Becoming Lithuanian: Jewish

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In partialIn A CCULTURATION CCULTURATION IN THE B fulfillment ECOMING Supe Department of Department

of the requirements for the degree offorthe degree requirements the of rvisor: Professor rvisor: Central European University European Central Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Tadas Janu Tadas L Submitted to Submitted ITHUANIAN

Nationalism Studies Nationalism 2010 By

šauskas Michael L.Miller Michael

I NTERWAR NTERWAR

J EWISH EWISH

Master of Artsof Master P ERIOD

CEU eTD Collection Jewrysomethe extent wasacculturated. interwarJewishidentity ofaswasthe no there Lithuania, community of that argues thesis this weekly, archival the mostly and sources using thus, and language, Lithuanian internalize not did Union the even Lithuanian mutual of context the in medium “Ap weekly language Jewish of Union Soldi The Jews. the by mostly society, the of groups some by promoted also literateofmostinthemmajority‟s language.were the byindications aret thereit, that often how used vernacular majorities‟and language state learnthe culturally distantone. most the and minority largest the as state independent majorities‟ neighboring Abstract ers (active 1933 (active ers n o te es acluae Jwis n uoe Ltuna Jwy sepd into stepped Jewry, Lithuanian Europe, in Jewries acculturated least the of One This slight shift of identity of Lithuanian Jewry, which is heavily underheavilyis which Jewry, Lithuanian identity of shift of slight This

The new state was nationalizing, thus the Jews, along with other minorities had to minoritieshadto other Jews,with thealong was nationalizing, thus state new The

- ţvalga 1940) was the most prominent advocator in this field. Their Lithuanian field. inTheir this advocator prominent most the was 1940) –

Lithuanian. Although it stays unclear how well the Jews learned the learnedthe Jews wellhow the staysitunclear Although Lithuanian. ” (en. “Review”; published 1935 published “Review”; (en. ”

- ii eih eonto. oee, s t s s is it as However, recognition. Jewish

even in the most extreme cases of shifting shifting of cases extreme most the in even

- 1940) became the main public public main the became 1940) similation, and only to similation,onlyand to he end of the 1930s 1930s ofendthe he - researched, was researched,was hown, hown, - CEU eTD Collection Dovilė administrator and Culture Jurgita prof. of director (Vilnius), Jews Studies European East for of History Centre the of staff the and Kiss, Peter Igra, Alma Kirimova, Tamás Etelka Kerpė, Laurynas Venckaitis, Gvidas Budginaitė, Irma Brazaitytė, Eglė friends my family, haveMichael Miller.I L. heavilyrelied his on guidance. Acknowledgments a etrl gaeu fr upr ad ep f y ohr iia auasin, my Janušauskienė, Vilija mother my of help and support for grateful entirely am I am I thankfulvaluafor also prof. supervisor my of support the without possible been have not would thesis This CentralUniversityfunded researchforEuropean Foundation thesis.this the ŢivilėMygoes Adulčikaitė.specialto gratitude Thank you. Thankyou. - ah, Krisztina Balha,

Troskovaitė.

Tímár, Maya Kim, Irina Zinca, Mairav Zonszein, Nigar Nigar Zonszein, Mairav Zinca, Irina Kim, Maya Tímár, bleZviadviceof Carstenprofessors and GitelmanWilke. iii

Šiaučiūnaitė - Verbickienė and and Verbickienė

CEU eTD Collection Bibliography Appendices Conclusions Furthest in3. “become strivethe Lithuanian” to State 2. Identities 1. Introduction Tableofcontents Acknowledgments Abstract Table of contents 3.4. Jewishness3.4. Unionofquestionthethe and ofacculturation Stances3.3. variouson question 3.2. TheUnion3.1. ofJewish Soldiers Voluntary2.2. contacts Nationalizingin2.1. policies education Jews1.2. Lithuanians1.1. 3.3.4. The“Vilnius 3.3.4. question Fighting 3.3.3. anti the Lithuanian 3.3.2. language Conversations 3.3.1. with elite Activity 3.1.2. Union the of Members 3.1.1. Unionofthe Assoc 2.2.2. Introducing 2.2.1. culture one‟s Materialslearnspeak and2.1.3. love to to to used Schooling 2.1.2. insystemnumbers Legis 2.1.1. Overviewof“Apţvalga“ - imposedvoluntaryandcontacts

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CEU eTD Collection providedEnglish translation might coincide not with act TheN.B. publication will appear in English, howeverworkingthe title onlyis inknownLithuanian. The Forthcoming in2010). 4 bibliographylist. LiteratureN.B. andsources that appearinLithuanian in the referencestranslatedare into English inthe amţiausiki a.pabaigosXX 1995);Mendelsohn, MashaGreenbaum, 3 1983),Press, 215. 2 Vilnius‟ controlledregion by Poland1920 “LithuanianJewry” refersto Jewsthe inliving Yiddishcertain dialect, that covered today‟s Lithuania and mostof Byelorussia. However, within this thesis 1 relation become Recognition: “Mutual period. interwar the in Jewry Lithuanian with They learnedlanguage,inLithuanianparticipatedlife. cultural and political communities. two of bridging the in actively more involved they thus Jews, the for mor was process thisclearly culture, Jewish inthe interested Lithuanians being of signs were there though Even waned. alienation mutual the independence the to attracted never state the as Lithuanian language with state, a “owned” Lithuanians Before neighbor. immediate history Introduction

Abipusispaţinimas: letuviųţydųir ku To few:name a EzraMendelsohn, Quiteoften “Li h etbihet f h idpnet ihain tt i 11, o te is tm in time first the for 1918, in state Lithuanian independent the of establishment The ihu aydtisti rcs i mnind n h eea hist general the in mentioned is process this details any Without s in terms of mutual recognition (not in the very common context of measuring and and measuring of context common very the in (not recognition mutual of terms in s created preconditions for the Lithuanian Jewry Lithuanian the for preconditions created the de jure jure de very thuanianJewry” equaledis towhat Yiddishis in called

DovLev

JewsLithuania of Historya ofa RemarkableCommunity, 1316 The Jews of East CentralEurope Between Worldthe Wars The JewsEast of CentralEurope… and

is atmt o cdmcly ae clo a take academically to attempt first

in, backward society of Lithuanians. However, during over two decades of of decades two over during However, Lithuanians. of society backward de facto de

(Vilnius:Alma Littera, 2007). D

Litvaks.AShort History ofthe JewsLithuania in sore of iscourse

, the least acculturated Jewry of the East Central Eur Central East the of Jewry acculturated least the , ltūriniųsaitų diskursas - 1940. C sidethe borders of Lithuanian state of 1918 ultural

3 1 ;Solomonas Atamukas ual oftitle collection.the

L However, a forthcoming a However,

ns ewe Lithuanians between inks , ed. Jurgita, Šiaučiūnaitė 1

to take interest in the culture of the the of culture the in interest take to litvak(e)s e lo it Lithuanian into look ser

(Jerusalem:Yad Vashem, 2000); , (NewIndianaYork: University

Lietuvosţydų kelias: nuoXIV e important and significant significant andimportant e , basically , linguistic a group of

- 1945

oriography that deals deals that oriography - Verbickienė(Vilnius, collection of articles articles of collection (Jerusalem:Gefen, - 1940,excluding

n Jews and ope, - ” Jewish Jewish 4 2

was was will will CEU eTD Collection 9 8 7 Lithuania,”in 6 2002),397, 402. 1750 Scienti “Ţydailietuvių istoriografijoje,”in 5 Lithuanianauthors to next library the of shelves the on etc. Tolstoy, Leo Dostoyevsky, Fyodor not he Illustratively culture. Lithuanian to turn to and barrier conscious and mental this cross hardly have could self historically Jews, that saying, by further goes rather concludes Zalkin exte certain a “to culture, efforts these that carefully, Lithuanian know to get to language, Lithuanian learn to able were Jews which in ways the analyzing After literature. the in untouched basically very This primitiveruralsociety”. sin majority surrounding cultural their the to of drawn heritage never were Jews Lithuanian that clear it makes Zalkin all, of First understandmatter). histhat for significancewhole reader theof researchto (and collection press. Jewish the in mostly presented and Hebrew and Yiddish to translated were artifacts cultural Holocaust). anti of level the comparing

Unknowntothe outside world. Ibid. Ibid. MordechaiZalkin, “„On aBridge On influencethe of knowledge ofHolocaust the inwriting pre - 1939,” in

6 ficConference, Vilnius (1999), 9;Michael Stanislawski, “Eastern European Jewry in Modernthe Period: Mordechai Zalkin contributes to the forthcoming anthology with an analysis of what what of analysis an with anthology forthcoming the to contributes Zalkin Mordechai Jewishcommunity, and, above due all, tovery the ratelowof localanti local the to granted autonomy educational and cultural the arena; political involvementformed newly the to due mainly waned, gradually was alienation of mutual sense this state Lithuanian the of establishment the following decade first the during

Before doing that, that, doing Before

waning 5 Abipusispaţinimas…

Severalfromthisarticles a anthology OxfordHandbook of JewishStudies

of alienation that author mentions is the his the is mentions author that alienation of 9

likeVincas Mykolaitis cs ta a eih tdn cud ae en ok b Charles by books seen have could student Jewish a that ices, 7

Second, he Second, states that:

the

ofWords‟:The Jewish Encounter withLithuanian CultureinInterwar VilniausGaonas ţydųir kultūros keliai

author makes several valuable observ valuable several makes author - .

Semitism, in some cases even as a precondition for the the for precondition a as even cases some in Semitism, - , ed. Martin, Goodman (Oxford: Oxford University Press, Putinas or Vincas Krėvėor Putinas ce it was a product of “primeval undeveloped undeveloped “primeval of product a was it ce nt”, “most probably” did not bear any fruits. He He fruits. any bear not did probably” “most nt”, 2

re available. re - perceiving as “the people of the book,” book,” the of people “the as perceiving - Shoah historysee: ,proceedings of International

torical process, which remains remains which process, torical

- ations, which enables the the enables which ations, Micekvičius. EgidijusAleksandravičius, - Semiticacts. of Jews in the the in Jews of the 10

ok by works Dickens, Dickens, CEU eTD Collection 17 Mendelsohn,Jehuda Reinharz, and ChoneShmeruk (Hanover: University Pressof New England,1991), 305. TrilingualA Jewish Culture,” in 16 15 shortlypresented inChapter 2.2.1. 14 13 12 1940),” in 11 Mendelsohn, the newreigning language and asked“Where [are] Lithuanianthe Pushkins andTolstoys?”. See: educatedinRussianthe culture, and doorsteptheat of Lithuanian independence found himselftotally ofignorant 10 young the of somesegments that states again she that, only Not Jews. among language the of internalization the stressed and Lithuanian promoting than further went “Apţvalga” noticed, weekly”. the was So patriotic. extremely but cause, Lithuanian the to loyal only not acculturationJewryofthe phenomenonitself. athus and Jewi the of appearance late a such Lithuanian of (Re)Liberation the in Participated Independence” who Soldiers Jewish the of “Union inpre research her of object main the at arrives and historiography general of repetition long a in involves cases. some in communication internal for also used was Lithuanian that evidence is “there that claim, interesting an makes author the questions, raising Besides questions: importan few a up opens she manner this in and details any in literature the in considered non in Jews the of proficiency the that notices she study, her

AnnaVerschik, “Towards Historical Sociolingu Jewishpress inPolish, for example, dates back to1823 Lt.“Ţydų dalyvavusiųkarių Lietuvos nepriklausomybės sąjunga“. atvadavime firstThe periodical published by Lithuanian Jewsin was “M Ibid. Ibid. AnnaVerschik, “Towards Historical Sociolinguistics: Lithuanian Jewry the and Weekly Apţvalga (1935 ThisJewish student is mostlikely Moyshe Halpern, Mendelsohn‟s imagined representativeJew, wawho -

profi highly became and time Werevarietiesthere Lithuanian, of used particularlyJews shortby ethnolects)? (i.e., a Jewish in of Lithuanian segment mastered the was that large population How … used? Lithuanian was whom with how i.e., and use, often and proficiency of terms the in mean Lithuanian of acquisition did What i particular Of Holocaust Lithuanianhistory.Jewish Holocaust

– AbipusisPaţinimas…

“Apţvalga” (en. “Review”), one of the two Lithuanian two of“Review”),onethe“Apţvalga” (en.

OnModern Jewish Politics 15

(thereinafter the Union, Union of Jewish soldiers). It is worth noticing, that noticing, worth is It soldiers). Jewish of Union Union, the (thereinafter nterest is the contribution of Estonian sociolinguist Anna Verschik. Anna sociolinguist Estonian of contribution the is nterest

JewsPoland of between Two World Wars .

(Ne wYork: Oxford University 1993),Press, 41. h esae i yt nte idcto o te un the of indication another yet is newspaper sh istics…”. 14

T 3 his weekly was published in1935 weeklywashispublished

- 1824.See:

ūsų garsas”ūsų (en. “Our Voice”) in1924 andis 16

ChoneShmeruk, “Hebrew

Vershik Unionthe argues“was that , ed. Yisrael, Gutman, Ezra - Jewish languages has not been not has languages Jewish - language Jewish periodicals languageJewish periodicals

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CEU eTD Collection vastmajority1930sthe ableofwereJews mid the by that indications many are there open, stays minority largest the among known was Lithuanian well how of question the Although 1930s. the of part latter the in newspaper c 1920s the in numbers large very in Lithuanian learned that youth Jewish the i.e. second, the of research the for important very is perspective first the of analysis the light, this In “Apţvalga”. weekly its and Union the of activity the in taken int utmost the Lithuanians, among culture Jewish the about knowledge the spreading of idea the spreading both, in interested was that group two of bridging the in Jews, communi the by mostly engagement, voluntary the is perspective Second Lithuanian. of teaching the to given be will attention special where system, education persp two from done is Lithuanian” “becoming of process the of Analysis period. interwar the in Lithuanians and answered. and democratic proc both these in with played rule, state, authoritarian the did role What culture? majority‟s Jewry Lithuanian the the in were interested extent what to Jewry, Baltic the of Zionism in interest great state Jews the extent the what To internalizedright? was Who language. even Jews of groups some that proclaimed Vershik while culture, be said are hasanswe to there no though, that It proved. are claimsher of none questionsand proposed the of answerany not does it object, an as and source a as both newspaper the analyze to first the was who Vershik, of research H themselves. among Lithuanian of users active became generation Zalkin was very reserved in evaluating the success of the Jews turning to Lithuanian to turning Jews the of success the evaluating in reserved very was Zalkin This thesis aims at contributing to the discourse of mutual recognition between Jews Jews between recognition mutual of discourse the to contributing at aims thesis This ties. Assuming that the mentionedimportantmostand activemost Assumingthe wasthat theUnion the ties.

ectives. First, showing the nationalizing policies of the state in the the in state the of policies nationalizing the showing First, ectives. esses? Many questions occur and none of them are are them of none and occur questions Many esses? to read theto weekly. r inhistoriography other r well. as 4

learned Lithuanian? Having in mind the the mind in Having Lithuanian? learned Lithuanianness ould have been the readers of the the of readers the been have ould

owever important is the the is important owever among the Jews and and Jews the among

erest is erest - CEU eTD Collection Universitetas, 2000). 21 Universitetas, 2000). 20 19 18 Lithuania. in gymnasiums period interwar the in minorities national of schools analyzes Šetkus Benediktas 2000; in defended dissertations “acculturation” itsconnectionto bein Chapwilldiscussed “adoption”and of level of question The Union. the of case the in before known never history the exploring on (2) and before, used never perspective a from system education of analysis concentration more be will there Instead thesis. the of most the through used of be not will definition terms two the these terminology, the in of complexity the mean of Because “acculturation”? “adoption” the does what remains question clear a research, abandonidentityJewish altogether”. their to or majority… identity ofthe used; be language,” its can Mendelsohn by made “adoption an is acculturation “acculturation” and “assimilation” of division simplistic a thesis, the of argument the understanding of purpose the For clarification. some Jews. assimilatedHowever, instancesanthese separate not indicationare general of process. were there that fact, the negate not does argument This acculturated. was Jewry the argues, by but language, Lithuanian of acquisition the through someextent, to only and assimilation, no was there Lithuania, of community Jewish interwar

SadaPetruţienė, “Ţydų švietimasLietuvoje: gimnazijų rai BenediktasŠetkus, “Tautinių maţumų mokyklaLietuvoje 1918 Ibid. Mendelsohn, lal,oeaino uh vague such of operation Clearly, the of identity shifting of cases extreme most the in even that argue, will thesis This h aayi o te dcto sse o te ioiis a dn in done was minorities the of system education the of analysis The

TheJews EastCentral of Europe 18

hl asmlto i udrto a “h Jw‟ fot o dp h national the adopt to effort Jews‟ “the as understood is assimilation while

a nd Sada Petruţiene deals mostly with the development of Jewish Jewish of development the with mostly deals Petruţiene Sada nd

In a publication on national minorities in Lithuania during the the during Lithuania in minorities national on publication a In

of the external characteristics of the majority culture, above all all above culture, majority the of characteristics external the of terms as “assimilation” and “acculturation” requires requires “acculturation” and “assimilation” as terms …,2.

dadabartinė ir vidurinė mokykla” (diss., Kailpėdos - 1940metais” (diss., Vilniaus Pedagoginis no means internalization as Vershik Vershik as internalization means no ter 3.4. ter

In the lightofthis In the w doctoral two on, (1) the the (1) on,

CEU eTD Collection 27 26 25 overestimated 24 galiosgimtis 23 22 majorYiddish,theshortcoming inabilityis thesisoftheuse them.to MinistryAffairs.ofInternal Administr Governor‟s County Kaunas Independence, Lithuanian of (Re)Liberation the of files internal of: the consist of stance the analyzing in o activity the and source questions many on organization total) in pages 1700 (over large quantitatively a and valuable a considered is weekly the ideas, Union‟s the of promotion the in medium Lithuania of Archive State Central the at Union the of documents the namely, Union, ofthe history disclose the to used were valuablesources Jewry.Lithuanian well.Nonetheless, good allstudiesa take arethese makingassumptions. from hi restraining data, presenting only is Kaubrys and all, at convincing not are cases subject. this of st important education to chapter a devotes Kaubrys Saulius period, interwar

Censorshipandpossible ofbiasis course Lt.Lietuvos valstybėsCentrinis archyvas. abbreviationThe thefor references“LCVA“ willbe used. Levin, Nonetheless, contributionhis incollecting valuable data from interwarthe period ingeneral can be not Hisextensivemore study of schools interwar periodin SauliusKaubrys, The activity of the Union is mentioned in several sentences in a few gene few a in sentences several in mentioned is Union the of activity The in are research this to relevant likely most are that documents archival of many As

Litvaks

(Vilnius:Statistikos tyrimai, 2000)

atistical data on the whole schooling system which helps to understand the outline understand outline the helps whichto schooling systemwhole the atisticalon data in studiesthe of Lithuanian history.

…, 180;Atamukas, 23

National MinoritiesLithuania: in an Outline

However, the conclusions drawn by Šetkus and Petruţienė in the most of of most the in Petruţienė and Šetkus by drawn conclusions the However, 25

The only more in more only The

In the mentioned dissertations there are many factual mistakes as as mistakes factualmany are there mentioned dissertations Inthe

Lietuvos

Union of the Jewish Soldiers who Participated in the the in Participated who Soldiers Jewish the of Union takeninto account. - depth analysis is the one by Vershik. In this thesis, two two thesis, this In Vershik. by one theis analysis depth ţydųkelias... ation and (2) the Administration Department of the the of Department Administration the (2) and ation –

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(Vilnius:Vaga, 2002), 140

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TimothySnyder, AdamMickiewicz, 1. In o In It is not by accident that in his distinguished work on national awakenings of Eastern Eastern of awakenings national on work distinguished his in that accident by not is It Thebeautywhole, because yearnthee.I for Howprecious,till lostI thee. likeArt goodhealth;neverI knew now till LithuaniaO

Identities 29

rder to understand the importance of the language in the interwar Lithuanian state, state, Lithuanian interwar the in language the of importance the understand to rder ioh Sye sat eey hpe o Lithuani on chapter every starts Snyder Timothy (AdamMickiewicz, “PanTadeusz”, 1834)

TheReconstruction , my , country, thou

PanTadeusz theor ForayLast Lithuania: in Historya ofthe Nobility in Yearsthe 1811

nothing obvious and clear about Lithuanianthe nothingabout clearobviousand case.

(HarrowPress,Gate 2006); Translationby Kress.Leonard

Now I seeNowI of Nations.Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus,1569

c. From a political civilization Lithuanians turned turned Lithuanians civilization political a From c.

28 7

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CEU eTD Collection “MikalojusRadvilaJuodasis”. 33 32 31 http://www.tvdu.lt/node/14(accessed February 28,2010). EgidijusAleksandravičius, "LT tapsmas"(lecture, Vytautas University,Magnus Kaunas, February 19,2009), Moreover,often the sublime Grand Duke of Lithu 30 years three born was who Mickiewicz, did nation.So the of end the as Commonwealth of end understood state, the to ascription political on identity his/her based who Pole, a even or 20 the in being cameinto that one the Lithuania, ofkind different However, inneitherimportanceidentity.wasof defining one‟s peasantry. by only spoken was Lithuanian while grew only politics and law in Kingdom. Polish the from as well as Moscow of hegemony withs and unanimous stay to need the GDL, the of integrity the advocating ( by that is It not accident, as Lithuanians. 1492. in died only. Polish in a the and two. other the surpassed Polish 14 the since used were Slavonic Chancery and Latin politics and practice legal “Polis origin, by “Lithuanian” law. of rule the and Duke Grand the to respect state, political the to belonging a was it Rather, everyone. and each defined that affiliation where civilizations, importance mere of political was language the Lithuanian were Commonwealth) (hereinafter Commonwealth ioa Radziwill Mikolaj

Lietuviškojitarybinė enciklopedija Ibid., Snyder, Aleksandravičius mentionsthat there manyaccounts referringto this understandingof Lithuanian identity. h Gad uh o Ltuna hriatr D) n ltr h Polish the later and GDL) (hereinafter Lithuania of Duchy Grand The At the time whe time the At 19

TheReconstruction - cts of Lublin Union in 1569 (which established the Commonwealth) were recorded recorded were Commonwealth) the established (which 1569 in Union Lublin of cts 20.

The last Grand Duke to know Lithuanian was Kazimieras IV (Casimir), who who (Casimir), IV Kazimieras was Lithuanian know to Duke Grand last The Nonetheless, considerable part of Polish of part considerable Nonetheless,

Th n the Commonwealth was partitioned (1795), there was no image of a a of image no was there (1795), partitioned was Commonwealth the n e

of Nations...

Black) spoke Polish in the Parliament when he was harshly harshly was he when Parliament the in Polish spoke Black)

h” in politics, and “Russian” (or “Greek”) by religion”. by “Greek”) (or “Russian” and politics, in h” , vol. 9, (Vilnius: Mokslo irenciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 1982), s.v. GDL„s Statute of 1529 was composed in Chancery Slavonic Slavonic Chancery in composed was 1529 of Statute GDL„s ,24.

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AntanasKulakausakas and EgidijusAleksandravičius, mory, and practice the same customs are objectively members of the nation. He also also He nation. the of members objectively are customs same the practice and mory, h hf f dniy eysol bgnwt oko fmu hi famous of work a with began slowly very identity of shift The Even though Bohusz‟s work introduced the “new” understanding of the Lithuanian Lithuanian the of understanding “new” the introduced work Bohusz‟s though Even oal –

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. In the study “On the Origins of Lithuanian Nation and and Nation Lithuanian of Origins the “On study the In . 34 uanian language grew throughout the century, the idea was was idea the century, the throughout grew language uanian

CarųValdţioje. XIX Amţi th - 1886, the idea o idea the 1886,

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(Vilnius:Baltos f a language fa uist uist - - CEU eTD Collection Letter read at: 1906):1. 35 inwillbesecond the discussed This it. use increasingly period interwar throughout and learn to forced now were minorities i.e. nation, “new” the of roots peasantry. the of life the on concentrated was course, of literature, 19 Thus, identity. these poetry literature sufficientpiecesor celebratingofwere old thenot GDLwere and However, Lithuanians. by written as read were and Lithuanian into translated were Lithuanianness Minsk,in lived wrote close to dailyPolish the “Vilniausto News”):ţinios“ (“Vilnius‟ by“oldin letter interestinglyLithuanian”. expressedthe one in (as Czech from “š“ borrowed “aušra”). a with changed was “sh” as English in written sound

S.Wojniłowiczowa, “Laiškas į“Viln. Ţin.”Redakciją,” … T … Lithuaniamade have you patriotismmisunderstood of Because our in done are deeds wrongful because complain, to hand my to a my ofdepths fromthe Editor, Dear s identities Lithuanian two of clash This For the first time in history Lithuanian became Lithuanian history in time first the For of indicator first the independence, proclaimed Lithuania when 1918, By mustall feel … Polish in write and speakwe that matter no we so … French speaks he though even land” holly my motherland, Lithuanian, “ speak wrote who Lithuanians, because … own, [this]. offered their kindly as science of men and poets geniuses, our Polesconsiderunderstandable isthat It Poles. are Lithuania in speakPolish

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Althoughmentioning of Heine,Börne andDisraeli besides thingsother referstot Amongothers, for a recent accountJulianon Tuwim see: Similarsituation was inthe MichaelOppenheim, who discussed th eople of the book”, the Jews, throughout six centuries of living next to Lithuanians had no no hadLithuanians to next living of centuriessix throughout Jews, the book”, the of eople 37 In the Jewish studies field, the issue of identity always always identity of issue the field, studies Jewish the In t s ey motn t udrtn ta wie in while that understand to important very is It sed)

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142,158, 160, 175,176 JewishSocial Studies identityJulianTuwim crisis of

, eds. , Richard I. Cohen andJonathan Frankel, Stefani Hoffman (Portland,Or.: Littman Library the availablethe data on the issue. Nonetheless, isit clear thatthe numberof conversions in “ acculturation

e of the major Jewish experiences in the 19 the in experiences Jewish major the of e JewishApostasy inthe ModernW

See: 36

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205. Instead, this Instead, 46,3/4(Autumn no. 1984): 220. - 177. ”

landsinPoland. For asimple account on the levelsof acculturation incase

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th chapter will draw attention to the Lithuanian Jewry as as Jewry Lithuanian the to attention draw will chapter

c.Russian EmpireStanislawski drewattention tovarious 38

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orld - à JoannaB.Michlic, “The Culture of Ethno -

JewsEast of CentralEurope…, Insider vis ,ed. ToddM. Endelman(New York/London:

her better. There are many reasons for many Thereare her reasons better. meit sronig utr, i.e. culture, surrounding immediate s ands Outsiders: Dilemmas ofEast - the cutdefinitions in Jewishthe identity seems to be more complex and and complex more be to seems Western and Central Europe Europe Central and Western th

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CEU eTD Collection Lietuvos(Vilnius: Istorijos Leidykla,Instituto 2004), 53 AleksandroII laikais,” in moreFor onshift the tothe Russian culture see: became 46 Lucyed. Dawidowicz S. (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University 1996),179 Press, 45 Levin, 44 Pasakojimas (1999),17 kalba,” in 43 “Paaugusiųwith his ţmoniųknygelė“ “Adolescent (en. People‟s Book”)(1868). 42 http://www.genocid.lt/GRTD/Konferencijos/lietuvi.htm#ŠarūnasLIEKIS (accessed December 2,2009). TeisiniaiPolitiniaiIr Aspektai, Balandţio23,1999 41 40 situationby wasencapsulated well Mendelsohn: pragmatism clear with ending and Tchaikovsky, or Dostoyevsky Tolstoy, Pushkin, by lead culture Russian rich with beginning Lithuanian. to not culture, Russian to turned Jewry Lithuanian culture, other any towards move to Jews the the urge to however, there was modernity If, identity. Jewish Lithuanian strong of reflections the were Byelorussia), Kovne), yid. Kaunas, of part a today of teaching rabbinical famous d more far culture. peasantry backward, the in attractive anything find hardly place. market a inexclusivelyalmostmet LithuaniansJewsand light, this In mobility.social limited empires multiconfessional to closer become to Jews the for reason a Lithuanians? was there if is ask to question reasonable

The turntoRussian culture and, more importantly, usagethe of Russian language amongLithuanianthe Jews M.Gertz,“The Old Man of Slobodka,” in NamesofLithuanian the townsYiddish in providedare here according toLevin„s translations.See: On the highlycelebrated Yiddish traditionof Lithuanian Jewry see: ŠarūnasLiekis, “Ţydų Lietuvojepadėtis ketvirtajame dešimt oppositeThe question ifLithuanians hadany inclination toturn to Jewish culture justis considered irrelevant. Not only that, the that, only Not

41 the of end the until Almost Litvaks

oneof reasonsthe of the hostilitytowards them,which will be discussed more in Chapter 42

vn f intensit if Even VilniausGaonas Ir ţydų Kultūros Keliai -

24;Dovid Katz, “Religinis Gaono prestiţas irpasaulietiškas Lietuvos ţydo kalbosjidiš prestiţas. Yiddish and increasingly important Hebrew cultures should probably be considered considered be probably should cultures Hebrew important increasingly and Yiddish apiesubtilias sąsajas,” in vlpd hn ht f ihain Srn Ydih tradition Yiddish Strong Lithuanian. of that than eveloped ..., 40

268

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Ţydųklausimas

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19 not to mention to not

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c. various communities of of communities various c. 46 12 -

84. It was an obvious choice for choice obvious an was It

metyje,”in Ţy - yeshivot ,ed. VladasSirutavičius Darius and Staliūnas Semitic, as, e.g., in Motiejus Valančius case Valančius Motiejus in e.g., as, Semitic, dų kultūriniųdų irpolitinių orientyrų pokyčiai Joshua Fishman,Joshua “Vil

- Lietuvių - 44 economic relations with very very with relations economic based Lithuanian society and and society Lithuanian based -

discussion, ) or Slabada (yid. Slobodka, Slobodka, (yid. Slabada or ) in Lyda and Volozhin (today Volozhin and Lyda in ,175 -

185. - - 187. ţydųSantykiai. Istoriniai,

s el s world as well as multicultural and and multicultural niaus Gaonas niaus irjidiš various reasons, reasons, various 3.3.2.

CEU eTD Collection 47 ac had Jewsintentionanyto the when history in period other no was there state Lithuanian independent of creation the untilup showthat to justis however, thisfor thesis, important is What here. outlinedis itthan

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On Modern JewishPolitics neteenth century many Jews wished to transform themselves into Russians Russians into themselves transform to wished Jews many century neteenth

culturatea immediateweakculture ofneighbor. to

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CEU eTD Collection 49 48 were there however almost structures, national their in diverse that not were States Baltic three population. whole the of fourth one was which Europe, Central East the in minorities itNonetheless,is asBritish one ironic authoritywrote, before, seen never lines of number a with ofideas the with up ended and empiresmultiethnic in education policies Nationalizing 2.1. simplistically“culturalfield”.called th of Most hostility. reduce to order in groups, two these of either of identity determines that anything or groups language religions, cultures, two these closer bring to communities, two the between understanding mutual raise the in it say to movement, this of goal The groups. or persons separate by implemented and initiated was contacts of type second The language. state the of learning increasinglytheminorities, to subjected were along other in Jews, systemwith which state type, First Jews. the and Lithuanians

Calculation is bymade L. Claude, Inis Jr., see: Ibid. EdwardChaszar, 2. This part of the thesis will discuss two different kinds of contacts between the the between contacts of kinds different two discuss will thesis the of part This codn t According orcent, Roumania,with percent.25 itspopulation of … determinedthe largelyby have been settlement tosupposed a that and multilingual multinational, between mainly out broke War World First The

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have produced a state like Czechoslovakia, with minorities amounting to 34.7 per cent cent minorities per with Czechoslovakia,34.7 amountinglike to state havea produced - imposed voluntaryand contacts TheInternational Problem ofNational Minorities sm cluain, hr wr aon twenty around were there calculations, some o

.. . Poland was not much better off with minorities amounting to 30.4 per per minorities30.4 amountingwith to off better much wasnotPoland .

is “project” was carried out in what could be be could what in out carried was “project” is

a spoe t b te rde f nation of cradle the be to supposed was - 14 moe cnat ws aial te educa the basically was contact, imposed

nation

- (Toronto: states. The states.

most generalized way, was to to was way, generalized most

MatthiasCorvinus, 1999), 5. principle of nationality nationality ofprinciple newEurope - five million national national million five , delineated delineated , - 49 states. states.

tion tion The

CEU eTD Collection 55 importantas as languageinstructurethe of national identity. 54 2010). http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/faculty/brubaker/Publications/12_National_Minorities.pdf(accessed May 12, Europe,” 53 Europe 52 51 availableat: saknes.lv/Ethnicities/ethnicities_statistics.htm#1920 Martuzāns,“Ethnicities Latvia. in Statistics,” , [bilingual: 50 facto became history in time first the for which language a Lithuanian, of command Poland. in was it as question the of out was Lithuanians into them turning teac to was step first the minorities etc. Russian, spoke they because Russians were Russians Polish, spoke they because Poles were Poles words, other in Lithuania, in living als was this less, or More language. the was Lithuanians shortly be will case in3.3.3. discussed Chapter latter The economics. and education namely implemented, clearly polici nationalizing where life public of sections two least at were there Lithuania nation a fact in yet not but nation, particular t see to “tendency the natio is "unrealized" claims, he policies, state such for reason The nation as created were 7,6percentand ofapprox. constitutingtotal population. population.

YisraelGutman, "Polish Antisemitism between the Wars: An Overview," in Religion, anotherimportant traitdifferentiating, e.g., Poles andRussians or Lithuanians andRussians, was not RogersBrubaker, “National Minorities, Nationalizing States and NationalExternal Homelands inNewthe RogersBrubake Lietuvosgyventojai..., Basedon:

the state the ept te ubr o mino of numbers the Despite As it was already discussed, the key element of the “new” national identity of of identity national “new” the of element key the discussed, already was it As

(Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1996), 83.

Daedalus Population delaLithuanie. Données du premier recensem http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Estonia Lietuvosgyventojai. Pirmojo 1923 m.rugsėjo 17 Visuotinio d. gyventojų surašymo duomenys 50

The Jews were the largest minority of Lithuania, numbering over 150 thousand thousand 150 over numbering Lithuania, of minority largest the were Jews The - language,mandatory.was r,

Nationalism Reframed:Nationhood and Nationalthe Question in Newthe 4, (Springno. 2 1995): 114, n - tt, s sae etnd o e nation a be to destined state a as state, XXXVI. - states and, as Rogers Brubaker argues, all were nationalizing states. nationalizing were all argues, Brubaker Rogers as and, states

h them Lithuanian. Of course, assimilation of the Jews and and Jews the assimilationof course, Of Lithuanian.them h rities, all new states in the Eastern and Central Europe Europe Central and Eastern the in states new all rities, http://www.roots

(accessedJanu - 15 state (at least not to a sufficient degree)“. sufficient a to not least (at state

Therefore, in order to assimilate national assimilate to order in Therefore, - 51 ary2010) 3,

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“Meir Ezofowicz”, which to some extent encapsulates the situation situation the encapsulates extent some to which Ezofowicz”, “Meir

one has to take into account the conditions, i.e. ongoing wars with with wars ongoing i.e. conditions, the account into take to has one , no. 12 (October1,1919).

(London:GREENING &, 1899), http://polishwriting.net/obsc

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ourses of knowledge of homeland, history and geography has has geography and history homeland, of knowledge of ourses bėsţinios o te eom a ecpuae i te e lw on laws new the in encapsulated was reform the of t ce of the government became morebecame government the of ce 83

A meticulous analysis of the education laws of the of laws education the of analysis meticulous A , no. 541 (July1936): 29, 1 , , no.541 (July 29, 1936):4 21 See Chapter 3.3.2.ChapterSee

the education system started in the early early the in started system education the nstruction language of that that of language nstruction - ) 4.

- 8.

Lithuaniannizing ly new new ly . To To . - CEU eTD Collection 86 See:Kaubrys, all. he alsopointsout that me their rightsand givesanexampleas amemorandum to Ministerthe of Education by Polish minority.However, 85 positivebecould alsoq 84 forcing by minoritiesto finally and vernacular, their learn and schools minority establish to obstacles school haveany to enforcement was pro increasingly were which legislation subordinate and 32.from wasraised to 20 in vernacular minority a in instruction for students of number minimum 50; the fromto increased30 was school minoritynational ofestablishmenta thefor students of number minimum The nationalizing. more and more becoming was state the that (Article 8). law the of part became also now language state the in be must documents the that circular L of geography history, literature, Lithuanian language, Lithuanian were: These language. instruction the disregarding Lithuanian in taught be to were disciplines some schools, elementary with case non 7). Article minority. corresponding the (i.e. repeated was language instruction Lithuanian than other (Articleuntiland so 5) remained occupationstate. of the t o be taught in Lithuanian. One positive element in the system was that education was free free was education that was system the in element positive One Lithuanian. in taught be o

Šetkus,“Tautinių maţumų mokykla...,” Kaubrysmentions that some organizations of national minorities interpreted thisas anobvious violationof Ofcourse this helped in processthe of

- Lithuanian language school t school language Lithuanian Lithuaniannized In the Secondary Education Law the same ar same the Law Education Secondary the In The education system of the interwar period Lithuania was regulated by several laws laws several by regulated was Lithuania period interwar the of system education The againthey and system education inthe made were changes last the In1939 85

NationalMinorities… However, with the permission of the government there was a possibility to run a run to possibility a was there government the of permission the with However, studyinseveralLithuanian. disciplines ithuania, physical education and military training (Article 6). The mentioned mentioned The 6). (Article training military and education physical ithuania, uestioned. morandumby “Tarbut” organization tothe same minister does not mention Article 7 at

first 86

y tesn te ecig n ue f agae scn by second language, of use and teaching the stressing by

, 161 - related documentation in the state language, then by creating creating by language,then state the in documentation related Lithuaniannizing o which children of all nationalities could go. As was the the was As go. could nationalities all of children which o - 162. 24.

the Jews,thus evaluation the of policysuch as ticle on who can attend the schools with with schools the attend can who on ticle

- Lithuanian. The education system system education The Lithuanian. 84

Lithuanian elementary schools schools elementary Lithuanian demonstrate demonstrate CEU eTD Collection Maţvydasin1547. Itwas a Christian Catechism. 89 them. progressive legal regulation, thusLithuanians, wellas as the minoritieslivin 1588.The inclusion of topic isthis surprising, not because Statutesthe are generallyvalued as asign of 88 87 rather answer and authors twenty to up with familiar be to had graduates total, In literature. of patriarchs contemporary prominent most the involved section last The awakening. national 19 by mostly produced literature the included section literature, Lithuanian to Reformation Protestant the of influence GDL, the early to writings related was first The sections. three into divided be could questions preparatory second the and literature the to related was exam the during organizatio “Light“] [en. “Šviesos“ Ukmergė at in1928 literatureused exam languageand Lithuanian thefor questions exam.“ language gradua 108 of 1924 in by that not accident is “It observed. be could language Lithuanian teaching towards attitude negligent a occasionally that mentions Kaubrys done. yet not is this However exams. graduation the of historiographyfoundincan sources referanswer.bethat the and to in notions Few particular. in Jews the or minorities national of public general in or schools of part this was successful Lithuanianization how known not is it period, discussed the throughout more

This mostlikely publishingthemeans offirst the book Lithuanian, in compiled by Martynasreformer Threecodified legislative docume Kaubrys,

One possible way to understand the levelthis of understandthe to way possible One government the though Even

n uhna (hney lvnc, tttso Lithuania, of Statutes Slavonic), (Chancery Ruthenian in National Minorities… 87

politics, i.e. how good wasth good how i.e.politics,

The exams, on the other hand, were rather challenging. Preparatory Preparatory challenging. rather were hand, other the on exams, The n‟s Hebrew gymnasium are available for analysis. One question question One analysis. for available are gymnasium Hebrew n‟s

,159.

nts ofntsGDL the andlater Commonwealththe effective from1529,1566,

- imposed learning of Lithuanian was stressed more and and more stressed was Lithuanian of learning imposed e o non of tes

23 e command of Lithuanian among graduates of of graduates among Lithuanianof command e -

Lithuanian schools 45 failed the Lithuanian Lithuanian the failed 45 schools Lithuanian success would be to analyze the results results analyzethe to be would success th

. uhr, h ky figure key the authors, c. –

grammar. All literature All grammar. ginLithuania, should be proud of

yearbooks (annuals) of of (annuals) yearbooks 89

etc. The second second The etc. s of the the of s - related CEU eTD Collection 96 95 94 93 92 91 WroblewskiThe Library Lithuanian of the Academy of Sciences,Fund 166, File 92,Pages 1 baigiamųjųlietuvių kalbos literatūrosir egzamino programa ir bilietųsantrumpos 90 present data the all, of First satisfying. not stillis matter this on historiography that said be Schoolingsystem in 2.1.2. numbers a as taken be not should they however characte here, provided were answer the to referring inmade“Apţval levelyoungerhighgeneration. especiallyvery among reached and period interwar the throughout better increasingly was Lithuanian of command yearsnoticeinnewspapertenwas already official ago the done write”. nor Lithuanian in conversation a conduct to unable were students Jewish langua Lithuanian the mastering in progress making were schools sufficient. pupils.” Lithuanian of interest the promote to taken “measures be must there veryinearlyofhadevennot beGDL,writings to decent.Lithuanian, in

- Atamukas, Zalkin,“„On Bridge a of Words‟…” Publishedbasically authoritarian by the government. Ibid.,160. Ibid. Ascited in: Lietuviųkalbosmokytojo A. Biliūnosudaryta Ukmergės depth questions related to their personalities and their and personalitiestheir to related questions depth

In 1924 there was a commandment passed by the Ministry of Education stating that that stating Education of Ministry the by passed commandment a was there 1924 In Before trying to discuss the schooling system from a quantitative perspective, it has to to has it perspective, quantitative a from system schooling the discuss to trying Before notions few The out. carried be to has research more question proposed the answer To th that says memories, own his on relying likely most 1918), in (born Atamukas young Jews the among see can we now philologistseasilywho but compete with young linguists.Lithuanian literature, Lithuanian with acquainted coul who Jew a find to difficult was it ago years few A 91 ristic of

92 hs apndwe nadto shossoe ht agaekolde s not is knowledge language that showed schools of audit an when happened This

Lietuvosţydų kelias…,

Petruţienė,“Ţydų švietimasLietuvoje…,” 48. aby cts col„ npco Mšii, h i 13 woe “h Jewish “the wrote: 1939 in who Miškinis, inspector schools„ cites Kaubrys the ga“ overallsituation. .

(s ee

C hapter 3.3.2. hapter

166

- 167.

)

“ Š

vie 96 sos”draugijos hebrajų kalbos gimnazijos

This goes in line with variousinremarksline with This goes work; besides that, knowledge about knowledgeabout that, besides work; d speak fine Lithuanian and was was and Lithuanian fine speak d 94

“Lietuvos aidas”“Lietuvos 95

ge. Just several years ago ago years several Just ge. , Izidorius , Kisinas Fund at 90

language among the the among language - 3.

–

Similar ed ed e CEU eTD Collection 100 144.See Appendix 1. 99 98 elsewhere. 166;Greenbaum, examplesof random data,see: Atamukas, 97 minorities‟ other schools. the of most with case the was as schools, Jewish of number the in decline a was there years R from Jews the remigrationof vast the be could others, rapid. more was schools Jewish of growth the and 1928 can One decline. rapid is assume lossthisthethat to drop due of this explain not does and Vilnius, mention not does he however region, Klaipėda include not does data this that clear makes Kaubrys independence. of years d schools German and Polish of number The 1). Appendix schoo elementary 903 i.e. dominant, highly were schools elementary Lithuanian period, independent the of beginning very the at Firstly, question. in period the during occurred decline and growth of tendencies Several anout veryextensive important researchpresented and groupasminorityafavorablethat most hadthis theconditions education.for highe the relatively was schoolselementary minorities‟ non entirely are or circumstances many consider to fail based, poorly very are provides Šetkus that ones year. specific a during county particular a in minority Jewish say, of, students or schools higher of number the exampleproviding for very random; and conflicting often are authors many by

Lithuanianschools: from 903 in1918 Šetkus,“Tautinių maţumų mokykla...,” 46. The examplegiven is just a modelfor the purpose

Petruţienė,“Ţydų švietimasLietuvoje…,” 57. 97 The number of both Lithuanian and Jewish elementary schools grew constantly until until constantly grew schools elementary Jewish and Lithuanian both of number The carried Kaubrys made. be can generalizations some data available the from However,

Second, if Kaubrys is reluctant to draw any conclusions from t from conclusionsany draw to reluctant is Kaubrys if Second,

- academic. For example, it is not enough to show that the attendance of of attendance the that show to enough not is it example, For academic. The JewsLithuania… of

- 1919to2117 1928; in Jewish schools in respectivefromyears: 49 to , 262, , 268 Lietuvosţydų kelias... ls constituted over 87 percent of all such schools (see (see schools such all of percent 87 over constituted ls

Vilnius region or migration. regionVilnius or - ofexplaining the mentioned randomnessofdata. the Actual 269;Šetkus, “Tautinių maţumų mokykla.. 25

,156

st among the Jews and therefore claim claim therefore and Jews amongthe st data elementary on schools pupils. and ussia. - 157;Kaubrys, 99 ropped noticeably during the first first the during noticeably ropped

One simple explanation, besides explanation, simple One 100

However, for the next seven next the for However,

NationalMinorities… he data he presents, the the presents, he data he 98

.,” .,” 42,46; and , , 140 - CEU eTD Collection attendingschools groupage Percentageof the national groups schoolsof Jan.on 1,1923 in Numberof pupils 7 ofgroupage of Totalpopulation 102 numbers wouldthere be rather different results. 101 for of, number the inJewish pupils number knownof not is(onlyschoolsthe attending example, childrenJewish Because group. national other any to compared especially numbers, t that show to only is this However, 7 the nationality1923. in between Proportion 2. Table attendingparticula children of percentage the (or get and minority 2) Appendix particular (see pupils a of numbers of the to group Lithuanians) age this of population total the compare to chance a chi ofmostthe the assumesonethat If research. this for important is this and are 1935, from starting pupils “Apţvalga“ of readers potential school elementary the Third, 2). Table (see nationality and provi age by year, population that out carried was census a Second, steadier. became time that by pupils and schools forof growth rapid convenient the First, rather reasons. several is 1923 taking this, calculate to order In Lithuanian. learning thus until(seeAppendix 1927. 2). up pupils Jewish of number the of fluctuation the is historiography the in unexplained left i schools, of numbers - 10

Tablewas2 drafted using data from: Kaubrys, Thisc

ht s oe motn hr i te ecnae f eih child Jewish of percentage the is here important more is What the in changes the to corresponds highly pupils of numbers the of dynamics The alculationis not torepresent wholethe interwar period,because of already discussed fluctuation in

102 76,5 99952 130697 Lithuanian

r minority (or Lithuanian)minority schools. r (or

.e. there is growth until the end of the 1930s and then decline. What is What decline. then and 1930s the of end the until growth is there .e.

10176 11726 86,8

Jewish - 0 er od ouain n pupils and population old years 10

ldren attending primary schools were of age 7 age of were schoolsprimary ldrenattending

he Jewish offspring were attending schools in major major in schools attending were offspring Jewish he

54,3 2852 5256 Polish NationalMinorities…

101 15,5 636 4101 Russian ding accurate numbers of the child child the of numbers accurate ding

,145;

Lietuvosgyventojai…, attending 79,5 1698 2137 German

ren attending schools, schools, attending ren

lmnay col by schools elementary 59,0 581 984 Latvian

- 10, there is there 10, 54

- 55.

16,0 58 363 Belarusian

CEU eTD Collection 108 107 106 105 attendingJewish schools, thus showing thatalmost Jewishall children attended elementary schools. Ifpresented wasnumber similar in1923, thiswould add almostanother 10 tothe 86.8percent of childrenall 104 wereLithuanians and600 were of other nationalities”.In:Kaubrys, 103 total Russianin400 gymnasiumsschools. around and the Lithuanian of percent 18 over up non In made schoolchildren. schools Jewish in only pupils Jewish overrepresentation, because clear a is there percent, 7.6 of population Jewish Li the in mind pupils in Having 22,823 were there total in while schools, Jewish higher in pupils education. higher in enrolled pupils all anyo some outline to aspectsaswell. possibility a is there data, random less or more presenting by However, element of sources the thus Ka III exception, andone with state handthe of ina were schools elementarymost ofthe factthat the to be due inchildrenschools. elementary Jewish all of percent 20.4 was which 3483, reached schools other and Lithuanian in pupils pa considerable a that clearis it Jews, byexceptionallyalmost attended Jewishwere schools that etc. Polish, in Poles or Lithuanians, were schools Lithuanian in pupils d not should one schools),

rt of ethnic minorities attended Lithuanian schools. Lithuanian attended minorities ethnic of rt Ibid. Ibid.,55. Šetkus,“Tautinių maţumų mokykla...,” 51. K In 1921 Tosome extent thiscan be illustrated by fact the that 1927“in of secondary1535 schools onlygraduates 900 aubrys, ther national ther At 27.5beginningpercent the Jewishof1921 group. children constituted of Analysis of elementary schooling is more adv more is schooling elementary of Analysis The numbers of Jews in higher education was also comparatively higher than that of of that than higher comparatively also was education higher in Jews of numbers The

- 1922,954 Jewish children attendedLit

National Minorities…

u nas ‟ Polish gymnasium, all higher all gymnasium, Polish - eih col tee ee nte 88 eih pupils Jewish 878 another were there schools Jewish

raw far reaching conclusions from this calculation. Not all the the all Not calculation. this from conclusions reaching far raw ary schools are more available and most likely more abundant. abundant. more likely most and available more are schools ary ,154.

105

106 huanianor other schools. See: Ibid.,144.

n aur 1 January On 27

- anced than higher education. This might might This education. higher than anced education minority schools were private, private, were schoolsminorityeducation 104

National Minorities… By 1935 By st 108 12, hr wr 418 Jewish 4,168 were there 1924, ,

- 1936 the number of Jewish of number the 1936 103

,154. If it is very likely very is it If

; 412 in two two in 412 ;

thuania. 107

CEU eTD Collection knygynas, 1928). Vikonis, kalbosgramatika nelietuvių pradţiosmokykloms Sintaksė.VI 3vol. (Kaunas: A.Ptašeko knygynas, 1938); Dambrauskas,L. nel 1vol. (Kaunas: A.Ptašeko knygynas, 1937);J.Kaplanas and Dambrauskas,L. 112 tyrimas,”in 111 110 109 of instrument an as regarded be not could They interest. particular of anything reveal not do andiswhatgrasp several try textbooks to of contents the into look to important more is it however, research, this of purpose the For title. the by only known are that others several mentions and research for available were that Lithuania. interwar minoritiesthe of other andJews teach the to used textbooks language Lithuanian the examine to try to first the was Ţukaitė textbook. Materialstolearnto speak2.1.3. love usedto and relative the education percent, state the hadpossibility systema do and that. to 80 over was majority clear. is schools Jewish Lithuanian of predominance that mind in having percent. 66.6 Again, ones Lithuanian and percent 19.7 up made schools higher Jewish 1936 I percent. 61.6 constituted gymnasiums Lithuanian gymnasiums; Lithuanian all of Jewish. were pupils all of percent Lith in pupils 21,552 were there that knownis it Furthermore, Jewish. were schools all of percent 25

ietuvių pradinėmsietuvių mokykloms. IV J.Kaplanas Dambrauskas,andL. VeronikaŢukaitė, “Bandymai mokytiţydus lietuviųkalbos tarpukario Lietuvoje: mokymo pri Petruţienė,“Ţydų švietimasLietuvoje…,” 57,64. Ibid.,59. In 1927 there were 118 higher schools, 30 of them Jewish. This shows that more than than more that shows This Jewish. them of 30 schools, higher 118 were there 1927 In The textbooks of Lithuanian language grammar dedicated to the national minorities national the to dedicated grammar language Lithuanian of textbooks The a is language any learning of process the in used usually material important An uania at that time, and there were 4,440 Jewish pupils in total. This shows that over 20 over that shows This total. in pupils Jewish 4,440 were there andtime, that at uania

Lietuvių kalba.Vadovėlis skiriamas nelietuviams (II

AbipusisPaţinimas jam pradinėsjam mokyklos skyriui

Lietuvių kalbosgramatika nelietuviųpradinėms mokykloms. V

… .

Lietuviųkalbos gramatika nelietuvių pradinėms mokykloms. III jamskyriui 109 , vol. 4, (Kaunas, 1938);Ig.Malinauskas andS.Vainbergas,

In 1930 In J.Kaplanas and Dambrauskas,L. ,vol. 2 (Kaunas:A. Ptašeko knygynas, 1937); J.Kaplanas and (Kaunas:G.Gutmano knygynas, 1937);Pra

T Jewish he vast majority of the Jewish youth went went youth Jewish the majorityof vast he

- 1931 Jewish gymnasiums made up 28.8 percent 28.8 up made gymnasiums Jewish 1931 28

and w and

- is pataisytasis leidimas) hat ishat

Lithuanian 111

She lists in2 total lists She

Lietuviųkalbos gramatika. Lietuviųkalbos gramatika - jampradinės mokyklos skyriui ,

( Kaunas:A.Ptašeko

inthem. nas emonių

3 textbooks textbooks 3 - jam skyriuijam

1935 n Lietuvių through through

112 110 , - ,

CEU eTD Collection 121 120 119 118 117 116 115 1vol. (Kaunas: Licht (Šviesos) leidykla, 1923). 114 113 synagogue. a build to order in Moses from money asking T etc. (Jakov), Jakovas Rivka, (Dov), Dovas (Shlomo), Šlomas e.g., are, stories short simple beautiful.” is Palestine Palestine. is homeland parents‟ distinctly are letters of sounds simple. and alphabet the and learn words to the order thus in grades, elementary provided earlyexpressions in pupils the by used be to was textbook beneithernot regarded can they i.e. group, particular any to refer not do and indifferent quite are dialogues the and Li lessons. the of each in vocabularies short and exercises some includes also It Yiddish. in explanation an has them of each and lessons ten comprises compileand nothing is there towns Lithuanianparticular of mentioning or told, stories short the in characters apart because state, the of politics nationalizing he stories told also clearly presents Jewish culture or Judaism, e.g., a story of a Jew who is is who Jew a of story a e.g., Judaism, or culture Jewish presents clearly also told stories he

thuanian poets printed in this textbook this in printed poets thuanian Ibid.,42. Ibid.,22, 23,35, 34. A.I., E.g. mama(en. mother), kala (en. to hammer), lapas(en. leaf),lopas(en. patch), etc. A.I., A.Šulmanas, Ţukaitė,“Bandymai mokytiţydus lietuvių kalbos…” A.Šulmanas, E.g.Petras (en. Peter), Onutė(en. diminutive formof Ann), Aldona. The first Lithuanian language textbook specifically dedicated to the Jews was written written was Jews the to dedicated specifically textbook language Lithuanian first The In 1928 another textbook textbook another 1928 In

AB ţydųAB mokyklai AB ţydųAB mokyklai 118

Lithuanian They are also are They d by Avraomas Šulmanas (Avrom Schulman) and published in 1923. inpublished and Schulman) (Avrom AvraomasŠulmanas by d

Lietuviųkalbos vadovėlis… Lietuviųkalbos vadovėlis. Sistemingos pam

inthem. ,32. (Marijampolė:"Dirvos" B Jewish

distinctly

nor nor appeared particularly dedicated to dedicated particularly appeared Lithuanian Jewish. Jewish. ,27,53.

116 One short story short One

vės and some dialogues. The contents of the of contents The dialogues. some and 29 .

spaustuvė,1928).

okosţydų kalba skiriamos lietuvių kalbosmokslui from 119 115 h ue f ihain names Lithuanian of use the

The names of the characters in the in characters the of names The

goes There are two poems two are There

121 : “My father is Jewish ... My ... Jewish is father “My :

h txbo ed wt a with ends textbook The the Jewish pupils. Jewish

114

written by written

The book The 117

113 poems poems

This

for 120 ,

CEU eTD Collection 128 127 126 1938). 125 124 123 Songs, http://www.hebrewsongs.com/song Thistranslation fromis Hebrew by GeorgeJakubovits, see: earth.” threeourare forefathers, two theare t theare daysaweek, in six the are orders of the command the heavens earth.andon on earth.and 122 non karalienė“ ţalčių“Eglė as ( mano“tėvynė “Kur cultur Maironis‟ history, Lithuanian praise authors, Lithuanian by written poems, promote evidently that readings few a quite however, culture national parti any to refer not do texts These etc. friendship, equality, justice, teaching morals unquestionable. homeland the of knowledge classes language Lithuanian for reader instructions. and laws new the with Lithuaniannization redn “ song Passover traditional the of version shortened

Ibid.,92 J.Ambraška, J.Kurliandčikas andP.Punerienė, J.Ambraška, Ţukaitė,“Bandymai mokytiţydus lietuvių kalbos…” A.I., partA ofsong the presented in the textbook:“W - ” literature readings that are most probably written only for the purpose of publishing them them publishing ofpurpose the for onlyprobablymost written are readingsthat literature

122

After the education reforms of 1936, which, among other things, aimed more at at more aimed things, other among which, 1936, of reforms education the After Most of the texts presented in the reader for Lithuanian language Lithuanian for reader the in presented texts the of Most

AB ţydųAB mokyklai

ments,one is GodOur who intheis heavens andon earth. translated into Lithuanian into is translated “What asone?” - 97.

Whoknows two?

Manoknygelė ... Manoknygelė. Skaitymai pradţios mokykloms skyriuiIII en. “ en.

ėa Šešupė” bėga and the whole book does not mention any of the minorities. There are, are, There minorities. the of any mention not does book whole the and of national minorities, a series of new textbooks appeared to be compliant compliant be to appeared textbooks new of series minorities,a national of My Beautiful HomelandBeautifulMy

W ,

47. ho knowsho knowthree?I three: threeourare forefathers, two tabletstheare of the

128 I knowI two: twotablets theare ofcommandments, the one Ouris God who is in , 130. ,

( 126

en “ en 127

abletsof commandments,the one Ouris God who is in the heavens andon Tėvynėspaţinimas

l. ėyė. h pro The tėvynė). (lt.

Eglė the Queen of Serpents of Queen the Eglė ( n “ en. - echadmiyodea.htm(accessed May 201 18, 124

mishnah Two of these were printed in one book; the first is a is first the book; one in printed were these of Two hr Ššp Flows Šešupė Where 125 ho knowsho I one? know: oneis

” n te eod a etok o te ore of course the for textbook a second, the and ). There are tales from Lithuanian folklore, such such folklore, Lithuanianfrom talesare There ). 30 , five, theare books oftorah, the four are our matriarchs,

(Kaunas:A.Ptašeko knygynas, 1938).

"EchadMi Yodea/Who Knows Hebrew One," Echad mi yode'a” / “ / yode'a” mi Echad 123 - ihain ri o tee etok is textbooks these of trait Lithuanian

Lithuanianness. (seeAppendix 3).

…

whoknows seven?know I sevenseven: ,vol. 2 (Kaunas:A.Ptašeko knygynas, ” ” ). But the most peculiar are the are peculiarmost the But ). o Vt Nmnls “Graţi Nemunėlis„ Vytė or )

OurGod who is inthe heavens

0). To start with, various various with, start To discipline ver ken ver

o ntr, e.g. nature, or e

zogn ver ken ken ver zogn

are general general are cular cular

CEU eTD Collection more far was which time, the of rhetoric political the understand to has one Also,unquestionable. and obvious associati i.e. different, rather been have might matter 133 132 131 130 wayexpressedareideas shows itthat written is f 129 verypupils likelylearnalso were fr to Lithuanian the or states two about talk not does and correctness political any disregards also piece politicized highly This itspresentingissuehistorytime:ofaddress the and the book. controversial, rather people the of form the in but state, a of form the in not enemy the Naming pro its Besides Homeland Our ofminorities.national pro intextbook. the

Ibid.,32. Ibid.,31 J.Ambraška, This assumptionis made because simplicity of the oftexts, thesei.e. constructionthe of sentencesthe andthe It is noteworthy that however unethical this seems today, during the interwar period the worldview on this on worldview the period interwar the during today, seems this unethical however that noteworthy is It - Lithuanian, but are intentionally coined like this for the ver theforintentionally likeLithuanian,thisare coined but everyone love and cherish their homeland, so we have to love and cherish our native land nativeland our cherish love toand have we homeland, so cherish their andeveryonelove Our Lithuania. called is their homeland parents, that homeland: common our also is there However homeland own his has man Every text The noteworthy. are examples of couple A blackisthe color because them, on blackribbon a tie and day that on flags raise now peoplecity andtown tookVilniusaway ThefromLithuanians.… 9 an beautiful stands also Vilnius Today Vilnius. about reading a comes Next Lithuaniansto Lithuania.

- 32.

Manoknygelė…, ” -

129 Lithuanianness ) isfirst ) ofthesuchkind. a i te l dy Ltuna a rld y usas … usas wanted Russians … Russians. by ruled was Lithuania days old the in … ir

If it is in fact the case, this shows that the readings do not just happen to be happento just not readingsdo the that shows case,thisthe fact inisit If aet ad u acsos ee on n ge u i Ltuna Js how Just Lithuania. in up grew and born were ancestors our and parents governments; it talks about people, Lithuanians and Poles. Again, Polish Polish Again, Poles. and Lithuanians people, about talks it governments; forgetlanguagetheir andtobecome Russians. especially having in mind that Russian pupils might have also used this this used also have might pupils Russian that mind in having especially

mournin

30. this text is also interesting because of mentioning “Russians”. “Russians”. mentioning of becauseinteresting also is text this gand sorrow.

– or averyor young reader.

d big. However on the 9 the on However big. d town or city, where he was born and grew up. up. grew and born was he where city, or town

132 131 on of the state with the people might have seemed more more seemed have might people the with state the of on 31

th h ato o te et os o so after stop not does text the of author The omtextbook. this

ofisOctober

„Lietuva mūsų tėvynė“ ( tėvynė“ mūsų „Lietuva

130 a yof purpose

day of mourndayof th

of October, 1920, Poles Poles 1920, October, of 133

Lithuanianization ing – . In every In .

en “ en Russians Russians Lithuania Lithuania –

CEU eTD Collection 137 136 135 134 Polandindeed was archthe enemy of Lithuania. sugar too not and direct inatėmė) 1920.” (lt. away took Poles territory that of third one About kilometers. square 80,000 than more Borders”) its and Lithuania of (“Size ribos” jos mentioned.Lithuania“Russians”are in minorities national numerous most the constituted that ones the are nations mentioned the that accident by not is It minorities. national theis that readers, primary the to attention of sign a probably the of beginning very the at nationality) same the of people of group (the nation a is what of explanation tautological and simple A withNation astarts “About readinga an It “Country”. entitled chapter last the is sightworthy most the and largest The etc. sundial, postcompasssupplyusea in to or office,howsystem the blueprint, water theater, thecity, the difference the Earth, the of surface money, as such research, homeland. of knowledge

Ibid. Ibid.,70. Ibid.,67. J.Kurliandčikas andP.Punerienė, tes r Jw, usas Gras Pls Al ihain constitute Lithuanians All Poles. Germans, Lithuanians, are Russians, some same: Jews, the areall not othersare they but earth, our on live people of lot A on course the for written is mentioning worth and available is that textbook last The Lithuania‟s capital is Vilnius. However, since Poles took away Vilnius in 1920, the the 1920, in Vilnius away took Poles temporarycapitalis now Kaunas. since However, Vilnius. is capital Lithuania‟s capi own its has state Every ir dydis “Lietuvos titled reading The well. as forgotten not were Poland” of deeds “Bad Russiansruled Lithuania. Lithuanians suffered andpatiently waited bettertimes. for Lithuanians run long the [In … citizens.Lithuanian all are They Germans. Russians, Poles, Jews, are there Such but Lithuanian, is population state. largest a constitutes and land of piece large one Jews nation,

Lithuania at that time. Again, referring to the period or Russian Empire rule of of rule Empire Russian or period the to referring Again, time. that at Lithuania

136 the

In issamecapitalreadingthea short a is. therepage what explaining -

coated. And finally, not to justify the style of the reading, dur reading, the of style the justify to not finally, And coated. Jewish nation, Russians nation, Jewish 134

hs ok oes vrey f ois ht r irlvn t this to irrelevant are that topics of variety a covers book This

Tėvynėspaţinimas tal. This is a city, where the president and ministers live. … … live. ministers and president the where city, a is This tal. 137

d a chapter, that by and large presents Lithuania, is is Lithuania, presents large and by that chapter, State” “Apie(lt. taut the 32

. Russian nation. Some nation. Russian

explains that the “territory of Lithuania was was Lithuania of “territory the that explains

a created a state] … For long years longFor … state] a created state is Lithuania as well. The The well. as Lithuania is state ą irą valstybę“). between a drawing and a a and drawing a between

of the nations live on live nations the of the ing the interwar period interwar the ing

Lithuanian Lithuanian

135

CEU eTD Collection 143 142 141 140 139 138 minorityJewishthat had ones, earlier especially show, materials Nonetheless, present. also was culture Lithuanian of Right question”. “Vilnius needles government, the through mostly politicized, highly inclLithuania, ofcourse, Vilnius”. developing” “stopped city the noticeably, the of history the and creation of legend the presents It Lithuania. of city largest the and capital the is Vilnius that statement Kaunas.At endacknowledgeauthorslarge the the minority Jewishoftext this ain city: in the industry and trades institutions, about talks and situation contemporary to turns author

Ibid.,104 Ibid.,83. Ibid.,82. Ibid.,81 Ibid.,75 Ibid.,71 h fnl neetn pee s bu Vilnius. about is piece interesting final The them.after andDr. Mapu Also newspaperwritersA. arelikehere.here. Prominent publishedJewishJewish several 40 around 140 are There Kaunas. about text long a follows Next h mtras sd n h euain rcs o ntoa mnrte i gnrl were general in minorities national of process education the in used materials The mapof the and Smetona President of biographyportrait and short a endswith book The prominentwritersJewishand activistsfromare Vilnius. do institute scien Jewish world of headquarters the are There … Vilnius. of Synagogue Old the a is there street Jewish synag called so the In Vilnius. in monuments Jewish many are There cuments. … Therecuments. severalare famousJewishand libraries theatres Vilnius.Many … in

- - -

83. 77. 77. - ogue square, where square, ogue 105.

[YIVO]

,000 139

Elyashev( ,000 Jews in Kaunas. … The largest newspapers of Lithuanians are published published are Lithuanians of newspapers largest The … Kaunas. in Jews s to say, tried to indoctrinate the youth. Considerable amount of artifacts artifacts of amount Considerableyouth. the indoctrinate to tried say, to s . In its basements one can find many old and valuable writings, books, books, writings, valuable and old many find can one basements its In .

epe iig n ans Msl te are they Mostly Kaunas. in living people uding the Vilniusnevertheand border uding Easternregion the that existed. Jewish

Ba'al

a city, briefly mentions the “taking away” by Poles (after which, which, (after Poles by away” “taking the mentions briefly city, few old synagogues are, and in between of them the largest the them of between in and are, synagogues old few

textbooks when language.learningLithuaniantextbooks - Machshoves 141 ) and ends with considerable account on “Jewish on account considerable with ends and ) ) lived here. Two str Two here. lived ) 33 138

After presenting the history of th of history the presenting After 140

t trs ih cer hwvr false, however clear, a with starts It 142

eets in Kaunas are named named are Kaunas eetsin Lithuanians. There are are There Lithuanians. - wing authoritarian authoritarian wing

e city, the city, e tific :

143

CEU eTD Collection 145 intencijos,priemonės, rezultatai,"in 144 18 until Lithuania in History Jewish “From titled paper a cultures. two Soldiers othe (among latter the do to attempts institutionalized two the Besides understanding. mutual the for tool membersof closervery well. communities two the bringing of attempts the outlining of purpose the serves work her since Šiaučiūnaitė on based heavilybe willchapter other several by noticed vaguely were instances these Although the of one the researching or culture own their presenting by suspense of borders the cross to tried Lithuanians or Jews when instances known several analyzed Verbickienė Introducingone’s culture2.2.1. Jewishthesis,morethe ac sidewas ofthe part inthird andthe inchapter this shown beit willmutual as create understandingand, to aimed who intellectuals, some of acts voluntary also were there But culture. and language to had minorities i.e. unidirectional, more also were policies These Europe. Eastern contemporary the in elsewhere exception an not was which state, born Vol 2.2.

Levin,Atamukas. Š iaučiūnaitė ainlzn oiiso h saewr notoeo oiia iuto fa newly a of situation political of outcome an were state the of policies Nationalizing At the 9 the At spread and creation The publication, forthcoming mentioned already her In

(analyzed thereinafter), there were also rather chaotic efforts to present bits of these these of bits present to efforts chaotic rather also were there thereinafter), (analyzed untarycontacts our r things) by the by things) r -

Verbickienė,“Ţydų lietuviųbei abipusio paţinimo irkultūrinio bendradarbaivimo atspirtys: th

summit of the Lithuanian Science Institute in 1915 Aug in1915 Institute Science Lithuanian the of summit community was seencommunity aseffective,longandwas anafor probablyonly, asthe time

Association for Cultural Cooperation and the Union of Jewish Jewish of Union the and Cooperation Cultural for Association

AbipusisPaţinimas

f wrns o the of awareness of

tive in bridging the two communities.in tivebridging two the - 34 Verbickienė‟s very recent findings and insights, insights, findingsand veryrecent Verbickienė‟s ….

other 144

th besides other things other besides community‟s culture among the the among culture community‟s

c”. This was probably the first first the probably was This c”. come closer to the Lithuanian Lithuanian the to closer come

itras s well, as historians ustinas Janulaitis read read Janulaitis ustinas

Šiaučiūnaitė other’s 145

this - - . CEU eTD Collection bendradarbaivimoatspirtys…” before1915.See: 146 cultural propose and Jews the (1885 Kacenelebogenas Urija cooperation. among culture Lithuanian the with acquaintance raise whichto goal, was clearerwas carriedwith on “Lite” laterwork volumesIn altogether. this of b written works of Yiddish to translations also were there Jews by written Lithuania of praises the to Next with. deal to have Jews the that issues the expose to and Jewry Lithuanian the of life the discuss to was almanac this of goal almanac irregularly published later issue of first the 1914 In Lithuanian. forbeneficial state. the (lt. Unity” in “Mightiness titledbook a published Daugis F. in1938 later Onlylater). willdiscussed be that movement this of form institutionalized the (disregarding communities two the of bridging othe any mention not does Verbickienė “thoseareJews” who Jews, like.Lithuanians but that not do t between conflict the Šiaučiūnaitė Lithuanians. among Jews understanding the in the approach others‟ and Janulaitis‟ that argues interestingly Verbickienė about knowledge the spread to was book War.AsJanula World Second after the and period interwar the throughout importance great of was which Jewry, Lithuanian about he 1922 In Lithuanian newspapers. leasttwo at in published was common the dismissed he which in speech, Janulaitis‟ Jews. the about Lithuanian a by made utterance public positive somewhat and objective

Asanexample Šiaučiūnaitė It seems that there were more efforts to get closer from the Jewish side than from the the from than side Jewish the from closer get to efforts more were there that seems It Šiaučiūnaitė Jews, the by initiated projects the in Lithuanians of contribution Besides “Vienyb Šiaučiūnaitė he two communities was not to ask why Lithuanians are hostile to the to hostile are Lithuanians why ask to not was communities two he ėje galybė“), where he claimed that the support of the Jews is very very is Jews the of support the that claimed he where galybė“), ėje

Verbickienė,“Ţydų bei lietuvių abipusiopaţinimo kultūrinio ir Verbickienėmentions six books withmostly

itis claimed in a couple of articles, the main goal of the maininofgoalthe theofcouple articles, a itisclaimed r Lithuanian actively and voluntarily involving in the the in involving voluntarily and actively Lithuanian r - 1980), widely known researcher of of researcher known widely 1980), 35

y Lithuanians. This approach was new new was approach This Lithuanians. y stereotypes and remained objective, objective, remained and stereotypes

anti

also - Semiticcontent published

published the first book book first the published

“Lite” appeared. The The appeared. “Lite” litvakes’ litvakes’ and and 146 of of - -

CEU eTD Collection 149 148 147 successful of lack of because effort, this of failures and successes the measure to impossible is it now For understanding. mentioned already other presented or Lithuanians, Lithuania about Jews by written works published also possible it newspaper‟s issue every Besides almost here. in important agenda, that not is it and done be to has research autono cultural the of dissolution the to attention draw to is that goal, clear a has newspaper this that impression an creates later which biweekly, the of issues 21 only through Skimming Lithuanian. was It published. was Voice/Sound”) “Our Lithuanian in newspaper Jewish Jews” the of life inner the into Lithuanians “let the of culture the with acquainted getting of possibilities the that show to here is understanding mutual of field the in worked Lithuanian to Yiddish “Ap from Perec Leib Icchok of and stories Aleichem short Schalom translated Lemchenas Chackelis while Hebrew, in literature Lithuanian probablyinmost fromtranslationtheLithuanianthe Yiddishto and understanding, mutual of promoter prominent a as well as cultures Lithuanian

“MūsųUţdaviniai,” Moreon work,his see: Atamukas, ţvalga This rather disordered introduction to several instances where Lithuanians and Jews Jews and Lithuanians where instances several to introduction disordered rather This Izidoriu intellectual Jewish Another

” aswell)” is

Lietuvosţydų kelias…, the numberthe

research done research Mūsųţodis .

aeeeoea, n hc te pooe te da f mutual of idea the promoted they which in Kacenelebogenas, Zalkin,“„On aBridge of Word

of issueslong)(eachof pages 21 4

, , no.1 (January1924): 22, 1. bits of Jewish culture or published or culture Jewish of bits

42,70

. Maybe the only indicator that “ that indicator only the Maybe . “ my that Jews were granted. To make such claim more more claim such make To granted. were Jews that my other ūų ţodis Mūsų - 71.

were existing, but existing, were s Kisinas published an anthology of the classics of of classics the of anthology an published Kisinas s 36 ” s‟…” 149

(en. “Our Word”; later “Mūsų garsas“, en. en. garsas“, “Mūsų later Word”; “Our (en. h frt eih esae pbihd in published newspaper Jewish first the

is left to mention. In 1924 In mention. to left is

rather scanty. One more effort to effort more One scanty. rather speeches Mūsų ţodis Mūsų vice - versa

by such by

became

. - 148 ltr sd in used (later 1925 a a 1925 147 ”

was not not was

contributed contributed people like like people monthly, Zionist Zionist that CEU eTD Collection "MykolasBirţiška." 154 government.the 153 152 151 150 long Krėvė philologi Vincas and poet, novelist, personalities. writer, Lithuanian celebrated prominent a less Mickevičius, no were founders Other Association. the of head the of stance socialhigh the stress to here presented is biographicaloutline short This of Independence of Act the Education, of Minister the Lithuania, of signatories twenty the of one journals, and newspapers social of group a in activity for government pro of because times, several university andfrom gymnasium expelled was Birţiška society. Lithuanianof member elite an also was he spheres, economic or political cultural, social, in Jews and Lithuanians between (1882 Birţiška Mykolas was existence of period its throughout Associationthe of Board the of Chairmantime. the of Jews in inactivitybelackaswillAssociationofshown)the of sources. becausea of for now, for least at possibility, no is there f mentioned Soldiers‟ Jewish mentioned already Jews” and Lithuanians of Cooperation Cultural for “Association associations). Jewish (e Lithuania interwar the in practice common Associationcultural for 2.2.2. cooperation

Visuotinėlietuvių enciklopedija In 1919,when Vilnius was occupied bytroops Polish he refusedtomove toKaunas andlost positionhis in Šiaučiūnaitė Lt.“Lietuvių irţydų kultūrinio bendradarbiavimo draugija”. LiudasTruska, - ie ao o Kua, iitr f tt Scrt (1918 Security State of Minister Kaunas, of mayor time The promotion and implementation of various ideas through associations was a very very a was associations through ideas various of implementation and promotion The The Asso The rhoig ulcto b Šiaučiūnaitė by publication orthcoming - Verbickienė,"

ciation was established in June 1928 by a group of prominent Lithuanians and and Lithuanians prominent of group a by 1928 June in established was ciation AntanasSmetona ir jo laikai

150

One of the two organizations that this research will analyze is the the is analyze will research this that organizations two the of One Ţydųbei lietuvių abipusiopaţinimo ir kultūrinio bendradarbaivimo atspirtys…”

, vol. 3, (Vilnius:

- Lithuanian activities, and was exiled to exiled was and activities, Lithuanian - 92. eie hs life his Besides 1962). 153 no) Ti ognzto i bify icse i the in discussed briefly is organization This Union).

(Vilnius:Valtybinis leidybos centras,1996), 304.

and the professor professor the and

Moksloirenciklopedijų leidybos institutas, 2003),s.v.

37 - democrats. Later he was an editor of several several of editor an was he Later democrats. .g., at the beginning of 1939 there were 220 220 were there 1939 of beginning the at .g.,

- depth analysis of the activity (or rather rather (or activity the of analysis depth -

Verbickienė. - og ciiis o ae h clashe the ease to activities long and rector of Vilnius University.Vilnius of rector and 152 - 1919) in the second and and second the in 1919) 151

The author notices that that notices author The

Siberia by the Tsarist Tsarist the by Siberia (the other being the the being other (the st. Jonas Vileišis, Vileišis, Jonas st.

154

s -

CEU eTD Collection 159 158 Lietuviųir ţydų kultūrinio bendradarbiavimodraugijai 157 (August(34) 1992): 2. organization in: 156 vyriausybe/ankstesnes 155 t to up lived Association the activity of far outset the and at And noble kind. this their of institution pursue first the to of intentions failing by stance social their diminish to eager Lithuani both of members elite i.e. founders, its was organization the to credibilityprovided that factor foremost the and first branchesofthe cohesion.” of building the ininterferes what of negation for and together nations two “brings what of promotion for used be to were communication t those of life historical and artistic societal,scientific,“the lectures on and reports excursions,discussions,presenting exhibitions, plays, concerts, organizing parties, throwing methods: various use to ready was cooperation”. cultural in Lithuanians “puppet social of activity the in involved first at leftists, as known also are before, and period interwar the during cause” “Lithuanian the to dedication their besides Lithuanians, prominent mentioned Robinzonas. Jokūbas and Garfunkelis Levas lawyers, two of Minister

Ibid. Ibid. “Lietu Krėvė "LRVyriausybės - The statute of the Association states that its main goal is to “bridge Lithuanian Jews and “bridge and Jews Lithuanian mainitsto is that goal states Association ofthe The statute The gumption with which the Association was founded had to be quite promising. The The promising. quite be to had founded was Association the which with gumption The

eortc ate ad ae, s in as later, and parties democratic

- - viųirţydų kultūrinio bendradarbiavimo draugijos įstatai”, Mickevičius,Vileišis, Purickis, Garfunkelis andRobinzonas are mentioned as foundersthe of government” aftergovernment” in Soviet the occupation 1940.

Finances (1919) in the fourth governments. fourth the in (1919) Finances he expectation. “At the beginning [the founders] embarked on energetic work. work. energetic on embarked founders] [the beginning the “At expectation. he JonasAničas, “Lietuvių irţydų kultūrinio bendradarbiavimo draugija,”

Association inAssociationinvarioustowns Lithuania. –

Laikotarpiu1918 vyriausybes/laikotarpiu

o nations”. wo

an and Jewish societies. Presumably, these people were not not were people these Presumably, societies. Jewish and an - 1940,"LR Vyriausybė, http://www.lrv.lt/lt/vyriausybe/apie 157 - 1918

158 In the process of process the In

Krėvė - ai, esaes bos n ohr en of means other and books newspapers, Radio, 1940/#2kabinetas (accessedMay 38 ,LCVA, F.402, Ap.4, B. 578:2

- Mickevičius‟ case, even taking part in the the in part taking even case, Mickevičius‟ 155 159 Kaunomiesto apskritiesir viršininko byla. achieving this aim, the organization organization the aim, this achieving

From the “Jewish side” there were were there side” “Jewish the From 156

There were also plans to establish to plans also were There

Notewo rthy is the fact that the that fact the is rthy 24, 2010). 24,

- LietuvosJeruzalė 3

- - reaching reaching , no. 8

CEU eTD Collection 162 161 160 raising the was concern main the that show lectures public organized of topics The public. in even not sometimes lectures, few a of reading the to ideasreserved promote to instruments Soldiers‟Union. organiz another of stance the provide also but Jews”, and Lithuanians of Cooperation Cultural for “Association the accusation].” false [the about something of sign a shown have could it However, reality. in than paper on more exists basically … organization this that know “We matter. blood and rape of accused Jewishthe newspaper‟s editorial reads: its inactivity.yearsexpress complaint a Eight establishmentabout after the organization ofthe to but Association, the praise to not written actually was “Apţvalga” periodical the of issue thir the from quote above The achievements. the than rather organization the of failures the questions.”related culture various on read were reports the which meetings, during convened several Board The

J.Temidzonas, “Kur jūsų ţodis?” Ibid. “Jau laikas,”

However, good intentions have to be put aside, because there is mor is there because aside, put be to have intentions good However, There were no branches of the organization established and the whole palette of of palette whole the and established organization the of branches no were There any incomplaint“ laterwasyear another there aAlmost off keeps and meeting not is Board We out. wishquestionthe Boardto finally wake thisfro up clear to Thetime is It … anymore be organization. not can This … announcements the about known organization the Soon

Apţvalga

160

,3 (Juneno. 30,1935

ation that will be analyzed in this research, namely, the Jewish Jewish the namely, research, this in analyzed be will that ation - dozed off, froze up. For more than two years there is nothing nothing is there years two than more For up. froze off, dozed libel in Telšiai (Telzh) and (Telzh) Telšiai in libel

Apţvalga , , no.32 (February 1936):2. 9,

):1. m 162

life and Lithuanian members of it could have done done have could it of members Lithuanian and life the

These references not only show the inactivity of of inactivity the show only not references These lethargicsleep. 39

the Apţvalga”.T 161 Association stayed silent on this this on silent stayed Association

hree Jews were falsely falsely hreewereJews e to be said about about said be to e d -

CEU eTD Collection 165 the toneedpopularize itsown culture was… common throughoutthe … interwarperiod”. See: Ibid. 164 163 his expressed he Later gymnasium. Jewish furthermoreappreciationsaid: and a at held Hebrew in literature Lithuanian the to dedicated event an visited activist, social a and priest Catholic a writers, Lithuanian Tumas Juozas Association, the of member A Jews. and cooperation cultural of ideas the between line thin a was there organization the of members the of perception the in even that says author the Furthermore, inabilityforreasons achievemore:the to s Further culture. their about knowledge spread to opportunity the used intellectuals Jewish only activity Association‟s the of context the in that states Verbickienė Governor theof Kaunas‟ County: December In closure. its announced that one the is Association oppositedirection. Lithuanians, among Jews the of knowledge

Ibid. Šiaučiūnaitė Šiaučiūnaitė covered by the members of the Board, usually Garfunkelis and Birţiška … [Association] … Birţiška and Garfunkelis usually Board, the of members the coveredby fre and public few a assets, no the that declare I … abou document telling most the that paradox a of sort is It thisfield. Lithuanian of idea the moresympatheticto were they … societyofinfluential personalities distinctand It aims.… with similar associations Jewish alternative joined Jews the and appealing that not of were Association lack a also was There Šiaučiūnaitė materials, archival trustworthy but scarce, on arguments her Grounding shown not have society understandandfeel Lithuanian because itself, by faded

- - Verbickienė notesthat “disproportionthe be Verbickienė,“Ţydų lietuviųbei abipusio paţinimo irkultūrinio bendradarbaivimo atspirtys…” 165 has

164 not levied any donations or membership dues. [The Association] presented Association]presented [The membershipdues. or donations leviedany not Jewish cultural cooperation than they actually they than cooperation cultural Jewish

its “Association for Cultural Cooperation of Lithuanians and Jews” had Jews” and Lithuanians of Cooperation Cultural for “Association

o cag lectures charge of e

a seems that although the known members of the organization memberswere theknownof although seemsthat the ims.

human factor, i.e. for the Lithuanians the goals of the the of goals the Lithuanians the for i.e. factor, human

40 163 n total in

with no intentions to do the same in the the in same the do to intentions no with tween thetween ofneed Lithuanians toknow Jews the and - … The expenses [of [of expenses The … Vaiţgantas, one of th of one Vaiţgantas, had of 1937, Birţiška addressed addressed Birţiška 1937, of the

possibilities to work in in work to possibilities Lithuanianization needed maturity to to maturity needed t the activity of the the of activity the t lectures he proposes some some proposes he e most prominent prominent most e ] were were ]

of the the of

- CEU eTD Collection 166 majoritylarbetweenthe the and vari institutionalized it nominally, only Although kind. such of

Asquoted in: Ibid.

Disregarding the failure of the Association, it is clear that this organization was the first first the was organizationthis that is clear it Association, the failureof the Disregarding [ grasped Lithuanianand become be to interesting something is [ outwrittenliterature …

n o less I enjoyed that that enjoyed I less o

sic

evencloser tothe autochthons. ]

in this language, once they saw oncethey language, this in the Jews looked deeper into Lithuanian language and the the and language Lithuanian into deeper looked Jews the gest minority. gest sic 41

. o bes hud o [pa out [speak you should bless God ].

166

that even in this literature there there literaturethiseven in that ous forms of cultural contacts contacts cultural of forms ous ? ] in in ] CEU eTD Collection 167 militaryAllgenerallymaneuversare Warsasthese the ofknown Independence. that troops military Polish byRecognitionstate occupiedthe of Vilnius. violated was Treaty the later days Two state. Lithuanian new the of hands the instay to had region the which to according signed, was 1920 October, until times ten almost hands changed region and city Vilnius fights these During over. yet not was Army), Volunteer Russian (West Bermontians force, another with fight the meanwhile territory, Lithuania‟s become to was what invaded Army) 19 of end the At territory. the in power actual an was administration document the signing intellectuals twenty meant basically then today, does and on later sounded it celebratory however independence”, Soldiers Jewishof The Union 3.1. answer willwhy.to try part This Lithuanian”. “becoming of process the in proponent successful most the and active i research this in Union the case, the be not might it though even Thereby, important. more someone or something excluding not is it that sure be not can one and all Union, the as well as Cooperation mentions Cultural for Association the above, discussed sentencesactivists few a in only historiography Therefore, recognition. mutual Lithuanian period interwar throug hostility reduce to trying in people of group active most the probably was Soldiers Jewish of 3. Furthest the in strive to “become Lithuanian”

Originalof whichis missing up until today.

During the interwar period and in the history of Lithuanian Jewry altogether, the Union Union the altogether, Jewry Lithuanian of history the in and period interwar the During Lithuania proclaimed its independence on the 16 the on independence its proclaimed Lithuania h mutual understanding. This is not certain however, since as it was mentioned, the the mentioned, was it as since however, certain not is This understanding. mutual h

- Jewish relations were never researched from the perspective of of perspective the from researched never were relations Jewish

167 was not to come for another yearcome theseevents. anotherfor after to wasnot

and posing for photos, while German army and and army German while photos, for posing and 42

of February, 1918. “Proclamat 1918. February, of

the Treaty of Suvalkai on 7 on Suvalkai of Treaty the

nesoda h most the as understood s 18 Bolsheviks (Red (Red Bolsheviks 18

ion of of ion

th the the

of of CEU eTD Collection 4ff033cdb3e9(accessed May 2010). 26, advokatūra continuedUnion itsactivity. See: 173 atvadavimesąjungos dokumentai 172 171 170 169 168 to years six another overcome“technicalformalities”,issues those was. thatandwhatever took it why know to available yet is information no Unfortunately, th However, was prepared. Union the of statute the soon and organization such of foundation the discuss to met soldiers reserve of group a 1927 In ago. years several born was soldiers Jewish unite Jakovas to idea lieutenant reserve lawyer, was organization Goldbergas. the of chairman the activity of Jewish Soldiers who 1923. 1918 in army Lithuania‟s the in fought who soldiers Jewish 3000 of number the provides mobilized. announced was officers ranks higher (Yiddish). of mobilization Jewish and Byelorussian Polish, Lithuanian, 19 the was army the join invitingto announcement on Only intentions. and situation aggressors‟ international of on view underestimation myopic their of because used, were none however pr Several government. new the of failures

In beginningthe of July,1940, Golbergas, along wit JakovasGoldbergas, Atamukas, JonasVaičenonis, “ VytautasLesčius, KarininkųMobilizacija,” 171 h ceto o Ltuna am, hc fuh th fought which army, Lithuanian of creation The The Union of Jewish Soldiers was established in June, 1933. June, in established was Soldiers Jewish of Union The

These are the people who later on were the founders and members of the “Union of of “Union the of members and founders the were on later who people the are These , , no.4 (29) (2008): 9, http://www.advoco.lt/getfile.aspx?dokid=82a15c88 170

Lietuvosţydų kelias…, 173

h nw ihai‟ stat Lithuania‟s new The

In a handwritten account handwritten a In

Lietuvos Lietuvoskarių uniformosir lengvieji ginklai amţiujeXX “Mūsųsąjungos reikšmė”, Participate ey were not legalized, because of “technical issues and formalities”. formalities”. and issues “technical of because legalized, not were ey

LaikinosiosVyriausybės ţinios kariuomenė,1918

JuozasČivilis, "Lietuvos advokatûrair advokataiLietuvoje," LCVA,F.593, Ap. 1,B.4:397.

132. d in d

the [re]Liberationthe ofLithuania Independence”. am ws o ecpinly ihain Atamukas Lithuanian. exceptionally not was army e -

1940 titled “Meaning of our Union” he mentions that the that mentions he Union” our of “Meaning titled Ţydų karių dalyvavusiųLietuvos nepriklausomybės oposals were made on how it should be created, created, be should it how on made were oposals issued. It was printed in four languages, namely, namely, languages, four in printed was It issued.

h several h other famous lawyers was arrested, butthe 43 (Vilnius:Vilspa, 1998), 66

, , no.2 169

3 (January1919): 16, 1. and a month later new recruits were recruits new later month a and s wars ese 168

th n aur nx ya the year next January In (Vilnius:Baltos lankos, 2004), 2

f eebr 11, an 1918, December, of 172 - , was clearly one of the the of one clearly was , 82.

- 7575 Throughout the period period the Throughout

- 4f4e

Lietuvos - 8a12

- 1. -

CEU eTD Collection 179 178 Lietuvos nepriklausomybėsatvadavime sąjungos dokumentai shows this illiteracy Lithuanian in of applicants.the E.g.see: werethere manyapplicationforms printed only Yidd in 177 ministerijosAdministracijos departamentas 176 175 174 members. 3000 over and ( Joniškis from “Apţvalg in “Skydas”articles and mentionedpublication the basedon are Atamukas bynumbers provided Yiddish Hebrew). and objective and apolitical stay to had organization the members all of expectations fulfilthe to order in outcome, an As ofsocio education, of levels views, political various with people included pecu somewhat created it warfare, and particular Jewish in being participating namely criteria, two by unified were Union the of members the Since UnionMembersof the 3.1.1.

Ţydųkarių sąjungos... dokumentai Goldbergas, Tobecome a member of organization,the aformer soldier had tofill inanapplication form. someIn towns “Ţydųdalyvavusiųkarių Lietuvos nepriklausomybės atvadavime sąjungos įstatai”, Militarymaneuverof Lithuanian forces toestablish authority Klaipėda (Memel).in Passivemembers were the donorsofUnion. the activemembersUnion].[ofthe i of (re)liberation the contributed to who riflemen, and soldiers Jewish former All The canstatute Union of the bedescribed who active h Uin a 20 mmes n 4 bac ognztos n 1936 in organizations branch 43 and members 2300 had Union The Unioncomprisessocialof strata. all Soldiers Jewish former caste, that of issues the with only concerned ca are and one (sic) of members include mostly other economic, Meanwhile or political organizations. it Jewish be other organizations, the all from roots the at differs it … members of number defined clearly with structure organizational its least, the atlook is other at itUnionlook commonthe to not canas …one ndependentin1923, participatedLithuaniaorofKlaipėda Revolt - economic Asetc. strata, head the organizationofthe wrote: a“. However, there is reason to think that the number was even higher. A note note A higher. even was number the that think to reason is there However, a“. “Mūsųsąjungos reikšmė”, yid. Yanishok yid.

eg Un (e.g. 179

Although there is no date on the document, because of archiving of because document, the on date no is there Although

), mentions that there were more than 50 sections of the Union Union the of sections 50 than more were there that mentions ),

, ion‟s “Apţvalga” did not take stance in the clash between between clash the in stance take not did “Apţvalga” ion‟s LCVA,F 176

LCVA,F.593, Ap. B. 1, 4:398. , LCVA, , F.1367, Ap.5, B. 39:17v.

. 178 593

, 44 ishandalot of filledonlythem Yiddish. in Most likely Ap. 1, B.4:430.

, LCVA, , F.593, Ap.1, B. 1 “Įstojamiejipareiškimai”, 174

membersorganization:ofthe

liar organization. The Union Union The organization. liar 177

175

from the whole spectrum whole thefrom can become canbecome organizations. To organizations.To

Vidausreikalų

Ţydų kariųdalyvavusių 7:9,12, 28,47. - 1938. These These 1938. ste ste

CEU eTD Collection 184 offighting. 183 LCVA,F.593, Ap. 1,B. 4:111 182 181 dokumentai 180 This isnumber also samethe as of Jewishsoldiers who fought Independence in Warspresented by Lithuania independent the for fought havecontributed to successalso the Union.of However, theis this onlyassumption. an establish was Union the when 36 was Kaunas in in13 1919. were theymean 27,whichwere that two youngest possibilityaopen s for could it case, the actually was this If warfare. that at younger comparatively were group a as Jews saythe whether to hard is it time,that of army whole ofthe structure agethe to data this 17 were 1919 in (198) them of half roughly Craftsmen, time. that that show members the of birth at of dates The list. Jews the dominate servants state the and tradesmen by practiced areas occupational represented less or membincolumnof nonethe occupation.last that 1930s Theshows listsUndateddocumentincludes listpeople.391 Themember,datename every ofof birthand feepayingthe in dutiful more be to members its instigated Union the of members board the 1934, October, in as fee.Asearly payingmember‟s h not the for fromorganization the removed weremembers again, and Time established. were branches new and joined soldiers more and more as activity of period the throughout almost growing was organization that earlierit not itsystemis showdates These thantime,of thethinkreasonable 1939. that data to

E.g.Atam They,however, can also be participants of Klaipėda revolt, whichwould mean that they were17 the at time “Ţydųdalykarių “ProtokolasNr.9. 1934 spalio 7”, “Protokolas37. Nr. 1935 balandţio 30 ls o mmes rm ans bac o te no i aalbe o analysis. for available is Union the of branch Kaunas‟ from members of list A It is established in general historiography, that the Jews wilfully joined the army and and army the joined wilfully Jews the that historiography, general in established is It the old; years 52 was 1933 by Union the of section Kaunas of member oldest The ,

LCVA,F.593, Ap. 1,B.16: 4. ukas, 180 Lietuvos

vavusiųLietuvos nepriklausomybės atvadavime sąjungos Kauno skyriaus sąrašas”narių andAprilnextalready membeexcluded88 peculations or even whypeculations or itresearch was so. ţydųkelias

- 113v.

Ţydų kariųdalyvavusių Lietuvos nepriklausomybės atvadavimesąjungos

..., ”, 132;Levin,

n state. n LCVA,F.593, Ap. 1, B.16:36 184 - Litvaks 45 19 years 19

This notion is very important for the research, the for important very is notion This

ed in 1933. Young age of the members could could members the of age Young in 1933. ed ...,117.

old. Having no possibility to compare to possibility no Having old.

rs fromUnion.the rs 183 - 37.

Average age of the members ofAveragethe age

ers were soldiers and more more soldiersand were ers owever, scores of of scores owever,

181

Atamukas.

182

CEU eTD Collection tot 188 187 186 However, thisis not a trend andfor this researchit is not as important. 185 they that stated Union the of branch Kaunas the join to applicants 193 out 25 Only drafted. whethe is form application the in questions the of One complexity.more suggest Union jointhe to forms application However, in goes Wars Independence the of population. and city the of importance historical the of because Jewry Lithuanian the state. the into incorporated was Vilnius nation a than European rather nations “East the establish to will strong Switzerland,” a second, The Lithuania. to attachment past the on based was one first independent The Lithuania added. positive attitudestowards be two hasto was distasteful doubt population a without Polish the of sentiment nationalistic highly and (1918) independence its uninviting. clearly was years hundred importantly more or and Russia speaking, understandattitthe to order in circumstances several consider to has Union‟s One later. the decade to a answerthan more an patriotism be might war the fight to Jews the of willingness the because

al population.al See: In 1931there were over fifty Jewish thousand inhabitants in whichVilnius, madeup almost a ofthird the Vilnius‟ atregion that timewas imagined larger,with the borderline further in today‟sByelorussia. Mendelsohn This ageneralization,is because a ofnumber left Lithuania fought with three aggressors, two of them representing, simplistically simplistically representing, them of two aggressors, three with fought Lithuania This short outline referring to the possible posi possible the to referring outline short This 188 – ,

186

TheJews EastCentral of Europe…, the Jews here called themselves called here Jews the

a poetd no h ftr. t a a ie t cet a oeat tt of state tolerant a create to idea an was It future. the into projected was Mendelsohn, ude of the Jewsofudethe Independence duringthewars.

one litvakes

representing . To the dismissal of the wish to join any of the aggressors, there aggressors, the of any join to wish the of dismissal the To . - state, which would have been possible had highly mul highly had possible been have would which state,

TheJews EastCentral of Europe…, o oe h one on ,

r the former soldier joined the army voluntarily or was was or voluntarily army the joined soldier former the r - ie ih h etbihd oiin n h historiography. the in position established the with line 185

an obvious enemy obvious an 187

On the other, wave of pogroms in Poland right after right Poland in pogroms of wave other, the On a over of rule Russian the of past recent the and

- for relevant especially was Vilnius of control The orientedJews would gladly welcome Bolshevikthe army. 218. 46 litvakes

tion of the Lithuanian Jewry in the face the in Jewry Lithuanian the of tion

with a clear connotation of historical of connotation clear a with –

23. Poland. For the Lithuanian Jews, Jews, Lithuanian the For Poland.

the

high Jewish Jewish high tinational tinational

CEU eTD Collection 191 190 189 beginsstatementclearathat organizationwith the is aimsUnionapolitical.the were:The of 1934 in written Union the of statute The more. achieved clearly and numerous more far was goals, similar had organizations both Although Cooperation. Activityofthe 3.1.2. Union Unfortunately nu total as well as draftees, and volunteers of numbers the war, the of stages certain at participating soldiers Lithuanian and Jewish numbersthe of compare the possibilityto be a shouldthere independent Lithuania LithuanianJewry. branch Kaunas‟ from data course, Of while. a took it mobilization of face the in even and voluntarilyjoin to eager too not were they since army, join to willingness their claim not could Kaunas in living soldiers 193 those least at that 1920 years the in and The 1919. February, voluntarily. army the entered

“Ţydų…karių sąjungos įstatai”, LCVA,F. 1 Goldbergas, Įstojamiejipareiškimai, ofcooperation cultural between Lithuanians andJews. and Fatherland the for idead) tomembers; thepromote theofofandeconomic issues takecarecultural love the develop to stateh b) union; one in independence Lithuania‟s of restoration the to contributed who soldiers Jewish all unite to a) T thefatherland” for loveand awarenessstatehood with filled went… Union everywhere the and“Always “dete measure the interesting to would rather be It he Union was far more productive than the discussed Association for Cultural Cultural for Association discussed the than productive more far was Union he

ood awareness among the members and Lithuanian Jewish society; c) to to c) society; Jewish Lithuanian and members the among awareness ood “Mūsųsąjungos reikšmė”, many

190

of these data are at leastyetat are unavailable. these data of same applications show, that only 27 soldiers were mobilized that year, that mobilized were soldiers 27 only that show, applications same -

1923, respectively numbers were 49, 30, 26, 24. 26, 30, 49, were numbers respectively 1923, LCVA,F.593, Ap. 1,B.2. See Appendix4.

oevr a i ws etoe te oiiain tre in started mobilization the mentioned was it as Moreover, mbers of soldiers in proportion to the total population. population. total the to proportion in soldiers of mbers

LCVA,F.593, Ap. B. 1, 4:399. 367,Ap. 5,B. 39: 17. 47

191 can be considered representative for for representative considered be can rmination” of the Jews to fight for the fightthe for to Jews the rmination” of

the

Union of Jewish Soldiers Soldiers Jewish of Union 189

All this data shows, data this All the the

CEU eTD Collection "Darbininkaskaštuoja," “Darbininkas”(“Workman”), the largest periodical of social comparison,For pricethe of oneissue of “Apţvalga” was 25 cents (0,25Litas); subscriptionthe ofweekly the 195 194 1936):1. (January17,1936): 2;“Ţydų LiaudiesBankų Atstovų Suvaţiavimo Rezoliucijos,” JewishBanks” See: mostlyorganization Jewish “United Union of Craftsmen of Lithuania well” as byas “Unionthe of National (September1,1935): 8.Lithuanian languagecourses invarious 193 192 accou of lot a contained publication This (“Shield”). “Skydas” extensivelywere in“Apţvalga”.advertised language. listnot endhoweverdoes here.the care. health and a and members the of care take to enterprises, economicestablish to to newspapers, and books planned also Union the things, other Besides publish region. Vilnius regaining of idea the popularize to circles, cultural and sports excursions, lectures, reading maintain to towns, and cities in branches poss more even or Equally surprising. that not are later considerably established aims these then verypro as soldiers those of think to tendency general admitsthe “cooperation”Thereandi c). (b, awareness” “statehood fatherland”, the for “love towards directed are two and (a), technical organizational is goalsmain the of one yet, and “c”), aim (as with concerned be could union

“ProtokolasNr.17. 1935 gruodţio24”, LCVA, F.593, Ap. B. 1, “ProtokolasNr.25. 1935 sausio 22”, LCVA, F.593, Ap. 1, B.16:20. “Ţydųdalyvavusių karių, Lietuvos neprikl.atvadavime s “Ţydųsąjungoskarių… įstatai”, ibleis foundersthe that to worseningmajority.Uniontheof the reacted withrelations the The aims of the organization are already very tell very already are organization the of aims The eie is long its Besides 1 the from Starting achieve To

193

t fi At 192 “Lietuvossuvienytos amatininkų sąjungos ValdybosCentro rezoliucijos”, s free rst its

These are the measures that are more or less important for this research, this for important less or more are that measures the are These

Dar is h Uin nedd o s a ait o maue: o establish to measures: of variety a use to intended Union the aims - bininkas living periodical, in 1935 the Union also published an almanac almanac an published also Union the 1935 in periodical, living - st

of September, 1935, the Union organized courses of Lithuanian Lithuanian of courses organized Union the 1935, September, of - charge

LCVA,F.1367, Ap.5, B. 39: 17. , , no.804 (May 11,1935):4. s nothing obvious and clear inand aims.snothingchoiceclearof obvious theone these If

194

h cuss ae wr to ia pr month. per Litas two were later courses the

- - goslietuvių kalbos kursai,” democrats,for the year 1935 was Litas.3 See:

locationsinLithuania were alsoorganized by -

om, okhp, lb, o or to clubs, bookshops, rooms,

ing. There are many things that such that things many are There ing. 19:4

- 4v.

- Lithuanian during the wars, wars, the Lithuanian during nts on the manoeuvres of of manoeuvres the on nts

ssist them on legal issues issues legal on them ssist Apţvalga

Apţvalga , , no.46 (May 24,

Apţvalga , , no.12 195 , n ganize

They o.29 -

CEU eTD Collection 1, 1936):3. 201 Lithuani skyriais”, 200 199 198 197 “Skydas”is not availablefor this research. 196 pro Lithuanian any worldJewishto contemporary issuesof the the and history,Judaism presentedculture, Jewish public havemoreconvenientnot for been new the regime: as used and 1936 in government Lithuanian authoritarian 19 expenses economic or related to activity. income possible about information any provide not does and administration 1 year the for Union the of branch Kaunas of budget estimated The enterprises. economic thealone let clubs, bookshops, “Easter”. “Ez the from money for ask to decided Union the from them for Lithuanianstate. received they honours mentioned and war the during soldiers Jewish

40. Article48, no. of“Organizations‟ the Law”. See: “Nutarimasu “Protokolas Fiscalyear startedthen on the 1st of July. “ProtokolasNr.18. 1940 balandţio 2”, LCVA, F.593, Ap. B. 1, 19:93. Atamukas, - Lithuanian 200 oee, hr i n ifrain r n cus ht h Uin aae t maintain to managed Union the that clues any or information no is there However, the 1940 In members. the for endowment exercise to trying also was organization The During the seven years of activity (1933 activity of years seven the During other any of sake the for or needsofthe the or nation,state nation. the or state the of security of sake the for Affa Internal the of minister The puppet The awas occupied by Red the Army June, in and annexed on 3 the It majority. the with clashes cultural or economic social, the in Jews the of advocate

Kaunoapskrities viršininkoadministracija Very abstract paragraph of the “Organizations‟ Law”, which was signed by the the by signed was which Law”, “Organizations‟ the of paragraph abstract Very

197

Lietuvosţydų kelias…,

Nr.4.1939 liepos26”, ţdaryti - - state organization as it was, the Union also promoted learning of the the of learning promoted also Union the was, it as organization state speaker who was willing to accept the information. Being ver Being information. the accept to willing was who speaker 196 - government of the Soviet Union closed the Union on the 20 the on Union the closed Union Soviet the of government

Ţydųdalyvavusiųkarių Lietuvos nepriklausomybės atvadavime sąjungą visaissu jos

199

939 132.

LCVA,F.593, Ap.1, B. 19:81v. 201

1940

irs can suspend any organization … or close it it close or … organization any suspend can irs

198

"Draugijų įstatymas," LCVA, , F.402, Ap.5, B.276: 1. hw ta epne wr bscly sd for used basically were expenses that shows 49 - 1940) the Union managed to become the main becomethe to managed Union the 1940) ro” union to support the members before the the before members the support to union ro”

a rd

reason to close the Union, could could Union, the close to reason ofAugust,1940.

Vyriausybėsţinios

,522 (Februaryno. y patriotic and and patriotic y th

of August, August, of CEU eTD Collection copies,32000 daily “Lietuvos (en.ţinios” “Lithuanian 206 205 wereseveral mistakesin numbering issuesthe andactu 204 203 202 6000. reached circulation the 1939 in that knownis it but pl Union the beginning the At large. relatively was periodical ideafondas“),“Ginklųin andof regaining region, Vilnius general anti fought Jewi facing, is it problems the and community Jewish the of Jewish discussed Poland), and Germany from news grim Union whichthe (1935 years five Throughout communities. two the between medium main the became “Apţvalga“ sphere public the in “Mūsųţodis such periodical Lithuanian first (“Review”). “Apţvalga“ Lithuanian titled in weeklyapublishing L the between distance of because raising “Apžvalga“ Overviewof 3.2. part. inthis later length at discussed be will which “Apţvalga”, weekly the medium of the through but culture, Lithuanian the through identity Jewish to sustaining meanwhile closer becoming Jews, the among language Lithuanian

For comparison:For largest andthe main (governmental) daily “Lietuvos (en.aidas” “Echo of Lithuania”) “ The last issueof 25 “ProtokolasNr.25. 1935 sausio 22”, LCVA, F.593, Ap. 1, B.16:20v. Goldbergas, PareiškimasVidaus reikalųministrui”, LCVA, F.1367, Ap.5, B.39:14.

h n Ltuna clue, rmtd upr fr h “ the for support promoted cultures, Lithuanian and sh At the beginning of 1935, the Union, “being convinced that many misunderstanding are are misunderstandingmany that convinced“being Union, the 1935, ofbeginning the At “Apţvalga“ was published by the Kaunas‟ branch of the Union. The circulation of the the of circulation The Union. the of branch Kaunas‟ the by published was “Apţvalga“ “Mūsųsąjungos reikšmė”, - language Jewish newspaper, its success its newspaper, Jewish language

announced its new, covered the main events in Lithuania and abroad (mostly (mostly abroad andin Lithuania main events thecovered new, itsannounced th

ofJune,1940, is numbered as 223

“ is beyond comparison. It is not at all an exaggeration to say allthat atexaggerationto an is not beyondIt comparison. is“ -

1940) of publishing, 221 issues of “Apţvalga“ appeared, “Apţvalga“ of issues 221 publishing, of 1940)

LCVA,F.59

50 allythere are 221. tunas n te Jews”, the and ithuanians News”) 3,Ap. B. 1, 4:400. religion and ethnicity. M ethnicity. and religion

rd , , however, throughout publishingthe years there –

16800;Jewish newspapers“Das Vort”(in vis 206 - Lithuanian relations, inner debates debates inner relations, Lithuanian -

à This number is similar to largest to similar is number This

vis anned to print 5000 copies, 5000 print to anned

203 Weaponry Foundation” (lt. (lt. Foundation” Weaponry

Lithuanianness. Lithuanianness. already mentioned the first the mentioned already

Although this was not the not was Althoughthis - os Semitism, presented presented Semitism, 202 t of this was done done was this of t

eie t start to decided

– 204

205 in

CEU eTD Collection 210 decorateour braghouse and that everything fineis with us”. See:Ibid. world,inside which is closed tomosttheof Lithuanians <…>. We do not a have 209 208 given awaysome copies, of the and receiversmight havebeen not interested in wouldUnion havereduced thisamount. However, inthe strive topromote their ideas,the Union might have 207 15000;largest Polish newspaperKaunas in “Dzień Polski” Yiddish) as well (as Lithuania in Zionism of level high mind in having However, Zionistic. seem somewhat newspaper the of aim last the community, Jewish within battles the in sides take not did and apoliticalwas structure, its in diverse very was Union the discussed, already publishing the throughout and reasonable very seem aims these itself, Union the of goals the to Compared biasedmedia. exposedonly to Jews objective culture their and language Lithuanian love [language], Lithuanian know abroad, and here “live who Jews, Lithuanian andreadchose JewishYiddish, to the Hebrew not in periodicals Jews, of variety wide the the having and that enough, well assumption, Lithuanian the knowing an only is It readers. Jewish and Lithuanian of division of readers of to practice common the mind in Having general. in Lithuania in newspapers biggest the of oneis it as well as Yiddish, in newspapers

“PareiškimasVidaus reikalųministrui”, “Ourweekly willalso enable Lithuanians totogetknow problemsthe ofinner our life, totake glance a of our “ This assumptionis based econoon Mūsųtikslas,” nationtoabroad;cover the ofproblems the nation Jewishin Palestine. and economic of cover life political to and Lithuanians to life Jewish of problems the introduce and to cultureart; Lithuanian and language Lithuanian with community Jewish the bridge To Theaims of The editorial of the first issue claims that primary audience of the newspaper is is newspaper the of audience primary that claims issue first the of editorial The –

6000,“Folksblat” (inYiddish) “Apţvalga“ was considerably wide. considerably was “Apţvalga“ - years they were very obvious in the pages of the paper. Although, at it was was it at Although, paper. the of pages the in obvious very were they years

related news that should be of interest to Lithuanian reader, who is usually usually is who reader, Lithuanian to interest of be should that news related Apţvalga

“Apţvalga“, as presented to Minister“Apţvalga“,the as presented to ofInternalwere:Affairs,

Lithuania; to cover the economic, political and cultural life of the Jewish Jewish the of life cultural and political economic, the cover to Lithuania; , (June, no.1 16,1935): 1.

”. 208

209 mic logic:mic ifthere were notenough readers topublish 6000 copies, the

publish to aims periodical this article, the to According –

LCVA,F.1367, Ap.5, B.39:14. 4200; largestPolish newspaper inVilnius “Kurier Wileński” - language newspapers. share expensive newspapers, it is clear that the circle circle the that clearis it newspapers, shareexpensive

– 207

2200.

Unfortunately, it is difficult to grasp the grasp to difficult is it Unfortunately,

reading. nysecrets anddo intend not to 210

to s –

CEU eTD Collection 213 and state.the citedArticle from “Organizations‟the La MinistryThe based decision its on39 the Article of “Pressthe Law”, which sounded basically samethe as the 212 B.39:13. redaktoriumi”,LCVA,F.402, Ap. 6(2t), B.2: 7;“Raštas Kauno apskrities viršininkui” “Apţvalgą””LCVA, F.402, Ap.6(2t), B. 2:15; “Raštas dėl Arono atsisakymo”, “Apţvalgos” redaktoriumi”, “LeidimasIzaokui Livšicui”, 211 weekly be shouldpublished: to continue the why arguing letter a with minister the addressed then Goldbergas, Union, the “Apţvalga“ including periodicals18 while bythird, one periodicals their numberof ofreduce pages the to 29 that. moreto administrative only been have might It again. and fe time occurred changed these why within speculate to even difficult is twice it information, changed editor the 1939, November, 1935 throughout editors five were there known, is editors of change The appointed. was editor new a few morethose, discussing. things worth are sca on based is here presented information the reflectionofreality. Poland) and Latvia in

th Lt. “ “Abraomo Vidaus reikalųministro nutarimas”,LCVA,F. 1367,Ap. 5,B.5:4.

of February a decision issued by the Ministry of Internal Affairs instructed all publishers publishers all instructed Affairs Internal of Ministry the byissued decision a February of “ Few days before the publication of the first issue, the editor of editor issue,the first the of beforepublication the Fewdays never weekly the publishing of circumstances The Jewish society, especially the youth, to spread the statehood idea of Lithuania and to to and Lithuania of idea statehood the spread statehood to youth, foster the to especially twofold: society, is Jewish … “Apţvalga“ of aim The wi along “Apţvalga“ 1940 In valstybiškaiauklėti“. Todayexpression this would be equaledto

LCVA,F.402, Ap - See:

IzaokoLivšico sutikimas “Apţvalgos”būti redaktoriumi”, were to be suspended for three months. three for suspendedbe to were

“ Spaudosįstatymas,"

ulsig es eae t Palestine to related news publishing LCVA,F.402, Ap. 6(2t), B.2: “Pareiškimas 16; dėl redaktoriaus pareigų

LCVA,F.402, Ap. 6(2t.),B. 2:14;“Leidimas Samueliui Subockiui būti

.6(2t.), B.2:6; “Pranešimas apie Mykolo Bramsonosutikimą redaguoti

Vyriausybėsţinios w”,i.e. the newspaperwas tobe suspended forsake the of nationthe th many other newspapers faced some problems. On the the On problems. some faced newspapers other many th measures, but it is also likely that there was something something was there that likely also is it but measures,

52 rce

, , no.510 (November 16,1935): 4.

and co and and also random archival findings. Of all all Of findings. archival random also and - 212 90 h oae eea ie,ad in and times, several rotated who 1940,

The head of the Central Committee of Committee Central the of head The - VulfoMelamedo paskyrimo Apţvalgos

drew the attention of scholars, thus thus scholars, of attention the drew - editors

“creatingcivilsocie

days. w

LCVA,F ol b udrto a a mere a as understood be could wrns (sic) awareness

was quite often. From what what From often. quite was .402,Ap. 6(2t), B.2: 2; “Apţvalga“ resigned and and “Apţvalga“ resigned 211 ,

LCVA,F.1367, Ap.5, ihu additional Without ty”. ty”.

213

among among CEU eTD Collection 216 215 214 mightwhichhaveinfluenced decisionthe Minister. ofthe to back Lithuan given was city the including region Vilnius‟ of part larger 1940 the by that here, attention drawing worth is It revealing. quite is arguments the to reaction in serious” “deadly othe bi many become while to weekly weekly the letting of act actual the only Not government. the for relevant montha after suspension.ofthe month. a twice newspaper the publishing allowed Minister Ministry: the of Department Press the at letters such of reviewer first the presumably, is, who someone hand few are there Goldbergas by type same the Onpublishing. continue the to Union the of effort the weeklyand state. Lithuanian towards P reactions negative in result would suspension its known and widely is abroad, newspaper the that claim the is usual not is What etc. Jews, the among nationalities in living the bridging times; several cited as same the much pretty again is here used Rhetoric exists. should “Apţvalga“ why reasons six numbers Goldbergas Further culture. is there Interestingly, robably the most interesting for this research is the outcome of this intention to suspend the the suspend to intention this of outcome the is research this for interesting most the robably

Noissues appeared between 29 Ibid. “Memorandumas“Apţvalgos” uţdarymoLCVA, reikalu”, 1367, F. Ap.5, B. 39:3. See Appendix6. aspirationof the Lithuanians. bridgewiththeLithuanian Jews language, Lithuanian with cultureand nationalsocial and Clearly, the arguments that Goldbergas made were at least somewhat appealing and and appealing somewhat least at were made Goldbergas that arguments the Clearly, 15 the on later, week A least twicemonth, if a not theat at previous publish] [to allow can] [we Possibly serious. deadly review, further for Needed

ia by the Soviet government, and thus now there were there now thusand government, Soviet the by ia Lithuania, raising knowledge between communities, promoting Lithuanian language Lithuanian promoting communities, between knowledge raising Lithuania,

no talk of getting Lithuanians acquainted with the Jewish life and and life Jewish the with acquainted Lithuanians getting of talk no

r newspapers were suspended or closed, but the usage of words words of usage the but closed, or suspended were newspapers r th

ofFebruary, 29 and th

216 of March, there is another hand another is there March, of 214

- written notes. The most interesti most The notes. written frequency. 53 th

ofMarch, 1940.

215

“Apţvalga“ resumed publishing publishing resumed “Apţvalga“

additional approx. 70000 Jews, Jews, 70000 approx. additional - written note stating that the the that stating note written ng is the one written by written one the is ng - written letter written

- CEU eTD Collection 218 217 cult and language Lithuanian of spread of advocacy anti of fallacies of disclosure that not, or properly imagined, publishers its that obvious is it newspaper, the “ weekly thegoal of clear Lithuaniansaand was onquestion Stances various 3.3. not, publicationexist. newspaperor the ceased to the continuing for application an submit publication.“ to deadline the extended Affairs Internal of Minister “…the reads that Affairs, Internal of Ministry the at executive some by “Apţvalga“ information other any without again, but known, is document interesting very one Only issue. last the in hints would indicateresearchanythat newspaper,neither anyclosingthere are circumstancesof the a with compiled was “Apţvalga“ of issue last the likely most but government, new the congratulated truly pro “A ago month a than less while expressed, openly very was regime old the of mockery the and government new the of praise the general, In transl also Koganas,Leonas CareHealth of Minister new the attentionto exceptional an with followed, government new that of presentation The Government”. New 25 the on States,

“ M.Gl., “Pasikalbėjimas su Sveikatos ministru Dr.L. Koganu,” - Raštas“Apţvalga” leidėjui”, Lithuanian The last issue of the periodical appeared ten days after the occupation of the Baltic Baltic the of occupation the after days ten appeared periodical the of issue last The As it was already mentioned several times, the development of relations between Jews Jews between relations of development the times, several mentioned already was it As ations of the reactions to the new government printed in other Jewish newspapers. newspapers. Jewish other in printed government new the to reactions the of ations 218 -

government and state. Without a doubt,amembers wereWithout there and Unionofgovernment the state. who - th hte te dtr f h proia apid o a emsin t permission a for applied periodical the of editor the Whether eii ies n rcs, poiin o ihain anti Lithuanian to opposition racism, and ideas Semitic

“ ofJune, t s lot mosbe o understand to impossible almost is it hand helping

1940. The editorial was entitled “Jewish Society Congratulates the Congratulates“JewishThethe entitlededitorial Society 1940. was

LVCA,F. 402,Ap.6 (2t.), B.2:19.

”

from

outside. Basically no documents were found in this this in found were documents no Basically outside. 54

Apţvalga”. From an overvie Apţvalga”.Froman

pţvalga“ was the same as years ago, i.e. ago, years as same the was pţvalga“

Apţvalg ure among Jews, would suit their their suit would Jews, among ure

it . It is a note to the publisher of of publisher the to note a is It . 217 a , no. 223(June 25, 1940):3.

who was Jewish. There were were wasJewish. There who - Semitic press and and press Semitic w of all issues of issuesof all of w continue o

CEU eTD Collection to need no is there paper this of extent the To of etc. theologian; philosopher, Dambrauskas, Minister Indrišiūnas, Julius Affairs; Internal 3 the politician, KazysGrinius, Education; Ministerof Affairs, Foreignof Minister Defence, Land Ministerof Parliam the of Speaker Bistras, Leonas Lithuania; of University of rector lawyerprofessorMykolasmember ofandRomeris, Lithuanian politician, and Supreme Court, ofp fulfilling andneed led the also by President the governmentofficial stance authoritarian of the the representing similar, very were Elite the of opinions These matter. this on opinion their are there time, the of discourse public this to devoted articles other Amongit. implement to ways Lithuanian Conversations 3.3.1. elite with in took issues.addressingthese newspaper the that stances the analyze will and time the of processes and events fromPalestine NaziGermany,UnitedPoland,the andStates, elsewhere. news the by occupied also was “Apţvalga” of pages the of part Considerable governments. me all basically for obsession an was which question”, “Vilnius sensitive very the to attention drew constantly also Union the publication, the extensivelyquitecovered throughout Besides topics, these best. intentions the eriodical “Aperiodical vr 20 over Several To get a sense who were these Elite members Elite these were who sense a get To the of One - Jewish relations, analysing the reasons of the decline of situation in 1930s and the the and 1930s in situation of decline the of reasons the analysing relations, Jewish

cons f promin of accounts

topics will be discussed be will topics rd

ţvalga“. ac an was chose publishers that measures President of Lithuania (served in 1926); Steponas Rusteika, Minister of of Minister Rusteika, Steponas 1926); in (served Lithuania of President

dia of the time as it was also the main interest of Lithuanian Lithuanian of interest main the also was it as time the of dia ent Lithuanian elite members (thereinafter Elite) revealing revealing Elite) (thereinafter members elite Lithuanian ent in this part of the thesis, providing the background of of background the providing thesis, the of part this in 55

here are some names and positions held: held: positions and names some are here iacs Peae dms Jakštas Adomas Prelate Finances; tual discussion about the state of of state the about discussion tual

ent, Prime Minister, Minister, Prime ent, - CEU eTD Collection AntanasSmetona. 221 220 manyAnd accounts onpersonality the of Smetona. 16,2010). EastEuropean Review LTSwas never anti never anti (January121 9,1938): 1; 219 and founder the Grebliauskas, all” at exist not does antagonism such because Lithuanians, and Jews between antagonism of question no be can “There pillars. mentioned the on based clearly of stance the thereinafter) discussed shortly be etc. humanity, anti that root, very the from dismissed is nations inferior and equal are state Lithuanian the of citizens all that centuries, for peace in lived minorities ethnic or religious national, and Lithuanians that e.g. for belief, of pillars spearhe discusstrying problemsthe to ofLithuanian aut that of part were members when expressions same the evenusing Elite are they explainwhy easy to that not isit government, the of some that mind in having Even in respondents go they the also of but most coincide, absolute of opinions the do only Not articles. researched the in politicians.were periodical the to respondents the of most that however, noticing worth is It position. official analyzed, th that important more is ithere because interviews the of moment the at held Elite the positions particular what clarify

“YoungLithuania” was anauxiliary organization tothe “Lithuanian Nationalists‟ Union” J.Sidabrinis, “Kaip gali būti pagerinti lietuvių E.g.Smetona‟s speeches reprinted insamethe “ The question of loyalty to the regime arises very soon when analyzing the ideas state ideas the analyzing when soon very arises regime the to loyalty of question The The official stance of the government in interwar Lithuania, shaped primarily by by primarily shaped Lithuania, interwar in government the of stance official The ad political and moral authority of the time president Antanas Smetona, rests on few on rests Smetona, Antanas president time the of authority moral and political ad - bourgeoisanti or

219

Semitic”,see:

However different was the worldview of lay Lithuanian society (which will will (which society Lithuanian lay of worldview the was different However

48,110 (Januaryno. 1970):99, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4206165(accessed February

“ <...> partythe [“Li - intellectualsince manyof its members camefrom thesetwo Formally, groups. the

RomualdJ.Misiunas, “Fascist Tendencies inLit

- line with the official stance of the authoritarian government. government. authoritarian the of stance official the with line the leader of organization “Young Lithuania”. “Young organization of leader the etuvostautininkųsąjunga“/ ey were loyal to the authoritarian regime despite their their despite authoritarianthe regime loyal to were ey - ţydųsant

Apţvalga”, See: - Jewish relations. relations. Jewish 56

the Elite on the Jewish the on Elite the

ykiai,”

Apţvalga "Valstybėsvairininkų ţodis," “LithuanianNationalists‟ Union”]

,3 (Juneno. 30,1935): 1. - Semitism is a disgrace to to disgrace a is Semitism , that the idea of superior of idea the that , huania,” - Lithuanian relations is is relations Lithuanian 220 sae Benediktas states ,

TheSlavonic and – 221

the partythe bylead

“I do not see not do “I Apţvalga horitarian

, no. was d CEU eTD Collection Staliūnas(Vilnius: LII leidykla, 2005). prievarta.Lietuvių ţydųir santykių dinamika a.XIX 239 Verbickienė, an accounton Lithuanian tocomparativedo a analysis withalmost ofall theof rest Europe, where situa terminology)alienforis Lithuanian society throughoutthe centuries easilycan be whendenied one is nottrying claimsthei.e. that anti 226 vaikus,” yrabūtinas,” logingaiirobjektyviai,” ţydųlietuviųsantykių kla nuotaika lietuviškasnėra padaras,” 225 Germanya 224 17,1936):1. 223 222 to goal a with cities andtowns larger the to Lithuanians migrationof constant period interwar objectively. anti of rise the hyperbolized, is nation Lithuanian expressions. or words of combinations same the almost usingagain in tacitly,while more casesin here;some analyzed opinions theall of anti Her recent and tolerance expressingopinion.one‟s is this that, only Not good. general in are Lithuanianstate periodinterwar minoritylargest of the majorityand betweenthe relations that here, analyzed article single every almost in appears which claim, common of examples Li in exist not does antagonism such before, mentioned I “as Finances of Minister on, Affairs.almostidentically of but InternalJuliusLater says Čaplikas,later monthsMinister exist” not does it because Jews, and Lithuanians between antagonism organic any

Again,the compliment for objectivity only can be reserved toanalysisthe of anti E.g. Withoutactually mentioning statesthe where this importcomes from, the referencesare given toNazi J.Sidabrinis, “Kaip valstybės tautinės daugumos, taip irvisų maţumų klausimas,” “ - Ţydų - e the general claim is that Lithuanians have a characteristic of a very tolerant nation and and nation tolerant very a of characteristic a have Lithuanians that is claim general the e 252;for Semitism Another discourse discussed by most of the members of the elite is enduring Lithuanian Lithuanian enduringis elite the membersof the of most bydiscussed discourse Another “Prof.Roemeris apie ţydųlietuviųsantykius,”

Apţvalga - Lietuviųsantykiaibuvo pasiliktituri ir nuoširdūs,” nd Poland.nd

situation endtheat of c. and19th beginningthe of20th, forthe e.g. see: Apţvalga ŢydaiLietuvos Didţiosios Kunigaikštystės visuomenėje. Sambūvioaspektai 226

of recent days recent of The reason for the growth of tensio of growth the for reason The , no.63 (October25, 1936): 1.

- , (Februaryno. 31 1936): 2, 2; J. Semitism(or anyoth

Apţvalga - unnatural usimu,” Jewish relations in Grandthe Duchy ofLithuania see: J Indrišiūnas answers a question about the rise of antagonism by saying saying by antagonism of rise the about question a answers Indrišiūnas

,28 (Januaryno. 10,1936):1; J. Sidabrinis, “Lietuvių Apţvalga

is an “imported product” “imported anis Apţvalga

anti

- , , no.11 (August 25,1935):1; Sidabrinis, J. “Supraskime vieni kitus society. Lithuanian the in it of origins say, or Semitism, eranti , (Juneno.2 23, 1935):

- Jewishfeeling, without needlessengage in problemsof n xml o ue of use of example an - XX a.XXpirmojoje pusėje

Apţvalga 57 Sidabrinis,“Lietuva gali išmaintintivisus savo

n is first of all socio all of first is n Apţvalga , , no.1 (June 16, 1935):1;“Priešţydiška - 224 Semitism in 1930s is analysed more more analysed is 1930s in Semitism . These ideas are presented inalmost ideaspresented are These . 1; ,16 (Septeno. J.Sidabrinis, “Uţsienio lietuvių veikėjai thuania” ,ed. VladasSirutavičius Darius and tion wastion comparatively worse.For 225 urgitaŠiaučiūnaitė common

others very directly and and very directly others 223 Semitictensions in1930s, If tolerance as a trait of trait a as toleranceIf

mber29,1935): 1. Kaiksenofobija virsta - Apţvalga economic. During the the During economic. - . These are only few only are These . ţydųbedradarbiavimas

(Vilnius:Ţara, 2009),

language , (Januaryno. 29 - 222

nine , while while CEU eTD Collection 231 230 229 29,1935 (July6 21,1935): Sidabrinis,2; J. “Lietuvos ţydų išeivijajos ir Lietuvai,” reikšmė klausimais,” 228 JewsEast of CentralEurope and industry;thoseengaged incommerce constituted 77.1percent of all involvedSee: in it. Mendelsohnprovides fromdata 1923,which shows overthat 50 percent of Jewswereemployed comm in tarpininkoir konkurento reguliavimoaspektais (XX a. pirmojipusė),” in GediminasVaskela, “Lietuvių ir ţydųsantykiaivisuomenės modernėjimoirsocialinės sferos politinio 227 th of goals and needs the Jewish of state worsening thefor themselves Jews the on legitimizeanti anti that saying by Elite the of position general the identifies time same the at and situation real the summarizes Romeris (lt. foreigners towards Je the attitudes especially and “kitataučius”) negative develop “chauvinism, to turns young ambitious intelligentsia this experience, of lack the to due failing After commerce. in positions yout Lithuanian that says Galvanauskas Ernestas should understan Jews and development natural a is towns the to move to Lithuanians of eagerness anti of growth for reason exact this state traditionally who Jews, the with tensions created crafts), and trades (mostly activities economic of niches occupy

“ “ “ E.g.see: “ A Prof.Roemeris apieţydų lietuvių santykius,” Lietuvių Ţydai būtineturi išstumti prekybos,iš tbeginningthe of 20 the ihain sol ko ta i i nt h fut f h Jw, ht hy r mostly are they that itisthatnot the offault Lithuanians theythat have not engaged in business of the city. societ Jews, Jewish the However, the blamed. be to of are reasons and fault the not is concentrated it inofsectionsthe commerce andcrafts. The ofserieshistorical circumstances that know should Lithuanians Finally, what is common to many of the opinions analyzed here is a delicate blame put put blame delicate a is here analyzed opinions the of many to common is what Finally, Trades of Institute the of rector interview of time the at and Minister Prime Former ):1;

d that. As Grinius said:that. d

- Apţvalga Kaipgali būti pagerinti lietuvių “ ţydųbedradarbiavimas yra būtinas, S upraskimevieni kitus logingai irobjektyviai,“ 1. - Jewish tension, however ithoweverunderstood”. “cantension,be Jewish ,4 (Julyno. 7, 1935): , ed. Vladas,ed. Sirutavičius andDarius Staliūnas(Vilnius: LII leidykla, 2006), 135.

..., th dominated these circles. these dominated

c. less15than 226. e state of Lithuania, passive participation in social life, lack of of lack life, social in participation passive Lithuania, of state e - Semitism is a consequence of economic factors, which do not not do which factors, economic of consequence a is Semitism

”

s h r ena uly o h failure” the for guilty as seen are who ws,

1. J.Sidabrinis, “ - - ţydųsantykiai,” 1

17percent of Lithuanian population livedintowns. See:

Ţydai ” -

1. Jewish tensions in the society. the in tensions Jewish 1.

Lietuvosekonominėje 58

227 Ţ h receive diplomas and at once aim to high high to aim once at and diplomas receive h ydai būtineturi išstumti iš prekybos,”

Almost half of the members of the Elite Elite the of members the of half Almost ;

L.Vilkys, “Kaunomiesto burmistras a - Lithuanian relations. Indifference to Indifferenceto relations. Lithuanian y should likewise understand, likewise should y 231 - socialinėjestruktūroje: tarp

Apţvalga 228

They explain that that explain They Mendelsohn, , , no.22 (November 230

Apţvalga . Professor . 229 ktualiais

The erce , no. CEU eTD Collection 233 tarpukarioLietuvoje,” in assame communist Lithuanians or Russians. See: Vygantas Vareikis,“Ţydų ir lietuvių susidūrimai bei konfliktai obvious,is it says author,the that there was suchno thing as “Jewishcommunism”, only commu wouldbe Kaunas„clear that communist organization in1937 232 or ethnicity of grounds the on discrimination any of disapproval and tolerance Smetona‟s intentionanto Without in going is s/he that implies things other among rule authoritarian the under elite necessarily) not (or political of member a being that understand to has one criteriathe grounding themselves, theirrealitychoice ondays. of the chose respondents that out find one should observation interesting an be would it However, asked, questions particular were there that anti of origins and reasons the or antagonism growing on opinion e.g. (for questions particular asked he was or himself, relationship this evaluating of Jewish on opinion his asked only was respondent without the whether say to said difficult very is respondent it research detailed Without that asked. he was what what knowing see only can newspaper the of reader a words, other convers actual inthe respondent theaskedjournalist that questions includenotthe do here analyzed articles exceptions, of couple only Withaltogether. state the of politics official ideas the of because thatpoints Jews here.theblamed are key the are These etc. and Lithuanians and Jews between unfamiliarity reduce to initiative

J.Sidabrinis, “Kokie būtituri lietuvių Vareikispinpoint factthe that ifonewould only ana The interviews with Lithuanian elite presented here are interesting first of all not not all of first interesting are here presented elite Lithuanian with interviews The and fiends strays”.own its has nation [every] because this, for society Jewish whole the blame anti the in participate Jewsthe that fact the by pass silentlynot can One themselves… for ghetto political and psychological a create Jews that seems It … state the of matters important the of strata certain of indifference the is Reprehensible A couple of reasons for this uniformity o uniformity this for reasons of couple A

233 - state communist party quite acti quite party communist state

mentioned, but because they are so similar among themselves and to the the to and themselves amongsimilar so are theybecause but mentioned, Kai ksenofobijavirstaprievarta…

undermine many other factors that influenced the ideas analyzed here, here, ideas analyzed influenced factorsthe that manyundermineother

- ţydųsantykiai,”

because the respondents dwell on the same criteria. criteria. same the on dwell respondents thebecause vely. 59 lyzearchivalsources ofSecurity State Department, it 232 f accounts can be easily grasped. First of all, all, of First grasped. easily be can accounts f

A , , 164 pţvalga

- - It is true however, that it is not right to to right not is it that however, true is It Lithuanian relation Lithuanian 1939 was1939 almostexceptionally - 165. , , no.24 (December 13, 1935): 1.

- Jewish society towards series of of series towards society Jewish Semitism). One can only speculate speculate only can One Semitism).

- line with the President. President. the with line s and chose the criteria criteria the chose and s “ Jewish”.However nist Jews nist as

ation. In In ation. CEU eTD Collection Russia andEastern Europe see:1930s 235 234 year), a half first rather (or publishing of year first the 117 79, 63, 31, to on interview an had Elitewas the of in opinion the interest all? nothingissaidat Why the there end the at actually that observations, general suchin talk to Elite the allowit does Why called in appear Lithuanianslay or government the ofcritique though Even periodical. the in extensively etc. worse” to “frombaduniversities, st Jewish less and less worse, even situation was officers military the among offices, elected in part taking Jews of number the of decline constant a was There grim. quite was society the in Jews the of position the minority, other any or Jews the discrwould law singlewhich passeda not was interwar period throughout the that fact carefullyphrasesselected or tacitly thoughts. expressed som feel can reader the out, left ones the and analyzed articles the of all in because considered, be to has still it However, mild. quite was censorship that obvious “ peri Jewish the of respondents the by used language the on least at imprint clear a had religion Apţvalga”

Thisdecline is analyzedmentionedor by many Forhistorians. aconcise account ofworsening the situation in Mendelsohn, 235 odical. Second is the censorship. From vast amount of other articles in the same same the in articles other of amount vast From censorship. the is Second odical. What is not said in the interviews is as much as interesting as what is said. Despite the the Despite said. is what as interesting as much as is interviews the in said not is What If we look at the issues in which the interviews appear, we can see quite clearly that that clearly quite see can we appear, interviews the which in issues the at look we If

spineless All these problems, as well as various advancements of the Jewish life, are discussed are life, Jewish the of advancements various as well as problems, these All Liudas Truska,“Antisemitism in Intthe , criticizing or at least questioning various decisions of the government, government, the of decisions various questioning least at or criticizing , TheJews EastCentral of Europe…

and laterand Elite? the to questions precise more asking not newspaper this is why So . , , no.54 p of every first page, then in the issues No. 11, 15, 16, 22, 24, 28, 29, 28, 24, 22, 16, 15, 11, No. issues the in then page, first every of p . This sequence of numbers is here to show that basically only during during basically only showthat to hereis numbers of sequenceThis .

- 55(2005): 64

re isengagementinno more re discussion? detailed 234

went constantly declining economic situation of the Jews, Jews, constantlysituationofdecliningthe economic went higher - 71. erwarRepublic of Lithuania:Focus 1930s,”the on ,238.

there is a certain apologetic tone in which the the which in tone apologetic certain a is there 60 at the beginning of publishing. Issues No. 1 to 7 to 1 No. Issues publishing. beginning of the at

“ “ Apţvalga”, the periodical can not be not canperiodical the Apţvalga”, Apţvalga” was concerned with the the with concerned was Apţvalga” udents were admitted to the the to admitted were udents e apologetic stance, stance, apologetic e

Jews in iminate t is it CEU eTD Collection 238 237 236 form, extreme the Russians”.simply in or Jewry, Russian the of “part a become to determined was region, afternewdiscussed schools‟ curriculaeducationpresented reformsof 1936. the discussing and language Russian using are Jews the that accusations the to responding communities, two the bridging importancementioningofthelocal Jewsof the vernacular. speaking the “Ap of issues the of majority the light, this In unquestionable. was Jews the towards hostility the diminishing thus and terms cultural in closer becoming closeness. cultural any hoped have the in medium not could community Jewish core the Lithuanianknowing without cultures, any the between dialogue is language common a t since key And the identity. is national still Lithuanian and was language shown, was it As population. Lithuanian Lithuanianlanguage 3.3.2. congratulate ve goal this suited Elite the Responses of together. work sides both if eliminated becan but good, too other the on problems, are there hand co and language of medium the through together communities two bring to goal a with periodical The itself. newspaper the for sun” the under place “a finding with do to lot a has this that guess can One Elite. the of opinion

Paţėraitė,“Ţydų kultūrinių irpolitini clearThe example of accountssuch is in conversationsthe withthe Elit Lithuanians learningYiddish or Hebrew ofis courseout of question. pr o Ltuna Jwy wih a oe f h lat cutrtd J acculturated least the of one was which Jewry, Lithuanian of part A in crucial is Lithuanian using and knowing that mentioning general constant Besides amonglanguageimportance the ofthe awarewell was Union the doubt, that no isThere

y el Mroe, o ivlig n epr icsin fed h Eie o warmly to Elite the freed discussions deeper in involving not Moreover, well. ry “ Apţvalga”firstLithuanianbeingfor 238

Conditions to “become Russians” were formed by the policies of the tsar tsar the of bypolicies the formed “become were Russians” Conditionsto

237

ųo “Apţvalga” involved in two more specifmore two in involved “Apţvalga” rientyrųpokyčiai…”, 54. 236 –

everything is fine in general, just recent trends are not not are trends recent just in general, fine is everything h lnae ewe te es speaki Jews the between linkage The mmon interests first had to state the case that on one one on that case the state to had first interests mmon 61

- languageJewish periodical.

e,discussed above. ţvalga” included at least one least at included ţvalga”

ic debates, namely: debates, ic

g Lithuanian, ng

ewries in the the in ewries rait of the the of rait CEU eTD Collection pramoninkuvisuomenė ir 242 241 240 239 language Lithuanian mandatory with Yiddish and Hebrew in education through went youth o evaluationobjective quite with accusations unsophisticated answered “Apţvalga“ in publications Various them. with dealt newspaper the way the and accusations of understanding the in both encapsulating situation the of overview This “Apţvalga“ say,managed mostregisterthat instances itsto ofsuchgive and response. state independent their and Lithuanians offend thus and publicly instigator Jewsaccusationsofmadethe wasLithuanians. the by Russiantendencythisrem and culture to turned Jewry Lithuanian of part a that understand to though important is It process. Russification “Russian quality c population the of majority the since Jews, wealthier the system. new the weaknessof the and culture teaching rabbinical strong the to due unsuccessful be to doomed was policy second the that of culture a into them turning thus system, education Russian impose to used measures were there Russian the to given 1855 (reigned II Aleksander

“ Ibid.,55. Ibid.,62 Ibid., Bendras likimasbendrų ir priešų pavojus pašalinsvisus nesusipratimus.pasikalbėjimas su ţinomu Lithuanianculture, andnot tragedyaitis [ifsome still Jews thislanguage].use can which… Nonetheless,should… beavoided. today Russianlanguage threat isto notthe a One language. another using start tonotice gaffesthethough, certainof Jew [this], overcome to literature, and language Russian in up brought was which generation, older the for difficult is it that understood generatio older of parts even and youth Jewish T language Russian using are Jews the that claimed press Lithuanian again and Time he most common accusation [against us Jews] is of using Russian … but it is a fact, that fact, isa it of but Russianhe… isusing mostcommon Jews] [against accusationus

62. -

63.

- retd education. oriented” s veikėjus J.Frenkeliu,” - f reality; during the years of independence a vast majority of the Jewish Jewish the majority of vast a independenceyears of the during freality; oriented educated Jews for occupying various positions, and second, second, and positions, various occupying for Jews educated oriented

81. hs plce wr twofold; were policies These 1881).

by a Jewish industrialist Jakovas Frenkelis is very very is Frenkelis Jakovas industrialist Jewish a by 241

Apţvalga ish ish intellectuals,who usewithout Russian reason a

hr i n ne t g it dtis f the of details into go to need no is There 240 62 -

ained until the First World War. This group of of group War.This World First untilthe ained The first one, however, was accessible only to accessible only washowever, first one, The Christian culture upon the Jews through the the through Jews the upon culture Christian , (Septemberno.14 15, 1935):2.

n learned Lithuanian well; it has to be be to has it well; Lithuanian learned n

Erpa level”. “European ould not afford receiving the high the receiving afford not ould

. It is probably reasonable to to reasonable probably is It . first, the privileges were were privileges the first, 239

Pa 242 ţėraitė claims ţėraitė

- CEU eTD Collection 247 246 latterThe article is mockingthe Jewish women who speakRussian inorder tobe Goldšmitas,“Rusų kalbos liga…,” “Folksblatas”apie kovą priešsvetimų kalbų vartojimą,” Translationsof fromarticlesYiddish press: “Mūsų klausimas?” 245 244 243 mentionedquestionnew isthe curriculaof not here. issue.Thisrelevance clearlythe showed of reform‟s the on community Jewish the of name inthespeak to agency unified a shouldcreate Jews the that made was stress the Here reform. the about Parliament the in debate of heights years1936 thefor becausethesebeseriously,isaccusations shouldnot too ittaken false. they obviousthat are However story. the of side other the know will fallacies, these to exposed are who readers, Lithuanian t as attitude similar somewhat a with accusation these addressed Union the that said, be can it general In Lemchenas,etc. public curricula, whole with Gymnasium Jewish Kaunas‟ of activity university, system, schooling language: Lithuanian with contacts Jewry‟s the of outline an with on carries then author The Another responsefrownedupon. to accusation the reads: i admitted whole received or classes,

Quitelikely because the newcurri “ “Ţydųvisuomenė prieš svetimų kalbų viešą vartojimą,” Ibid. Garliaviškis,“Vėl dėl lalbosrusų vartojimo ţydų tarpe,” Mokyklųreforma irţydų atstovavimo klausimas,” ihain er isl awy fought community. always itself Jewry Lithuanian stressedthat be to has it misleadsociety, of… whippersnappers‟ withstandfromsuch To Second issue largely discussed in the periodical is the newissueintroduced the inlargelyschoolcurriculumSecond is periodical the discussed

“Ap n - language Jewish newspaper with the hope that at least a part of Lithuanian Lithuanian of part a least at that hope the with newspaper Jewish language o the accusations of blood libel, i.e. they had to be contradicted in the only only the in contradicted be to had they i.e. libel, blood of accusations the o 244 vla ta tee r Jw wo pa Rsin n i eey ntne t is it instance every in and Russian speak who Jews are there that ţvalga” 243 to o “Ap of ation -

1937. The first publication as an editorialappea an aspublication first The 1937. Later on several more articles addressed this issue with the same stance. same the with issue this articlesaddressed more several on Later

- Lithuanian education, hence knows Lithuanian. It is always always is It Lithuanian. knows hence education, Lithuanian A

pţvalga culawas notyet being discussedthe Parliament.at vla, ok f eih igit lk Ksns Šulmanas, Kisinas, like linguists Jewish of work ţvalga”, , , no. 114(November 21, 1937):3.

the reform to Jewishreformthe the community.However, the against usage of Russian within the Jewish Jewish the within Russian of usage against

63 Apţvalga Apţvalga

Apţvalga

Apţvalga 247 Apţvalga , , no.41 (April 19,1936): 1.

,114 (Novemberno. 21, 1937): 3;

,113 (Novembeno. , , no.30 (January 24,1936):7. ,156 (Octoberno. 7,1938): 7;

red in April, 1936, April, in red “saucy”. r 10, 1937):r 2;

Lithuanian Lithuanian S. 246

“

at the at 245

CEU eTD Collection badLithuanians.” See: 251 250 249 248 p new a develop to and courses all in languages Jewish to language instruction the reinstate to inhavingmindthe itself. language the of development scarce a of sake the for subjects these in knowledge of sacrifice major to equal is Lithuanian in history and geography learning that argued teachers Jewish languLithuaniannew that complaining were article. extensive an in conference the overviewed „Apţvalga“ Education. Ministryof the ingivento later made resolutions ongoingand debates appeared. identity Jewish the of parts loosing of threat the once society Jewish whole the and periodical the by questioned being was Lithuanian learned Jews the which in system Lithu school cherished using of advocacy the in conditionality the see can we here way, Either grounded. is concern the that reveal might curricula detailed the however, changes, these change also languagewillinstruction change of the that understood clearly ofpassage this Theauthor newmainthe curricula asa concern. rogramme for teaching Lithuanian. After providing extracts of speeches presented during the duringthe ofspeeches presented Afterprovidingextracts teachingLithuanian.for rogramme

Asafather of aneight year oldpupil “ Ibid. “ Naujiejimokyklų įstatymai,” Visuotinis ţydųmokytojų suvaţiavimas,” 251 beimposed on theJewish Jews? onview historyis different from others.the … history. of teaching differ is which history, the on view certain is a Can it. important in role mostcertain a played Jews] the [the history Throughout case, this In Lithuanian. in taught disc many all, of Firs with editorialappeared another reform, the establishing law new the passing after Right ofrne f eih eces ed n aur, 19 January, in held teachers Jewish of Conference

the content of the discipline. Analyzed legislation (see chapter 2.1.1.) does not imply imply not does 2.1.1.) chapter (see legislation Analyzed discipline. the of content the

Also, the new the Also,

Tėvas,“Ţydų mokyklos vargai,” otherness ent to the Jewish understanding of the development of history and culture, culture, and history ofdevelopment theof understandingJewish the to ent programme of Lithuanian language is not at all adapted to Jews, when Jews, to all adapted at not is language Lithuanian of programme

iplines that at first were taught in Jewish language, will now be be now will language, Jewish in taught were first at that iplines

Apţvalga of Yiddish and Hebrew. Ingeneral,of Hebrew. Yiddish andmade teachersJewishclaims

put “[Theit: Jews] want not doto turnfrombeing good Jews being to , no.57 (August23, 1936):1. 248

Apţvalga

age programme is inadequate for Jewish schools. Jewishschools. for inadequate isprogramme age 64 , , no.91 (May 21, 1937):1,2,5.

Apţvalga

250

During the conference Jewish teachers teachers Jewish conference the During ,65 (Novemberno. 1,1936): 5. 37 became sort of a summary of of summary a of sort became 37

249

anian. The The anian. CEU eTD Collection 254 lietuviųkalbą nelietuviųmokyklose,” “Lietuviųkalba maţumų mokyklose,” 253 252 long J occurred. violence some although Poland,in as that) near the pogromsprovokeduring not did Jews anti include not did nationalism Czechoslovakia. and States Baltic other with paralleled usually is and Fightingthe 3.3.3. anti “Ap by and initsexpressedconcern several editorials. society Jewish the by both issues greatest the of one as seen educat “Jewish the of part lose to threat The unconditionally. not However, activity. Union‟s the throughout promoted was communities, between tension the reducing thus and p its for as respect Lithuanian, surroundingthe etc.to culture, learn u to need the claiming again stance, rather apologetic takes and teachers the bymade and statements strong the levels somewhat author the that here interesting is It periodical.ofthe position the thus position, own his states shortly very article the of author/editor conference,

Mendelsohn, For more accountson the language issues, see: “ Ibid.,5. - lived friendship between Jews and Lithuanians was at least officially celebrated and and celebrated officially least at was Lithuanians and Jews between friendship lived primary Jewish school. [We] can assure that even without this unnecessary duress, the the a duress, unnecessary Jewishyouthwould learn and this love Lithuanian. as without even that Lithuanian, assure can for [We] school. Jewish respect primary highest the sh withit majority, the of and state the evenof language that understand, the should in language school, foreign with fought centuries many for itself which nation, Lithuanian impres huge a made conference teachers„ Jewish Anti well as Union the for important very clearly was language Lithuanian of question The

- eriodical. The state language, as a key key a as language, state The eriodical. Semitism in interwar Lithuania, at least at the beginning, was comparatively mild mild comparatively was beginning, the at least at Lithuania, interwar in Semitism TheJews EastCentral of Eur

- Semitism

Apţvalga Apţvalga - Jewish sentiment. The stereotypes and hostility towards the the towards hostility and stereotypes The sentiment. Jewish

ope… ,148 (Augustno. 1, 1938):2;etc. , , no.146 (July 1938):1; G. Zimanas,17, “Kas dėstytituri I

Ţydųmokyklos balsas,” ndependence wars of such magnitude (and nothing nothing (andmagnitude such of warsndependence ,1. 65

252 ould not be the instruction language in the the in language instruction the be not ould 253 measure

sion on the whole Jewish society...... society. Jewish whole the on sion

in bringing the two cultures closer closer cultures two the bringing in ewish autonomy was founded and and founded was autonomy ewish

Apţvalg

a , , no.93 (June 4,1937): 1; 254

W ţvalga”, which which ţvalga”, eak nambiguous nambiguous Lithuanian Lithuanian ion” was was ion” CEU eTD Collection 259 258 December1935,5, 6;No. 25, Dec25 257 256 255 inItalian the of part as times few Protocols the mentions Protocols on 1930‟s in society Lithuanian peasant the find not withth but Protocols, the of authenticity and validity the of denial the with only not concerned more Coudenhove N. R. by the andplagiarism considered beas to has it that Jews, writtenby not is Zion” Elders of “Protocolsthe of rulethe that court the and case 1934 of trial Berne inmostlyLithuanian thepress. research, this for important more second, And denouncing 1929. of crash market the of because Jewish the of myth the and theories of Lithuaniansovercome to Jews of prevalence the of because “. right question‟ „Jewish the with obsessed the of officials the later “extremethe to rightauthoritarianas oppose rule, even Furthermore, government. the by fostered

NikolajBerdiajev, “Krikščionybė ir antisemitizmas,” “ “ “Sionoseniūnų protokolųfalsifikaciija nustatyta,” Ibid.,245. Italijosţydų bendruomenės,” CoudenhoveR.N. hatred e turndown of the myth of Jewish domination myth ofworld of the turndown e The very first issue of the of issue first very The “Ap Thus, 258 of the Jews the of

or or and objectively analyzing the distorted views on Lithuania‟s economy expressed expressed economy Lithuania‟s on views distorted the analyzing objectively and that functionthey ţvalga” battled anti battled ţvalga” - Kalergi,"Ciono išminčių protokolai,” - 1935. . La . - Kalergi indicates 256

ter, a series series a ter,

Apţvalga This article presented the main the presented article This common

ember1935, 3.

appeared

as a “pureofproofanti as a

ini.e.industry.theircommerceoccupations, and that by then they were well known. Later o Later known. well were they then by that news , , no.146 (July 1938): 17, 4. - of of stereotypes and myths, but also because of of because also but myths, and stereotypes - racial the down turning First, fronts. two in Semitism 255 a piece of piece a world paper dedicated almost the whole page to present the the present to page whole the almost dedicated paper the .

extracts from upcoming book “Judenhas von heute” heute” von “Judenhas book upcoming from extracts 257 However, the Jews remained the outsiders not only not outsiders the remained Jews the However,

most receptive one, however, the series of articles articles of series the however, one, receptivemost

Apţvalga n h rpitd at o te book the of parts reprinted the In - 66 domination, which gained special importance importance special gained which domination,

Apţvalga

general news general

fake dirty literature with only goal to spread to withgoal only literature dirtyfake innot were Poland, andHungary,Romania,

Apţvalga ,1 (Juneno. 6, 1935): 6. ,148 (Augustno. 1,1938): 7 - Semitism” ,23 (Decemberno. 6,1935): 3

ingeneral speeches of those involved in the the in involved those of speeches , e.g. ,

259 that they were republished republished were they that . , etc. etc. , Although

n, “Apţvalga” n,

this myth did mythdid this the the

;No.24, 13 uhr is author struggle struggle - wing CEU eTD Collection 266 Lietuvos ekonominėje 265 264 263 Raglan,“Grynoji ras 262 (June 30,1935): 4 261 260 nationalizingpolicy. to businessmen Lithuanian before. anti modern implanted business c Furthermore, life everyday of object an became in19 the movement nationalrevival first theproclaimed during inevitable.goal, This was state, new involve not indo theoretical contemplation. and examples day present or historical simple by theories racial of falsity the explain would understand, to difficult too not and sophisticated both are They reader. the to appealing and credible more are that like authors by articles that iscertain it are, necessity) pure a just maybe (or tactic this for reasons activifamous foreignscientists, by but for paper, the writers race Aryan pure of inequality theoriesof

Vitkus,“Smulkiojo verslolituanizacija tarpukario Lietuvoje…”, 216. HektorasVitkus, “Smulkiojo verslolituanizacija Vaskela,"Lietuvių ir ţydųsantykiai…”, HootonE. (op.cit.) is aprofessor Harvardat University; LordRaglan (op.cit.) famous antropologist, etc. E.g., E.g., E.g., 266 G.Günther, “Arijiečių rasė M.Vainraich, “Čekų mokslo akademija sugriauna Hitlerio antisemitinę rasių teoriją,” Hooton,E. “Tiesa apie rasę,” The creation of Lithuanian middle class was one one was class middle Lithuanian of creation The condemnin Articles racism. is extensively quite discussed topic Another

264 Although no dir no Although

hence the rise of tension between Jews (the main middle class) and Lithuanians and class) middle main (the Jews between tension of rise the hence onsolidation of Lithuanian businessmen and their strive to to strive their and businessmen Lithuanian of onsolidation .

ė - - socialinėjestruktūroje …

262 mitas,”

260

are rather frequent. These articles are mostly written not by regular regular by not written mostly are articles These frequent. rather are , attacking Nazi Germany for itspolitics racial for NaziGermanyattacking ,

Apţvalga ect anti ect

that is, adapted to the Lithuanian reader. In other words, authors words, other In reader. Lithuanian the to adapted is, that Lithuanianize

istorinis melas,” Apţvalga - - , , no.83 (March 21, 1937):3 Jewish law was passed, the government tacitly allowed the the allowed tacitly government the passed, was law Jewish Semitism into majority‟s thought, which was unknown unknown was which thought, majority‟s into Semitism

discussions during the Great Depression Great the during discussions 133. , , no.52 (July 1936): 12, 4.

,183.

tarpukario Lietuvoje:ideologija ir praktika”, in

economy, which could be observed as another another as observed be could which economy,

Apţvalga 67

, , no.127 .

of the most important goals of the the of goals important most the of

sts, speakers,etc. sts, - 128 (February1938): 27, 6. .

261

or negating the mythnegating the or Lithuanianize 263 of the 1930 the of

Apţvalga

Whateverthe Ţydai ; Lord g racial racial g ,3 no.

small

th s.

265 c., c.,

CEU eTD Collection 272 271 270 269 268 oftitleorganization the inLithuanian language strongerhas nationalisticconnotation than inEnglish. hypotheticallypossible of „union oftraders Lithuania‟. Even more,because offeatures certain of linguistics, the 267 oc the develop to Jews many“Verslas”suchexamples.shows of Busi Lithuanian the of reflections The Lithuanians. anti clearly were aim that achieve to used methods the However, majority. of hands the in leverage economic of state” the “owning and questioned not was nation titular the Naturalasnegative. understandingtime the that nation of the pageissueveryIn the first firstof the of spreader successful presumably, and, intense ( “Verslas” weekly itspublish to began later establis

Ibid. “Pramonininkai pasiryţęišplėsti veiklą,” “Karštai pasveikintaskongresas,” “Komesnorime?” This,without adoubt, was referenceprimarily toJews. Noticeably,the itself name shows exclusiveness, i.e. „union ofLithuania h peet a dvso o bsns b ntos (agriculture industryand crafts nations by business of division day present The holdssomehowever reputation, industryour itself willpush [ Jew. a Different is … worker well and honestly job their do and all of best the are [workers] Lithuanian by shown is This anymore. develop not can variousoffacts the dayand the backwardness and inculture. weak is group this However hands. of group largest The Wehopecertain … minoritythat a willstop provoking theharmfulfriction tothe state.

hed assessed be hardly can itselfbusinessmen Lithuanian of goal the that said, be hasto It The A common claim that Lithuania‟s economy is stagnating, because of inability of the the of inability of because stagnating, is economy Lithuania‟s that claim common A in 1930 to promote the promote to 1930 in “ no o Ltuna Traders Lithuanian of Union - Jewish. The main tool in the information war was the rhetoric of the the of rhetoric the was war information the in tool main The Jewish. Verslas Abroad cupations that they are involved in, was not based on any facts. Yet it Yet facts. any on based not was in, involved are they that cupations –

, (Februaryno.1 1932): 25, 1. other

ainl minorities national s/h -

nationals Verslas e is held as the worst worker, but in Lithuania in but worker, worst the as held is e

dao srn Ltuna mdl class middle Lithuanian strong a of idea Verslas , , no.50 (December 11,1936): 2. of “Verslas” it is of“Verslas”it stated that 268 ) is)in no wayhealthy and not becan acquitte

,50 (Deno. ‟

en. “ en. are Jews, are 68 267

Idsrait ad Handicraftsmen and Industrialists , negative socio negative Business”), which Business”),

cember11,1936): 4. ese Cnrs (96 peetd in presented (1936) Congress nessmen which 271

- a h woebsns in business whole the has state should in“behands” of state the him/her n traders‟n is ratherdifferent of -

– economic

Lithuanians, and trade, trade, and Lithuanians, course entailed having its its having entailed course

later was one of the most the of one was later ] out without] time.

image o image [a Jew] [a

and two years two and d.” f 272

the Jews. Jews. the still 269

270 its

” was was ”

CEU eTD Collection prasimanymopadarinių,” 275 274 Jewsprevailin markets. See: Jews “Apţvalga“states that religionshould be question not a indoing business, and“Verslas” interpretsthis ifas 273 not was but importantanymore active, considered and still was myth medieval that shows this things other Among events. Jews. the blamed who one the at laughing was everyone and reappeared child the then time, some for missingwas that child a slaying of accused was throughout theircompetitors. to advantages giving without way, natural a in be should it positions, their from displaced indust in work and towns to move to times Many “Ap the explain and of or economics is and “Verslas” by started “Verslas”ideasoffoundcanbein weekly Jewish the publishing of years the throughout it denounce and accuse, common very a was

E.g.see: “ E.g.see: “Bendras likimas irbendrų prie “ Ką kalbėjoKą verslininkai apie ţydusjųkongrese,” ţvalga” states that: states ţvalga” are claiming are doingthat business sinis a in Christianity and therefore Lithuanians should step aside andlet (lt. “stipruolio”),(lt. coul who “strongman” such have of not lot do we a course, Of took Jews. the sate from positions the economic because only … weakened Lithuania in economy Jewish ot mninn i aohr e o publications. of set another is mentioning Worth competition. business in rights equal of idea an promoting was weekly the general, In h mi caatr f hs plmc i is dead its is polemics these of character main The Dėlprasimanymų apie ţydus,” the period of publication that give very short summaries of events when some Jew Jew some when events summaries of short very give that ofpublication period the the periodical the reality more objectively more reality “ 274 the ways Jews are doing business doing are Jews ways the

Apţvalga

Iksas,"Ko je iš tikrųjų nori,"

stated that that stated centered centered , , no.40 (April 12,1936): 7.

d withstand the pressurewithstandthe d state. ofthe “Apţvalga” a šų pavojusšų pašalins visusnesusipratimus…”, 2.

sort ofrelic Apţvalga the arou ry, hence develop economics. economics. develop hence ry, .

Jews understand understand Jews For example, a response to the claims cited above, above, cited claims the to response a example, For nd interpretations of everyday of interpretations nd

Apţvalga , , no.39 (April 5,1936): 4 69 ,

as as

of Apţvalga A great amount of articles that object to the the to object that articles of amount great A

h main the the ” ,71 (Decemberno. 20,1936): 5

, while “Apţvalga” is keen to deny them them deny to keen is“Apţvalga” while , .

uneducated ,59 (Septemberno. 6,1936): 5. 275

- hr ae ut a e messages few a quite are There This is the story for most for story the is This e need for need adversary of of adversary nd, i.e. discussions are usually usually are discussions i.e. nd, ;“

past. Rietavoišvengėţydai 273 the I

h Jw were Jews the

Lithuanian villagers Lithuanian events in country‟s country‟s in events “Verslas”

; anotherexample:

, tried to to tried , of such such of

o be to

CEU eTD Collection 277 276 cla This well). as minorities national other including (maybe Jews the andLithuanians clear bothforinterest common Lithuanians Jews. the and very a thus Poland, of part a still was Vilnius when period the at look to interesting Lithuanian how reminds and next done be should what discusses region, the and city the in Jews of situation the analyze publications i.e. event, historical this of perspective” “Jewish the with concerned t dedicated entirely almost is 1939) October, 201 1939. October, in state the in the reincorporated after was published region was them of part Larger issue. this to dedicated are articles of scores i question” “Vilnius the of representation the on written be could “Ap of stance the Thus Jerusalem”. “Northern the even or Lithuania” of “Jerusalem the called usually is it accident by Not role. major a plays Vilnius Jewry, Lithuanian of culture and history the In period. discussed the of most the throughout state Lithuanian concernthe importantof most becamethe 1920 of October in LithuanianJew question”The“Vilnius 3.3.4.

Ibid. "Ţ.K.S.Pirmininko J.adv.Goldbergo kalba, The head of the Jewish Soldiers‟ Union Goldbergas expressed the general stance of of stance general the expressed Goldbergas Union Soldiers‟ Jewish the of head The andwillLithuania regain itscapital. win will justice that believing lost, is it f that now Lithuanians with together blood it for mourns the shed Lithuanians with along Jews …Lithuanian “Our [friendly] coexistence” without a doubt meant the coexistence between the the between coexistence the meant doubt a without coexistence” [friendly] “Our coexiste [friendly] Our … ways several know independentisLithuaniathe mostimportant roadtoregainingthe Vilnius.of we But leap. one with goal our reach to us enable would that shortcut any know not do we Unfortunately, Vilnius].regaining [of hour joyous that of coming the fasten to generation our of duty the is …it in Later abovethe speechcited Goldber

ry towards “Vilnius question”. The occupation of the Vilnius region by Poland byPoland region Vilniusthe occupationof “VilniusThe question”. towards ry Jewry fought for Vilnius in 1920. For this research, however, it is more more is it however, research, this For 1920. in Vilnius for fought Jewry

276 "

Apţvalga o the regaining of Vilnius. Of course, articles are are articles course, Of Vilnius. of regaining the o gassaid: 70

, (Octoberno. 110 17,1937): 2. ţvalga” is quite obvious. A separate paper paper separate A obvious. quite is ţvalga”

or Vilnius, and longs and and longs and Vilnius, or st

issue of the periodical (22, (22, periodical the of issue n the Jewish newspaper, as as newspaper, Jewish the n

277

nce in the the in nce im was was im also also CEU eTD Collection Ţieţmariuose,” vaduotis 280 279 278 pro 3.4. attitude Jews.ofthe wouldwellunderstandhow reader the so propaganda, any without and illustrations, and diagrams graphs, numbers, of ful somewhereabroad, publishedshouldbe book a that explaining oncarries then Theauthor independentLithuaniafar isbetter in thanwas expressed Poland several times. brethren their that Jews Vilnius‟ show to need A done. be should what on periodical ofcontext this sensitive question. the population.Nonetheless, that attract to side Lithuanian the from effort additional any be to had there if questionable is it Vilnius in living Jewry the of condition bad increasingly an mind in Having side.its to Jewry Vilnius f friendly goal obvious a an is Jewish, Lithuania in communities is two the population of coexistence Vilnius‟ of third one approximately Since Vilnius. of residents the from support needs state Lithuanian that understanding the on based likely most

For example,For therewere Jewish sections “PriešlietuviškojiX., lenkų agitacija Vilniaus ir gyventojai,” This is not tosay wasit that only pragmatic a move. - The stance of “Apţvalga” on the “Vilnius question” basically represents the general general the represents basically question” “Vilnius the on “Apţvalga” of stance The Lithuanian. The organization advocated knowing and using Lithuanian language among among language Lithuanian using and knowing advocated organization The Lithuanian. Jewishn It was es was It it do will reader the Vilnijoje), (lt. himself. region Vilnius in situation to that compare how have, minorities our o many schools many to how about them brag tell could Let‟s we residents. that Vilnius‟ politics national the in things some also are There the of pondering only the not was coexistence friendly pursue to suggestion The ąjunga),whichwas established by Lithuanians. See:

Apţvalga f them are funded by government and municipalities … We do not have to haveto not do Wemunicipalities … and fundedgovernment by are fthem 279 ess tablished in the previous chapters that the Union of Jewish Soldiers was very very was Soldiers Jewish of Union the that chapters previous the in tablished

of the Union and the question of acculturation of theofthequestion Unionand 280 , , no.66 (November 8,1936): 3.

- off Lithuania is.Lithuaniaoff

278

established in“Unionthe of Vilnius Emancipation”(lt.Vilniui

Union did not miss a chance to push its agenda in the inthe agenda its push to chance missa not did Union

“VilniausVadavimo Sąjungos ţydų sekcija

Apţvalga ,32 (Februaryno. 1936): 9, 7. or the state to attract to state the or

‟s life in life ‟s

l CEU eTD Collection 282 281 aims to these even And Union. the of aspirations of extent greatest Union.the weeklya the of goals the of pursuit the in appropriate seems information of selection such hand, one On minority. the to events those relate to way no was there if or Jews the to related not was President, the of or highofficials governmental speeches of Besidespublishing time. the of weekly Jewish thefor light obvious the in discussedPalestine, or US the Poland, Germany, Nazi about mostly were “ in scarce very were abroad, or Lithuania in minority makewiththem Jewishacquainted culture. to them, “educate” to goal the presumably, with, reader Lithuanian the to mostly directed fromexcerpts etc.), Hanukkah, (Yom holidays Jewish main the presenting articles life, Jewish about Jews by written poetry of pieces and stories short find have could Lithuanians weekly the of issue “Ap reason, this For recognition. mutual of raise the through population Jewish the of conditions promoted Union the Lithuanianness which in contexts the all disregarding that stressed, and noticed be withobject state the of policies nationalizing by caused independent Jews of problems the analyzed into state, Lithuanian region Vilnius of reincorporation supported actively Jewry Lithuanian express population, Jewish the

Which might havebeen mandatory the in authoritarian rule. It knowis not in this research. Exceptincasethe of languagewh ţvalga” also extensively published material representing Jewish culture. Almost in every every in Almost culture. Jewish representing material published extensively also ţvalga” It seems that adopting the majority‟s language and being pro being and language majority‟s the adopting that seems It t Throughout nd the Union. On the other, this is the first indication of the still strong stillindication first the of is the this other, the On ndUnion. the

ive understanding of the needs of Lithuanian population, etc. Nonetheless, it has to hasto it Nonetheless, population,etc. Lithuanian needs of ivethe understandingof , the ultimate aim was not to be “more Lithuanian”, “more be to not was aim ultimate the , he five years of publication, the general news, i.e. not related to the Jewish the to related not i.e. news, general the publication, yearsof fivehe 282

“Apţvalga”

ich willich be discussed thereinafter as asign of acculturation. ed its support for the Lithuanian state, together with the rest rest the with together state, Lithuanian the for support its ed Jewish

basically ignored all that was happening in Lithuania if it if Lithuania in happening was that all ignored basically novels, etc. Massive amount of these publications was was publications these of amount Massive etc. novels,

Apţvalga”. Foreign news, for example, example, for news, Foreign Apţvalga”.

- 281 should be assessed quite quite assessed be should Lithuanian

but to increase to but

Kippur, Passover, Passover, Kippur,

- Jewishness state was the the was state living

of of CEU eTD Collection 283 “acculturation” of definition simplistic and General “acculturation”. term the of complexities the discussing and periodical Lithuanianmaybequestionitofaknowingcould and raised. be Yiddish. in filled are them of some inand Yiddish, are Unionthat join the to forms applicationare There onlythat. Not Union. the of branches other from Kaunas in office head the by received or sent letters presume be can it Yiddish, with covered mostly are that pages some on inscriptions Lithuanian short the From Yiddish. in is everything likely most and script, Hebrew in is else everything Lithuanian; is else nothing basically documents, of kind state the i.e. requirements, legal the to according Lithuanian, in filled be to had documents these in are documents these All etc. members, lo a and Lithuanian of lists Board, the of meetings the at filled Union the that protocols someauthority, to in given be to order in Union the of members the received letters find can one them, Among Union. the of documents inner the ofcollectionis the that Lithuania,Archive of State Central the at 593 Fund the analyzing when observed clearly be can This Union. the within considerable howevercarefully,that number Jewishofthe soldierswas Zionist. inHebrewinvolvedthe weeklynever acco into taken be should Jewry Lithuanian among Zionism of level great A Europe. Central East the in state other any almost being one worse “pro Being carefully.

E.g. - officials had to be able to read them. It can not be stressed enough, that apar that enough, stressed be not can It them. read to able be to had officials The adoption of Lithuanian language was also o also was language Lithuanian of adoption The After the analysis of the activity of the Union, its stance expressed through the the through expressed stance its Union, the of activity the of analysis the After “Įstojamasispareiškimas”, t of them were used in this research. However, it has to be noticed that all all that noticedbe to hasit However, research. this in used were them of t - 283 Lithuanian” most likely meant choosing the better of two evils, the the evils, two of better the choosing meant likely most Lithuanian”

lal, there Clearly,

LCVA,F.593, Ap.1, B. 16: 12.See: Appendix 5.

Jewishness from the governmental institutions, documents written by written documents institutions, governmental the from - Yiddish, Zionism Yiddish,

can be no discussion about internalization of the the of internalization about discussion no be can f h organizatio the of 73

unt as well. Although the Union and its its and Union the Although well. as unt - nly a goal, not an achievement even even achievement an not goal, a nly Bundism conflict, in can be assumed, inassumed, be can conflict, Bundism , t a b tre bc t the to back turned be can it n, d that these documents are the the are documents these that d

t from such such from t CEU eTD Collection 284 and diversity its of because both here, assessments making in helpful that not is assimilation in talkcaseabout the of Lithuanian Jewry. coined is part in least evenveryis to difficult “acculturation” argue, that itbeto wouldpossible“assimilation”, then at which “acculturation”, of understanding the apply ir term a assimilation, to oppose as acculturation, of sign a just was there language majority‟s of Internalization Europe. Western considering even not Jewry, European Central East some of experience never acculturation the understanding that latter claim The happened. to possible be would it then Jews, the amongst used i.e. internalized, be to had Lithuanian however, If, extent. great a to acculturated was 1930s, Lit the probably then acculturated, be to majority the of language the learn to enough is it If acculturated. was Jewry Lithuanian the numbers what in answer to possible be wouldit investigation,historical more having andmeans, “adoption” words other level. In the not acculturation, of scale measurethe to fruitful and leveluncertainty,sincewellthe languageof isthe knowledge andnot of usage greater or smaller a with done be could this However, Union. the and Jewry Lithuanian the itself? troubling i used be it Should life? public in it use to or language the know to enough it Is problem. obvious an is mean language.” the is remindinghere is introductionworth byin Mendelsohnthe proposed citedand

Mendelsohn, It can only be noted, that the literature on the terminology of acculturation and and acculturation of terminology the on literature the that noted, be only can It important more is it Maybe well. as complexities these in perspective another is There aoto o te xenl cha external the of “adoption 284

In the context of this research, the lack of explanation what does the “adoption”the does explanationwhat of lack the research, this of context the In T heJews EastCentral of Europe

Clarifying “adoption” would help in assessing the level of acculturation of of acculturation of level the assessing in help would “adoption” Clarifying n private life? Does it have to become the “mother the become to have it Does life? private n relevant for the Lithuanian Jewry altogether. Therefore, if one would would one if Therefore, altogether. Jewry Lithuanian the for relevant

of “acculturation” is very relevant, having in mind the the mind in having relevant, very is “acculturation” of racteristics of the majority culture, above all its its all above culture, majority the of racteristics …,2.

huanian Jewry, at least by the end of of end the by least at Jewry, huanian - tongue”, a term very very term a tongue”, - , knowing what knowingwhat , known. known. –

acculturation acculturation vis

- à - vis

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1,2 (Mayno. 1974), accessed February2010, 09, http://www.jstor.org/stable/643554.

Lithuanianness 74, Raymond H. C. Teske, Jr. and Bardin H. Nelson published Jr.andTeske, Raymond NelsonBardin published 74, H. C. H.

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CEU eTD Collection 288 287 mostlyThePolesusedopportunitythis“Pochodnia” through and (Polishof SocietyEducation Union short an the as First, explained events. be can two This of schools. outcome Jewish extent lesser a to and Polish with particularly stays it and all at decline unclear. this can explain s/he to try Education not of does Ministry literature Other the classes. of smaller teach permission the with however pupils, 60 to 32 teach misreading the is Second earlier. closed not were for convincing hardly schools effective beforeand not law was are explain1922 not the why he does reasons.First, two arguments his decline, the for reasons actual to points author the fulfill these failureto becausea of closed were schools children.agedThus “universal school implementing32 than less no also and 500, of population started per school one be only could there meant government the 1920s s the 7 of aged child every end i.e. teaching”, elementary the at that claims included)not Appendices chools, the Articles 5 and 6 of Elementary Education Law were very important and this this and important very were Law Education Elementary of 6 and 5 Articles the chools, Jan1,1 Jan1,1921 Jan15,1920 1918 ofEnd Jan1,1939 Jan1,1938 Jan1.1937 Jan1, Jan1,1935 Jan1 Jan1,1933 Jan1,1932 Jan1,1931 Jan1,1930 Jan1,1929 Jan1 Jan1,1927 Jan1,1926 Jan1.1925 Jan1,1924 Jan1,1923 Year

Šetkus, Takenfrom: Kaubrys,

School - , 1934 , 1928 .

1919 1936 922 and the Social Democrats in 1926 freed the hands of minorities to establish schools. schools. establish to minorities of hands the freed 1926 in Democrats Social the and One more intere more One Šet 1918 in Lithuania in schools Elementary Appendix1.

“Tautin

kus ventures to explain the decline of number schools starting in 1928 in starting schools number of decline the explain to ventures kus Total 287 2334 2319 2308 2308 2301 2298 2297 2290 2288 2386 2431 2401 2301 2108 2064 2003 1849 1656 1321 1173 1036 iųmaţumų mokykla...“, 42.

NationalMinorities… an Lithuani 2173 2160 2147 2144 2135 2129 2129 2123 2113 2158 2185 2117 1997 1915 1859 1808 1643 1478 1180 1059 sting and very sudden change in the numbers happened in1926 happened numbers inthe change suddenvery and sting

903

Jewish 109 107 109 108 105 105 105 105 105 122 135 144 135 112 118 111 107 96 74 55 49

, , 143. - Polish lived coalition government of the Farmers Populist Populist Farmers the of government coalition lived 15 25 30 47 91 24 26 26 30 27 22 21 33 10 10 11 15 15 15 15 15

- 14 had to attend a school. While establishing establishing While school. a attend to had 14

- 1919 German of Article 6. It states that one teacher can can teacher one that states It 6. Article of 13 16 18 21 22 14 16 16 20 23 23 25 37 10 10 11 12 14 14 14 ? -

January 1, 1939 (the Klaip (the 1939 1, January

Latvian 10 11 10 10 10 11 13 13 13 13 11 11 11 6 8 8 9 9 9 6 6

Russian 12 15 15 16 11 11 11 6 9 5 3 2 3 4 3 3 4 4 4 7 ?

criteria.

an Belarus

1 1 1 2 1 1 1 ------ėd

288 - 1929. He 1929. a Region Region a i

Even if Even - 1928, 1928, Multinat ional 30 45 40 48 29 21 24 21 28 16 12 15 15 15 14 19 20 19 20 - -

CEU eTD Collection 289 Lithuania throughout well. as anti be an not should as warns, certificates Kaubrys understood as have action, government not This Poland. did from brought they textbooks because teachers, 68 schools dismissed Polish opened and recently the of most closed government authoritarian new The year. the was number the reducing drastically event second s new 67 established and government, Polish by funded organization an Culture),

Kaubrys, National Minorities… - Polish move, because in total 275 other teachers were dismissed dismissed were teachers other 275 total in because move, Polish

,141, 143 289

- 144.

coup d’état coup

in December of the same same the of December in and used unapproved unapproved used and chools. The The chools. CEU eTD Collection 290 1938 1938/1939 1937/1938 1936/1937 1935/1936 1934/1935 1933/1934 1932/1933 1931/1932 1930/1931 1929/1930 Ja Jan1,1927 Jan1,1926 Jan1.1925 Jan1,1924 Jan1,1923 Jan, 1922 Year

Takenfrom: Kaubrys, n1,1928

School 290

The numbers of st of numbers The Appendix2.

an Lithuani 274509 266116 252299 241497 231862 223372 217883 205774 184684 159008 108244 102884 104396 107554 102198 101719 99952

NationalMinorities… Jewish 14009 13856 13764 13607 13277 13116 12687 11843 11422 10893 10105 10176 10845 9981 9001 9686 9932

udents in elementary schools of national minorities through 1922 through minorities national of schools elementary in udents

Russian 507 475 514 453 561 501 504 573 536 714 638 822 800 738 725 636 452

145 Polish 1470 1788 5276 1862 2535 2728 2852 3336 . 329 540 550 551 592 603 649 266 296

German 1102 134 1338 1328 1307 1334 1476 1235 1524 1520 1 2239 670 698 886 547 637 698 3

Latvian 476 476 432 456 469 313 311 313 313 370 438 499 513 581 565 421 431

an Belarusi

115 33 34 36 58 ------

ional Multinat 1898 1726 2097 2312 1555 2140 2030 3831 2156 1354 1215 1313 2286 1962 871 944 757

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CEU eTD Collection A.I., Appendix3.

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(Marijampolė:"Dirvos" B - vėsSpaustuvė, 1928), 46 81

- 49.

CEU eTD Collection 10. inParticipated (Re)Liberationthe ofLithuanian Independence atvadavimesąjungosdokumentai “ Appendix4. Įstojamasis pareiškimasĮstojamasis

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Ţydų kariųŢydų dalyvavusiųLietuvos nepriklausomybės 82

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CEU eTD Collection 12 inParticipated (Re)Liberationthe ofLithuanian Independence atvadavimesąjungosdokumentai “ Appendix5. Įstojamasis pareiškimasĮstojamasis

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