Editor’s Introduction It’s Monday, around 6 p�m�, and like any other night, products taken from living organisms, in their nat- it is time to sit down and have dinner� This simple ural forms� event happens every night for millions of people In the United States, an entity, whether a research around the world with such consistency and regu- facility or a business, is considered as working in the larity that it is often taken for granted� One out of field of biotechnology if any of the following types of every eight people, about 795 million worldwide, research take place: however, is malnourished, meaning that he or she does not have enough food to maintain his or her • Researching the coding or sequencing of DNA: health and be active� As of 2016, that number rep- Genomics, pharmacogenetics, gene probes, resented about 12�9 percent of the world’s popula- DNA sequencing/synthesis/amplification, ge- tion� Making food more accessible to everyone in the netic engineering� world is a serious concern as populations continue to • Researching proteins and other biomolecules: grow while the land available to produce food to feed Protein/peptide, sequencing/synthesis, lipid/ those populations stays the same, or even decreases� protein glycoengineering, proteomics, hor- Many people believe that this issue is one of the many mones and growth factors cell receptors/ problems facing our globe that can be addressed by signaling/pheromones� means of biotechnology, along with other vital con- • Researching cell and tissue culture and engi- cerns including access to routine medications such as neering: Cell/tissue culture, tissue engineering, vaccinations or vitamin supplements� For many bio- hybridization, cellular fusion, vaccine/immune technologists, the goal is to save the world, one inven- stimulants, embryo manipulation� tion at a time� • Researching process biotechnologies: Bio- reactors, fermentation, bioprocessing, biole- What is Biotechnology? aching, bio-pulping, bio-bleaching, biodesul- Biotechnology is defined as the use of living organ- phurization, bioremediation, and biofiltration� isms, or substances obtained from living organ- • Researching subcellular organisms: Gene isms, to produce products or processes of value to therapy, viral vectors� humankind� While it is true that biotechnology has made tremen- Each of the research areas above can be studied in dous advances in the areas of human and veterinary any of the various fields of biotechnology� , agriculture, food production, and other fields, these advances have also raised some genuine Branches of Biotechnology concerns about how biotechnology should be moni- Researchers who study biotechnology generally orga- tored� Ongoing debates continue the effort to balance nize themselves among five different branches of bio- the potential of biotechnology, in particular genetic en- technology: animal, , environmental, gineering, and its ability to produce organisms that may medical, and industrial� benefit humans, against growing concerns about the potential for these advances and inventions to disrupt • Animal biotechnology: This branch of biotech- ecosystems, negatively affect human health, or be used nology deals with the development of trans- in ethically inappropriate ways� genic animals� The research is focused in areas Many countries have different interpretations of such as the increase of milk or meat production the field� Australia, for example, defines biotech- with high resistance to various diseases� It also nology as any technological application that uses deals with in vitro fertilization of an egg and the biological systems, including living organisms or de- transfer of an embryo to the womb of female rivatives thereof, to make or modify products or pro- animal for further development� cesses for specific use� Canada defines biotechnology • Bioinformatics: Bioinformatics is a branch as the application of science and engineering to the of biotechnology that is a combination of direct or indirect use of living organisms, or parts or both computer science and biotechnology�

ix Editor’s Introduction Principles of Biotechnology

Bioinformatics helps us to develop tools Stepping Stones in Biotechnology to analyze data related to biotechnology� The term biotechnology itself is relatively new, but Bioinformatics is used in various research the practice of biotechnology is as old as civilization� studies aimed at goals such as the develop- In fact, it played a key role in the initial development ment of new and more effective � It is of societies and civilizations, since they could only also used to increase the fertility of plants and start to evolve once humans learned to apply selec- to provide them with a defense against pest, tive breeding techniques--a basic biotechnological drought and diseases� Bioinformatics is vital in skill--to improve and increase the food crops they a number of areas that are key contributors to grew and livestock they raised� biotechnology and the pharmaceutical sector� Artificial insemination, the process in which • Environmental biotechnology: This branch of bio- semen is collected from the male animal and depos- technology is dedicated to promoting a healthy ited into the female reproductive tract through artifi- environment� With the help of the process called cial techniques rather than natural mating, emerged micropropagation (a practice of producing larger as a practical procedure roughly a century ago, al- number of plants through the existing stock of though as early as 1784, Italian biologist Lazzaro plants), scientists are better able to select the right Spallanzani successfully inseminated a dog� quality of plants and crops for specific growing While genetic engineering is often considered conditions and environments� Transgenic plants a phenomenon of the late twentieth century, the (plants whose DNA is modified) can also be de- building blocks for such technology began with the signed to grow in a specified environment with first isolation of DNA in 1869 and the subsequent the help of certain chemicals� awareness of its relevance to heredity starting in • Medical biotechnology: This branch of bio- 1928� The first accurate double-helix model of DNA technology focuses on improving the health of was developed in 1953 by James D� Watson and humans and animals by developing the tech- , and the first gene sequence and re- nology necessary to produce medicines� It also combinant DNA was created in 1972 by researchers helps to create or design organisms meant to from Stanford University� The latter discovery truly more effectively treat diseases and conditions� heralded the beginning of the biotechnological in- Through the process of genetic manipulation, dustry and the development of genetically modified it can be used to cure genetic issues in organ- organisms (GMOs)� isms� Medical biotechnologists research dis- In 1963, , an American eases in organisms in order to develop new ways physical chemist and a major figure in the evolving to achieve an accurate diagnosis through the science of bioinformatics, began compiling protein use of more accurate testing protocols� Stem sequences into a series of books titled Atlas of Protein cell therapy is one area that continues to show Structure and Function� By 1978, however, the Atlas of great potential to either generate new organs Protein Structure and Function had grown too large and or repair the damaged tissues in organisms� cumbersome to permit comparisons and analyses to • Industrial biotechnology: This kind of biotech- be easily performed� Her second major contribution nology is used and applied in various industries was to create a database infrastructure to convert the and their processes� The development of bio- atlas to the first online biological database, making it polymer (plastics) substitutes has allowed the au- accessible to researchers who used it to sort, manipu- tomobile industry to invent improved parts and late, and align multiple protein sequences� The da- fuels for the vehicles of the future� The creation tabase developed by Dr� Dayhoff and her successors, of "high-tech" fibers has had an impact on the Dr� Winona Barker and Dr� Robert Ledley, became clothing industry as well as the sports and fitness know as the Protein Information Resource (PIR)� In sectors� There may be other broad impacts across 2002 PIR, along with its international partners, EBI all industries, from energy to entertainment, as (European Bioinformatics Institute) and SIB (Swiss industrial biotechnology develops new chemicals Institute of Bioinformatics), were awarded a grant and production processes� from NIH to create UniProt, a single worldwide data- base of protein sequence and function� x Principles of Biotechnology Editor’s Introduction

Biotechnology has played a significant role in to nerve regeneration, this field appears to be lim- treating serious medical conditions, including dia- ited only by the imagination of the scientist working betes� The first effective treatment called for the ex- within it� Cloning, for example, was a subject only traction of insulin from cattle and pigs and while it talked about in science fictions books and movies� saved millions of lives, it wasn’t perfect, as it caused Now, as cloning technologies continue to advance, allergic reactions in many patients� The first recom- scientists in South Korea have managed to not only binant DNA-produced synthetic “human” insulin was clone a dog, but also change its genetic make-up such produced in 1978 using E. coli bacteria to produce that the dog actually glows in the dark� the insulin� Eli Lilly went on in 1982 to sell the first If you have ever played or been a fan of football, commercially available biosynthetic human insulin biotechnology is helping there as well� Most football under the brand name Humulin� Genetic engi- fans are aware of the horrific injuries that happen neering has also been used to synthesize protropin, on the football field� One wrong tackle could cause a human growth hormone (HGH) employed in nerve damage that might impair a player for the rest the treatment of growth failure conditions such as of his or her life� Now a company called Regenxx is hyposomatotropism� attempting to regenerate damaged nerves by using Biotechnology has played an important role in stem cells in hopes that they can give injured athletes helping to effectively remediate environmental di- the chance to regain mobility� sasters� In March, 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker Biotechnology is also changing the way we use pre- spilled millions of gallons of crude oil in Prince scription drugs in America� In 2017, Abilify Mycite William Sound, Alaska� On many beaches, the became the first smart pill that that has been ap- Environmental Protection Agency authorized the proved by the Federal Drug Administration (FDA)� use of simple bioremediation techniques, such as This smart pill is able to transmit information back to stimulating the growth of indigenous oil-degrading doctors once it has been ingested, giving caretakers bacteria by adding common inorganic fertilizers� vital data on medication regimens of the patient� Beaches cleaned by this method did as well as beaches Biotechnology breakthroughs are driving ad- cleaned by mechanical methods� In another instance vances in far more areas than health care alone; they of successful bioremediation, selenium-contami- are improving environmental quality all over the nated soil in the Kesterson National Wildlife Refuge world� Global warming is widely perceived as one in California was partially decontaminated in the of the biggest problems of the twenty-first century, 1980s through the method of supplying indigenous playing a role in widespread climate change that has fungi with organic substrates such as casein and waste changed weather patterns, growing conditions, and orange peels� This promoted as much as 60 percent sea levels� To help combat the problem, many coun- selenium volatilization in less than two months� tries are researching ways that biotechnology might The cloning of Dolly the sheep in Scotland in 1996 make the switch to renewable sources of energy such opened a whole new avenue in the use of biotech- as biofuels possible� The potential of biofuels made nology for livestock production� The use of cloning from ethanol and algae as fuels for vehicles may help technology in conjunction with surrogate mothers reduce levels of carbon emissions produced by fossil provides the means to produce a whole herd of ge- fuels, thereby reducing or eliminating one of the netically superior animals in a short period of time� root causes of global warming� Biofuels are derived As well as offering a new way to raise livestock, it also primarily from plants, a renewable resource, making brought serious questions about the ethics of cloning them sustainable rather than nonrenewable� As the and genetic engineering to the forefront of a public demand for biofuel has grown, biotechnology has debate that continues to this day� been applied to improve the methods of producing fuel� Biotechnologists have created microorganisms Current Advances in Biotechnology that can ferment biomass materials derived from Over the past few years there have been many ad- sugars (sugar cane, sugar beet and molasses), starch vances in the field of biotechnology that border on (corn, wheat, grains) or cellulose (forest products)� the realm of science fiction� From cloned animals They have also learned to modify strains of algae in

xi Editor’s Introduction Principles of Biotechnology order to dramatically increase the amount of oil that immune cells to improve the body’s attack against the algae produce without significantly inhibiting cancerous tissue� In 2017, China announced that growth� there will be over 20 human trials underway by 2018 The fundamental aim of environmental biotech- that will utilize CRISPR-Cas9 as a treatment for condi- nology is to use organisms to control contamination tions ranging from HIV infection, human papilloma- and treat waste by means of the following four con- virus, and even high blood cholesterol� This is an ex- cepts: bioremediation; prevention; detection and citing and thrilling time to be involved with medical monitoring; and genetic engineering� The use of bio- biotechnology� It is also one that has started to sound technology in the treatment of waste and pollution some alarms� Scientists, politicians, and religious control is not a new idea� For more than a century, leaders are voicing worries about the ethical issues many communities have relied on natural processes of using a genetic tool of this nature, especially if it and microbes to break down and treat sewage� In the is used to edit reproductive cells, which could affect process called bioremediation, microorganisms in- generation after generation of humans� cluding fungi and bacteria along with their enzymes are used to return a contaminated environment to In this Book its original condition� Naturally occurring biological In this book, you will find a collection of biotech- degradation processes are purposely employed to nology articles that explain the basics, history, and remove contaminants from areas where they have applications of biotechnology� This volume provides been released� The use of such processes requires a readers with the important information they need to solid scientific understanding of the contaminant, its understand the basic concepts, ethical arguments, impact, and the affected ecosystem� The aim of envi- possibilities, and consequences of biotechnology� ronmental biotechnology is to provide a natural ap- The text provides students and researchers with an proach to tackling environmental issues that begins easy-to-understand introduction to the fundamentals with the identification of biohazards—determining of biotechnology� which contaminants are present, for how long, and in what quantity— and concludes with the successful ——Christina A. Crawford, MS Ed restoration of industrial, agricultural, and natural areas that have been affected by contamination� Work Cited With the help of two promising gene ed- Cyranoski, David� “CRISPR Gene-Editing Tested in iting tools—Cluster Regularly Interspaced Short a Person for the First Time�” Nature News, Nature Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) and the RNA-guided Publishing Group, 15 Nov� 2016, www�nature� DNA endonuclease enzyme Cas9—scientists are com/news/crispr-gene-editing-tested-in-a-person- hoping to change the world, especially for people for-the-first-time-1�20988� born with a genetic disorder� CRISPR-Cas9 is fast Dahms, A� Stephen� “Biotechnology: What It Is, What and inexpensive, as well as being the most accurate It Is Not, and the Challenges in Reaching a Na- technique for editing DNA thus far� This unique tional or Global Consensus�” Biochemistry and Mo- technology allows scientists to edit a person’s DNA lecular Education, vol� 32, no� 4, 2004, pp� sequence by removing, adding, or altering sections 271–278�, doi:10�1002/bmb�2004�494032040375� of the sequence� One promising aspect is the poten- Kumar, Srinibas� “Biotechnology: Scope and tial to cure genetic diseases like sickle cell anemia or Branches of Biotechnology�” Biology Discussion, more complex diseases including cancer and HIV� In 26 Oct� 2015, www�biologydiscussion�com/biotech- 2016, a Chinese group lead by oncologist Lu You at nology/branches-biotechnology/biotechnology- Sichuan University in Chengdu was the first research scope-and-branches-of-biotechnology/15653� team to conduct human trials using CRISPR-Cas9 on

xii