¨DVÙLG OR]‘WRPRYHWRVKDNHWRSOD\’~6ODY ODGÙ‘RUGHUSHDFH’ ODGLWL ‘WRPDNHRUGHUWRPDNHSHDFH’ OXJ ‘WURXJK ZDWHUWURXJK ORQJ JXWWHU SLSH’ OXJ¬ ‘VSRRQ’ ~ 6ODY OÙJD‘VSRRQEODGH’ OÙÊLFDLG PDUGK¬‘FKLOOIURVWLFH’~ 6ODY PRU]Ù‘IURVW’ PDUUW¬‘PXUN\FORXG\GLPGXOO’~6ODY PRU[Ù‘GXVNIRJ’ PLU¬‘JRRG’~6ODY PLUÙ‘SHDFH’ QJH‘WLPHOHLVXUHFKDQFHRSSRUWXQLW\’~6ODY JRGÙ‘WLPH\HDU’ QJURK~QJURI‘WRZDUP’~ 6ODY JUpM_ JUpWLLG VKNDUGK¬ ‘GRJ FKDLQ D ORQJ VWLFN DWWDFKHG WR D GRJ’V QHFN WR SUHYHQWLWIURPELWLQJLWVPDVWHU’~ 6ODY MÚ]JRUGD‘IHQFH’ VKWUHS‘PDJJRWODUYD’~ 6ODY VWUXSÙ‘ZRXQGVFDESRLVRQ’ WMHW¬U‘RWKHU’~6ODY HWHUÙ‘VRPHVRPHERG\’ WUDS‘IHUU\’~ 6ODY WURSD‘SDWK’ WUHV‘WRPHOWWRORRVHQWRGLVVROYH’~ 6ODY WUDWM_ WUDWLWL‘WRVSHQG WRZDVWH’ ,VRJORVVHV ZLWK :HVWHUQ ,QGR(XURSHDQ /DQJXDJHV 7KHVH DUH UDWKHU UDUH 6HSDUDWH *HUPDQLF$OEDQLDQ LVRJORVVHV DUH LQ vocabulary 257 IDFWXQNQRZQ7KHUHLVRQO\RQH,WDOR&HOWLF$OEDQLDQLVRJORVV&HOWLF $OEDQLDQLVRJORVVVHVDUHQHDUO\DVUDUH The only isogloss where both Italic and Celtic are engaged is the following: EOHUW¬ ‘JUHHQ’ ~ /DW IOAUXV ‘VKLQLQJ EULJKW’ 2,U EO¢U ‘JUD\’ : EODZULG The following are the known Celtic-Albanian parallels: * E¬UVKê‘MXQLSHU’ HEXUXVD~2,ULEDULG*DXOLVKHEXUR GHP ‘\RXQJ EXOO’ ~ 2,U GDP ‘R[’ SUREDEO\ DOVR Gk FCOCNQX ‘FDOI’ UUD‘EHOO\ZRUP’~ 2,UIULJH‘YHUPLQIOHVKZRUP’ K¬Q¬~ KDQ¬‘PRRQ’~ &HOW NDQGR :FDQQ‘ZKLWH’0%UHWFDQQ ‘IXOOPRRQ’ VKRW¬‘ELJGXFN’~ :KZ\DGLG2&RUQKRHWLG%UHWKRXDWLG YHUU‘DOGHU’%UHWJZHUQLG:JZHUQHQLG0,UIHUQLG FIDOVR $UPJHUDQ‘EHDPWLPEHU’ ,VRJORVVHV ZLWK 6RXWKHDVWHUQ ,QGR(XURSHDQ ODQJXDJHV 7KHVH LVRJORVVHV LOOXVWUDWH WKH LQWHUPHGLDU\ SRVLWLRQ RI $OEDQLDQ EHWZHHQ%DOWR6ODYLFDQGWKHODQJXDJHVRIWKH6RXWKHDVWHUQDUHD0DQ\ RI WKHP OHDYH DQ LPSUHVVLRQ RI EHLQJ VHFRQGDU\ EHWWHU H[SODLQHG E\ ODWHU OLQJXLVWLF FRQWDFWV EHWZHHQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ DQG LQ SDUWLFXODU 3URWR*UHHNSUREDEO\VRPHZKHUHLQWKHQRUWKHUQSDUWRIWKH%DONDQV Isoglosses connecting Albanian with the whole South-Eastern group are very few: QMHUL‘PDQSHUVRQKXPDQEHLQJ’~6NWQ¢U‘PDQ’~ GkCPJTLG~ $UPD\ULG EXWFI/DW1HUA VKTHUUDVKWMHUUDSO‘ODPEV’~6NWVWDUÀå‘EDUUHQFRZ’~$UPVWHUÎ ‘VWHULOHEDUUHQ’~GkUVGK`TCLG Indo-Greek parallels to Albanian are also not very numerous: HQG‘SROOHQ’~6NW¢QGKDV‘KHUE’~ GkCPSQX‘IORZHU’ 258 chapter four IHQG‘WRIDUW’~6NWVSDQGDWH‘WRVKLYHU’~GkUHCFC\Y‘WRVKLYHU WRWUHPEOH’ JMHU‘WLOO’~$YD\DU‘GD\’~ GkJ?TK J?GTK‘HDUO\’ FIDOVR*PF DLUL]‘EHIRUHHUH’ JMHVK‘WRNQHDG’JMHVK‘WRNQHDG’~6NW\¢V\DWL‘WRERLO’~Gk\GY ‘WRERLOWRFRRN’ NROP¬‘SUHWW\ZLQVRPH’~6NWNDO\¢‘KHDOWK\’~ Gk+RPMC NQX ‘EHDXWLIXO’ QGDM~QGDˆM‘WRGLYLGHWRVHSDUDWH’~6NWG¢\DWHLGGdWL‘WRFXWWR GLYLGH’~ GkFCKQOCK‘WRGLYLGH’ YHUU¬ ‘KROH’ ~6NWXU· ‘ZLGH’ Y¢UDV ‘VSDFH ZLGWK’ ~ Gk GW TWX ‘ZLGH’ ]¬~]Dˆ‘WRVHL]HWRJUDVSWRWRXFK’~6NWM\d‘IRUFHSRZHU’M¢\DWL ‘WRZLQWRFRQTXHU’~GkDKJ‘SRZHU’ Greco-Armenian isoglosses with Albanian are as follows: GKL‘VKHJRDW’~$UPD\FLG~ GkCKELG GKXQ¬‘ODERUSDLQVVKDPHGLVJUDFH’~$UPHUNQ‘ODERUSDLQV’~Gk QFWPJLG ¬QG¬UU ~ DQG¬UU ‘GUHDP VOHHS’ ~ $UP DQRZUÎ LG ~ Gk QPGKTQP QPGKTQXLG PH ‘LQVXIILFLHQFH ODFN LQVXIILFLHQW VFDQW\ QRW IXOO’ ~ $UP PDQU ‘VPDOO WKLQ’ ~ Gk OCPW OKMTQP #SCOC`PGX +HV OCPQX ‘WKLQ’ P\N¬‘EDFNHGJH RINQLIH ’~ $UPP[HP‘WRSXWLQWRWRLQVHUW’~ GkOWZQX‘LQQHUPRVWSDUW’ The amount of Greek-Albanian separate isoglosses is surprisingly high, especially if compared with similar Indo-Albanian and Armeno-Albanian lists. This particular proximity can be probably explained by intense secondary contacts of two proto-dialects. DJ‘WZLOLJKWGXVN’~GkCWIJ‘UD\RIOLJKW’ DUU¬ ‘ZDOQXWWUHH ZDOQXW’ ~ *N CTWC VC> *TCMNGYVKMC> MCTWC +HV EDMJ¬‘GXQJ’~GkDQNDKVQP‘FRZGXQJ’ EDWK¬‘EURDGEHDQ’~ GkHCMJ`‘GLVKRIOHQWLOV’HCMQX‘OHQWLO’ E¬M~EDˆM‘WRGRWRPDNH’~GkHCKPY‘WRDSSHDU’ vocabulary 259 ELP¬‘SODQW’~ GkHW`OC‘SODQW’ EOL~EOî‘VWXUJHRQ’~GkDNGPPQXLG çDQG¬U‘SURSVXSSRUW’~GkMGPVTQP‘JRDGVSXU’ GDO‘WRJRRXW’~GkSCNNY‘WREORRP’ ‘WRDSSHDUWRFRPHRXW’ GDUN¬‘VXSSHU’~GkFQTRQPLG GHUL‘WRXSWRWLOO’~GkFGW`TQFGW`TGFGWTK ‘KHUH’ GHUU‘SLJ’~ GkZQK`TQXLG G\OO¬‘ZD[’~GkZWNQX‘MXLFH’ GKDOO¬~GKDOOW¬‘EXWWHUPLON’~GkICNC‘PLON’ HOE‘EDUOH\’~GkCNHK‘NLQGRIJUDLQ’ HUGKDDRU‘FDPH’~ GkGTZQOCK‘WRFRPH’ ¬QG¬~DQG¬‘DSSHWLWHGHVLUHZLVK’~GkCPVCK CPGOQKCPVCX RPQCX+HV IDU¬‘VHHGVHPHQNLQ’~GkURQTC‘VHHG’ JUXD~JUXH‘ZRPDQZLIH’GkITCW`X‘ROGZRPDQ’ KHT ~ KHN ‘WR GUDZ WR SXOO’ ~ Gk QNMGY FDXVDWLYH RI GNMY ‘WR GUDZ’ KXGK¬U‘JDUOLF’~GkUMQTQFQPLG MHW¬ ‘OLIH’ ~ Gk GVGQX ‘true, real’, G VC C NJSJ` C ICSC(Hes.), GVC\Y ‘to test’. NHP‘LQFHQVH’~GkMCRPQX‘VPRNH’ NHT‘EDGHYLO’~GkMCMQX‘EDG’ DQG3KU\JNDNRVLG NU\H‘KHDG’~GkMTC PKQP‘VNXOOKHDG’ OHU¬‘KHDSRIVWRQHVSHEEOHEDQN’~GkNCWTC‘DOOH\SDVVEHWZHHQ URFNV’ OXP¬‘ULYHU’~GkNW`OC‘GLUW’ PMDOF¬‘EHH’~GkOGNKUUCLG PRV‘QRW’~GkOJVG‘DQGQRW’ QGHVK‘WRPHHW’~GkFJY‘WRILQG’ QG\M~QG\HM‘WRPDNHGLUW\WRVRLOWRGLSWRLPPHUVH’~ GkFWY ‘WRVLQNWRFDXVHWRVLQNWRSOXQJHLQ’ S¬USMHW¬ ‘ULVLQJ XSKLOO ULVH VORSH XS’ ~ Gk RTQRGVJX ‘SURPL QHQW’RTQRGVQOCK‘WRIO\IRUZDUGV’ SULVK‘WRGHVWUR\WRVSRLOWRZDVWH’~GkRTKY‘WRVDZ’ SXT‘WRILWWRJHWKHU’~GkRWMC‘WKLFNO\VWURQJO\’RWMPQX‘WKLFN VWURQJ’ UUHM~UUêM‘WRGHFHLYH’~GkCTPGQOCK‘WROLH’ UUXP‘FODSSHU PDL]HFREVWULSSHGRIFRUQV’~GkTCOPQX‘WKRUQ\ EXVK’ UUXVK‘JUDSH’~GkTCELG 260 chapter four WKHN‘WRURDVWWRWRDVW EUHDG ’~ Gk MGIMGK RGKPC`^MCIMQOGPJX EJTC`X VY`^ HQDY^ (Hes.), RQNWMCIMJX ‘burning strongly’ (Hom.). WKHOO¬‘GHHS GDUN RIFRORU ’~GkMQK`NQX‘KROORZ’ XM¬‘ZDWHU’ XGUM~GkWFTKC‘ZDWHUEXFNHW’ The number of Armeno-Albanian separate parallels is insignificant. HUJM¬]‘\RXQJORXVH’~ $UPRUÎLO‘ORXVH’ JMLWK¬‘DOO’~ $UPH]LG ERWKIURP VHP½KR SDK‘VFDEGXVW’~ $UPKRJL‘EUHDWK’ ERWKIURP SRÆR WULP‘KHUR’‘EUDYHFRXUDJHRXV’~ $UPDUP‘\RXQJIUHVKJUHHQ’ Indo-Iranian parallels to Albanian are more numerous. Remarkably, some of them are connected with horse-keeping, horse- breeding and milk products: EDG¬U‘QDUFLVVXVGDIIRGLO’~6NWEK¢VWU‘EHOORZV’ ¬PE¬O~DPE¬O‘VZHHW’~6NWDPO¢‘VRXU’ JMHP‘EULGOH’~ 6NW\¢PDLG JM\VK‘JUDQGIDWKHU’~6NWV ¿d‘SURJHQLWRU’ KLUU¬‘ZKH\’~6NWN¿U¢‘PLON’2VVHWæ[hLULG N¬UU‘GRQNH\DVVIRDO JUD\’~6NWNK¢UD‘GRQNH\’$Y [DUALG 6F\WK [DUD2VVHW[æUæJLG PXW‘H[FUHPHQW’~6NWPXNW¢‘UHOHDVHG’ WUX~WUû‘EUDLQ’~ 6NWW¢UXoD‘\RXQJWHQGHU’$YWDXUXQD‘\RXQJ’ FIDOVRGkVGTJP‘WHQGHU’VGTW CUSGPGXNGRVQP+HV WKDG¬U‘DNLQGRIGRXEOHVLGHGD[H’~ 6NWyDVWU¢‘NQLIHVZRUG’ ]RW‘ORUGPDVWHUJRG’~6NWYLySDWL‘ORUGRIWKHKRXVH’ ,VRJORVVZLWK7RFKDULDQ7KHUHLVRQO\RQHOH[LFDOLVRJORVV OLQNLQJ$OEDQLDQWR7RFKDULDQEXWLWLVYHU\LPSRUWDQW NXVK‘ZKR’~ 7RFK$NXVLG%NXVHLG ERWKIURP áXVR vocabulary 261 6HOHFWHGVHPDQWLFILHOGVLQ$OEDQLDQ 6RPHRIWKHOH[LFDOILHOGVFDQEHRILPSRUWDQFHIRUWKHDQDO\VLVRI WKH3URWR$OEDQLDQFXOWXUHLWVRULJLQDOKRPHODQGDQGHDUOLHVWFRQWDFWV %HORZVHYHUDOVXFKOH[LFDOJURXSVDUHGHVFULEHG /LWHUDWXUH 3,6$1,6DJJLSDVVLP 7$*/,$9,1,6WUDWLILFD]LRQHSDVVLP .LQVKLSWHUPV 7KH HQWLUH V\VWHP RI ,QGR(XURSHDQ NLQVKLS WHUPVZDVFRPSOHWHO\UHVKDSHGLQ3URWR$OEDQLDQ DSSDUHQWO\UHIOHFWLQJ D UDGLFDO VRFLDO FKDQJH 7KH RQO\ UHPDLQLQJ WHUPV NHHSLQJ WKHLU RULJLQDOIXQFWLRQDUHWKRVHRIWKHSDUHQWVLQODZDQGVRQLQODZ YMHK¬UU ‘PRWKHULQODZ’ (3$ VZH[XU ZLWK DVVLPLODWLRQ IURP H[SHFWHG VZHWVXU ,( VÆHU 6NWyYDyUgPRWKHULQODZ’ /DW VRFUXV LG 3UREDEO\ PRUSKRORJLFDOO\ LQIOXHQFHG E\ WKH PDVFXOLQHIRUP YMHK¬UU ‘IDWKHULQODZ’ (3$ VZH[XUD ZLWK DVVLPLODWLRQ ,( VÆHXURVLG 6NWyY¢yXUD‘IDWKHULQODZ’*NGMWTQXLG GK¬QG¬U ~ GKDQG¬U ‘EULGHJURRP VRQLQODZ’ (3$ G]DQUD ,( ½HQiU‘VRQLQODZ’ /DWJHQHU $GDXJKWHULQODZLVVLPSO\GHVFULEHGDV‘QHZ’ HUHMD FIIURPWKLV SRLQWRIYLHZ6ODY QHYpVWD LIUHODWHGWR QHÆ‘QHZ’ 2OGWHUPVIRUSDUHQWVZHUHUHSODFHGZLWKQHZ/DOOZµUWHURIZKLFKWKH ZRUGIRUIDWKHUFDQEHKRZHYHUWUHDWHGDVDQ,QGR(XURSHDQGLDOHFWDO WHUP Q¬Q¬~ QDQ¬‘PRWKHU’D/DOOZRUWRI%DONDQLFRULJLQFI6&UQDQD LG5XPQDQ:LG ¬P¬~ DP¬‘PRWKHU’. DW¬‘IDWKHU’ (3$ DWD +LWWDWWDLG/DWDWWDLG6ODY RWÚFÚLG 7KHROGWHUPIRU‘PRWKHU’ZDVUHWDLQHGEXWFKDQJHGVHPDQWLFDOO\ PRW¬U‘VLVWHU’ (3$ PWHU ,( PWHU‘PRWKHU’ 6NWPW¢U*N OJVJT/DWPWHU 262 chapter four 7KLV FKDQJH ZDV REYLRXVO\ D SDUW RI D VWUXFWXUDO VKLIW LQ WKH NLQVKLS V\VWHPDIIHFWLQJIHPDOHUHODWLYHVLQVRIDUDVWKHRULJLQDO,QGR(XURSHDQ WHUPIRU‘VLVWHU’EHFDPHDJHQHUDOWHUPIRU‘JLUO’LQJHQHUDO YDM]¬ ‘JLUO’ EDVHG RQ YDU¬ (3$ VZHVDU 6NW VY¢VDU $UP R\U/DWVRURU 7KHZRUGIRU‘EURWKHU’ZKLFKUHSODFHG,( EKUWHUPLJKWLQIDFWEHD YHU\ROGDUFKDLVPXVLQJWZRDQFLHQWVRFLDOWHUPV VÆHDQG OHXGK Y¬OOD‘EURWKHU’ (3$ VZHODXGFRPSRVLWHRISURQRPLQDO,( VÆH DQG ODXG ,( OHXGK 2+*OLXW‘SHRSOH’6ODY OMXGÙLG $GGLWLRQDO ZRUGV IRU ‘HOGHU EURWKHU’’XQFOH’‘IDWKHU’ VHHPV WR EH LQQRYDWLYH/DOOZµUWHU DS¬‘HOGHUEURWKHU GDG’ (3$ DS EDF ‘HOGHU EURWKHU XQFOH’ (3$ EDWMD FORVH WR 6ODY EDW’D ~ EDWMD‘HOGHUEURWKHUIDWKHU’ 7HUPVIRU‘VRQ’DQG‘GDXJKWHU’UHSUHVHQWDQ,QGR(XURSHDQORFDOLVP ELU‘VRQ’ (3$ ELUD *RWKEDXU‘VRQ’ ,( EKHUR ELO¬ELM¬‘GDXJKWHU’ (3$ ELU L OGHULYHGIURPELU‘VRQ’ &IDOVRDFORVHO\UHODWHGDQFLHQWZRUGIRU‘FKLOG’DV‘VXFNOLQJ’ GMDO¬ ‘ER\ \RXWK’ (3$ GHOD ,( GKL ‘WR VXFN’ /DWY G?OV ‘VRQ’/DWIOLXVLG 6HFRQG GHJUHH EORRG NLQVKLS ZDV DSSDUHQWO\ LUUHOHYDQW LQ WKH 3URWR $OEDQLDQVRFLDOVWUXFWXUH$OOFRUUHVSRQGLQJWHUPVKDYHEHHQERUURZHG IURP/DWLQ XQJM‘XQFOH’Õ/DWDYXQFXOXV‘PDWHUQDOXQFOH’ HPW¬‘DXQW’Õ/DWDPLWD‘SDWHUQDODXQW’ QLS‘QHSKHZJUDQGVRQ’Õ/DWQRPQHSAV‘JUDQGVRQ’ PEHV¬‘QLHFHJUDQGGDXJKWHU’Õ/DWQHSAWLDLG vocabulary 263 6RFLDO RUJDQL]DWLRQ ,Q 3URWR$OEDQLDQ VRPH EDVLF WHUPV ZHUHSUHVHUYHG WKRXJKZLWKUDGLFDOFKDQJHVLQIXQFWLRQ ZKLFKUHIOHFW D VRFLDO VWUXFWXUH LQ ZKLFK WKH QRWLRQ RI ‘KRXVH’DV‘NLQXQLILHU’LVRI SDUWLFXODULPSRUWDQFH YLVH ‘SODFH’ (3$ ZWVM ,( ÆHL VLPLODU WR *N QKMKC ‘GZHOOLQJKRXVH’ ]RW‘ORUGPDVWHUJRG’ (3$ Z L WVSDWL 6NWYLySDWL‘ORUGRIWKH KRXVH’ ]RQM¬ ‘ODG\’ (3$ Z L WhSDWQM IHPLQLQH IRUPDWLRQ UHODWHG WR ]RW 1RWKLQJ FDQ EH VDLG DERXW WKH SROLWLFDO RUJDQL]DWLRQ RI WKH 3URWR $OEDQLDQV $OO $OEDQLDQ SROLWLFDO WHUPLQRORJ\ LV ERUURZHG PDLQO\ IURP /DWLQ +RZHYHU LPSRUWDQW HOHPHQWV RI $OEDQLDQ YHQGHWWD DQG UHODWHG FRPPRQ ODZ PD\ ZHOO UHIOHFW FHUWDLQ DUFKDLF ,QGR(XURSHDQ SDWWHUQV 7KH OH[LFRQ RI HFRQRPLF H[FKDQJH LQ 3URWR$OEDQLDQ LV HQWLUHO\ VHFRQGDU\%DVLFZRUGVVXFKDV‘WREX\’DQG‘WRVHOO’DUHORDQZRUGVRU QHZO\EXLOWPHWDSKRUV EOHM‘WREX\’Õ5RP DEOHYUH‘WROLIWXSWRUHOLHYH IURP ’ VKHV‘WRVHOO’ (3$ LhDJWMD ,( D½‘WRGULYH’ $OEDQLDQ UHOLJLRXV QRWLRQV DUH KDUGO\ RSHQ WR UHFRQVWUXFWLRQ *HRJUDSKLF WHUPLQRORJ\ 5LYHUV DQG ZDWHU EDVLQV 7KLV VHPDQWLFJURXSLVRIREYLRXVUHOHYDQFHIRUDOOFRQVLGHUDWLRQVUHODWHGWR WKHRULJLQDO3URWR$OEDQLDQKRPHODQG7KHPRVWVWULNLQJIHDWXUHRIWKH JHRJUDSKLF YRFDEXODU\ LV WKH OLPLWHG QXPEHU RI ZRUGV RI ,QGR (XURSHDQRULJLQLQ$OEDQLDQUHODWHGWRVHD DQGVHDIDULQJ 7KLVVHFWRU RIWKHOH[LVDERXQGVLQ5RPDQFHDQG*UHHNORDQV7KHQDPHRIWKHVHD 264 chapter four LWVHOIVHHPVWREH,QGR(XURSHDQEXWUDWKHULWDSSHDUVWREHDFRPPRQ $OEDQR*HUPDQLFLQQRYDWLRQIRUDQ\GHSWK GHW ‘VHD’ (3$ GHXEHWD ‘GHSWK’ ,( GKHXE ‘GHHS’ FI *PF GWHXSLÈA‘GHSWK’!0'XGLHSGH0/*GSHGH(GHSWK 6RIDUZHUHWKH3URWR$OEDQLDQVIURPPDULWLPHLQWHUHVWVWKDWHYHQ DQ ROG *UHHN ORDQZRUG IRU ‘VHD’ KDV FRPSOHWHO\ FKDQJHG LWV PHDQLQJ LQ $OEDQLDQ Õ SHOOJ‘SRQGSRROGHSWK’ *NRGNCIQX‘KLJKVHD’ 2WKHUK\GURQ\PVUHIOHFWDPRUHFRPSOLFDWHGSLFWXUH%HVLGHVWZREDVLF ZRUGVIRU‘ULYHU’DQG‘VWUHDP’ OXP¬‘ULYHU’ (3$ OXPD *NNW`OC‘GLUW’ ,( OHX i ‘GLUW’ UU\P¬ ‘IORZ RI ZDWHU ’ (3$ VU P *N TGW`OC ‘VWUHDP’ 21 VWUDXPULG/LWKVUDXPXR‘IDVWVWUHDP’ $OEDQLDQ VHHPV WR XVH UHODWLYHO\ UHFHQW ORDQZRUGV WR GHVFULEH PRXQWDLQRXV EURRNV UXVKLQJ WKURXJK UDYLQHV RU ODUJHU ULYHUV IDOOLQJ LQWRDVHD+HQFHWKHIROORZLQJERUURZLQJV ODN¬‘GHILO©YDOOH\’Õ*PF ODND]‘EURRNULYHUVZDPS’FI2+* ODKKD2(ODFX S¬UUXD~S¬UUXH‘EURRN ULYHUEHG’Õ6ODY SRURYÙ~ SDURYÙFI 3ROSDU²Z‘UDYLQH’QDPHRIDVRXUFHLQ*UHHFH2QTQ DQX Õ ]DOO‘ULYHUVDQGULYHUEDQN’ (3$ DLJMDOD *NCKIKCNQX‘ULYHU EDQN’ UU¬NH‘VWUHDP RIUDLQ PRXQWDLQEURRN’Õ6ODY UpND‘ULYHU’ 2QWKHRWKHUKDQGZRUGVIRUTXLHWHUFXUUHQWVDQGVRPHWLPHVVWDJQDQW SRROVDUHRI,QGR(XURSHDQRULJLQ E¬UUDN¬‘PXGG\SRROSRQGVZDPS’½ELU¬‘KROH’ KXUGK¬‘SRQGSRRO’ (3$ ZXUG 6ODY YLUÙ‘ZKLUOSRRO’ YDULWL ‘WRFRRN’/LWKY©UGXY®UWLLG OHGK‘PXGDOOXYLXPFOD\ ZDOOHDUWKPRXQG ULYHUPRXWKEDON’ (3$ ODLGD 23UXVOD\GLV‘FOD\’ PDN¬UU‘VWDJQDQWJUHHQRQSRQGV’½PDN¬‘JOXHVFXPVNLQ’ vocabulary 265 DPXOO ‘VWDJQDQW RI ZDWHU ’ (3$ DPXOZD /LWK PXËY^ ‘VLOW PDUVK’P¸OWL‘WRJHWGLUW\’ VKWUDS‘VWDJQDQWJUHHQRQSRQGV’ (3$ VWUDSD 0+*VWUDI‘WLJKW’ /LWKSDUVWUDS®QWL‘WRGUDJRQHVHOIEDFN’ 0DUVKHVZHUHDXVXDOSDUWRIWKHODQGVFDSHWRR EDOW¬‘VZDPSPDUVKGLUWHDUWK’ (3$ EDOW ,( EK²OiWRPLG 6ODY EROWRFI/LWKE¢OWDV‘ZKLWH’ O¬JDW¬ ‘PDUVK’ (3$ OHXJDW ,OO\U GNQP .QW IGQX MCNQO GPQP /LWKOL JDVLG6ODY OXÊD‘SRRO’ YXUJ ‘PDUVK VZDPS’ (3$ ZXUJD *N QTICY ‘WR EH VRDNHG’ Q TIC X‘PDUVKPHDGRZ’ 5LYHUVDVGHVFULEHGDERYHZHUHHDV\WRFURVVE\IRRWDWOHDVWDWIRUGV EUHGK‘WRMXPSWRVSULQJ’ (3$ EUHGD 6ODY EUHG_ EUHVWL‘WR ZDGHWRIRUG’/LWKEUHQG¸EU®VWLLG VKW\U~VKWLU‘WRSXVK WRFURVV DULYHU ’½VKW\M‘WRSXVK’ EXWFIWKHZRUGIRU‘IRUG’RI5RPDQFHRULJLQ YD‘IRUG’Õ/DWYDGXPLG 5LYHUV RI WKH 3URWR$OEDQLDQ KRPHODQG DERXQGHG LQ GDQJHURXV GHHS SODFHVDQGZKLUOSRROV XUHO¬ ‘ZDWHUSLW’ (3$ XUHO 21 U ‘GUL]]OH’ 23UXV ZXUV ‘SRRO’ QJMLUH‘ZKLUOSRRO’½JMHU¬‘EURDGZLGH’ JUHOO¬ ‘GHHS SODFH’ (3$ JULWO /LWK JXUNOmV ‘FURS’ 23UXV JXUFOH ‘WKURDW’ 6ODY JÙUGOR LG FI DOVR ÊHUGOR ‘ULYHUEHG RSHQLQJ’ 7KHEDQNVRIULYHUVZHUHFRYHUHGZLWKIRUHVWV JMD]¬ ‘ULYHUVLGH IRUHVW’ (3$ VHGMD ,( VHG ‘WR VLW WR EH VHWWOHG’FILQSDUWLFXODU6ODY VDGÙ‘JDUGHQJURYH’ *HRJUDSKLFWHUPLQRORJ\ )RUHVWVDQGEXVK,WLVFOHDUWKDW WKH 3URWR$OEDQLDQV ZHUH QRW DFTXDLQWHG ZLWK IRUHVWV 7KH ZRUG IRU 266 chapter four ‘IRUHVW’ZDVERUURZHGIURPD5RPDQFHWHUPIRU‘VZDPS’SUHVXPDEO\ ZKHQWKH3URWR$OEDQLDQVUHDFKHGWKHORZODQGVRIWKH$GULDWLFVKRUH S\OO‘IRUHVW’Õ%DON5RP SDG OHP /DWSDO GHP‘VZDPS’ 2QWKHFRQWUDU\WKHRULJLQDOZRUGIRU‘EXVK’ZDVQRWERUURZHG VKNRUUHW VKNXUUH ‘EXVK’ (3$ VNU GHULYHG IURP VKTHUU ‘WR WHDU’ (3$ VNHUD 6RPH ROG ,QGR(XURSHDQ QDPHV RI WUHHV LQFOXGLQJ EDVLF FRQLIHUV VXUYLYHGLQ$OEDQLDQ DK‘EHHFKWUHH’ (3$ DNVD ,( RVN *NQEWC‘EHHFK’$UPKDÓL ‘DVKWUHH’21DVNULG0DFHGCEQX WNJ EOL~EOî‘OLQGHQ’ (3$ EOLQD /LWKEOLQG®VEOHQG®V‘6DOL[FDSUHD’ EUHGK‘ILUWUHH’ (3$ EUDGD 6ODY EUHGÙ‘ZLOORZ’ GXVKNGUXVKN‘RDN’ (3$ GUXhNDGHULYDWLYHRIGUX‘WUHH’ ,( GUHX ‘WUHH RDN’ &I DOVR OHQG ‘DFRUQ’ (3$ OHQWD ,( OHQW‘OLQVH’ /DWOQVOQWLV2+*OLQVL6ODY O?WMD SLVK¬‘SLQH’ (3$ SVD *NRKVWX/DWSQXV EXWFIDOVRYJMH~ YJMê ‘SLQH’ Õ /DW DELHJQXP ‘UHODWHG WR ILU’ GHULYDWLYH RI DELHWHP‘ILU’ YHUU ‘DOGHU’ (3$ ZHUQD %UHW JZHUQ LG : JZHUQHQ LG 0,U IHUQLG YLGK ‘HOP’ (3$ ZG]D .XUG YL] LG 2( ZF LG DQG ZLWK QDVDOL]DWLRQ/LWKY®QNhQDLG6ODY Y?]ÙLG 7KHDERYHOLVWLVRSSRVHGWRWKHIROORZLQJ/DWLQORDQVZKLFKLQFOXGHD QHZZRUGIRU‘ELUFK’ IUDVK¬U~IUDVK¬Q‘DVKWUHH’Õ/DWIUD[LQXVLG J¬VKWHQM¬‘FKHVWQXW’Õ/DWFDVWDQHDLG P¬VKWHN¬U ~ P¬VKWHN¬Q ‘ELUFK’ Õ /DW PDVWLFLQXV ‘UHODWHG WR WKH PDVWLFWUHH’ SDOQM¬‘PDSOH’Õ5RP SO¢WDQLDGHULYHGIURP/DWSODWDQXV‘SODQH WUHH’ SOHS‘SRSODU’Õ5RP SOASXVPHWDWKHVLVRI/DWSASXOXVLG UUREXOO‘PRXQWDLQSLQH’Õ/DWUAEXU‘RDN’ZLWKDGLVVLPLODWLRQRI VRQRUDQWV vocabulary 267 VKHOJ‘ZLOORZ’Õ/DWVDOL[LG 7KH JHQHUDO LPSUHVVLRQ RI WKLV VHPDQWLF JURXS LV WKDW QHZO\ DFTXLUHG WUHHQDPHVPRVWO\UHIHUWRSODQWVKLVWRULFDOO\ORFDWHGLQPRUHVRXWKHUQ DQGVRXWKHDVWHUQJHRJUDSKLF]RQHV *HRJUDSKLF WHUPLQRORJ\ 0RXQWDLQV ,Q WKLV JURXS EDVLF QRWLRQVDUHRIGLVWLQFWO\3URWR$OEDQLDQRULJLQ JXU‘VWRQHURFN’ (3$ JXUD ,( ÞHUi‘PRXQWDLQ’ 6NWJLU$Y JDLUL/LWKJLUL£‘ZRRG’/DWYG]LULDLG6ODY JRUD‘PRXQWDLQ ZRRG‘ PDO ‘PRXQWDLQ’ (3$ PDOD /LWK PDO£ ‘ODQG’ /DWY PDOD ‘EDQN VKRUH’ +RZHYHUDOOVSHFLILFWHUPVUHODWHGWRWKHPRXQWDLQRXVUHOLHIRUWROLIH LQWKHPRXQWDLQVDUHERUURZHG&IWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV EMHVKN¬ ‘PRXQWDLQ SDVWXUH’ Õ 5RP SDVWLFD EDVHG RQ /DW SDVWXV ‘SDVWXUH’ N¬VK\UH‘PRXQWDLQSDWKSDWKLQWKHUDYLQH’Õ/DWFODXV UDFO V UD ‘ORFNEDUEROW FDVWOHIRUW’ NROLEH‘KXW LQWKHPRXQWDLQV ’Õ6ODY NRO\EDLG UDYJ¬‘SDWK LQPRXQWDLQV ’Õ6ODY URYÙNÙ‘GLWFK’ 6XPPLQJXSWKHGDWDRIZHPD\VD\WKDWWKH3URWR$OEDQLDQV OLYHGLQDVZDPS\DUHDRIVSDUVHO\JURZLQJWUHHVDQGUHODWLYHO\VPDOO ULYHUVEXWGHILQLWHO\QRWLQWKHKLJKPRXQWDLQVRIWKH%DONDQVZLWKWKHLU UDYLQHVDQGYDOOH\V 'RPHVWLFDQLPDOV3URWR$OEDQLDQVZHUHFDWWOHEUHHGHUV7KH FRUUHVSRQGLQJWHUPVDUHZHOOSUHVHUYHG GHP ‘\RXQJ EXOO’ (3$ GDPD 2,U GDP ‘R[’ DQG *N FCOCNQL ‘FDOI’ GKL‘VKHJRDW’ (3$ DLG]LM *NCKELG HGK‘KHJRDW’ (3$ DLG]D *NCKE ‘JRDW’$UPD\FLG NHGK‘NLG’ (3$ NDG]D 6ODY NR]D‘VKHJRDW’ ORS¬‘FRZ’ (3$ OS /DWYOX¶SV‘FDWWOH’ 268 chapter four PMHO‘WRPLON’ (3$ PHOJD *NCOGNIYLG/DWPXOJHALG/LWK P©OÊLXP©OÊWLLG - WHU‘EXOO’ (3$ WDXUD *NVCW`TQXLG/DWWDXUXVLG/LWKWD UDV LG6ODY WXUÙLG YLç‘FDOI’ (3$ ZHWXhDIXUWKHUUHODWHGWR ZHWD!YLW‘\HDU’FI 6NWYDWV¢‘FDOI’ 7KH ERUURZHG QDWXUH RI WKH ZRUGV IRU ‘GRJ’ THQ IURP /DWLQ VKDN¬ IURP,UDQLDQ PD\LQGLFDWHWKDW3URWR$OEDQLDQVZHUHEHWWHUDFTXDLQWHG ZLWKODUJHFDWWOHEUHHGLQJWKDQZLWKWKHFXOWLYDWLQJRIJRDWVDQGVKHHS $W WKH VDPH WLPH $OEDQLDQ VHHPV WR SUHVHUYH D IHZ YHU\ LPSRUWDQW WHUPVFRQQHFWHGZLWKWKHGRPHVWLFDWLRQRIWKHKRUVHHYHQWKRXJKVXFK EDVLFZRUGVDV‘KRUVH’ZHUHERUURZHG NDO¬Õ/DWFDEDOOXVLG JMHP‘EULGOH’ (3$ MDPD 6NW\¢PDLG SHO¬‘PDUH’ (3$ SAXO *NRY`NQX‘IRDO’*RWKIXODLG UUHWK ‘KRRS ULP RI ZKHHO FLUFOH’ GHPLQXWLYH LQ WK RI UDW ‘ZKHHO’ FI 6NW U¢WKD ‘ZDJRQ’ /DW URWD ‘ZKHHO’ 2,U URWK 2+*UDG 3+21(7,&7$%/(6∗ 9RZHOV )URP,QGR(XURSHDQWR3URWR$OEDQLDQ ,QGR(XURSHDQ (DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ D D R D r D iw H UDUH q Ø DIWHUDVWUHVVHGYRZHO H H L L X X ! A A DL DL RL DL HL HL DX DX RX DX HX HX ∗ Not all combinatorial changes are included. For the development of clusters see the main text. Modern Albanian is represented by the Tosk dialect. 270 phonetic tables )URP3URWR$OEDQLDQWRPRGHUQ$OEDQLDQ 7RVN (DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ $OEDQLDQ 7RVN D r H E\XPODXW D w ¬Ø XQVWUHVVHG q ¬ EHIRUHQDVDOV MHLH r H EHIRUH G] WV QG QW PE u H DIWHUFçJMTOU u MD EHIRUH LRIWKHQH[WV\OODEOH H w D MD DIWHUJM u L EHIRUHPVLELODQWRUDIIULFDWH u L GXHWRPRUSKRQRORJLFDOIDFWRUV q ¬ LUUHJXODUO\EHIRUHQDVDOV L L 8 \ EHIRUHDODELDO X X r R w XD EHIRUHUDQGQDVDOV q \H EHIRUHQODQGDIURQWYRZHO r H Aw YH LQDQODXW q XD EHIRUHUDQGQDVDOV L r \ L LQDXVODXW w q L EHIRUHDQGDIWHUODELDOV L EHIRUH MDQG LRIWKHQH[WV\OODEOH DL H HL L r D DXw H E\XPODXW q ¬Ø XQVWUHVVHG HX H phonology 271 6RQRUDQWV )URP,QGR(XURSHDQWR3URWR$OEDQLDQ ,QGR(XURSHDQ (DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ D D LO EHIRUHFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUV L M â 8 XO LU EHIRUHFRQVRQDQWDOFOXVWHUV L M 8 XU M M Æ Z P P Q Q O O U U )URP3URWR$OEDQLDQWRPRGHUQ$OEDQLDQ 7RVN (DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ $OEDQLDQ 7RVN LO LOOL XO XOOX LU LUUL XU XUUX JM DQODXWEHIRUH D H A r M DQODXWEHIRUH X *j w Ø LQODXWDIWHUIURQWYRZHOV q [ LQODXWDIWHUQRQIURQWYRZHOV Y DQODXW *w 8 Ø (inlaut, absorbed by long vowels) P *m 8 PE DXVODXWLUUHJXODUO\ r Q DQODXW Qw U LQODXWDIWHUXQVWUHVVHGYRZHOV q Ø LQODXWDIWHUVWUHVVHGYRZHOV 272 phonetic tables *l O DQODXWDQGFOXVWHUV 8 OO LQODXW r UUU Uw U LQFOXVWHUV q Ø (DXVODXWDIWHU H phonology 273 &RQVRQDQWV )URP,QGR(XURSHDQWR3URWR$OEDQLDQ ,QGR(XURSHDQ (DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ r V DQODXWDQGFOXVWHUV Vw [ EHWZHHQYRZHOV q h DIWHU L X S S E E EK E W W G G GK G N N J J JK J WV 8 Wh EHIRUH X G] ½ 8 GÊ EHIRUH X G] ½K 8 GÊ EHIRUH X N á 8 Wh EHIRUHIURQWYRZHOVDQG M J Þ 8 GÊ EHIRUHIURQWYRZHOVDQG M J ÞK 8 GÊ EHIRUHIURQWYRZHOVDQG M )URP3URWR$OEDQLDQWRPRGHUQ$OEDQLDQ 7RVN (DUO\3URWR$OEDQLDQ $OEDQLDQ 7RVN V JM [ KØ h VK S S 274 phonetic tables E E W W G G 8 GK EHWZHHQYRZHOVDQGDIWHUU N N J J WV WK GK G] 8 GDQODXWLIIROORZHGE\VLELODQWV Wh V GÊ ] ,1'(;2)$/%$1,$1)2506 DFDU DUULM DFLVK DUV\H DFR DUV\HVK¬P DFRVK DVDM DGKXURM DVR DI¬U DVLVK DIW¬ DVRVK DJ DVKN¬ DJMH DVKW DJM¬QRM DVKW¬ DJM¬URM DW DK DWD DL DWê âM DW¬ DMN¬ DW¬Q DN¬ DWL DPE¬O DWLM DP¬ DWR DP¬] DW\QH DPXOO DW\UH DQG¬ DWK¬W DQG¬UU DYXM DQGUUD DYXOO DQ¬ D\ DQ¬PLN DQ¬]¬ EDF DQJ EDG¬U DQJ¬UU EDGK¬U DS EDJ¬P DS¬ EDJ¬WL DU EDKH DUD EDˆM DUE¬Q EDMJ¬ DUE¬U EDNWL DU¬ EDOç¬P DUJ¬VK EDOJ¬ DUL EDOVK¬P DUN EDOW¬ DUP¬ EDOO¬ DUPLN EDOOXQJ¬ DUQRM EDQ¬ DUTLW¬ EDU DUU¬ EDUGK¬ DUU¬]¬ EDU¬QD 276 index of albanian forms EDU¬UD EMHU ¬ EDUL EMHUU EDUN EMHVKN¬ EDUN¬ EODW¬ EDUP¬ EOHKXU¬ EDUTH EOHM EDUXN¬ EOHU¬ EDUU¬ EOHUW¬ EDVKN¬ EOHW¬ EDWK¬ EOL EH EOî EHNRM EOLQM EHOE¬ EOLVKW¬ EHUN EORU¬ EHURQM¬ EORYD EHUU EOR]¬ EHUUD EOXDM EHVD EOXHM EHV¬ ERKHW E¬M ERM E¬UUDN¬ EROOH E¬U¬ EROO¬ E¬UVKê ERQ E¬UWDV ERU¬ E¬UWHW ERU¬UD E¬UU\O ERULJ¬ ELH ERUQD ERUUD ELJ¬ ERVKW ELM ERVKWLQM ELM¬ ERWD ELM¬] ERW¬ ELO¬ ERYD ELORQM¬ EUDP ELP¬ EUHGK ELQG ELQGD EUHJ ELU EUHJMH ELUD EUHM ELU¬ EUêM ELUT EUHMWD ELUWK EUHN¬ ELUWKD EUHQ ELVK¬ EUHQGD ELVKW EUHQJ¬ ELVKWDM¬ EUHVK¬Q ELVN EUHVK¬U index of albanian forms 277 EUHVKN¬ FHPW¬ EUHVKW¬ F¬ULM EUHWN F¬ULO EUH] F¬ULWD EUL FHUN EUî FHUND EULJMH FHUP¬ EULP¬ FLW¬ EULQ¬ FXE EULQM FXS EULU¬ FXUU EULUWK FXUUD EULUWK¬ EULVN çDM EURGKD çDO¬ EUXP¬ çDQG¬U EUXVKWXOO FDUH EUXVKWXOOD çDUV EUX] çDUWD EU\GK ç¬ EU\P¬ çHO EXDM çHOD EXDOO çHP EXçDV çHUGKH EXHM çLPN¬ EXHOO çMHUU EXM çPRM EûM çRM EXMN EXMWD GDF EûMWD GDFD EXN¬ GDGDQ EXN¬O GDM EXNXU GDN EXOE¬U GDO EXO¬ EXON GDOW¬ EXOORJ GDP EXQJ GDQJ¬ EXQJD GDUND EXUGK¬ GDUN¬ EXUU¬ GDUVP¬ EXVK GDVP¬ EXVKW¬U GDVK EXW EXW¬ GDYD EX]¬ G¬IWRM 278 index of albanian forms GHJ¬ GLVKN¬ GHK GLVKW¬ GHM GLW GHO GLWD GHOO GLW¬ GHP GLW¬]L GHPD GMDO¬ GHPHVK GHPL GMDOO GHQG GMDWK¬ GHQM¬ GMDWK¬UD GHUGK GMDWKQD GHU¬ GMDWKW¬ GHUJM GMH GHUL GMHJ GHUN GHUU GMHJ¬ GHUUD GMHO GHVK GMHOP GHVKD GMHOP¬] GHVKW¬ GMHP GHW GMHUU GHW\U¬ GMHUV¬ G¬NRM GRJMD G¬OLU GROD G¬OLURM GROL G¬OO¬QM¬ GRUD G¬OOLQM¬ GRU¬ G¬P GRU¬]DQ¬ G¬US¬QM GRUJMD G¬UUDV¬ GRV¬ G¬VKLURM GUD G¬VKPRM GUâ GL GUDJRQM GLHM GUDJXD GLHOO GUDQJ GLJMD GUDQJMH GLJMQL GUDQJRM GLKDV GUD Q JXH GLN¬ GUDS¬Q GLOMD GUDS¬U GLOQL GUDSLQM GLP¬Q GUH GLP¬U GUê GLPQD GUHGK GLPUD GUHGKDOHVK GLUT GUHJ¬ index of albanian forms 279 GUHMW¬ GKDOO¬ GUHN¬ GKDOOW¬ GUHT GKDPE GUHT¬Q GKDPEH GUHT¬U GKDPEHVK GU¬QM¬ GKDPE¬ GULQM¬ GKDP¬ GULWD GKDQG¬U GULW¬ GKDQGXU¬ GULWK¬ GKDQ¬ GULWK¬UD GKDVK¬ GULWKQD GKDW¬ GUL]¬ GKH GURGKD GKHPE GURH GKHPED GURMWD GKHQD GURPF¬ GKHUD GURYD GKH] GUX GK¬PE GUû GK¬PEH GUXDM GK¬PEHVK GUXDMWD GK¬PE¬ GUXGKH GK¬QG¬U GUXHM GK¬QGXU¬ GUXVKN GK¬QH GU\GK¬W GK¬Q¬ GU\VKN GKL GXD GKLU¬ GXDM GKMDP¬ GXDO GKMDP¬UD GXDU GKMDPQD GXH GKMHV GXHM GKMHW¬ GXHU GKMHYD GXURM GKXQ¬ GXVKN GKXURM GXVKTH G\ HF G\HU HF¬M G\OO¬ HFL G\PE¬GKMHW¬ HGK G\QG HJM¬OO G\QGD HJM¬U G\W¬ HK G\]HW HKXM HKXOO GKD HMD 280 index of albanian forms êM¬ IDMNXH HOE IDP¬ HOE¬QD IDPXOO HOE¬UD IDTH HP IDU¬ HPH IDUN¬ HP¬Q IDW HP¬U IDWR HPQD IH HPUD I¬MHM HPW¬ IHO¬ HQG IHP¬Q HQJM¬OO IHP¬U HQM¬ I¬PLM¬ HUGKD IHQG HU¬ IHQGD HU¬QD I¬QG\HO HU¬UD I¬UJRM HUJM¬] I¬UNRM HUU IHUU HV¬OO IHUU¬ HVK I¬QG\HOO HVK¬ ILDOH HVKNH ILN HVKWD ILND HVKW¬ ILVKNHP HVKW¬QD IMDO¬ HVKWQD IMHWD HVKWUD IODN HW IODN¬ HW¬Q IODN¬QD HW¬U IODN¬UD HWKH IODV IODVKN¬W ¬M IOH ¬PE¬O IOê ¬P¬ IOHJ¬ ¬QG¬ IOHW ¬QG¬UU IOHW¬ ¬QGUUD IOL ¬VKW¬ IOî IORN IDM IOXJ¬ IâM IOXWXURM IDMH IRUW¬ IDMNRQM ITLQM¬ IDMNXD IUDT index of albanian forms 281 IUDTQD JDUGKH IUDTUD JDUGKHVK IUDVK¬Q JDUGK¬ IUDVK¬U JDU¬ IUH JDUJXOO IUê JDUULV IUXHU JDVKW¬ IU\HM JDW¬ IU\M JDWRYD IU\W JDWXDM IVKâM JDWXHM IVKDQD JD] IVKDW JGKH IVKDWQD JGKê IVKDWUD JGKHQG IVKHK JGKLM IVKHKD JGKîM IVKLN¬ JGKLQD IWRI JGKLYD IWRK JHU IWXD JHUD IWXH J¬OED]¬ IXQG J¬ORM IXTL J¬ORYD IXTLVK¬P J¬UçDN IXUN¬ J¬UGKLM IXUU J¬UKDV IXUU¬ J¬UMHS¬ IXUULN J¬UPDGK¬ IXUULT J¬UUHV¬ IXV J¬UU\HM IXVK¬ J¬UVKDQ¬ I\HOO J¬UVKDV I\OO J¬UVK¬U¬ I\VKNHP J¬VKWDOO¬ I\W J¬VKWHQM¬ I\W\U¬ J¬WKHS JLVKW JDERQM¬ JLVKW¬UD JDMJ¬ JLVKWQD JDN JODW¬ JDODPVK JOHGK¬ JDPXOH JOHS¬ JDQG JO¬PE JDUEH JORT JDUE¬ JOXK¬ JDUGK JREHOO¬ 282 index of albanian forms JRGDV JU\N¬ JRM¬ JXDM JRM¬OLGKQL JXDOO JRP¬ JXOçRM JRUULF¬ JXOWRM JRV¬ JXQ¬ JUD JXQ¬GKLU¬ JUDED JXU JUDE¬ JXU¬ JUDELV JXUWK JUDI JXUWKD JUDK JXV JUDP JXVKW JUDPQD JXW¬ JUDPUD JUDWK JMâ JUDWK¬ JMDK JUDY¬ JMDM JUHK JMDMWD JUHKXOO JMDN JUHN JMDNQD JUHOOD JMDNUD JUHOO¬ JMDNX JUHQ]¬ JMDOO¬ JUHS JMDOP JUHUD JMDOS¬ JUHUD] JMDQD JUHU¬ JMDQG¬U JUHU¬] JMDQ¬ JU¬P¬UDW¬ JMDTH JULIVK¬ JMDUS¬Q JULJM JMDUS¬U JULK JMDVKW¬ JULM JMDW¬ JUîM JMDYD JULOO JMD]¬ JULPD JMHGK JULP¬ JMHM JULVK JMêM JULVKD JMHO JURVK¬ JMHOE¬Q JUXD JMHOE¬U JUXH JMHOO¬ JUXQ¬ JMHOO¬] JUXU¬ JMHP JUXVKW JMHPE JU\ND JMHQ index of albanian forms 283 JMHU KDO¬ JMHUE JMHUED KDO¬Q JMHUGKH KDOO JMHU¬ KDOWK JMHVK KDOWKD JMHVKD KDPXOO JMHVKW¬U KDQ¬ JMHWD KDQ¬]¬ JMHWK KDQJUD JMH]GLV KDS JM¬ KDUDEHO JM¬PRM KDUN JM¬QG¬U KDUP L JM¬U KDUP¬VKRU JM¬UD KDUPRM JML KDUU JMî KDUURM JMLGK¬ KDUURN JMLQGH KH JMLQRQM Kê JMLWK¬ KHGK JMROO¬ KHMH JMRYD KHN JMX KHOP JMû KHOT JMXDM KHOO JMXHM KHOOH JMXK¬ KHOOHVK JMXP¬ KHT JMXUP¬ KHUGKH JMXYHQJ¬ KHU¬ JM\NRM KHUPRM JM\P ¬ V¬ KHVKW¬ JM\PW\U¬ KHWRM JM\VDPL K¬ JM\V¬ K¬Q¬ JM\VP¬ KL JM\VK Kî JM\VK¬ KLGKHP JM\VK¬Q KLGK¬W JM\VK¬U KLMH KLN¬UU KD KLPH KDN¬ KLQJ¬O KDOD KLS ¬M KDODYH W KLU 284 index of albanian forms KLUU¬ LVKLQ KLV¬OO LVKLW KîV¬OO LVKQ¬ KLV¬OOD LVKWH KîV¬OOD LVKXOO KLWDV LWK KRGKD KRMH MDN KRND MDP KRTD MDQ¬ KRUU MDS KX MDUJ¬ KXl MDVKW¬ KXDM MDY¬ KXDOO MH KXGK¬U MHP KXGKUD MHPL KXHM MHQ¬ KXHOO MHQL KXPE MHUP KXPED MHV KXQM MHVK KXUED MHVK¬ KXUE¬ MHVK¬P KXUGK¬ MHVK¬W¬ KXW MHWD K\HM MHW¬ K\M MHW¬U K\lM MRQ¬ K\OO MRVK K\SL MRWH K\UD MX MXDM LM¬ MXHM LM¬] MXMD LN MXML LN¬M MXVK LN¬QD MXYH LP LPH ND LPW¬ Nâ LU¬ NDELVKW LULT NDFDGUH LVK NDFDGUê LVKD NDFDJMHO LVK¬ NDFDPLW LVKLP NDFDUURM index of albanian forms 285 NDFDUUXP NDUNDV NDç NDUPD NDçHO NDUP¬ NDçLOH NDUSD NDçXE¬ NDUS¬ NDçXOH NDUUDELVKW NDIVK¬ NDUUDYHVK NDIVKRM NDUU¬ NDODPDQ NDUULJ¬ NDODPHQG NDUUXS NDODTDI¬ NDUUXW¬ NDODYHVK NDVKLOH NDOE NDVKQMHW NDOHVK NDVKW¬ NDO¬ NDW¬U NDOLKXP NDWRQM NDOLKXPE NDWXD NDOLYDUH NDWXH NDOW¬U NHç¬Q NDOO NHç¬U NDOOD NHGK NDOOL NHGKD NDOORM NHGK¬ NDP NHP NDPE¬ NHS NDQG NHT NDQGHOO¬ NHW¬U NDQG¬ NH]¬ NDQG¬UU N¬ NDQJ¬ N¬OERTH NDQJMHO N¬OTHUH NDQS N¬OWKDV NDQXVK¬ N¬O\VK NDS N¬OODV NDSD N¬PE¬ NDSH N¬PERQ¬ NDS¬ N¬PERU¬ NDSL N¬QDT NDSRQM N¬QG NDSURM N¬QG¬ NDSUXDOO N¬QGHOO¬ NDSUXHOO N¬QGRIVKD NDSWK N¬QGRM NDSWKD N¬QJ¬ NDSXD N¬SXUGK¬ NDSXH N¬SXV NDUDYHO¬ N¬SXWD 286 index of albanian forms N¬T\U NROPH N¬UED NROP¬ N¬UELVKW NROO¬ N¬UF NRSVKW N¬UFDV NRUE N¬UFHM NRUEXOO N¬UFHYD NRUEXOOD N¬UNRM NRUGK N¬UNRMD NRUGK¬ N¬UNRMP¬ NRU¬ N¬UNRMQ¬ NRUU N¬UNRQ NRV N¬UNRQL NRW N¬UOHVK NUDK N¬UP¬ NUDKLQ¬ N¬UPLOO NUDKLV N¬UPLQM NUDQG N¬US NUDQGH N¬UU NUDQWK N¬UUD NUDQWKD N¬UUDE¬ NUHGK N¬UUO¬ NUHI N¬UUXW¬ NUHID N¬UVK¬QGHOOD NUHK N¬UW\O NUHKD N¬UYHVKHP NUHM N¬VHQ NUHN¬ N¬VKLOO NUHO N¬VKLOOD NUHQ¬ N¬VKWDOO¬ NUHS N¬VKW¬Q NUHSD N¬VKW¬U NUHSXOO N¬VKWMHOO¬ NUHU¬ N¬VK\UH NUHVKN¬ NLM NUHVKP¬ NLVK¬ NUHVKS¬ NLYD NUHYD NMR NU¬QG NOLWKD NUL NOXP¬VKW NUî NOODS¬ NULPE NRF NULPED NRFLQM NULS¬ NRIVK¬ NULS¬UD NRK¬ NURGKD NROHVKN¬ NURGK¬ NROLEH NURMH index of albanian forms 287 NURQM NXUWKH NURYD NXUU¬ NUXD NXUUL] NUXDM NXVK NUXH NXVK¬UL NUXHM NXVK¬Uî NUXS NXVKXOO NUXSD NXYHQG NUXVKN N\ M NU\H NU\P Oâ NU\PD ODE NU\S¬ ODIVKD NU\SQD ODIVK¬ NU\T ODJ NUURNXOO ODJVKW¬ NXM ODM NXMW OâM NXMWRM ODMWKL NXNXW¬ ODN NXODU ODN¬ NXOE¬ ODN¬Q NXO¬ ODN¬U NXOP ODNVKWH NXOS ODNWK NXOS¬Q ODNWKD NXOS¬U ODNWKH NXOWH ODNXT NXOW¬U ODNXU NXOORM ODPHQM NXOORVKW¬U ODP¬ NXPHUT ODP¬QM NXPW¬U ODPVK NXQDW ODPVKH NXQG¬U ODQ NXQGRM ODQG¬ NXQHW¬Q NXQHW¬U ODQ¬ NXQJRM ODS NXQJXOO ODSD NXQRU¬ ODS¬ NXQM ODSV NXQMRM ODSVD NXT ODU NXURU¬ ODUGK NXUW ODU¬ NXUWK ODURM 288 index of albanian forms ODUXVKN¬ O¬QJDW¬ ODVK¬ O¬QJRM ODVKW¬ O¬SHF ODW¬ O¬SLM ODWUHGK O¬SLWN¬ ODW\U¬ O¬SMHW¬ ODYD O¬SXVK¬ OEDUGK O¬UXVKN¬ OH O¬VKRM OHE¬Q O¬WL OHE¬U O¬Wî OHEHWLV O¬YRU]¬ OHGK O¬YRU]RM OHI OL OHK Oî OHKW¬ OLGK OHM OLGKHP OHP]¬ OLGKHQ OHQG OLGKHVK OHS¬U OLGKHW OHSW\U¬ OLGK¬ OHSXM OLGK¬VK OHSXU OLGKL OHT OLGKQL OHTH OLGKQLX OHUD OLGKXQ OHU¬ OLGKXQL OHVK OLITDU OHVKQD OLITHU OHVKUD OLJ OH] OLJDW¬ OH]¬ OLJM O¬ OLM¬ O¬EDUNH OLN O¬IWRM OLNW\U¬ O¬I\W OLO O¬JDW¬ OLO¬ O¬NXU¬ OLQG O¬PDTH OLQGD O¬PD]¬ OLQJD O¬P¬ OLQJ¬ O¬PHQM OLQM¬ O¬PVK OLT O¬QG¬ OLVP¬ ORG¬U O¬QGLQ¬ ORGURM O¬Q¬ ORGK index of albanian forms 289 ORMWD PDMD ORS¬ PDM¬ ORTH PDMWD ORW PDMW¬ ORWL PâMW¬ OR] PDN¬ OWHU PDN¬UU OX PDNXW OXDM PDO OXF¬ PDOFRM OXHM PDOHW OXHMWD PDOHYH OXIW¬ PDOL OXJ PDOLQ OXJM PDOLW OXKDV PDOO OXKHW PDOO¬QJMHM OXKLWL PDOONRM OXP PDQ OXPDN PDQDIHUU¬ OXPHQM PDQGLOH OXP¬ PDQJ¬ OXSHVK PDQJML OXTHU¬ PDUDM OXV PDUGK¬ OXW PDUV OXWD PDUWHV¬ O\HM PDUU O\S PDUUW¬ O\WK PDV O\WK¬ PDVKNXOO PDW OODQD PDWD OODQ¬ PDWXN¬ OODS Pâ] OO¬QM¬] PD]¬ OO¬UD PEDM OO¬U¬ PEDU OORK¬ PEDURM OOXN¬ PEDUW OOXS PEDV OOXUE¬ PEDWK PEHV PDGK PEHV¬ PDM PEHWD PE¬VKWHW PâM PEL 290 index of albanian forms PELM P¬QGDIVKQD PEîM P¬QGDIVKUD PELYD P¬QJ¬ PEMHOO P¬QJRM PEOHGK P¬QJML PEORGKD P¬QMLOO PEORM P¬UGKLM PEROOD P¬UJRM PEUHW P¬UNRVK PEUHW¬Q P¬UP¬ULV PEUHW¬U P¬UVK¬ PEURGK P¬U]HM PEXIDV P¬VRM PEXIHW P¬VKHUH PEXILWL P¬VKLN¬ PEXORM P¬VKLU¬ PE\OO P¬VKRM PE\V P¬VKTHUU¬ PçHI P¬VKWHN¬Q PH P¬VKWHN¬U PHI P¬] PHK PL PHKHP Pî PHMH PLD PHN PLHOO PHN¬W PLHOOD]¬ PHNVK PLHOOQD PHO PLHOOUD PHQç¬P PLI PHQG PLID PHQGVK¬P PLK PHV¬ PLKD PHVK¬ PLM¬ PHWDOH PLN P¬ PLO¬ P¬GKHQM PLOO P¬JDVKW¬U PLQM P¬NDPE PLUD P¬NDW PLUH P¬N¬PE PLU¬ P¬NUHV¬ PLV P¬OO¬ PLVK P¬OOHQMD PLVKNRQM¬ P¬OOHQM¬ PLVKQD P¬OOH]¬ PLVKUD P¬QG PLWD P¬QGDIVK PLW¬ index of albanian forms 291 PLW¬] PXJ PL]¬ PXJXOO PL]RM PXOO¬ PMDOFD PXOOL PMDOF¬ PXOOî PMDOW¬ PXQG PMHGK¬U PXQGD PMHJXOO PXQJ PMHJXOOD PXQJRM PMHN PXUJ PMHN¬U PXUWDM¬ PMHNUD PXUU¬W PMHO PXUUL] PMHU¬ PXVKN PMHVKW¬U PXVKN¬OO\HU PNHTHP PXVKNRQM¬ PO\ç PXVKOOLQ]¬ PO\VK PXVKW PRGK PXW PRGKXOO PXWQD PRGKXOOD PXWUD PRN¬Q PX]J PRN¬U P\M¬ PROD P\N¬ PROLV P\OO PROO¬ P\VKN PRUD P]LWK PRUL PRUU QD PRUUD QDH PRV QDP¬ PRVK¬ QDQG PRW QDQ¬ PRWH QDS¬ PRW¬U QDW¬ PRWLW QDW\U¬ PRWUD QGDM PSLM QGâM PSîM QGDMWD PUHNXOO QGDQ PVKHI QGDYD PVKHID QGHM PXD QGêM PXDM QGHV PXDUU QGHVD PXH QGHVK PXHM QGH] 292 index of albanian forms QGH]D QJUDQ¬ QG¬OHM QJUH QG¬U]HM QJU¬Q¬ QG¬UURM QJULGK QGLI QJULWD QGLID QJULWL QGLK QJURI QGLKD QJURK QGLNRM QJU\GK QGLTMD QJU\V QGMHM QJXMRM QGMHN QJXO QGRTD QJXUURM QGULNXOO QJXV QGULNXOOD QJXW QGUL]¬ QJXWD QGU\VKNXOO QJM¬URM QGU\VKNXOOD QJMHVK QGXD QJMLUH QGXN QJMLV QGXND QL QGXONHP QLS QG\HM QLS¬Q QG\M QLS¬U QH QLV QHPHF QRIXOO QHQR QRIXOOD QHV¬U QRVKW¬U QHVK QRWRM QHW QR]LN¬ QHW¬ QXKDV QHYH QXN QHYHULV QXOO¬ QHYRM¬ QXV Q¬P¬ QXVH Q¬P¬URM Q[LW Q¬Q¬ Q\HM Q¬QW¬ Q\HOO QJD Q\MH QJDM Q\W¬URM QJDMWD QJDV QMHI QJH QMHID QJHW QMHK QJLM QMHKD QJîM QMHU QJRUGK QMHU¬] index of albanian forms 293 QMHUL SHQGDU QM¬PE¬GKMHW¬ SHQG¬ QMRI SHQGRM QMRID SHQGXOO QMRK SHQJ QMRKD SHU¬QGL QMRYD SHU¬QGRM SHV¬ RERUU SêV¬ RSLQJ¬ SHVK¬ RUHQGL SHVKN RUUO SHVKNRS RUWHN SHVKT RUWLTH SHW¬ SHWN SD S¬J¬M SDJ¬]RM S¬OFDV SDK S¬OTHM SDMWRM S¬OODV SDN S¬U SDO¬ S¬UJMRM SDOQM¬ S¬UNDV SDOO S¬UNXO SDOOD S¬UPEL SDOO¬ S¬UPE\V SDT S¬UPE\VD SDU¬ S¬UPMHUU SDUUL] S¬USMHW¬ SDV S¬USRVK SDVXQ S¬USXVK SDVXU S¬UTHOO SDVK S¬UYMHO SDVK¬ S¬UUDOO SDVKWUDN S¬UUDOO¬ SDWD S¬UUHQM SDWNXD S¬UURQM SDWNXH S¬UUXD SH S¬UUXH Sê S¬VRM SHM]¬ SL SHOHQ¬ SLGK SHO¬ SLGKH SHOLQ SLGK¬UD SHOT SLGKQD SHOO¬ SLM SHOOJ SLN SHP¬ SLND 294 index of albanian forms SLOLNXUL SOHT SLOLSL]J¬ SO¬I¬QM SLOLYHV¬ SOLT SLOLYRHV¬ SOLV SLOOMD SOLVK SLOOQL SORJ SLP¬ SORMH SLPXQ SORW¬ SLQ¬ SOODM¬ SLT SROOD SLTMD SRQLV SLTQL SRSXM SLU¬ SRSXOO SLVK¬ SRTD SLVKT SRUD SLVNDV SRUGKD SLWH SRUGK¬ SLW¬U SRUHQG SLYD SRURVLW SL]J¬ SRUUD SL]JXOO SRUULT SMDOP SRVWDKH SMDYLF¬ SRVXOO¬ SMHN SRVKW¬ SMHOO SUDQGYHU¬ SMHS¬Q SUH SMHS¬U SUHI SMHUGK SUHID SMHUJXOO SUHK SMHUU SUHKD SMHV¬ SUHK¬Q SMHVKN¬ SUHK¬U SODI SUHND SODID SUHPWRM SODJ¬ SUHV SODK SUHVK SODKD SUHYD SODN SUHY¬ SODNX SU¬QGYHU¬ SODV SU¬QMN¬ SODVD SULIW SOHK SULIWLQM SOêK SULM SOêKQD SUîM SOHKUD SULOO SOHQJ SULQD SOHS SULQG index of albanian forms 295 SULQG¬Q THOEUD SULQG¬U THOT SULVK THOO SULWD THP SURGK THQ SURGKRM THQ¬ SURN¬ THQJM SURVKPRM THQJMD SUR]KPRM THQJM¬ SUXVK THS SUXVKH THUU SUXVKHVK THUV¬ SUXVKL THVK SUUDOO¬ THVK¬ SXIW¬ THWD SXJâM THW¬ SXO¬ THWK SXOT\HU T¬Q¬ SXQXDU TLHOO SXQXHP TLIW SXS¬ TLM SXT TLN¬O SXUWK TLPN¬ SXUU¬ TLSL SXV TLV SXVK TLVK¬ SXVKWHW TLWD SXWK TRM SXWKD TRV S\HV TRVD S\ON¬ TXDM S\OO TXDMWD TXHM TDI¬ TXHMWD TDM TXN TDQM TXOO TDUN TXP¬VKW TDUU TXUUD TDUW¬ T\H TDV T\O TDVD T\U THIXM T\WHW THIXOO THN UDGLV THO UDJDO THOE UDQG¬ THOEQD UDQ¬ 296 index of albanian forms UDQJ¬ UUDJ UDTLW¬ UUDK UDVK¬ UUDQM¬ UDW¬ UUDV UDY¬ UUDVD UDYJ¬ UUDVKW UH UUDVROO UHJM UUDWK¬ UHN¬ UUHJM UHQG UUHJXOO UHQGHYH UUHM UHS¬ UUêM UHYD UUHMWD U¬PHQ UUHN U¬P¬U UUHP U¬QG¬ UUHPE U¬Q¬ UUHWK U¬Q[RM UUH]H U¬SMHW¬ UU¬IHVKN U¬SRVK UU¬NH U¬U¬ UU¬PDç UL UU¬PEHM Uî UU¬QJMHM ULM UU¬QM¬ ULV UU¬SLU¬ ULV¬Q UU¬VKDM¬ ULV¬U UU¬VKLQ¬ UMHS UU¬VKLU¬ UULE¬ URSD UULOO¬ URVD UULPH URV¬ UULPHYH URYD UULS UX UULS¬ UXDM UULT¬Q UXD]¬ UULT¬U UXHM UULV UXQJRM UULW U\HM UULWD U\M UUMHGK U\MWD UUMHW¬ U\V UUREXM U\W UUREXOO U\WD UURGKD UURM UUD UURW¬ UUDEH UUXGK¬ index of albanian forms 297 UUXIH VXS UUXJ¬ VXUP¬ UUXP VXW¬ UUXPEXOO V\ UUXVK V\WK UUXVKNXOO V\WK¬ UU\O¬ UU\PD VKDJ UU\P¬ VKDO¬ UU\S VKDS VKDUDQGXN V’ VKDU¬ VDP¬ VKDUN VDQ¬ VKDUU¬ VDUN¬ VKDUWRM VHPE¬U VKDW VHU¬ VKHNXOO VLOOMD VKHOJ VLOOQL VKHPE¬OOHM VLW¬ VKHP¬ VLYMHW VKHP¬U VMHOO VKHP¬UN VNXQGLM VKHQM¬ VNXQGLOO VKHQMW¬ VRGLW VKHV VROOD VKHVK VRQ¬ VKHWH VRQWH VK¬IUHM VRUUD VK¬OERM VRUU¬ VK¬OOî VRW VK¬OOLM VS¬UNHW VK¬QGRVK VS¬UNLWL VK¬QGULW VTDS VK¬QJMHW¬ VTDT VK¬UEHM VTHS VK¬WLW VTHSH VKL VTXIXU VKî VWDS VKLM VWDSLQM VKLM¬ VWHSHP VKLQD VW¬UYLV VKLUD VXN¬ VKLWD VXNXM VKLX VXNXOO VKNDE¬ VXPEXOO VKNDJRM VXQGRM VKNDN 298 index of albanian forms VKNDO VKSH]¬ VKNDOO¬ VKS¬Q¬ VKNDPE VKS¬QHWN¬ VKNDUGK¬ VKS¬UHM VKNDUNRM VKSLH VKNDV VKSLI VKNHO VKSLK VKNHS VKSLUW VKN¬OER]¬ VKSLUW¬UD VKN¬PE VKSLUWQD VKN¬PEHM VKSRUU VKN¬QGLM¬ VKSUHK VKN¬UGKHF VKSUHWN¬ VKNOHS¬ VKSX]¬ VKNOHV¬ VKTD VKNPHV VKTDUU VKNRM VKTHSRM VKNRS VKTHUU VKNRUUHW VKTHUUD VKNRUV¬ VKTH]¬ VKNR]¬ VKTLSRM VKNUDE¬ VKTRS¬ VKNUHK VKTRUUD VKNUHS VKTXDM VKNURYD VKTXHM VKNUXDM VKTXIXU VKNUXHM VKT\HM VKNUXPE VKT\PE VKNU\HM VKT\W VKNXO VKWDJD VKNXQG VKWDJ¬ VKNXUUH VKWDOE¬U VKRI VKWDON¬ VKRK VKWDOO¬ VKRN VKWDOS VKRT VKWDQJ VKRUHWN¬ VKWDW VKRUU VKWDW¬ VKRVK VKWDWQD VKRW¬ VKWDWUD VKSDOO VKWD]¬ VKSDUGK VKWâ]¬ VKSDUU VKWHJ VKSDW VKSDWXOO VKWHJMH VKSHQG VKWHNRM VKSHUU VKWHNWK index of albanian forms 299 VKWHNWKD WDURN VKW¬OOXQJ¬ WH VKW¬UUDV WHMH VKW¬UURM WHQ¬ VKW¬]¬ WHQM¬ VKWLH WHU VKWLJMH VKWLM¬ WHUD VKWLU WHU¬ VKWMHOO WHUP VKWRM WHUSORW¬ VKWROOD WHVKD VKWUDS WHVK¬ VKWUDW WHW¬ VKWUHJ¬ W¬ VKWUHN W¬EDQ¬ VKWU¬QJRM W¬PE¬O VKWUHQMW¬ W¬QG VKWUHS W¬QGH VKWUHW¬Q W¬U¬ VKWUHW¬U W¬UIRM¬ VKWULM W¬UIXUN VKWURID W¬UKHT VKWURI¬ W¬UPHW VKWURKD W¬USRVKW¬ VKWURK¬ W¬UVLU¬ VKWUXQJ¬ WL VKW\U WLP¬Q VKXIUHM WLP¬U VKXOOâ WLQ¬ VKXOO¬ WLWXM VKXP¬ WLWXOO VKXU WMHJXOO VKXUGK¬U WMHUU VKXUXNRM WMHW¬U VKXVKXQM¬ WODQG¬U WPHUU WDIW WRJ WDIWDU WRJMH WDOO WROO¬ WDOO¬ WRQD WDPE¬O WRQ¬ WDP¬ WRUUD WDQG WRUXD WDQGH WRUXH WDQ¬ WUD WDQJ¬ WUDMWRM 300 index of albanian forms WUDS WXW WUDSD WXWD WUDSHVK W\P WUDSL WUDU¬ WKDG¬U WUDV WKDM WUDVK¬ WKDQ¬ WUDVK¬JRM WKDUE¬W WUDWK WKDUN WUDWK¬ WKDUT WUH WKDUTH WUHGK WKDVK¬ WUHJ WKDYD WUHPE WKHN WUHQM WKHN¬ WUHSH WKHOE WUHSHYH WKHOO¬ WUHU¬ WKHPE¬U WUHV WKHS WULGKMHW¬ WKHSD WULP WKHSH WULVKH WKHU WURGKD WKHURN¬ WURIW¬ WKHYD WURNDV WK¬OO¬]¬ WURNHW WK¬Q¬ WURNLWL WK¬QJMLOO WUX WK¬QL WUû WK¬QLD WUXQJ WK¬QXN¬O WU\HO¬ WK¬UL WU\V WK¬ULD WXD WKL WXDM WKLN¬ WXDMD WKLPWK WXHM WKLPWKD WXHMD WKLQG WXO WKLQGD WXOD WKLQM¬ WXOH WKLUTH WXQG WKLUU WXQGD WKMHUP¬ WXULV WKMHUU¬ WXUP¬ WKMHVKW¬ WXUS WKQHJ¬O WXUVKHM WKRM WXV WKRP index of albanian forms 301 WKRQM XVKWRM WKRQM¬] XVKûM WKRW¬ XVKXQM¬ WKXD XW WKXH XWK WKXPE XWK¬W WKXPEXOO XWKXOO WKXS¬U WKXU YD WK\HM YDGLV YDGK¬ X YDM XGK¬ YDM¬ XJDU YDMUD XM¬ YDM]¬ XM¬UD YDO¬ XMN YDOONXD XMQD YDOONXH XMT YDQJ XMT¬Q YDQJMH XMT¬U YDU XO YDUI¬U XOD YDUJ XOLVKW¬ YDUU XO]¬ YDUUD] XOOL YDUUH XOOî YDVKD XPDV YDVKD] XPDWD YDVK¬ XPE YDVK¬] XQD]¬ YDW¬U XQG\U¬ YDY¬U XQ¬ YGHV XQJM YGLT XQJMLOO YGLTL XSHVKN YGLVMD XU YGLVQL XUGK¬Q YGMHUU XUGK¬U YGRUUD XUHO¬ YH XU¬ XUL Yê XULQM YHG¬U XULWK YH¬] XULWK¬ YHKWH XURM YHM XUUHM YHMD 302 index of albanian forms YHQG YLGKD YHQ¬ YLJMH YHQLWHP YLM YHS¬U YLODV YHUE YLQM YHUE¬U YLUJM¬U YHUGK¬ YLUJMLQ YHUH YLUUD YHU¬ YLUXD YHULJ¬ YLUXH YHUU YLVH YHUU¬ YLW YHU]¬ YLWH YHV YLWRUH YHVK YMHGK YMHK¬UU YHVKD YHVK¬ YMHM YHVK¬] YMHO YêVKW YMHOO YHWH YMHUU YHWHP YMHUVK¬ YHWK YMHVKW¬ YHWK¬ YMHW YH] YMHW¬U Y¬OOD YQHVKWD Y¬OOD]¬Q YREHNW¬ Y¬OOH]¬U YRGKD Y¬QHU YRGK¬ Y¬QJ YRH Y¬QJMH YRJ¬O Y¬UF¬ YRM Y¬UUDV YRMQD Y¬UUL YROD Y¬UUî YROOD Y¬UV¬ YRQ¬ Y¬UWLW YRUE¬ Y¬UYLW YRUI¬Q Y¬VKW YRUUD Y¬VKWMHOO YRVKW¬U Y¬VKWLU¬ YRW¬U Y¬WK YUDQ¬W Y¬WK¬ YUDS YJMH YUDU¬ YJMê YUDV YLç YUDYD YLGK YUHU index of albanian forms 303 YUHVKWD ]JMXD YU¬QG¬ ]JMXH YU¬U¬W ]JM\U¬ YULJXOO ]L YUXJ ]LH YXDM ]LHM YXHM ]MDUP YXOOQHW ]MDUPH YXUJ ]MDUU YXUNROODN ]MDUUH ]MHM \OEHU ]MHUP \OO ]MHUP¬ \Q¬ ]PRMOH \W ]RJ ]RJM ]â ]RNWK ]DEHO ]RNWKD ]DEXD ]RQMD ]DEXH ]RQMH ]âM ]RQM¬ ]DMHYH ]RUU¬ ]DOO ]RW ]DQD ]RWD ]DQ¬ ]RW¬U ]EHM ]RW¬ULQM ]GUDM ]XO¬ ]HW ]YHUN ]¬ ]YMHUGK ]¬M ]¬UD ]YRUGKD ]¬U¬ ]JDUE¬ ]KHJ ]JDY¬U ]KXPELQ¬ ]JULG ]KXU ]JMHGK¬ ]K\V ,1'(;$7(5*2 JUDED THQJMD GKHPED GRJMD NULPED GRUJMD KXPED KD JMHUED SODKD N¬UED QMHKD KXUED NUHKD GDFD SUHKD PMDOFD IVKHKD IHQGD QGLKD EUHQGD PLKD ELQGD QMRKD OLQGD VKWURKD WKLQGD PLD PXQGD WK¬QLD WXQGD WK¬ULD G\QGD PDMD GKD WXDMD NHGKD HMD YLGKD WXHMD KRGKD YHMD PEORGKD GLOMD EURGKD SLOOMD GURGKD VLOOMD NURGKD N¬UNRMD WURGKD QGLTMD UURGKD SLTMD YRGKD YGLVMD HUGKD MXMD SRUGKD ND ]YRUGKD SUHND SODID ILND QMHID SLND NUHID KRND SUHID GDUND PVKHID FHUND QGLID QGXND PLID JU\ND QMRID KDOD VKWURID çHOD VKWDJD NDOOD QJD SDOOD OLQJD N¬UVK¬QGHOOD EXQJD JUHOOD GLJMD KLV¬OOD index a tergo 305 KîV¬OOD GKMDPQD Y¬OOD JUDPQD N¬VKLOOD HPQD PEROOD GLPQD SROOD WRQD VROOD NU\SQD VKWROOD IUDTQD YROOD ERUQD NRUEXOOD OHVKQD PRGKXOOD P¬QGDIVKQD QRIXOOD PLVKQD PMHJXOOD IVKDWQD QGULNXOOD VKWDWQD QGU\VKNXOOD VKSLUWQD EUXVKWXOOD HVKWQD GROD JLVKWQD PROD PXWQD YROD GMDWKQD XOD GULWKQD WXOD K\QD GHPD P¬OOHQMD JULPD ]RQMD NDUPD SD NU\PD NDSD UU\PD ODSD QD WUDSD JMDQD NUHSD OODQD WKHSD IVKDQD URSD ]DQD NDUSD THOEQD NUXSD SLGKQD QGRTD GKHQD KRTD HOE¬QD SRTD IODN¬QD VKTD LN¬QD DUD EDU¬QD THOEUD HU¬QD GUD HVKW¬QD KXGKUD SOêKQD GKHUD JGKLQD JHUD SULQD OHUD VKLQD JUHUD YRMQD WHUD XMQD HOE¬UD JMDNQD SLGK¬UD PLHOOQD JM¬UD 306 index a tergo XM¬UD YLUUD IODN¬UD ERUUD OO¬UD YGRUUD GKMDP¬UD PRUUD NULS¬UD SRUUD EDU¬UD VKTRUUD HU¬UD VRUUD ERU¬UD WRUUD VKSLUW¬UD YRUUD JLVKW¬UD FXUUD GMDWK¬UD TXUUD GULWK¬UD SODVD ]¬UD TDVD JUD UUDVD KDQJUD EHVD SOHKUD QGHVD ELUD TRVD PLUD URVD VKLUD ODSVD YDMUD S¬UPE\VD JMDNUD YDVKD PMHNUD GHVKD PLHOOUD JMHVKD JUDPUD WHVKD HPUD YHVKD GLPUD ODIVKD GRUD N¬QGRIVKD PRUD LVKD SRUD JULVKD IUDTUD DWD OHVKUD PDWD P¬QGDIVKUD XPDWD PLVKUD SDWD WUD PEHWD IVKDWUD JMHWD VKWDWUD MHWD PRWUD IMHWD HVKWUD THWD PXWUD GLWD K\UD PLWD UUD TLWD DQGUUD GULWD ¬QGUUD F¬ULWD EHUUD QJULWD GHUUD SULWD VKTHUUD UULWD N¬UUD VKLWD index a tergo 307 QGDMWD JUXD QJDMWD YLUXD JMDMWD NUXD PDMWD WRUXD TXDMWD S¬UUXD GUXDMWD WXD EUHMWD NDWXD UUHMWD IWXD OXHMWD WKXD TXHMWD YD ORMWD GDYD GURMWD QGDYD EXMWD JMDYD EûMWD ODYD U\MWD YUDYD ERWD WKDYD ]RWD N¬UFHYD çDUWD GKMHYD HVKWD UHYD YQHVKWD NUHYD YUHVKWD SUHYD QJXWD WKHYD OXWD PELYD N¬SXWD JGKLYD WXWD NLYD U\WD SLYD NOLWKD ERYD ODNWKD JMRYD VKWHNWKD EORYD ]RNWKD J¬ORYD KDOWKD QMRYD WKLPWKD URYD NUDQWKD GURYD NDSWKD NURYD ELUWKD VKNURYD JXUWKD JDWRYD SXWKD QGH]D ]DEXD GXD JMâ QGXD Nâ GUDJXD Oâ ]JMXD VKXOOâ IDMNXD GUâ YDOONXD ]â SDWNXD PXD ODE NDSXD NDOE 308 index a tergo HOE GHQG THOE JGKHQG WKHOE IHQG GKDPE OHQG P¬NDPE PHQG VKNDPE NDODPHQG GKHPE VKSHQG JMHPE UHQG WUHPE SRUHQG UUHPE YHQG GK¬PE NXYHQG P¬N¬PE N¬QG VKN¬PE P¬QG JO¬PE NU¬QG NULPE W¬QG XPE ELQG KXPE OLQG NDOLKXPE SULQG VKNUXPE WKLQG WKXPE IXQG VKT\PE VKNXQG JMHUE PXQG YHUE WXQG NRUE G\QG FXE PDGK EDF HGK GDF JMHGK HF KHGK VKN¬UGKHF UUMHGK QHPHF YMHGK O¬SHF NHGK NRF OHGK N¬UF PEOHGK EUHGK NDç GUHGK UU¬PDç NUHGK YLç WUHGK PO\ç ODWUHGK OLGK ]JULG SLGK JDQG QJULGK NDQG YLGK QDQG ORGK NUDQG PRGK WDQG PEURGK HQG SURGK index a tergo 309 OEDUGK SRVWDKH JDUGK ELH ODUGK VKSLH VKSDUGK VKWLH GHUGK ]LH SMHUGK MH ]YMHUGK IDMH QJRUGK GMH NRUGK KHMH EU\GK PHMH QJU\GK WHMH KLMH QDH KRMH EH SORMH UUDEH NURMH NROLEH Q\MH GKDPEH UU¬NH GK¬PEH O¬EDUNH JDUEH HVKNH NUDQGH OH WDQGH ILDOH W¬QGH PHWDOH JMLQGH IOH GKH NDçLOH JGKH PDQGLOH SLGKH NDVKLOH JDUGKH ]PRMOH çHUGKH KHOOH JMHUGKH EROOH KHUGKH NDçXOH GUXGKH JDPXOH IH WXOH UUXIH PH QJH HPH DJMH LPH EUHJMH KLPH VKWHJMH UULPH EULJMH NROPH VKWLJMH ]MDUPH YLJMH QH GUDQJMH GK¬QH YDQJMH DW\QH Y¬QJMH ]RQMH WRJMH GURH YJMH YRH KH SH EDKH NDSH 310 index a tergo VTHSH MRWH WUHSH PRWH WKHSH LVKWH IDTH ODNVKWH JMDTH HWKH O¬PDTH ODNWKH OHTH NXUWKH RUWLTH ]DEXH N¬OERTH GXH ORTH GUD Q JXH EDUTH ]JMXH WKDUTH IDMNXH WKLUTH YDOONXH GXVKTH SDWNXH UH PXH FDUH NDSXH NDOLYDUH JUXH GUH YLUXH NDFDGUH NUXH N¬OTHUH WRUXH P¬VKHUH S¬UUXH YHUH NDWXH IUH IWXH QJUH WKXH QJMLUH YH PLUH UHQGHYH YLWRUH ]DMHYH SUH PDOHYH WUH UULPHYH N¬VK\UH QHYH DW\UH WUHSHYH ]MDUUH MXYH YDUUH T\H VKNXUUH NU\H YLVH DUV\H QXVH UUH]H WULVKH ODPVKH JGKê SUXVKH YJMê WH Kê VKHWH IOê YHWH Sê YHKWH GUê SLWH NDFDGUê YLWH IUê NXOWH E¬UVKê VRQWH DWê index a tergo 311 Yê VKNDUGK¬ PDUGK¬ VKNDE¬ YHUGK¬ JUDE¬ NRUGK¬ VKNUDE¬ SRUGK¬ N¬UUDE¬ EXUGK¬ UULE¬ KXUGK¬ EHOE¬ N¬SXUGK¬ NXOE¬ XGK¬ GKDPE¬ UUXGK¬ NDPE¬ TDI¬ GK¬PE¬ NDODTDI¬ N¬PE¬ VKWURI¬ JDUE¬ SODJ¬ ]JDUE¬ VKWDJ¬ YRUE¬ GHJ¬ KXUE¬ GMHJ¬ OOXUE¬ IOHJ¬ NDçXE¬ GUHJ¬ JRUULF¬ VKWUHJ¬ SMDYLF¬ ELJ¬ PMDOF¬ YHULJ¬ GURPF¬ ERULJ¬ Y¬UF¬ NDUULJ¬ OXF¬ EDMJ¬ ç¬ JDMJ¬ DQG¬ EDOJ¬ NDQG¬ GDQJ¬ ODQG¬ NDQJ¬ UDQG¬ PDQJ¬ SHQG¬ UDQJ¬ ¬QG¬ WDQJ¬ N¬QG¬ EUHQJ¬ O¬QG¬ JMXYHQJ¬ U¬QG¬ N¬QJ¬ YU¬QG¬ P¬QJ¬ J¬UPDGK¬ OLQJ¬ YDGK¬ RSLQJ¬ ]JMHGK¬ EDOOXQJ¬ NHGK¬ VKW¬OOXQJ¬ JOHGK¬ VKWUXQJ¬ JMLGK¬ MDUJ¬ OLGK¬ IOXJ¬ NURGK¬ UUXJ¬ YRGK¬ UDYJ¬ EDUGK¬ SL]J¬ JDUGK¬ SLOLSL]J¬ 312 index a tergo JM¬ S\ON¬ THQJM¬ çLPN¬ K¬ TLPN¬ NRK¬ SU¬QMN¬ OORK¬ WKHURN¬ VKWURK¬ SURN¬ JMXK¬ EDUN¬ JOXK¬ GDUN¬ SOODM¬ IDUN¬ PDM¬ VDUN¬ UU¬VKDM¬ IXUN¬ PXUWDM¬ DVKN¬ ELVKWDM¬ EDVKN¬ YDM¬ EMHVKN¬ êM¬ SMHVKN¬ LM¬ NROHVKN¬ ELM¬ EUHVKN¬ VKN¬QGLM¬ NUHVKN¬ OLM¬ GLVKN¬ PLM¬ ODUXVKN¬ I¬PLM¬ O¬UXVKN¬ VKLM¬ VKS¬QHWN¬ VKWLM¬ VKRUHWN¬ W¬UIRM¬ VKSUHWN¬ JRM¬ O¬SLWN¬ QHYRM¬ EXN¬ XM¬ OOXN¬ P\M¬ EDUXN¬ N¬ VXN¬ DN¬ PDWXN¬ KDN¬ P\N¬ ODN¬ JU\N¬ IODN¬ O¬ PDN¬ çDO¬ E¬UUDN¬ KDO¬ UHN¬ GMDO¬ EUHN¬ IMDO¬ GUHN¬ NDO¬ NUHN¬ SDO¬ WKHN¬ VKDO¬ GLN¬ YDO¬ P¬VKLN¬ IHO¬ IVKLN¬ SHO¬ WKLN¬ XUHO¬ QR]LN¬ NDUDYHO¬ DMN¬ WU\HO¬ VKWDON¬ ELO¬ index a tergo 313 OLO¬ WDP¬ PLO¬ SHP¬ EDOO¬ VKHP¬ GKDOO¬ ¬P¬ JMDOO¬ O¬P¬ VKNDOO¬ Q¬P¬ SDOO¬ ELP¬ S¬UUDOO¬ SLP¬ SUUDOO¬ EULP¬ WDOO¬ JULP¬ VKWDOO¬ N¬UNRMP¬ J¬VKWDOO¬ NROP¬ N¬VKWDOO¬ JRP¬ JREHOO¬ DUP¬ NDQGHOO¬ EDUP¬ N¬QGHOO¬ NDUP¬ JMHOO¬ FHUP¬ N¬VKWMHOO¬ WKMHUP¬ SHOO¬ ]MHUP¬ JUHOO¬ N¬UP¬ WKHOO¬ JMXUP¬ P¬OO¬ VXUP¬ UULOO¬ WXUP¬ EROO¬ GDVP¬ JMROO¬ OLVP¬ NROO¬ GDUVP¬ PROO¬ JM\VP¬ WROO¬ NUHVKP¬ PXOO¬ JMXP¬ QXOO¬ OXP¬ SRVXOO¬ EUXP¬ VKXOO¬ VKXP¬ G\OO¬ EU\P¬ N¬UUO¬ UU\P¬ EXO¬ DQ¬ NXO¬ EDQ¬ SXO¬ W¬EDQ¬ ]XO¬ GKDQ¬ UU\O¬ JMDQ¬ P¬ KDQ¬ DP¬ MDQ¬ GKDP¬ ODQ¬ IDP¬ OODQ¬ GKMDP¬ QDQ¬ ODP¬ UDQ¬ QDP¬ QJUDQ¬ VDP¬ VDQ¬ 314 index a tergo J¬UVKDQ¬ GU¬QM¬ WDQ¬ UU¬QM¬ WKDQ¬ OLQM¬ ]DQ¬ G¬OOLQM¬ GRU¬]DQ¬ ITLQM¬ MHQ¬ GULQM¬ SHOHQ¬ WKLQM¬ THQ¬ SDOQM¬ NUHQ¬ JDERQM¬ WHQ¬ PLVKNRQM¬ YHQ¬ PXVKNRQM¬ GK¬Q¬ ELORQM¬ K¬Q¬ EHURQM¬ O¬Q¬ ]RQM¬ Q¬Q¬ XVKXQM¬ VKS¬Q¬ VKXVKXQM¬ T¬Q¬ DS¬ U¬Q¬ NDS¬ QJU¬Q¬ ODS¬ WK¬Q¬ NOODS¬ ]KXPELQ¬ QDS¬ O¬QGLQ¬ J¬UMHS¬ NUDKLQ¬ JOHS¬ SLQ¬ VKNOHS¬ EULQ¬ UHS¬ UU¬VKLQ¬ NULS¬ WLQ¬ UULS¬ N¬UNRMQ¬ JMDOS¬ N¬PERQ¬ ORS¬ MRQ¬ VKTRS¬ VRQ¬ NDUS¬ WRQ¬ NUHVKS¬ YRQ¬ SXS¬ LVKQ¬ NU\S¬ XQ¬ DU¬ GKXQ¬ IDU¬ JXQ¬ JDU¬ JUXQ¬ ODU¬ \Q¬ SDU¬ UUDQM¬ WUDU¬ HQM¬ YUDU¬ GHQM¬ VKDU¬ P¬OOHQM¬ HU¬ VKHQM¬ GHU¬ WHQM¬ JMHU¬ J¬VKWHQM¬ KHU¬ G¬OO¬QM¬ EMHU ¬ index a tergo 315 PMHU¬ QDW\U¬ OHU¬ GHW\U¬ EOHU¬ OLNW\U¬ OXTHU¬ JM\PW\U¬ JUHU¬ OHSW\U¬ NUHU¬ I\W\U¬ WUHU¬ DUU¬ VHU¬ EDUU¬ WHU¬ NDUU¬ YHU¬ VKDUU¬ SUDQGYHU¬ IHUU¬ SU¬QGYHU¬ PDQDIHUU¬ E¬U¬ WKMHUU¬ OO¬U¬ P¬VKTHUU¬ U¬U¬ YHUU¬ J¬UVK¬U¬ KLUU¬ W¬U¬ VRUU¬ ]¬U¬ ]RUU¬ LU¬ EXUU¬ ELU¬ IXUU¬ GKLU¬ NXUU¬ JXQ¬GKLU¬ SXUU¬ PLU¬ G¬UUDV¬ SLU¬ EHV¬ UU¬SLU¬ PEHV¬ EULU¬ SMHV¬ W¬UVLU¬ VKNOHV¬ P¬VKLU¬ PHV¬ UU¬VKLU¬ SLOLYRHV¬ Y¬VKWLU¬ SHV¬ ERU¬ P¬NUHV¬ N¬PERU¬ J¬UUHV¬ GRU¬ PDUWHV¬ NRU¬ SLOLYHV¬ EORU¬ SêV¬ NXQRU¬ JM\P ¬ V¬ NXURU¬ GRV¬ XU¬ JRV¬ GKDQGXU¬ URV¬ GK¬QGXU¬ GMHUV¬ JXU¬ THUV¬ EOHKXU¬ Y¬UV¬ O¬NXU¬ VKNRUV¬ JUXU¬ JM\V¬ XQG\U¬ GKDVK¬ ]JM\U¬ ODVK¬ ODW\U¬ SDVK¬ 316 index a tergo UDVK¬ G\PE¬GKMHW¬ WUDVK¬ WULGKMHW¬ WKDVK¬ O¬SMHW¬ YDVK¬ U¬SMHW¬ HVK¬ S¬USMHW¬ MHVK¬ UUMHW¬ PHVK¬ EOHW¬ SHVK¬ IOHW¬ THVK¬ QHW¬ WHVK¬ SHW¬ YHVK¬ THW¬ NDIVK¬ WHW¬ ODIVK¬ MHVK¬W¬ JULIVK¬ DIW¬ NRIVK¬ WURIW¬ LVK¬ OXIW¬ ELVK¬ SXIW¬ NLVK¬ OHKW¬ SLVK¬ FLW¬ TLVK¬ GLW¬ PRVK¬ PLW¬ JURVK¬ UDTLW¬ YMHUVK¬ DUTLW¬ P¬UVK¬ GULW¬ IXVK¬ VLW¬ NDQXVK¬ PDMW¬ O¬SXVK¬ PâMW¬ JM\VK¬ GUHMW¬ W¬ YREHNW¬ DW¬ EDOW¬ GKDW¬ GDOW¬ JDW¬ PMDOW¬ O¬JDW¬ GKDOOW¬ OLJDW¬ HPW¬ O¬QJDW¬ FHPW¬ JMDW¬ LPW¬ ODW¬ Q¬QW¬ EODW¬ VKWUHQMW¬ JODW¬ VKHQMW¬ QDW¬ ERW¬ UDW¬ SORW¬ JU¬P¬UDW¬ WHUSORW¬ VKWDW¬ UURW¬ VK¬QJMHW¬ VKRW¬ MHW¬ WKRW¬ GKMHW¬ TDUW¬ QM¬PE¬GKMHW¬ EOHUW¬ index a tergo 317 IRUW¬ J¬OED]¬ PDUUW¬ JMD]¬ DVKW¬ PLHOOD]¬ JDVKW¬ PD]¬ JMDVKW¬ O¬PD]¬ MDVKW¬ XQD]¬ NDVKW¬ VKWD]¬ ODVKW¬ UXD]¬ HVKW¬ VKWâ]¬ GHVKW¬ NH]¬ KHVKW¬ OH]¬ WKMHVKW¬ P¬OOH]¬ YMHVKW¬ VKSH]¬ EUHVKW¬ VKTH]¬ ¬VKW¬ WK¬OO¬]¬ ODJVKW¬ DQ¬]¬ GLVKW¬ KDQ¬]¬ EOLVKW¬ DUU¬]¬ XOLVKW¬ VKW¬]¬ SRVKW¬ PL]¬ W¬USRVKW¬ GUL]¬ GMDWKW¬ QGUL]¬ EXW¬ YDM]¬ JXW¬ SHM]¬ NXNXW¬ XO]¬ NDUUXW¬ OHP]¬ N¬UUXW¬ JUHQ]¬ VXW¬ PXVKOOLQ]¬ G\W¬ VKN¬OER]¬ EDWK¬ VKNR]¬ GMDWK¬ EOR]¬ JUDWK¬ YHU]¬ WUDWK¬ O¬YRU]¬ UUDWK¬ EX]¬ YHWK¬ VKSX]¬ Y¬WK¬ JMLWK¬ GULWK¬ SODI XULWK¬ JUDI EULUWK¬ PçHI O\WK¬ OHI V\WK¬ PHI MDY¬ QMHI UDY¬ NUHI JUDY¬ SUHI SUHY¬ PVKHI ]¬ QGLI 318 index a tergo PLI ]RJM VKSLI GHUJM QMRI OXJM QJURI VKRI DK IWRI JMDK SODK DJ SDK ODJ JUDK UUDJ NUDK VKDJ UUDK GMHJ HK EUHJ GHK WUHJ OHK VKWHJ SOHK ]KHJ PHK OLJ QMHK VKHOJ JUHK SHOOJ NUHK DQJ VKNUHK GUDQJ SUHK VKWDQJ VKSUHK YDQJ IVKHK SOHQJ SOêK SHQJ QGLK Y¬QJ PLK EXQJ VKSLK PXQJ JULK WUXQJ QMRK EXOORJ QJURK SORJ VKRK WRJ IWRK ]RJ YDUJ DL PXUJ PEL YXUJ S¬UPEL OXJ HFL PXJ GL YUXJ RUHQGL PX]J SHU¬QGL GKL UHJM OLGKL UUHJM JML OLJM PDQJML JULJM P¬QJML THQJM KL XQJM MXML index a tergo 319 OL SUXVKL PDOL WL EOL DWL IOL EDJ¬WL NDOOL O¬WL XOOL PEXILWL PXOOL OXKLWL GROL WURNLWL PL VS¬UNLWL JM\VDPL QJULWL GHPL EDNWL MHPL ORWL KDUP L WKL QL ODMWKL OLGKQL ]L JRM¬OLGKQL GLW¬]L MHQL WK¬QL JMî GLJMQL Kî GLOQL Oî SLOOQL EOî VLOOQL IOî N¬UNRQL VK¬OOî SLTQL XOOî YGLVQL PXOOî OLGKXQL Pî SL Uî NDSL EUî WUDSL NXVK¬Uî TLSL NUî K\SL Y¬UUî YGLTL VKî IXTL O¬Wî UL DUL PEDM EDUL çDM EUL GDM GHUL QGDM QMHUL IDM NXVK¬UL QJDM WK¬UL JMDM NUL ODM PRUL PDM XUL TDM SLOLNXUL PDUDM Y¬UUL ]GUDM VKL DVDM 320 index a tergo WKDM QG¬OHM EXDM VKHPE¬OOHM GXDM S¬OTHM JXDM EUHM JMXDM VKS¬UHM KXDM VK¬IUHM MXDM VKXIUHM OXDM NUHM EOXDM UUHM PXDM XUUHM TXDM WXUVKHM VKTXDM EXHM UXDM GXHM GUXDM JMXHM NUXDM KXHM VKNUXDM MXHM WXDM OXHM JDWXDM EOXHM YXDM PXHM YDM TXHM âM VKTXHM EâM UXHM QGâM GUXHM IâM NUXHM SXJâM VKNUXHM OâM WXHM PâM JDWXHM IVKâM YXHM ]âM YHM VKN¬PEHM QG\HM UU¬PEHM K\HM VK¬UEHM O\HM ]EHM Q\HM N¬UFHM VKT\HM GHM U\HM QGHM IU\HM JMHM VKNU\HM PDOO¬QJMHM J¬UU\HM UU¬QJMHM WK\HM GLHM QG¬U]HM ]LHM P¬U]HM QGMHM QGêM I¬MHM JMêM YMHM EUêM ]MHM UUêM OHM ¬M EOHM E¬M index a tergo 321 HF¬M O¬QJRM S¬J¬M P¬QJRM LN¬M VKWU¬QJRM KLS ¬M NXQJRM ]¬M PXQJRM ELM UXQJRM PELM I¬UJRM VNXQGLM P¬UJRM JGKLM S¬UJMRM J¬UGKLM QJXMRM P¬UGKLM EHNRM QJLM VKWHNRM NLM G¬NRM VK¬OOLM QGLNRM SLM PDOONRM O¬SLM VKNDUNRM PSLM I¬UNRM TLM N¬UNRM ULM VKNRM F¬ULM VKXUXNRM JULM JM\NRM SULM PEORM VKWULM J¬ORM DUULM NDOORM VKLM NXOORM DWLM PEXORM YLM çPRM PEîM JM¬PRM JGKîM KDUPRM QJîM KHUPRM PSîM G¬VKPRM JUîM SURVKPRM SUîM SUR]KPRM ERM DJM¬QRM VK¬OERM DUQRM PDOFRM NXQMRM çRM VKTHSRM JXOçRM VKTLSRM SHQGRM TRM N¬QGRM PEDURM SHU¬QGRM ODURM NXQGRM ORGURM VXQGRM DJM¬URM SURGKRM QJM¬URM VKNDJRM Q¬P¬URM WUDVK¬JRM Q\W¬URM GUDQJRM G¬OLURM 322 index a tergo G¬VKLURM XVKûM NDSURM QG\M XURM K\M GXURM N\ M GKXURM U\M DGKXURM IU\M IOXWXURM UURM J¬UçDN NDFDUURM GDN KDUURM JDN QG¬UURM JMDN VKW¬UURM MDN QJXUURM VKNDN P¬VRM ODN S¬VRM IODN O¬VKRM YXUNROODN P¬VKRM SODN NDIVKRM OXPDN KHWRM SDN G¬IWRM SDVKWUDN O¬IWRM KHN SDMWRM QGMHN WUDMWRM PMHN NXMWRM SMHN JXOWRM PHN SUHPWRM THN QRWRM JUHN VKDUWRM VKWUHN VKWRM UUHN XVKWRM RUWHN WKRM WKHN YRM LN U¬Q[RM ILN SDJ¬]RM OLN PL]RM PLN O¬YRU]RM DQ¬PLN EXM DUPLN UUREXM SLN THIXM IXUULN HKXM XMN NXM EXMN VXNXM EXON OHSXM IORN SRSXM WDURN WLWXM KDUURN DYXM VKRN EûM DUN index a tergo 323 EDUN PHO KDUN THO TDUN NUHO VKDUN I¬QG\HO WKDUN DPE¬O EHUN WDPE¬O FHUN ¬PE¬O GHUN W¬PE¬O ]YHUN WKQHJ¬O VKHP¬UN KLQJ¬O W¬UIXUN YRJ¬O ELVN TLN¬O EULVN EXN¬O UU¬IHVKN WK¬QXN¬O SHVKN OLO XSHVKN F¬ULO GXVKN PXVKN KDOO GUXVKN GMDOO NUXVKN NDOO P\VKN PDOO GU\VKN SDOO SHWN VKSDOO EUHWN S¬UUDOO QGXN WDOO VKDUDQGXN EXDOO QXN JXDOO TXN KXDOO NDSUXDOO GDO ]DOO UDJDO GHOO VKNDO KHOO PDO GLHOO GXDO PLHOO KDUDEHO TLHOO ]DEHO PEMHOO çHO SMHOO NDçHO VMHOO GHO VKWMHOO JMHO Y¬VKWMHOO NDFDJMHO YMHOO NDQJMHO THOO GMHO S¬UTHOO PMHO EXHOO YMHO KXHOO S¬UYMHO NDSUXHOO VKNHO I¬QG\HOO 324 index a tergo I\HOO KDPXOO Q\HOO NUHSXOO HJM¬OO SRSXOO HQJM¬OO TXOO HV¬OO LVKXOO KLV¬OO NXVKXOO KîV¬OO VKSDWXOO VNXQGLOO WLWXOO WK¬QJMLOO EUXVKWXOO XQJMLOO XWKXOO PLOO DYXOO N¬UPLOO \OO P¬QMLOO PE\OO JULOO I\OO SULOO K\OO N¬VKLOO P\OO UUDVROO S\OO UUXPEXOO RUUO VXPEXOO XO WKXPEXOO QJXO UUREXOO S¬UNXO NRUEXOO VKNXO SHQGXOO WXO PRGKXOO T\O THIXOO E¬UU\O QRIXOO N¬UW\O PMHJXOO WMHJXOO GDP UUHJXOO MDP YULJXOO NDP NXQJXOO EUDP JDUJXOO JUDP SMHUJXOO HP PXJXOO çHP SL]JXOO GHP HKXOO KLGKHP JUHKXOO OLGKHP PUHNXOO JMHP VKHNXOO PHKHP QGULNXOO MHP NUURNXOO GMHP PDVKNXOO NHP UUXVKNXOO QGXONHP QGU\VKNXOO ILVKNHP VXNXOO I\VKNHP DPXOO VWHSHP IDPXOO THP index a tergo 325 PNHTHP DUE¬Q UUHP NHç¬Q N¬UYHVKHP SULQG¬Q YHWHP XUGK¬Q YHQLWHP YRUI¬Q SXQXHP SUHK¬Q EDOç¬P ODN¬Q PHQç¬P P¬VKWHN¬Q G¬P PRN¬Q EDJ¬P KDO¬Q PHQGVK¬P HP¬Q MHVK¬P IHP¬Q DUV\HVK¬P GLP¬Q IXTLVK¬P WLP¬Q EDOVK¬P GUDS¬Q LP SMHS¬Q WULP QLS¬Q LVKLP NXOS¬Q JMDOP JMDUS¬Q SMDOP GUHT¬Q KHOP UULT¬Q GMHOP XMT¬Q NXOP ULV¬Q WKRP IUDVK¬Q ]MDUP EUHVK¬Q MHUP JM\VK¬Q ]MHUP DW¬Q WHUP HW¬Q NDOLKXP NXQHW¬Q OXP PEUHW¬Q UUXP VKWUHW¬Q NDFDUUXP N¬VKW¬Q NU\P Y¬OOD]¬Q W\P YLUJMLQ PDOLQ QGDQ SHOLQ ODQ LVKLQ PDQ ERQ NDODPDQ N¬UNRQ OLGKHQ OLGKXQ JMHQ SLPXQ U¬PHQ SDVXQ THQ EUHQ TDQM N¬VHQ P¬GKHQM OHE¬Q ODPHQM JMHOE¬Q O¬PHQM 326 index a tergo OXPHQM VWDS WUHQM UMHS S¬UUHQM NHS SO¬I¬QM VKNHS ODP¬QM SOHS G¬US¬QM THS NRFLQM VTHS EOLQM JUHS PLQM NUHS N¬UPLQM VKNUHS GUDSLQM VKWUHS VWDSLQM WKHS EULQM J¬WKHS ]RW¬ULQM QLS XULQM UULS SULIWLQM VKWDOS ERVKWLQM NXOS YLQM NDQS GUDJRQM VKNRS IDMNRQM SHVKNRS JMLQRQM N¬US NDSRQM WXUS NURQM FXS S¬UURQM OOXS NDWRQM NUXS WKRQM NDUUXS KXQM VXS NXQM O\S UU\S DFR NMR N¬QDT QHQR SDT DVR VTDT DWR IUDT IDWR KHT W¬UKHT DS NHT KDS OHT MDS SOHT NDS GUHT ODS YGLT OODS OLT VTDS SOLT WUDS SLT VKWUDS LULT YUDS SRUULT VKDS IXUULT index a tergo 327 XMT JMHOE¬U KHOT EXOE¬U SHOT VHPE¬U THOT WKHPE¬U JORT DUE¬U VKRT YHUE¬U WKDUT NHç¬U NXPHUT EDG¬U ELUT WKDG¬U GLUT YHG¬U SHVKT çDQG¬U SLVKT GKDQG¬U NXT JMDQG¬U ODNXT WODQG¬U SXT GK¬QG¬U NU\T JM¬QG¬U SULQG¬U DU NXQG¬U EDU ORG¬U PEDU EDGK¬U DFDU PMHGK¬U SHQGDU XUGK¬U XJDU VKXUGK¬U ODU KXGK¬U NXODU DI¬U OLITDU YDUI¬U WDIWDU JM¬U GXDU HJM¬U SXQXDU YLUJM¬U YDU SUHK¬U \OEHU ODN¬U JHU PMHN¬U JMHU P¬VKWHN¬U Y¬QHU PRN¬U QMHU HP¬U OLITHU IHP¬U YUHU VKHP¬U WHU U¬P¬U OWHU GLP¬U WKHU WLP¬U GXHU S¬U IUXHU GUDS¬U G\HU SMHS¬U PXVKN¬OO\HU OHS¬U SXOT\HU YHS¬U OHE¬U QLS¬U VKWDOE¬U NXOS¬U 328 index a tergo JMDUS¬U ODNXU WKXS¬U EXNXU GUHT¬U OHSXU UULT¬U SDVXU XMT¬U VKXU QHV¬U WKXU ULV¬U ]KXU IUDVK¬U T\U EUHVK¬U N¬T\U JM\VK¬U VKW\U NDW¬U YDW¬U KDUU HW¬U ]MDUU MHW¬U PDUU WMHW¬U VKSDUU YMHW¬U TDUU NHW¬U VKTDUU NXQHW¬U PXDUU PEUHW¬U YDUU VKWUHW¬U HUU SLW¬U EHUU NDOW¬U GHUU NXOW¬U IHUU NXPW¬U EMHUU PRW¬U çMHUU YRW¬U GMHUU ]RW¬U YGMHUU P¬JDVKW¬U S¬UPMHUU JMHVKW¬U SMHUU PMHVKW¬U WMHUU N¬VKW¬U YMHUU NXOORVKW¬U WPHUU QRVKW¬U VKSHUU YRVKW¬U THUU EXVKW¬U VKTHUU ]JDY¬U YHUU YDY¬U DQG¬UU Y¬OOH]¬U NDQG¬UU ELU ¬QG¬UU KLU DQJ¬UU G¬OLU YMHK¬UU VKWLU N¬UU KDUP¬VKRU PDN¬UU XU KLN¬UU VTXIXU WKLUU VKTXIXU RERUU JXU KRUU index a tergo 329 NRUU VKNPHV PRUU SUHV VKSRUU WUHV VKRUU VKHV FXUU YHV IXUU S\HV V JUDELV UDGLV PEDV YDGLV S¬OFDV JMH]GLV N¬UFDV QJMLV EXçDV NUDKLV JRGDV PROLV PEXIDV SOLV QJDV PLV GLKDV QLV J¬UKDV SRQLV OXKDV TLV QXKDV ULV WURNDV QHYHULV NDUNDV P¬UP¬ULV S¬UNDV WXULV SLVNDV UULV VKNDV JDUULV IODV OHEHWLV YLODV VW¬UYLV N¬OODV NRV S¬OODV PRV SODV TRV PDV ODSV XPDV çDUV SDV PDUV TDV IXV WUDV JXV YUDV QJXV UUDV OXV VKW¬UUDV QXV Y¬UUDV SXV J¬UVKDV N¬SXV KLWDV WXV E¬UWDV PE\V N¬OWKDV S¬UPE\V PEHV U\V QGHV QJU\V YGHV WU\V MHV ]K\V GKMHV 330 index a tergo GDVK S¬USRVK SDVK DVRVK HVK VKRVK GKDPEHVK EXVK GK¬PEHVK MXVK GHVK NXVK QGHVK SXVK OLGKHVK S¬USXVK JDUGKHVK SUXVK JMHVK UUXVK QJMHVK JM\VK MHVK N¬O\VK OHVK PO\VK GUHGKDOHVK NDOHVK DW KHOOHVK IDW N¬UOHVK P¬NDW GHPHVK PDW QHVK NXQDW WUDSHVK VKSDW OXSHVK VKWUDW THVK VKDW SUHVK IVKDW VKHVK VKWDW SUXVKHVK HW YHVK GHW NDODYHVK OLGKHW NDUUDYHVK PEXIHW OLGK¬VK QJHW DUJ¬VK ERKHW P¬QGDIVK OXKHW LVK YMHW DFLVK VLYMHW SOLVK WURNHW PLVK VS¬UNHW JULVK PDOHW SULVK IOHW DVLVK W¬UPHW PHNVK QHW ODPVK YXOOQHW JDODPVK NDVKQMHW O¬PVK PEUHW DFRVK VKNRUUHW VK¬QGRVK E¬UWHW MRVK PE¬VKWHW P¬UNRVK SXVKWHW U¬SRVK T\WHW index a tergo 331 KDODYH W NDELVKW ]HW NDUUDELVKW G\]HW N¬UELVKW WKDUE¬W JLVKW KLGK¬W ERVKW GU\GK¬W NRSVKW PHN¬W JXVKW IODVKN¬W PXVKW YUDQ¬W JUXVKW YU¬U¬W XW PXUU¬W EXW DWK¬W QJXW XWK¬W KXW WDIW PDNXW TLIW OXW SULIW PXW GLW WXW VRGLW \W PDOLW I\W NDFDPLW O¬I\W VK¬QGULW VKT\W UULW U\W SRURVLW IU\W LVKLW VK¬WLW PEDWK PRWLW JUDWK Y¬UWLW WUDWK YLW JMHWK Y¬UYLW THWK Q[LW UUHWK NXMW YHWK NRW Y¬WK ORW LWK PRW XULWK VRW P]LWK ]RW ODNWK PEDUW VKWHNWK VKSLUW ]RNWK NXUW KDOWK DVKW WKLPWK UUDVKW NUDQWK âVKW NDSWK YêVKW ELUWK NOXP¬VKW EULUWK TXP¬VKW JXUWK Y¬VKW NXUWK ELVKW SXUWK 332 index a tergo XWK YDUUD] SXWK YDVKD] O\WK Pâ] V\WK QGH] GKH] X OH] JMX EUH] KX YH] OLGKQLX YH¬] VKLX HUJM¬] MX LM¬] JMDNX ELM¬] SODNX JMHOO¬] OX P¬] UX DP¬] GUX GMHOP¬] WUX OO¬QM¬] WKRQM¬] JMû QMHU¬] Kû JUHU¬] GUû YDVK¬] WUû YHVK¬] PLW¬] D\ SDUUL] G\ NXUUL] PXUUL] V\ OR] JD] EUX] JUHUD]