Tourism Development and the Tourism Area Life-Cycle Model: a Case Study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China

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Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China

Linsheng Zhonga,Ã, Jinyang Dengb, Baohui Xiangc

aInstitute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China bRecreation, Parks, and Tourism Resources Program, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA cDepartment of Human Resources, China Woman’s University, Beijing 100101, China

Received 28 June 2006; accepted 10 October 2007

Abstract

The conceptual framework of the Tourism Area Life Cycle (TALC) has been frequently examined since it was ﬁrst proposed by Butler in 1980. However, few studies have applied the concept to national parks and other protected areas. This paper examines the applicability of the model to China’s Zhangjiajie National Forest Park. In addition, both external and internal factors affecting the park’s tourism development as well as the environmental, social, and economic changes of the area are also discussed. Results indicate that the park has experienced the ﬁrst four stages as described in Butler’s 1980 seminal paper [The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer, 24, 5–12]. Currently, the park is in the consolidation stage. Both governments and the private sector are major players as catalysts for the park’s tourism development from one stage to the next. While the local or even regional economy has become increasingly dependent on tourism, the park has also been experiencing noticeable transformation and loss of traditional cultures since its inception in 1982. Finally limitations to the current paper are outlined. r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: National forest parks; Tourism development; China; Tourism life-cycle model

1. Introduction addition, the model has also been applied to differing types of tourism attractions and resources (i.e., islands, costal The conceptual framework of the Tourism Area Life resorts/beaches, mountainous destinations, etc.) and from Cycle (TALC) has been frequently examined since it was different perspectives (i.e., the validity and applicability of ﬁrst proposed by Butler in 1980. The recent edited two the TALC, Agarwal, 1997; social, environmental and/or volumes on the model (Butler, 2006a, 2006b) further economic changes as they relate to each stage of the model, highlights its signiﬁcance as one of the most used frame- Berry, 2001; Hovinen, 2002; Tooman, 1997; and tourism works within tourism studies. Lagiewski (2006), in review- planning, Bao & Zhang, 2006; Getz, 1992; etc.). The ing previous studies, listed a total of 49 major works related TALC, as examined in these studies, was generally proven to the TALC. These studies have examined the model at to be a useful framework in explaining the dynamics of different units of analysis, ranging from a single tourist tourism development for a resort, although a universal resource (e.g., Niagara Falls, Getz, 1992) to a destination consensus about its validity and applicability has not yet of varied features (e.g., Lancaster County, Hovinen, 1981; been achieved. Hovinen, 2002; Canada’s NW Territories, Keller, 1987; the Obviously, more studies need to be conducted to test the Greater Yellowstone region, Johnson & Snepenger, 1993; model (Agarwal, 1997; Berry, 2001) and as Butler (2006a, and the Smoky Mountain region, Tooman, 1997). In 2006b) pointed out in his concluding chapter in the two volumes, an ‘‘understanding [of the way that tourist destinations develop] is still far from complete’’ (p. 286). ÃCorresponding author. Tel.: +86 10 64889033; fax: +86 10 64851844. E-mail addresses: [email protected] (L. Zhong), The authors of this paper would argue that special [email protected] (J. Deng), [email protected] (B. Xiang). attention should be paid to areas to which the model has

Please cite this article as: Zhong, L., et al. Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China. Tourism Management (2007), doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.10.002 ARTICLE IN PRESS 2 L. Zhong et al. / Tourism Management ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] been rarely applied (i.e., national parks or other peripheral development in Lancaster County, a diverse destination areas), particularly those in developing countries with a using the TALC, argued that ‘‘Butler’s hypothesized stages rapid economic growth. A number of reasons prompt this may fit certain single-attraction destinations well’’ (p. 220). observation. First, the majority of existing studies are of Second, while it is recognized that a major challenge in coastal/island destinations with few being focused on testing the TALC for many destinations is the difficulty in national parks and other protected areas (albeit there are obtaining accurate long-term trend data of visitors to these two exceptions, e.g., Boyd, 2006; Weizenegger, 2006). Yet areas (Butler, 1980; Hovinen, 2002; Lagiewski, 2006), this parks are important places for the protection of ecological is not a problem for a park where visitors can only enter systems and natural resources as well as for the provision through controlled gates. Thus, as with many other parks of recreational and tourism opportunities for the public. in China (cf. Bao & Zhang, 2006), the ZNFP has kept a This is particularly true for those areas assigned World complete and reliable record of tourist numbers since its Heritage status (Boyd, 2006). Because of the nature of inception. Additionally, the park has also documented these areas, governmental interventions could affect the tourism revenues for each year. Finally, the park has been direction and speed of tourism development for these extensively examined during the past two decades in terms places more than in the case of an island resort of tourism’s impacts on the environmental, economic, and (Weizenegger, 2006). Second, the robustness of the model social–cultural aspects associated with the park. This has been tested primarily in North America, UK, and provides a solid basis for the current study. Mediterranean areas where tourism development has a Agarwal (1997) pointed out that research on the TALC long history and has obtained its existing situation over an should focus on either one of two aspects: (a) testing the extended period of development (Baum, 1998). applicability of the model and (b) redeveloping the model Relatively few studies have been undertaken in develop- to incorporate different issues (as cited in Lagiewski, 2006). ing countries where newly emerging tourism destinations In reality, most studies combined the two. This approach is might reach the maturity stage within a short time period also followed in this study. Specifically, three aspects of the as noted by Baum (1998, p. 169; also see Baum, 2006): model are examined: (1) the validity and applicability of the model as applied to the tourism development evolution It is arguable that the model has rather less value, except of the park, (2) external and internal forces that shaped perhaps of a cautionary nature, to newly emerging tourism development in the park and surrounding areas, tourism destinations, particularly in the developing and (3) environmental, social, and economic changes as world. Here the development period is likely to have they relate to each stage of the model. In this paper, the been much more rapid and, with the added force of TALC is examined against observed development trends globalisation and multi-national investment, may well (cf. Getz, 1992; Agarwal, 1997). To examine these issues, have ‘jumped’ one or more stages within the model Getz’s (1992) approach of using existing documents and cycle. previous research findings, combined with direct inter- Finally, Johnson and Snepenger (2006) also emphasized views, field and map observations, and questionnaire that more studies should be conducted of ‘‘yother settings surveys are adopted. with y different economic transitions y, which could all provide valuable insight into the changing nature of 2. TALC model tourism impacts and destination maturation processes’’ (p. 234). China, the world’s largest developing country with It is not the purpose of this section to provide a the fastest economic growth, could provide such a setting comprehensive review of literature on the model (please in which the development processes of a newly emerging refer to Lagiewski, 2006; Butler, 2006a, 2006b for a tourism destination in a remote and underdeveloped region detailed summary of findings), rather this section is to can be analyzed in relation to the macroeconomic change provide a foundation for what our study seeks to in the whole country. accomplish. Thus, previous findings on the aforementioned In response to the above concerns, this paper applies the three aspects of the study are the focus of the following TALC to China’s first national forest park—Zhangjiajie review. National Forest Park (ZNFP). The ZNFP is chosen for three reasons. First, the park is a single tourism destination established in 1982 and located in a remote mountainous 2.1. Validity and applicability of the TALC area with a single dominant tourism resource, unique sandstones. Also a tourism destination could refer to a The TALC proposed by Butler (1980) involves a resort, a town, city, region, or country and no universal six-stage evolution of tourism, namely exploration, invol- consensus has been achieved among researchers with vement, development, consolidation, stagnation, and post- regard to which unit of analysis is the most appropriate. stagnation. This last stage is further characterized by a It can be envisaged that studies based on differing units of period of decline, rejuvenation, or stabilization. The analysis could generate differing outcomes as suggested in applicability of the model to a given area has been assessed previous studies. Hovinen (2002), in examining tourism and judged in previous studies by looking at how well the

Please cite this article as: Zhong, L., et al. Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China. Tourism Management (2007), doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.10.002 ARTICLE IN PRESS L. Zhong et al. / Tourism Management ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 3 evolution of a tourist destination’s development matched Butler (1980, p. 9) argued that ‘‘only in the case of the truly the six phases conceptually described by Butler. unique area could one anticipate an almost timeless According to Butler (1980, p. 10), ‘‘not all areas attractiveness.’’ That is, a destination with a unique experience the stages of the cycle as clearly as others.’’ tourism resource(s) can permanently attract tourists so This suggests that the model cannot be applied to all long as external factors detrimental to tourism industry do destinations in the same uniform manner. This argument not occur (i.e., natural disasters). If this is true for a was endorsed by previous studies wherein stages experi- destination, then it is less likely to decline permanently. In enced by many destinations were not consistently found contrast, the rise and fall of the destination (i.e., Niagara and findings were very case specific (Agarwal, 1997; Falls, Getz, 1992; Huangshan Mountain and the Great Cooper & Jackson, 1989). For instance, Meyer-Arendt’s Wall, Bao, 1998) is more likely to be experienced because (1985) study of the Grand Isle resort of Louisiana, Cooper tourism, as an open system, is highly responsive to many and Jackson’s (1989) study of the Isle of Man, and some other external factors (Gunn & Var, 2002). other studies (e.g., Berry, 2006; Smith, 1992; Wilkinson, Among the external factors that have been examined in 1987) demonstrated that the life cycle for these destinations previous studies are producers, consumers, and regulating matched the model very well. In addition, an interesting authorities (cf. Keller, 1987). For instance, individual study by Boyd (2006) on the establishment and develop- entrepreneurs usually play an important role in introducing ment of Canadian national parks as a whole also new elements to the life cycle and in helping to rejuvenate conformed to the six phases of the TALC, yet this said, parts of the industry as evidenced in Lancaster County the author still noted the difficulty of determining ‘‘where (Hovinen, 2002) and the Gold Coast in Australia (Russell individual cases may be best represented within the model’’ & Faulkner, 1999; for a detailed discussion of this issue, (Boyd, 2006, p. 138). That is, the six stages were not found please refer to Russell, 2006). In addition to entrepreneurs, to be consistently experienced by each individual park. tour operators can also play a significant role in the TALC. As is the case for individual parks in Canada, there are A study of Cyprus by Ioannides (1992) indicated that a few many other destinations that did not entirely conform to large tour operators contributed significantly to the growth the model. For instance, Atlantic City missed the first two of tourism growth through charter flights and inclusive stages (Stansfield, 1978) and the Cayman Islands in the tour packages. Similarly, another study of Paradise Island, Caribbean skipped the first (Weaver, 2000). In addition, Bahamas, undertaken by Debbage (1990), showed how previous studies also found that different stages could multinational corporations controlled and influenced coexist for a tourism destination. For example, Lancaster visitor flow to the area through imperfect competition County, as a diverse destination, was characterized by the and oligopoly. coexistence of growth, stagnation, decline, and rejuvena- In the case of consumers, visitors’ changing preferences tion (Hovinen, 1981; Hovinen, 2002). Similarly, Niagara and needs are partial driving forces for the rise and fall of a Falls, as a single tourism resource destination, ‘‘evolved destination (Butler, 1980). For instance, the emergence of into a permanent state of maturity in which aspects of the demand for pursuing nature-based tourism or eco- consolidation, stagnation, decline, and rejuvenation are tourism in the past two decades has made protected interwoven and constant’’ (Getz, 1992, p. 752). areas and national parks, (which are often peripherally located), into popular tourism destinations in both devel- 2.2. External and internal factors affecting the TALC oped and developing countries. Finally, for regulating authorities, the rate of tourism development in the three Although the TALC is a useful concept for describing island nations of Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the evolution of tourism development, what stages and/or and Vanuatu was significantly influenced by the pre- and duration of a stage will be experienced by a tourism post-independent government of these nations (Douglas, destination is largely subject to a number of factors, and 1997). Another example of government’s role in tourism therefore, no perfect formula can be applied to different development is Cyprus (Ioannides, 1992) where tourism areas. Butler (1980, p. 11) observed that ‘‘ythe shape of was used as a means for economic diversification stimu- the curve must be expected to vary for different areas, lated by the government through economic incentives and reflecting variations in such factors as rate of development, loan programs. In addition, the Cypriot government also y government policies, and number of similar competing took measures to reduce the tourist growth rate areas.’’ Additionally, many other factors can affect the and regulate the geographic distribution of lodging shape of the model, including political unrest, terrorism, development. and natural disasters among others. These factors can be categorized into two groups: internal and external factors 2.3. Environmental, social, and economic changes as related (Agarwal, 1997). Internal factors include those inherent to to the TALC a destination (i.e., uniqueness of resources and attractions, local residents and their attitudes toward tourism develop- Environmental, social, and economic situations of a ment, and gradual deterioration of tourism resources) and tourism area will inevitably change over time as an area associated management, service practices, and qualities. moves from the exploration to the post-stagnation stage

(Butler, 1980). More often than not it is found that the 3. The study area economic gains of a destination are concomitant with an increased decline in an area’s environmental quality and an The ZNFP is located in the north-western Hunan increasing loss in the authenticity of local culture and province, China, approximately 30 km from Zhangjiajie customs. City (former Dayong town and Dayong City) and 385 km In the context of parks, according to Boyd (2006, p. 125), from Changsha, the capital city of the province. The park ‘‘user levels are low and no noticeable impact occurs on the lies between 1101240–1101280Eand291170–291210N, cover- environment’’ in the exploration and involvement stages. ing an area of 4810 ha. It was the first national forest park However, a growth in visitor numbers to a park means yet established in 1982 by the State Council of China. It was more facilities and services are required, which may in turn then combined with two adjacent nature reserves, Suoxiyu pose threats to the ecological integrity of park resources or Nature Reserve and Tianzi Mountain Nature Reserve, to even result in the transformation of a natural environment be ascribed status as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in into an urbanized area. For instance, Banff National Park 1992 under the title ‘Wulingyuan Scenic and Historic in Canada has suffered a serious environmental deteriora- Interest Area’ (WSHIA). More recently, the park was tion as a result of human impacts. The town of Banff with a assigned two more titles, National Geological Park in 2000 population of 7600 in the 1990s is ‘‘located in some of the by the Ministry of Land and Natural Resources and World highest quality wildlife habitat in the park’’ (Banff-Bow Geological Park by UNSECO in 2004. Consequently, at Valley Study, 1996, p. 137). By 2002 the population had least three agencies, State Forestry Administration (forest increased to approximately 9000 (Clevenger, Wierzchowski, parks), Ministry of Construction (scenic areas), and Chruszcz, & Gunson, 2002). Likewise, the gateway Ministry of Land and Natural Resources (geology parks) communities surrounding Yellowstone have experienced are directly involved in the area’s management (Deng, rapid and uncontrolled development since the early 1980s Bauer, & Huang, 2003). (Ansson, 1998). Within the 18 million-acre Greater The ZNFP is most known for a unique natural Yellowstone Ecosystem, the population has increased by landscape characterized by thousands of quartzite sand- over 12% since 1990 to more than 322,000 people in 1998. stone pillars, ranging from 50 to 300 m in height, extending Communities in the Yellowstone region were largely from the valley floor. These pillars are distributed in the urbanized as a result of tourism development. Environ- park’s six scenic zones: Yellowstone Village, Gold Whip mental problems associated with tourism urbanization Stream (GWS), Kidney Village, Shadao Ravine, Pipa such as pollution, smog, crime, and overcrowded condition Stream, and Yuanjiajie (Fig. 1). These pillars and adjacent are now not unknown in the Yellowstone region (Ansson, scenery can be viewed through hundreds of scenic spots 1998). and viewing platforms in the park. Currently, sightseeing In terms of tourism development on social change, a by the world’s highest sightseeing lift, cable cars, bus plethora of studies have been conducted to examine shuttles, or hiking is the most prevalent tourism activity in residents’ attitudes toward tourism development (see the park. With its combined charm of uniqueness, elegance, Harrill, 2004 for a literature review on this topic). Butler wildness, serenity, and mysteriousness, the park attracts (1980) noted that attitudes held by local residents toward millions of tourists from both China and abroad. visitors and tourism development may undergo a process The area is also home to a large amount of rare and from euphoria through apathy and irritation to antagon- endangered flora and fauna, and is a valuable place for ism as suggested by Doxey (1976) in his ‘‘irridex.’’ This environmental education and scientific research. In addi- inverse relationship between development of the life-cycle tion, the park and surrounding areas are also rich in stages and resident impacts was also supported by Martin cultural and historic resources. The majority of local and Uysal (1990). In addition, Tooman (1997) observed residents consist of several unique ethnic groups (i.e., the that under circumstances in which tourism becomes the Tujia, Bai, and Miao) who have been living in the area for dominant economic sector (regardless of the particular thousands of years (Gu & Zhong, 2005). stage), social welfare indicators failed to show significant improvement. 4. Research methods Finally, in the case of economic development across the six stages of the TALC, income tends to increase rapidly Triangulation is used for this study, whereby data are from the involvement to the development stage. In the collected through personal in-depth interviews, question- meantime, parallel to the increasing income is an increased naire surveys, and secondary data sources. Survey results tourism income leakage from locals to outside investors reported in this study are part of a comprehensive (Tooman, 1997). During the consolidation stage, the local study about the park. In-depth interviews were conducted economy will be dominated by tourism (Butler, 1980) and a from July 2004 to November 2005. During this time few large-scale, corporate enterprises become the dominant period, we visited the main attractions and surrounding economic participants (Tooman, 1997). facilities in the park and interviewed 22 individuals with The question thus arises—are these effects noticeable in diverse backgrounds. Interviewees were asked to answer the case of a National Park in China? questions like ‘‘How has the park been developed since its

Fig. 1. Geographical location of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park.

establishment in 1982?’’ and ‘‘What are the consequences intention to revisit, for 32.3% of respondents intended to of tourism transformation in the park?’’ among others. visit again. The interviewed individuals are two Zhangjiajie City The second survey examined how local residents have officers, five park managers and staff, five professors from been affected as a result of tourism development related to three universities, three local tour guides, three local the park. The survey was administered at two villages residents, and four visitors. Some of their comments are under the jurisdiction of the park: Zhangjiajie village and incorporated in appropriate places in the latter part of Yuanjiajie village. According to the park census data of this paper. 2003, Zhangjiajie village had 1527 residents in 455 house- In addition, two questionnaire surveys were undertaken holds, and Yuanjiajie had 404 residents in 136 households. between March 2004 and November 2005. The first is A stratified random sampling method was used to identify about visitors’ perceptions of tourism development of the participants. A copy of the questionnaire was then given to park and its impacts on their tourism experience as well as those households identified using this approach. The on local communities. This structured and self-administered survey was conducted face to face in these households. survey was conducted at the main scenic spots of the park, Each household was asked to complete the questionnaire where visitors were randomly approached. Those who by any member over 18 years of age in the household. A agreed to participate were provided with a questionnaire total of 29 questionnaires collected from those 200 house- that asked about their trip characteristics, tourism motiva- holds were not completed or were left blank, resulting in tions, perceptions of tourism development, and perceptions 171 usable questionnaires for further analysis. of the authenticity of local cultures. A total of 480 visitors The majority of respondents from this survey have lived were approached and 400 of them were willing to in the area for quite a long time with the average length of participate. Of these, 73 participants did not fully complete residency being 15.1 years. The average family members their questionnaires. These incomplete questionnaires were were 4.6 persons, of whom two were working in tourism then excluded from analysis. Thus, data analyses were related businesses or services. In addition, most household conducted based on 327 useable questionnaires. members had a lower level of education with 3.0 members This survey found females (55.9%) numbered slightly on average holding a high school degree or less. The more than males (44.1%). The majority of participants reported total annual family income in 2004 varied from a were young (62.1% aged below 39 years), with the mean of minimum of 2000 RMB to a maximum of 100,000, with the 32.6 years. Most participants were also well educated average being 25,958 RMB. In the same year, the average (67.9% had a university degree). In addition, 33.3% of tourism related income was 15,788 RMB, ranging from 0 participants had an annual family income over 25,000 to 80,000 RMB. Thus, the average tourism related income RMB. accounted for 60.8% of total family income in 2004. The majority (71.9%) of participants reported a stay in The main secondary data sources are publications (i.e., the park for 3 days or more, with the average length of stay peer-reviewed journals, books, news articles, environmen- being 3.6 days. Most participants (72.7%) were first time tal reports, etc.) about the park which are largely available visitors while another 27.3% had visited the park more in Chinese. Maps used in this study include a topographic than twice. This percentage is comparable to recorded map (scale: 1/10,000) published in 1983, a land use map

(scale: 1/10,000) protracted in 1996 and two TM images (renamed as China State Forestry Administration in 1997) obtained in 1987 and 1998. Spatial patterns of transforma- visited the farm. They emphasized the importance of a tion are analyzed based on these two images using scenic zone plan, the maintenance of natural beauty, and unsupervised classification method. In addition, visitor the construction and expansion of roads connecting the arrivals and other information were obtained from the farm to Dayong, the then county seat of Dayong County. parks’ annual statistic report prepared every year from In addition, they examined the feasibility of tourism 1982 by the park administration office. Secondary data development in the park. In October 1980, Dayong County cover over 20 years. decided to increase accommodation facilities, maintain and repair roads, and solve the problem of electricity shortages 5. Results to meet the increasing demands and needs of tourists (Gu & Zhong, 2005). In the same year, an administrative sector 5.1. Tourism development stages and pushing factors responsible for tourism development of the area was created in the county. In December 1981, a nationwide Zhangjiajie was famous for its unique scenery long forest tourism symposium held by the then Ministry of before the area was officially established as a national Forestry in Beijing prepared a ‘‘Memorandum on Forest forest park in 1982. For instance, as early as the Song Tourism Development’’ which listed the farm as one of Dynasty (960–1279), Zhangjiajie was visited by poets who seven forest tourism pilot test places in the country. In the were astonished by the unique beauty of the area as stated same year, officers from the China National Planning in their poems (Gu & Zhong, 2005). However, the area was Committee and the then Ministry of Forestry proposed the not known as a popular tourism destination until the early farm be set aside as a national forest park (Gu & Zhong, 1980s. The following is a description of the tourism 2005). development process for the park. 5.1.2. Involvement stage (1982–1988) 5.1.1. Exploration stage (1978–1981) Due to the unique landscape and scenery of the forest The park was formerly a state run forest farm farm being increasingly publicized through those pioneers, established in 1958 under the jurisdiction of Dayong yet more visitors were attracted to this forest farm. The County. Planting and logging were the two main activities increasing number of informal visitors and the direct of the forest farm before 1978. This practice of forestry economic benefits they brought to the area led the farm to gradually changed after 1978 when Chen Ping, a staff be officially established as a national forest park in member with the Forestry Department of Hunan province, September, 1982. From 1982 to 1988, a total of 2,215,100 published a paper, ‘‘Travel in Zhangjiajie’’ in a national visitors were attracted to the park (Fig. 3) with annual magazine, China Forestry, to introduce the natural scenery average arrivals being 316,443, about 11 times the number to the public for the very first time (Gu & Zhong, 2005; for the exploration stage. Zheng, 1999). However, the park did not draw wide public Facilities began to be built to accommodate increasing attention until 1980 when the Hunan Daily published an visitors. In 1982, the first hotel, Golden Whip Hotel with essay titled ‘‘Zhangjiajie: An Undiscovered Scenic Jewel’’ 260 beds was opened (Table 1). In 1984, a major road was by Wu Guangzhong, a famous Chinese painter, who built to connect the park with its nearest town: Dayong described Zhangjiajie as incomparable when measured (renamed as Dayong City in 1985 and Zhangjiajie City in against many other famous Chinese mountains (Gu & 1994), making the park more accessible for visitors arriving Zhong, 2005). His comments were substantiated by other from across the country. In the same year, a railway was painters and photographers who were also attracted to the constructed to connect the city to other parts of the area, making the area even more publicized through their country through the national railway network. The railway publications and photographic exhibitions. then became the primary access point to the city during this During this period, there was no road/trail construction period (Zheng, 1999). The construction of the railway was or facilities developed for tourists although painters, photographers, journalists, scientists, and other adven- turers and explorers came often to visit the area. According Table 1 to Liu (1999), a total of 88,000 individuals visited the forest Lodging and shopping facilities in the ZNFP from 1982 to 2004 farm during this time. Approximately 1000 of them visited Year Beds Hotels Family hostels Stalls and stores the farm on a single day: October 1 (the National Day of China), 1980 (Gu & Zhong, 2005). The annual average 1982 260 1 0 20 arrivals were 29,333 people at this stage. 1985 2590 25 18 45 Local government quickly realized that developing 1990 4020 32 60 190 1995 7080 42 76 280 tourism could generate huge economic gains both locally 1999 8585 49 196 326 and regionally. During this short time period, several leaders from the provincial government (i.e., the general 2004 5005 35 125 302 secretary and governors) and the Ministry of Forestry Source: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park Administration (2006).

Please cite this article as: Zhong, L., et al. Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China. Tourism Management (2007), doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.10.002 ARTICLE IN PRESS L. Zhong et al. / Tourism Management ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 7 seen as a turning point for after this packaged tours began of Tujia and Miao Nationalities approved a foreign operating in the destination. Also in this stage, more cooperation plan of economics and technology, emphasiz- lodging facilities were built within the park boundary (i.e., ing a transition of economic activities from a traditional Luoguta, Shuiraosimen, and Yuanjiajie). As shown in agriculture-oriented one to those related to tourism sectors. Table 1, the number of family hostels/hotels/beds increased In 1985 the state council agreed to build a civil airport, from 0, 1, and 260, respectively, in 1982 to 18, 25, and 2590 Lotus Airport, near the city. In 1988 Dayong City was in 1985. Likewise, the number of stalls and stores increased promoted as a prefecture-level city and Wulingyuan from 20 in 1982 to 45 in 1985. District, which directly manages the park and other nature As with the exploration stage, painters, journalists and reserves, was established in the same year. other celebrities continued to play an important role in It is worth mentioning that the construction of the park publicizing the park through their visits and publications. in this stage was primarily funded by the central and However, the difference was that some were now being provincial governments with a total amount of 12 million invited by the park administration and local government. RMB being invested in the construction of the park (Xia, For example, the park invited over 30 journalists and 2004). editors from Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan in 1986. Also, the park administration and local government took a 5.1.3. Development stage (1989–1999) further step to go outside of the park to market the area. This period marked a rapid increase in visitor numbers. Six promotional teams were organized to travel across the The park accommodated 381,500 visitors in 1989. Ten year country holding photo exhibitions in 1987. The Tourism later, this number jumped to 1,187,400 in 1999 (Fig. 2). The Bureau of Hunan province displayed the park’s pictures total visitor number reached 7,941,900 during this period and photographs in the USA and Japan in the same year. with annual average arrivals being 721,991, approximately Additionally, scientists and researchers from the China 2.3 times that of the involvement stage. Academy of Science and other universities began to study Parallel with the rapid increase of visitors was the rapid the geology, vegetation, climate, and landscape in the area. development of the park and surrounding areas, which was Government officials from the Ministry of Geology, characterized by (1) internationalization, (2) regionaliza- National Tourism Administration, and National Environ- tion, (3) modernization, and (4) physical transformation mental Protection Administration also often visited the (as will be discussed at more length in the next section). area. In addition, leaders from the central government, First, the park director was invited by Maine University including the then prime minister and VIPs from foreign to visit several national parks in the USA in 1989. The first countries (i.e., Belgium prime minister) visited the park. international cooperation agreement between the city and These visitations have increasingly made the park more travel agents of former Soviet Union was signed in the popular and significant. same year. The first Zhangjiajie International Forest The government still played an essential role in the Protection Festival advocated by the then vice-governor development of the park during this stage. A ‘Tourism of Hunan province was held in 1991 and has become an Construction and Development Leadership Group’ was annual event since then. Several international academic formed in 1982 under the Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture conferences and several sports festivals were held at the of Tujia and Miao Nationalities, the only autonomous park (i.e., 1991 international ecology and forestry con- prefecture for minority nationalities in Hunan. In 1983 ference, 1992 international Forest Protection Cup climbing Zhangjiajie National Forest Park Administration, a contest, etc.). government agency at the County level was established to The park and its two adjacent nature reserves gained its manage the park as well as three villages: Zhangjiajie international reputation by being listed as a World Natural village, Yuanjiajie village, and Xiejiayu village. The park Heritage site by the UNESCO in 1992. During this time prepared a book, Interpretation for tourist guides, in 1984. period, foreign capital and technology were used to build In the same year, a vocational tourism school, Dayong hotels and other tourism related facilities. For instance, Vocational Tourism School, was established. One year Dayong hotel was expanded and revamped using foreign later the first travel agency in the area—Zhangjiajie investment and renamed Xianglong International Hotel. A National Forest Park Travel Agency was created. Subse- Taiwanese company invested in a cableway with a quently, in 1988, Dayong Travel Agency, affiliated with the horizontal distance of 863 m that was built in 1997. In China International Travel Agency, was established. The addition, the so called world’s highest outdoor sightseeing first hotel, Dayong Hotel, in Dayong city, commenced lift commenced construction in 1999 (to be finished in construction in 1985. 2002). The project was jointly invested with a total Government also played an important role in planning investment of 120 million RMB by three companies, and regulating the park. The first plan Zhangjiajie National including Mackarl in the USA. The lift itself was produced Forest Park Master Plan—1983–1985 was prepared in 1982 by a German company. by several sectors of the province. Several regulations were Secondly, the establishment of the WSHIA with the enacted during this stage, including the first by Dayong ZNFP as the core attractive zone created an additive County in 1983. In 1985 Xiangxi Autonomous Prefecture regional effect, in that the whole scenic area covering a

1800 200000 1600 Arrivals (1000) 180000 Income (1000 RMB) 1400 160000 140000 1200 120000 1000 100000 800 80000 600 60000 400 40000 200 20000 0 0 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005

Fig. 2. Arrivals and income of the park from 1982 to 2005 (Source: Zhangjiejia National Forest Park Administration, 2006). total area of 397 km2 with a population of 44,954 became (from 2000 to 2005) with an annual average of 1,124,947 one of the largest tourism destinations in the country. The tourists, about 1.7 times as many as that for the existence of the scenic area also promoted the development development stage (Fig. 2). Facility development in the of many other scenic areas and spots in the western park began to slow (as discussed in the next section) while province. priorities were placed on external factors, including Finally, during this time period, the park and surround- regional ground transportation expansion and improve- ing areas became increasingly modernized. Zhangjiajie ment for domestic travellers and marketing and advertising airport was officially opened for commercial use in 1994. for international visitors, which could have long-term Dayong City was renamed as Zhangjiajie City in the same impacts on the sustainable development of the park. The year. The city was renamed using the park’s name. The area’s economy became largely tied to tourism during this three Chinese characters also imply ‘opening family door time as shown below. to outside world.’ Visitors from China’s major cities, A highway connecting Changde, a major city 137 km to including Hong Kong and Macao can now fly directly to the east, to Zhangjiajie started in 2002 and was completed the city. As of 1999, apart from two airlines to Hong Kong in 2005. As a result, the travel time from Changde and and Macao, another 23 domestic airlines were in operation. Changsha to the park was reduced by half. More The airport accommodated appropriately 500,000 visitors importantly, the park became yet more accessible through in that year. ground transportation than before because of the connec- As in previous stages, government still played an tion of this route to the rest of the national highway essential role in speeding the development of the park network. and surrounding areas. For instance, in 1993 the WSHIA Since 2001, continuous efforts have been made by Administration was established. The then state president governments at various levels to market and advertise the Zheming Jiang visited the park in 1995 and proposed to park to international audiences with South Korea being the ‘‘develop Zhangjiajie into a domestically and internation- principal target. In this period the general secretary of the ally known tourism destination.’’ In the same year, the first city led several groups of delegates from travel agencies and tour train in the province from Zhangjiajie to Guangzhou, relevant sectors to visit Dalian where many Koreans are named Zhangjiajie, was operated. In addition, The WSHIA concentrated. They also visited Korea to market the park Master Plan prepared by Tongji University and Hunan and WSHIA to Koreans directly. In addition, the Construction Commission was approved in 1993. In the China National Tourism Administration and the Tourism same year, the Dayong City Tourism Industry Management Administration of Hunan province also endeavored to Regulation was promulgated. In 1996, priority was placed advertise the area to Koreans. As a result, Korean visitors on tourism by the city municipality with ‘tourism as the increased from 102,400 in 2002 to 220,000 in 2004 and locomotive to drive regional economic development.’ jumped to 360,000 in 2005 (Deng, 2006; Wan, Du, & Tian, With this said, the role of entrepreneurs through their 2004). It is anticipated that Korean visitors will continue to multinational investments cannot be ignored. Without increase in forthcoming years given that a non-stop flight those investments, the park could not be developed and from Zhangjiajie to Seoul began to operate in 2005. transformed as it is. Moreover, in order to impress Korean visitors and make them feel at home, the park hired over 400 tourist guides 5.1.4. Consolidation stage (2000–present) who can speak fluent Korean. Currently, even the local The park entered the consolidation stage in 2000. During peasants and peddlers can speak simple Korean in order to this stage, a total of 7,496,800 tourists visited the park sell their products. Korean became one of three languages

Please cite this article as: Zhong, L., et al. Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China. Tourism Management (2007), doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.10.002 ARTICLE IN PRESS L. Zhong et al. / Tourism Management ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] 9 in the park’s interpretation signs (the others are Chinese more visitor villages emerged around Shuiraosimen and and English). Yuanjiajie, while Luoguta as a residential location and Since the Korean market primarily comprises older visitor village was rapidly expanded (see Fig. 3). As can be visitors and that country’s total population is not large, the seen from the figure, the park was fragmented in 1998 when park has a concern that the Korean market will eventually compared to 1987. This is particularly true in Shuiraosi- be saturated. With this in mind, the park and the WSHIA men, Yuanjiajie, and downstream GWS. began to look for substitute markets with North America With the process of physical transformation, the number as the main target. A recent first ever publication of an of beds in the park was increased from 4020 in 1990 to 8585 article about the area by Winchester (2007) in the New in 1999. The rapid transformation of the park environment York Times marks the potential beginning of a new wave and the whole WSHIA shocked officers from the of international marketing or even a new wave of tourist UNESCO world heritage commission when they visited arrivals for the park. the park in 1998. They warned that uncontrolled tourism development in the park was destroying its scenic beauty. Partially in response to this warning, the park has begun to 5.2. Environmental, social/cultural, and economic changes implement a removal plan since the end of 2000. As a result, as the park has developed visitor facilities to 5.2.1. Environmental changes their fullest, it then became time to control this develop- The park’s environment was well protected before the ment. This control represents a consolidation phase. From exploration stage. However, the natural appearance of the 2000 onwards, quite a number of buildings located in park has gradually changed since the involvement stage Shuiraosimen and Yuanjiajie that were considered a threat onward. This happened drastically during the development to the ecological integrity of the park environment were stage wherein the park environment has been largely demolished and removed. Consequently, the number of transformed. The spatial pattern of residential houses and beds decreased from 8585 in 1999 to 5005 in 2004 (Table 1). built facilities at the exploration phase was dispersed and As a result of increasing transformation and commer- dotted, but evolved into a linear pattern during the cialization of the park environment, the park’s air quality involvement period with more lodging facilities built and ground water quality have deteriorated over time and around Luoguta, Shuiraosimen, and Yuanjiajie (Fig. 3). problems peaked at the development stage. In addition, The development stage featured further ribbon develop- wildlife and their habitats have been largely disturbed. ment. The success of the first hotels acted as a catalyst for With reference to the air quality of the park, the main more hotels to be built, and these were built behind the first polluting sources are coal and oil consumption, and gas hotels because land close to the roads became less emissions from vehicles (Shi, 2005) that are concentrated in available. Thus the hotels spread out little by little along three locations: Luoguta, Shuiraosimen, and Yuanjiajie. As the road leading to the main entrance of the park and a shown in Table 2, coal consumption was 70 t in 1981 (the ribbon development pattern was formed. Some indoor exploration stage). This increased to 1200 t in 1985 (the businesses were moved outside as stalls and booths for the involvement stage) and jumped to 6100 t in 1998 (develop- purpose of visitor’s convenience. During this period, two ment stage). Accordingly, the amount of pollutants for SO2,NOx, and smog increased exponentially from the exploration to the development stage. Shi (2005) also reported, based on a pollution index analysis, that air quality in Luoguta was moderately polluted in 1984 and 1988 (the involvement stage), but was severely polluted each year from 1993 to 1999 (the development stage). Ground water in the park has also increasingly deteriorated over time as a result of the increasing consumption of water and discharge of sewage (Table 3). For example, water consumption increased from 6000 t in 1981 (the exploration stage), increased to 20,000 t in 1985

Table 2 Coal consumption and resulting emission of pollutants (unit: tons)

1981 1982 1985 1990 1995 1998

Coal consumption 70 500 1200 2300 6300 6100

SO2 4.20 30.00 72.00 138.00 378.00 366.00 NOx 0.25 1.81 4.34 8.33 22.81 22.08 Smog 6.44 46.00 110.40 211.60 579.60 561.20

Fig. 3. The built-up area change of ZNFP. Source: Shi (2005). Environmental impact assessments of forest parks.

Table 3 always seen white foams on the surface of water. But the Water consumption and sewage discharge ( 1000 tons) colour of stones under the stream has become gray and black.’’ Year 1981 1982 1985 1990 1995 1999 Biodiversity in the park has also been adversely impacted Water consumption 6 10 20 160 230 250 by tourism development. Activities such as quarrying rock, Sewage discharge 5 9 18 144 207 225 building roads and paths, logging, planting, constructing Source: Shi (2005). Environmental impact assessments of forest parks. gardens, and other activities pursued by visitors are among the negative impacts affecting wildlife behavior and their habitats. These activities have destroyed the integrity of the natural ecosystem, reduced the migratory and movement Table 4 frequency of animals, reduced the diffusion speed of plant Population structure of ZNFP from 1982 to 2005 seeds, and fragmented wildlife habitats. Consequently, the richness of park biodiversity is lower than before. Accord- Year Total Non-agriculture Percent of population population (NP) NP (%) ing to the data derived for this study, the number of species and mammal population of the park have decreased since 1982 1092 174 15.9 1980. Significant examples include species such as red dog 1985 1723 643 37.3 (Cuon alpinus), musk deer (Moschus berezovskii), goral 1990 2828 1098 38.8 Nemorhedus goraI Selenarctos 1995 3291 1193 36.3 ( ), Asiatic black bear ( 2000 3310 2590 78.2 thibetanus), clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), and masked palm civet (Paguma larvata), which are no longer 2005 3495 2630 75.3 present within the park. In addition, the population of Source: Zhangjiajie National Forest Park Administration (2006). rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) has decreased from approximately 30 in 1982 to 7 in 2003. Shi (2005) also examined the fauna diversity of the park by looking into (the involvement stage) and then reached 250,000 t in 1999 the extent to which local residents can perceive the (the development stage), resulting in an increased discharge existence of a particular species. He found that 87%, of sewage from 5000 t in 1981 to 225,000t in 1999. As is the 80%, and 94% of respondents reported that birds, beasts, case for coal consumption, Luogota consumed the largest and reptiles were, respectively, visible in the late 1970s (the amount of water and is the main pollution source for the exploration stage). However, this perception rate reduced GWS. Before and at the beginning of the establishment of to 56%, 38%, and 39%, respectively, during the late 1980s the park, the stream was regarded as unique in Asia (Xia, (the involvement stage), and dropped rapidly to 35%, 2004), and was 7500 m long with transparent, crystal water 16%, and 7%, respectively, during the late 1990s (the and well protected vegetation. However, from 1990 development stage). onwards, the water quality in the stream deteriorated with each passing year (Shi, 2005). For instance, according to 5.2.2. Socio-cultural changes the local environmental monitoring department, the In 1982, there were 1092 permanent residents in the park, average value of chemical oxygen demand (COD) sampled including a small number of non-agricultural population of in the Laomouwan segment of GWS increased from 174. Twenty-three years later, the permanent population 0.79 mg/L in 1984 to 2.5 mg/L in 2000 (Quan, 2003). increased to 3495 with the majority of the population being The main reason for deteriorating water quality was the non-agricultural residents, totalling about 2630 in 2005 rapid transformation of Luoguta located in the upper (Table 4). This growth in total population is a direct reaches of the GWS. Luoguta directly discharged its consequence of people migrating from the rest of the human waste from the hotel and other facilities to GWS. country to the park seeking better jobs and higher incomes. According to Yang and Zhou (2005), the daily highest This drastic increase of a non-agricultural population discharge of sewage was 2800 t and the annual sewage signifies the transition of the area from being agriculturally drainage was approximately 700,000 t in 2002, which was oriented to tourism oriented. The survey for this study discharged into the stream without first being treated (but indicated that 60.8% of local residents’ incomes were by 2005 a waste water treatment center was finally in primarily from tourism. In addition, 87.9% of local operation). Given a relatively small volume of flow of the residents reported that their quality of life was positively stream (i.e., daily flow volume is only between 34,000 and affected by tourism development. And 93.4% of respon- 86,000 m3 even in an abundant water season), the discharge dents preferred developing tourism for more income rather of sewage in large quantities is beyond the self-purification than limiting its development for a quiet living environ- capability of the stream, resulting in the contamination of ment. Similar findings were also reported by Wu and Liu its water quality (Yang & Zhou, 2005). One local guide (2003). described the serious situation of water pollution in GWS: Previous studies have found that tourism development in ‘‘I have not drunk the water directly from the stream at all the park has generated negative impacts on local residents after the middle 1990s as I did when I was young. I have in terms of the retention of local cultural traditions (Wu &

Liu, 2003). In our visitor survey, 86.3% of respondents 5.2.3. Economic changes reported that they did not feel a strong ethnic ambience Although this area was only 30 km from the nearest during their stay in the park and only 7.7% of participants town, Dayong, in the early 1980s, there were no major perceived that local residents were hospitable and friendly. roads connecting the area to the rest of the country because This suggests that local residents’ friendliness towards of its mountainous nature. Local residents who lived in tourists has gradually faded over time. Instead, they are Zhangjiajie village and Yuanjiajie village mainly depended more interested in earning more and more. In the case of on agriculture and forestry to make a living with the local residents’ perceptions of tourists, 54.5% of respon- average annual individual income being about 193 RMB in dents reported that they ‘liked’ or ‘liked very much’ the 1981. Local residents’ income increased rapidly since the way tourists were dressed, while only 2.5% of them involvement stage onwards. For instance, the annual expressed a very negative view about the way tourist average income per capita increased to 4000 RMB in dressed. 2002 (Zhangjiajie National Forest Park Administration, With tourism development in the park, opposition and 2004). According to one resident interviewed in Yuanjiajie, discontent among local permanent residents increased and before 1982 the village was isolated from the outside world. peaked in the consolidation stage. One major issue is It took him about 4 h to walk from the village to the related to residency relocation, a plan implemented since nearest highway. His life was entirely dependent on crops. 2000 in response to the UNSECO warning that the whole The villagers often borrowed foods from other places due WSHIA, particularly ZNFP, has been largely transformed. to the shortage of rice. After 1983, increasing numbers of For example, a recent survey conducted by Li (2007) visitors came to the village. And the villagers began to indicated that 56% of residents were willing to move make money by providing accommodation and food for outside of the core areas. However, a significant number of tourists. The revenue from tourism in several families now residents remained reluctant to do so, mainly for two exceeded that from agriculture. The revenue for the park reasons. First, they were not satisfied with the relocation increased, too. The gross product of the forest farm in 1981 compensation that varied between villages. Second, finding was 268,000 RMB and the average annual personal income a new job in a new place was not easy for most of them. It was 640 RMB for park staff (Wang & Zhang, 1996). Since seems that the local government has not heeded local 1982 when the farm became a national forest park, the residents’ opinions, which has resulted in several petitions park revenue increased rapidly during the involvement against the local government (Li, 2007). stage from 1981 when it was 558,800 RMB to 1988’s The tourists’ experience, particularly nature-based ex- 9,101,500 RMB. The total revenue during the period was perience, was largely impacted adversely by increasing 2,940,100 RMB with an average being 420,014 RMB. commercialization and the transformation that took place Although revenue fluctuated during the development stage, in the transition from the exploration to the development the general trend was upwards. Revenue increased from stage. One tourist interviewed for this study said it felt like 6,844,200 RMB in 1989 to 23,808,000 RMB in 1999 with a he was in a commercial zone of a big city when they came total amount of 250,526,900 RMB with the average being to Luoguta. In addition, many peddlers who are local 22,775,172 RMB, approximately 54 times as much as the residents are present in the park. According to a tour guide, annual average revenue for the involvement stage. During although local residents earned extra money by selling the consolidation stage, the total revenue of 511,642,300 souvenirs and other local products to tourists, they also RMB was generated from 2000 to 2005 with an average negatively affected tourists’ experience by persistent pester- being 85,273,717 RMB, about 3.7 times the annual average ing, especially when they forced tourists to buy their revenue for the development stage (Fig. 2). merchandize. A local tourism company manager also Tourism development in the park and the whole WSHIA complained that some areas within the park are too promoted economic development for Zhangjiajie City; this commercial, causing the disappearance of local natural and was particularly the case in the consolidation stage. For cultural characteristics and so putting at risk the features instance, in 2002, 59% of the city’s tax revenues were from that attracted tourists in the first place (Zhang & Ouyang, tourism and related sectors while in the early 1990s this 2004). percentage was about 20% (Liu, 2005). In 2005 the city’s Landscape change and some destruction have negatively tourism related industry accounted for 54.4% of city’s impacted on the aesthetic quality of the park. It has GDP (Liu, 2006). The industry structure has been rapidly destroyed the integrity and authenticity of the natural transformed from the primary sector and secondary sectors landscape that visitors come to see. One study evaluating to a tourism related tertiary sector oriented with the ratio the park’s landscape and its aesthetics indicated that the being 17.9:27.7:54.4, respectively, in 2005 (Liu, 2006). main negative factor affecting the quartz sandstone land- While acknowledging the positive effect of the economic scape of the park was the built environment of accom- development on local residents and the whole region, it modation facilities and services (Zhou & Yu, 2004). In this appears that income leakage existed, at least from the study, all 179 interviewees reported that the aesthetic perspective of local residents, with the increasing develop- quality has become worse when human facilities became ment of the park. For instance, because of the construction embedded in the natural landscape. and operation of the sightseeing lift, fewer tourists took

Please cite this article as: Zhong, L., et al. Tourism development and the tourism area life-cycle model: A case study of Zhangjiajie National Forest Park, China. Tourism Management (2007), doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2007.10.002 ARTICLE IN PRESS 12 L. Zhong et al. / Tourism Management ] (]]]]) ]]]–]]] sedan chairs rides. As noted by one local resident of were wide reaching and efforts were made to attract Zhangjiajie village, ‘‘My husband is a sedan chair carrier international tourists and to tap into other tourist markets. for visitors. His business has become worse since the International tourism (e.g., South Korean) increased sightseeing lift was in operation in 2002 because most significantly. These four distinct stages that the park has visitors preferred to take the lift to the top of the mountain experienced have not supported either Baum’s (1998) instead of hiking along the trail which is more physically assertion that the model has rather less value when applied and mentally challenging.’’ In our survey, when asked to developing countries, nor Weizenegger’s (2006, p. 137) about the fairness of the distribution of tourism income argument that ‘‘the model can be applied to protected areas among villagers, only 18.2% considered that the income to a limited degree only.’’ distribution was ‘very fair’ while 81.9% of respondents The identification of these four stages was further reported it was either ‘basically fair’ or ‘unfair.’ confirmed when comparing tourist numbers and Entrepreneurs are the stakeholders that have received revenues from one stage to the next. At the involvement most benefit. For example, the Tianzi Mount cable chair stage, the annual average arrivals were 11 times that concession operation had sales of about 500 million RMB of the exploration stage, while at the development stage, in 2002. This figure is more than the District’s financial the annual average arrivals were 2.3 times that of the income of 300 million RMB in 1998 (Zhang, 2002), and involvement stage. During the consolidation stage, this only a little less than the District’s total revenue from entry figure was 1.7 times that of the development stage. fees of 660 million RMB in 2005. According to Zhang Although tourist numbers have increased from 2000 to (2002), economic benefits that local government and 2005, the rate of increase was relatively low during the communities have received from tourism development are consolidation stage when compared to the previous stages. certainly less than investors’ profits. Furthermore, it was found the model applies to the park In sum, the park has been transformed considerably very well by reference to the relative changes of revenues since its inception. Certainly the change of physical for each stage. Specifically, at the development stage, the appearance was the most salient impact according to local annual average revenue was 54 times that of the involve- residents in our survey. When asked about the extent to ment stage. However, this trend slowed significantly when which local environment and socio-economic characteris- the park entered the consolidation stage, wherein the tics have been affected owing to tourism development of number was about 3.7 times that of the development stage. the park, 37.1% of respondents considered that the natural With this said, obvious discrepancies still exist. First, environment was affected most, followed by the socio- visitors outnumbered local residents right from the economic structure (31.4%), local life (18.6%), and local beginning of the process and remained so until the park customs (10.0%). reached the consolidation stage. It was only in the later part of the consolidation stage that visitors reached or even 6. Discussion outnumbered the regional population of 1.56 million. This suggests that the ratio between tourists and local residents The TALC has been rarely utilized in previous studies as a characteristic for the consolidation stage did not with reference to tourism and the development of national conform to usual understandings of the TALC in this case. parks and other protected areas. Certainly the concept has However one must note the role of the ‘open door policy’ not been applied to China’s protected areas, including and that, from 1978 onwards, China has seen rapid forest parks. This study examined its application to China’s economic development. The rapid improvement of people’s first national forest park—ZNFP. In addition, factors living standards and the formation of positive attitudes affecting the park’s tourism development and associated toward leisure and tourism has motivated travel, while the environmental, socio-cultural, and economic changes were Golden Week (i.e., three annual 7-day national holidays) also analyzed. Findings indicated that the park has implemented in 1999 by the central government has experienced four stages (i.e., exploration, involvement, stimulated travel. In this sense, tourism development of development, and consolidation stages) that confirm the park mirrors the national development. Butler’s (1980) paper. For example, in the exploration A second difference is that while Butler’s hypothesis stage the park was visited by pioneers who made the park states local residents are the primary providers of increasingly popular among the public. At the involvement accommodation at the exploration and involvement stage, government and public agencies began to provide or stages, in this case yet even more residents provided improve transport and other facilities for visitors. A mass accommodation in the latter stages. For example, in our tourism market began to emerge at this time. After that, survey on local residents, 7.3% of respondents reported the park entered a development stage characterized by a they provided lodging for tourists before 1982, but this rapid increase of tourists as well as a decline in local percent had increased to 29.0% in 2004. This increase is control of the development. In addition, changes in the partly explained by the ZNFP and local government physical appearance of the park became very noticeable. encouraging local resident participation in hospitality Finally, at the consolidation stage, the area’s economy provision in the form of family hostels as a means of became largely tied to tourism. Marketing and advertising income generation.

A third difference lies in the park having had its fullest own destruction, as they allow themselves to become more infrastructure during the development stage. That is, road commercialized and lose their qualities which originally construction, artificial facilities, and other ancillary facil- attracted tourists’’ (Butler, 1980, p. 6) seems to not apply to ities had either been completed or commenced during this a destination that is mostly visited by non-repeat visitors, stage (e.g., the sightseeing lift). No more spaces are now as evidenced by the park. available for further facility development and road A fifth difference is that while sightseeing of the unique construction. As a result, physical carrying capacity has scenery is and will continue to be the dominant tourism been reached. In addition, the environmental quality of the activity in the park, it can be anticipated that even when park declined to a point below national standards, the park enters its stagnation stage, ‘‘heavy reliance on suggesting environmental capacity has been exceeded. This repeat visitation’’ (Butler, 1980, p. 8) will continue to be suggests that it was during the development, not stagnation unimportant. This challenges Lundtorp and Wanhill’s stage as described by Butler (1980), that carrying (2001) argument that the TALC model can only apply to capacities were reached. In contrast, environmental those destinations whose visitors are repeaters. quality was improved during the consolidation stage Finally, the park was made public by pioneers such as because of the use of environmentally friendly buses, journalists, painters, and photographers at the exploration recycling of sewage, and reduction of coal consumption stage who have continued to visit the park through the (Bu, 2006). Carrying capacities are not fixed. Rather, they consolidation stage and beyond, and have in fact been are dynamic. Physical capacity in the park increased joined by others of similar interests. rapidly during the development stage as described above. The evolution of the park’s tourism development has For example, the construction of paved road networks, the been a function of many factors, including consumers, sightseeing lift, and the cableway system sped up the rate of government, entrepreneurs, and tour operators/agencies. tourist movements in the park, thereby increasing physical First, the increase of visitors in a large number prompted carrying capacity. the increase in facilities and services in the park to meet the Fourth, tourist numbers have not fallen as a result of needs of tourists. The park is 30 km from Zhangjiajie City, environmental decline and the loss of opportunity for an and it takes at least 2 days to visit the most attractive scenic ‘authentic’ nature based tourism experience. This could be spots within the park. In addition, living in or adjacent to explained by four reasons. First, the park’s landscape is the park can offer more chances to view the park scenery. unique and second to none in China or even worldwide. Thus, many visitors chose to stay in or adjacent to the park Second, although the construction of the sightseeing lift is during their visitations. This stimulated investors to build controversial, its main transport function may also be an more facilities in or adjacent to the park, and consequently attraction for tourists. Third, sightseeing is the prevalent increased the transformation of the park environment. activity in the park. Tourists visiting the park may not Government has played a crucial role in planning, come for the purpose of being in close contact with nature. regulating, and coordinating the park’s development. The Rather, they came to marvel at the wonder of nature, and planning process involved several sectors from solely then be whisked away to other places. These tourists can be within the province at the involvement stage, but later considered as soft ecotourists who have a high requirement development involved regional consideration with experts for convenience and comfort, e.g. in transport. This is from other provinces becoming engaged in further plan- particularly the case for Korean visitors, many of whom ning. The planning was then carried out at the national are elderly and in packaged tours with low levels of level at the consolidation stage with policy makers and physical challenge. Such tourists are less likely to be critical experts from the central government being the major of artificial facilities in the park. In this study the majority actors. With this said, irrational planning at the early stage of visitor respondents (54.4%) were highly supportive of of the park’s development has contributed to the environ- the construction of the cable trams while only 19.9% were mental deterioration. In 1984, a master plan of the park strongly against. Likewise, local residents’ attitudes were adhered to the planning principle of maximization of also very supportive. For instance, 49.0% of resident visitor satisfaction, but ignored the fact that Luoguta lies in respondents were either ‘supportive’ or ‘very supportive’ the upper area of the GWS watershed. Luoguta in the plan of the existence of the lift and 58.0% of them either was regarded as the reception area of the park. Thus more ‘agreed’ or ‘strongly agreed’ with the construction of the and more waste water flowed into the GWS with the trams. Finally, the majority of tourists (72.7% in our increase of overnight visitors in this area. In 1992, the survey and 84.2% in Luo, 2006) are first time visitors. master plan of WSHIA including the park was approved Thus, while crowding is reported by most visitors to be a by the Ministry of Construction of China. The idea of major issue in peak seasons (Luo, 2006) and visual constructing a sightseeing lift was proposed in that plan. disturbance adversely affects visitor’s satisfaction, Since this park was designated a UNESCO world heritage given that many are one-time visitors such negative site in December 1992, many environmental experts experiences will only very slowly negatively impact on opposed this idea because of its magnitude and the fear it future visitor numbers. Thus, Plog’s assertion that ‘‘desti- would destroy the integrity of the landscape. According to nation areas carry with them the potential seeds of their the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World

Cultural and Natural Heritage adopted by the General 7. Conclusion Conference of UNESCO in 1972, protecting the integrity of the landscape is one of the goals for World Heritage The park has experienced the first four stages as designation (Xie, 2000). However, the sightseeing lift was described by Butler in his seminal article. Since its still subsequently completed due to the expected economic establishment in 1982, the park has been transformed over benefit. the past two decades from a less accessible forest farm to a This leads to a further lesson, namely that with the world renowned tourism destination now accessible by evolution of the park’s development even the government trains, vehicles, and airplanes. The macrosocial and began to lose control of tourism development. Instead, economic change since 1978 when China adopted an entrepreneurs, through multinational investment, have open-door policy, has seen governments at all levels, largely impacted politicians’ decision making. The above- celebrities, and entrepreneurs all playing essential roles as mentioned construction of the controversial sightseeing lift catalysts in this rapid transformation. Government offi- is a good example. The lift was operated in 2002, was then cials, at all levels, have been major players from the very forced to stop operating a year later under the reason that beginning in planning, regulating, and directing where the it was not a project approved by local government, but park should go and how, through personal visitations then the lift was re opened for business in 2004 after being and comments, policy making, granting privileged land use appraised and approved by experts to be a safe and for concessionaires, events organizations, and domestic/ environmentally friendly construction. international marketing. Under the central government’s policy of alleviating Although theoretically the park will enter a stage of poverty through tourism development tourism has come to stagnation and then post-stagnation stage, it seems be regarded as a new economic growth point by govern- that dramatic and total decline is unlikely to occur ment officers at all levels (Zeng, 2006). The tourism because such a decline is unacceptable both economically industry has been developed with more attention paid to and politically (see Agarwal, 1994), given the region’s its economic aspects and less to its negative environmental heavy reliance on tourism and the public nature of the impacts. In order to promote the development of the destination. Government intervention and regulation is regional tourism industry, local governments have adopted inevitable. However, this does not apply to particular a policy of privilege for investors, including low prices for segments of the tourism market. For example, the Korean leasing land, tax exemption, and rapid approval of market, which started and rapidly increased during the applications. Furthermore, there is no legislation that deals consolidation stage, may experience its own micro-life with forest parks despite the fact that forest parks are cycle, in that the market will become saturated and then China’s most heavily impacted protected areas. For decline or even exit from the destination. In foreseeing this example, the existing Forest Park Management Regulation possible future, the park has taken a proactive measure to allows commercial development to occur within the park start focusing on the North American market. This other than in rare natural/cultural spots or core scenic potential market may emerge before the Korean market zones (Clause 11). Legislation is also inadequate for declines and may also experience its own cycle from controlling tourism development within China’s nature growth to stagnation and even to exit. Thus, in the long reserves (Han & Zhuge, 2001). Similar shortcomings exist run, the area may be described by Handy’s (1994) sigmoid for scenic areas. For instance, Clause 2 in the Provisional curve, wherein old products may exist in tandem with Act of Scenic Area Management provides the basis for newly introduced ones (also see Baum, 2006). The overlapping and multiple administration of protected areas sequential entry of new market segments may also follow because any nature reserve or forest park could be assigned the shape described by Haywood (1986), wherein a the designation ‘scenic area’ so long as they meet given standard S curve shape may not be followed in the same conditions. This gives rise to conflicting controls, while the way by each segment. legacy of most existing legislation and policies lies in the This micro-life cycle may also be experienced by any context of a centrally planned economy that is currently given segment of the domestic market. For example, being slowly dismantled, thereby again generating mixed repeat visitors may become less likely to visit if they have planning outcomes. Consequently today China is increas- visited more than once because of the nature of ingly assigning national scenic areas to the operation of activities being largely related to sightseeing. In addition, concessionaires and private owners. Therefore, new laws or those who come to seek the authenticity of being close to policies are necessary to deal with this issue. nature may turn to other places after their first visitation Finally, tour operators/agencies have been playing an because of the park’s loss of naturalness and increase of important role in bringing more tourists to the park since commercialization. It is hard to say that such micro-life the involvement stage onwards, particularly at the con- cycles, as experienced by a given market segment solidation stage when Korean tourists swarmed to the park for the park, will significantly affect the long term as packaged tours. Without the coordinated operation sustainability of the park, given its uniqueness and the between tour operators/agencies in both countries, Korean fact that domestic visitors are and will remain as the main inflow in large numbers is not possible. market component.

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