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Home , Benjamin Franklin, John Ash (physician), Matthew Boulton, William Small

Click here for Full Issue of Fidelio Volume 12, Number 1, Spring 2003

Franklin's 'Lunar ' And the Industrial

by Marcia Merry Baker

new book is welcome about Franklin, and going back to Gott­ A the "Lunar Society"-the fried Leibniz, which were deliberately circle of great figures (Boul­ and consciously committed to scientific ton, Watt, , Priestley, et and technological advance to promote the al.) and great works (steam power, development of nations, on behalfof the canals, factories), centered in the common good. This was an explicit British Midlands during the decades goal, involving international collabora­ from the 1760's through 1800 (the tion of all kinds, through visits, letters, exact period of the successful Ameri­ publishing, political battles, espionage, can Revolution), whose names are and so forth. associated with the advent of the In other words, the "Lunar Men" . The Lunar were not just a bunch of gifted, curi­ Men gives extensive biographies, ous, lucky locals. They were nation­ detailed histories by topic (e.g., chap­ builders by vocation, and highly suc­ ter headings-"Steam," "They Build cessful in their work at advancing sci­ Canals," "Ingenious Philosophers," The Lunar Men: ence and economic , and back­ etc.) and even a five-page chronology Five Friends Whose Curiosity ing and befriending the American of the Eighteenth century, 50 pages of Changed the World Revolution on behalf of all peoples. notes and sources, a detailed index, by In turn, what is underscored by and 144 illustrations. , Farrar, Straus and appreciating this interconnected histo­ Giroux, 2002 But, what the new book leaves out­ ry of the Lunar Society and the extend­ 588 pages, hardcover, $30.00 although it is still enjoyable to "read ed FrankliniLeibniz networks is, that into"-is the crucial history and strate- the conventional explanations for the gic context of the "Lunatics," as Darwin fondly origins of the Industrial Revolution, are myths and false­ self-described them. Namely, that the Lunar circle of cre­ hoods. The usual idea is that "capitalists"-defined as ative personalities, centered in , was intercon­ those with funds (often, with a so-called "Calvinist eth­ nected with international networks led by Benjamin ic"), apply technology, centralize production into factory

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© 2003 , Inc. All Reserved. Reproduction in whole or in part without permission strictly prohibited. systems, and increase output. The uncontrolled outcome fo rm through the early 1790's, by which time heavy polit­ is guided by the Invisible Hand of free-trade imperialists ical harassment and age had taken their toll. In 1813, the of the variety. In the course of it all, terrible books jointly owned by the Lunar Society were auctioned social ills inevitably result. off. presents the fa mous version of this imput­ This description of the formal side of the Lunar Soci­ ed process in his 1848 Communist Manifesto. Then there ety in no way tells the tale, however. The most efficient is the more academic version by Oxford professor way to understand who they were, and what they were Arnold Toynbee (uncle of the well-known historian about, is to go back to the intellectual author of such an Arnold J. Toynbee), who is credited with popularizing effort as theirs, namely, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz the concept in his Lectures on the Industrial Revolution, (1646-1716), who wrote a series of documents from 1671 1884.1 to 1716, amounting to blueprints fo r national economic These two dismal constructs are thoroughly debunked development, and specifying the role of "" and in a 1988 monograph by historian Anton Chaitkin, titled, "Academies" to fo rge this process. "The Secret History of the Industrial Revolution."2 In his memorandum of 1671, "Economy and Soci­ Chaitkin prefaces his review of Franklin, the Lunar Soci­ ety," Leibniz wrote, "Thanks to these academies (or ety, and related networks, with the essential point: "The societies), which are institutions of research and devel­ secret to modern history is, that all the great break­ opment, with their own manufactures and commercial throughs in technology and living standards were delib­ companies directly attached, the monopolies will be erate projects fo r the improvement of humanity, guided eliminated, because the academy will always offe r a just, by the principles of the American Declaration of Inde­ low price fo r merchandise; and quite often, in fact, these pendence." His specific reference is to the Leibnizian will become even less expensive, as new manufacturing concept of, "Happiness," used in the Declaration's phrase, activities are set up, where they do not presently exist. "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"-n amely, Notably, the trading monopolies will be eliminated ... pleasure in providing fo r the common good. because the wealth of the traders is much too great, and the misery of the workers fa r too profound-a situation seen particularly in Holland, where the method of the The Lunar Society's merchants is to maintain the workers in a state of Leibnizian Provenance poverty and menial labor.. .. Trade cannot transfer The achievements of the Lunar Society, as individuals anything which has not before been produced by manu­ and collaboratively, are spectacular in terms of providing fa cturing. And why must so many people be reduced to fo r the public good. They conspired to do so. such poverty, fo r the sake of so fe w? The Society will First, some fo rmalities. therefore have as its goal to liberate the worker from his The "Lunar" name itself, was said to be chosen simply misery."3 because of the group's intent to meet regularly-at least Thus did the Lunar Society function, in direct opposi­ monthly, and preferably on a Monday or Sunday nearest tion to the spirit and practice of the imperial British East the fu ll moon, when going home late at night would be India and Dutch East India Companies of the day. easier. The Lunar Men, numbering some six to 13 or so, plus frequent guests, would gather at one of their homes, The 'Lunar Men' in Birmingham, , or nearby in the Midlands region. They tried to begin at 2 p.m. and work until late, There are over a dozen "Lunar Men" who came to live, even staying through the next day on occasion, in order work, and collaborate directly in the greater Birmingham to confer, conduct demonstration experiments, and area; Jenny Uglow singles out five principals, which is review projects and correspondence together. Their top­ fa ir enough. She traces their lives in great detail. A brief ics ranged widely, on chosen matters of , technolo­ look at just a fe w of the individual activities and achieve­ gy, infrastructure, policy, medicine, and so fo rth. Author ments of these five,and at the great successes of their col­ Uglow provides us with the household accounts of the laboration in terms of promoting economic advance, good eating involved, and what fa mily members did dur­ gives the sense of the scope of the Society.4 They are all ing Lunar sessions. typical of the energetic, voluntarist men of ideas, who peo­ The grouping took fo rm in the 1760's; made a resolu­ pled Franklin's networks of "American" conspirators in tion as of 's Day 1775, to keep as "regular" as Europe. possible in their meeting schedule; and persisted in some (1728-1809). The son of a Birm-

75 ingham maker of and small fixtures, Boulton six volumes on Experiments and Observations on DijJerent came to build a vast manufacturing establishment in Kinds of Air. He did similarly significant work on elec­ Soho, Birmingham. Through his firm of Small, Boul­ tricity, and at the request of Franklin, wrote a History and ton & Watt, the was vastly improved, and Present State of . Politically targetted fo r mob came into general installation not only fo r pumping in violence, he fled Birmingham in 1794 fo r , mines, but fo r manufacturing, milling, and general where he continued laboratory work in Northumberland use. , until his death in 1804. (1730-1795). Born into the trade of Around this core in Birmingham, numbers of others the potteries, Wedgwood made, and/or collaborated in the Lunar Society. U glow lists and applied, a series of significant discoveries in heat, clays, describes, (1713-1788); minerals, etc., and using constantly improved organiza­ (1735-1820); (1741-1799); Richard tions of production, established a vast pottery manufactur­ Lovell Edgworth (1744-1817); (1748-1789); ing operation which exists to this day. He made signifi­ and Samuel Galton (1753-1832). Another noted figure cant contributions to geology, mineralogy, and chemistry. was John (1706-1775), the famous printer. (1736-1819). Born and raised in Special mention-it is covered in detail in U glow's Greenock, Scotland, among marine-serving instrument book-goes to Dr. . A Scottish and rigging makers, Watt became a master at mechanical who taught at William and Mary College in design, with wide experience among scientific circles at (with as a pupil), Small returned to Glasgow and Universities. Giving great Britain, and in May 1765, aged 30, arrived on Boulton's attention to heat, phase-changes of water, and other fun­ doorstep in Soho, with a letter of introduction from damentals, his work was critical to the Boulton partner­ Franklin, which described him as, "both an ingenious ship, in making improvements to harness steam power. Philosopher, and a most worthy, honest man." Small Watt devised the separate condenser in 1765; and in 1781 became a linchpin in the Lunar Society, and was also received the patent for the rotary motion steam engine critical in fu rthering the steam engine and other pro­ mechanism. The term "horsepower" as a measure of jects, as a partner in the manufacturing firm of Small, engine power was originated in 1783 by Watt, who had Boulton & Watt. to work out a way to calculate royalties when he installed The impact of these persons and the Lunar Society two Boulton & Watt engines at breweries, to was vast, both in Britain and the new United States, as replace the horses they had employed. well as internationally. In terms of the critical measure of (1731-1802). After studying at the modern power supply, by 1800, Boulton & Watt had Universities of Edinburgh and , he became a installed over 500 modern steam engines throughout medical doctor at age 25, settling in Lichfield, the Britain-from the old copper and tin mines of Cornwall "mother of the Midlands," where he practiced medicine (to pump out water), to the newly organized textile mills. for the rest of his long life, all the while doing research In London, the Albion Mill, a demonstration steam-pow­ and writing on botany, geology, chemistry, medicine, ered gristmill, caught the world's attention.5 poetry, and numerous other areas. He was most promi­ The Birmingham--Lichfield area was nent in advancing the scientific classification of plant­ transformed into a powerhouse fo r advanced manufac­ life. Among his many published works, was a transla­ turing. The Lunar Society was directly involved in fo rg­ tion of Carl Lineaus's The Families of Plants, published ing a canal-building program, which not only provided in 1787. vastly improved inland navigation, but made coal avail­ (1733-1804). An activist clergyman able at half the pre-canal price, fo r steam power, and gen­ (Dissenter, i.e., non-conformist with the Church of Eng­ eral use. A fo rmer apprentice in the shop of Matthew land), Priestley did groundbreaking scientific work, Boulton, John Gilbert launched the canal campaign, by besides maintaining schools fo r children (including the working fo r the young Third Duke of Bridgewater, teaching of science) and other public services. He discov­ Francis Egerton, to cut a canal over his property, from ered 10 new gases ("airs"). In August 1774, he identified the regional coal mines eastward to Manchester. This was oxygen (co-discovered by Carl Wilhelm Scheele), and in a done in 1761. trip to Paris in October, he demonstrated his laboratory Lunar Society members spearheaded many other work of heating red mercuric oxide to release what he improvements. Dr. Small, his colleague , and called this "new species of air," to French chemist others, saw through the creation of the New Hospital in . Between 1772 and 1790, he published Birmingham. Small, Baskerville, and others, saw that

76 Newton/Locke frauds in science and , and to restore Leibniz and his thinking.6 A short timeline of relevant facts, and connections between two major "out­ side" figures involved in the Lunar Society, makes the point- (1706-90) and Rudolph Eric Raspe (1737-1794). Franklin's Lunar Society collaborators launched the Industrial Revolution in . Above (left Franklin, born in to right): Erasmus Darwin, Joseph Priestley, James Watt. Below: Matthew Boulton's Soho Manufoctory in Birmingham. in 1706, was a direct heir to the Tu dor Renaissance and Leibniz tradition, thanks most directly to the influence of Boston's (1663-1728). Franklin himself ranked Mather's Essays To Do Good as sem­ inal in shaping his own outlook. During his first foray to England, from 1724 to 1726, Franklin had a chance to meet first-hand many of the anti-Leibniz agents, for example, Bernard Man­ deville, and Dr. Henry Pemberton, who was streets were widened and improved. The Lunar Men preparing the third edition of Newton's Principia. conducted agriculture-betterment studies, reported on In the following two decades back in the American new, advanced medical treatments such as digitalis (fox­ colonies, Franklin's many activities included founding glove), and, as political allies of the Franklin tradition, societies for scientific investigation, public works (hospi­ played leading roles in the movement to end . tals, defense, fire safety, etc.), and conducting his own research into electricity, heat, weather patterns, and oth­ The Leibniz Continuit : er phenomena. He cultivated a wide international cor­ y respondence, and his works were published in many Franklin and Raspe translations. In 1751, his, Experiments and Observations Earlier in the 1700's, the writings of Leibniz, the chief on Electricity, Made at in America, was pub­ advocate of this economic development approach, had lished in London, and in 1752, in France. He summa­ been suppressed, not only in England, but in Germany rized his outlook on the relationship between the and throughout the Continent. The fraud, Sir Isaac expansion of knowledge and economic growth, in Newton, was fabricated as the official "authority" in another work written the same year, Observations Con­ science, as opposed to Leibniz; in philosophy and gov­ cerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries, ernment, was offered as the "authority." Etc. But the dramatic success of the Lunar Society, attests to When, in 1757, he was back in London, this time it the efforts of Franklin and collaborators to defeat the was as a world-renowned philosophe, and the official rep-

77 resentative of the Assembly of Pennsylvania, probably the 1785 book, The Adventures of Baron von Munchausen, fa stest-growing colony in the Americas. Right away, he which recounted the fa ntastical exploits of the Baron's was on the move to mobilize economic development cir­ nephew Hieronymus. cles in Britain. Then Franklin went on to Gottingen, there to meet In 1758, he went to Birmingham, on a tour he said Abraham Kastner in person, a leading student and aimed to "make the Acquaintance of those of Influence." defender of Leibniz and his methods. Whitehurst he already knew, from collaboration on Much more can be said about this trip of Franklin's, clock-making. Matthew Boulton he met, with a glowing and his network-building "Leibniz to Franklin on introduction about Franklin from , Profes­ 'Happiness,'" page 44, this[SEE issue], but regarding the sor of Greek and Hebrew at Cambridge University, who focus on Franklin's leadership of the Lunar Society, shared interests with Franklin on magnetic energy, some simple fa cts of Raspe's subsequent career make the earthquakes, astronomy, and other matters. point. Franklin toured the Birmingham manufactories, met Raspe was soon to come under increasing political Baskerville, and went from home to home, taken by attack for his activities, and Franklin intervened in vari­ Boulton to visit his many fr iends. Franklin's tour then ous ways, ending up with Raspe going into exile in Eng­ continued on to Scotland and elsewhere, but in subse­ land-arriving sometime in 1775, and eventually work­ quent tours, in London meetings, and in correspondence, ing fo r . Franklin accomplished this, Franklin exerted a direct and major influence on the even as he himself came under increasing fire.In January Midlands circle fo r years to come. For example, Uglow 1774, Franklin had been called before the Privy Council, recounts Franklin's 1771 visit to Birmingham in May, and in May 1775, he returned to America. where he spent time with Erasmus Darwin, discussing In a mention of the Philosophical Club, founded in phonetics, chemistry, and making pond-life excursions. London by Benjamin Franklin and friends, Uglow lists Franklin encouraged and directed Joseph Priestley at members in 1775 as including Lunar Men John White­ every turn. And, he sent the young to the hurst (now resident in London), Thomas Day, and oth­ Midlands, with a letter of introduction, to learn mechan­ ers, and also, "their colourful new friend Raspe, geologist, ics, canal-building, and steam-propulsion for potential gem expert, probable spy and anonymous author of The naval use. Franklin and Boulton, beginning with their Adventures of Baron Munchausen." Uglow has only one 1758 meeting on electricity and steam power, collaborat­ other, perfunctory mention of Raspe in her book. But, in ed closely fo r the next three decades, until Franklin's fa ct, Raspe worked with Boulton fo r the last dozen years death in 1790. of his life, beginning no later than November 1782. In 1764, Franklin met in London with Dr. William As for Leibniz himself, Uglow makes only a single Small, the Scots physician, whom Franklin had known in mention in her entire 588 pages. Nonetheless, for those America. It was Franklin who "deployed" Small to go to committed to understanding and continuing the grand, Birmingham, which he did in 1765, becoming physician, strategic conspiracy of Leibniz and Franklin, you will confidant, and unofficial secretary to Matthew Boulton. find in this book many valuable leads to fo llow up the In an indication that she has an inkling of the Society's true story of how the modern world was brought into real history, U glow says of this in her notes: "Sending being. envoys and setting up cells was an acknowledged aspect of Franklin's proselytizing technique." 1. See "industrial revolution" entry in The New Palgrave: A Dictionary Franklin's introduction of the Leibniz advocate, the of Economics (London, New York: MacMillan, 1987; first pub­ German, Rudolph Eric Raspe, into the Lunar Society cir­ lished 1894). cle, most dramatically shows the deliberate "proselytiz­ 2. Anton Chaitkin, "The Secret History of the Industrial Revolu­ tion," published in 3 parts, The New Federalist, March 3, May 12, ing" involved. In 1766, while on tour on the Continent, and May 26, 1989 (Vol. III, Nos. 10, 20, and 22). Franklin made very important contact with those direct­ 3. G.W. Leibniz, "Economy and Society," Fidelio, Fall 1992 (Vol. I, ly involved in restoring Leibniz. In Hanover, he met No. 3). Raspe, whose own specialty was mineralogy, and who in 4. For a review of the Lunar Society in strategic context, see Anton Chaitkin, "Leibniz, Gauss Shaped America's Science Successes," 1765 had just edited and published the first edition of Executive Intelligence Review, Feb. 9, 1996 (Vol. 23, No. 7). Leibniz's suppressed New Essays on Human Understand­ 5. Philip Valenti, "Leibniz, Papin, and the Steam Engine," 21st Cen­ ing, a direct refutation of John Locke's Essay Concerning turyScience & Technology, Summer 1997 (Vol. 10, No. 2). Human Understanding. He also met Raspe's friend and 6. See, Philip Valenti, "The Anti-Newtonian Roots of the ," Executive Intelligence Review, Dec. 1, 1995 (Vol. 22, collaborator, Baron Gerlach Adolph von Miinchausen, No. 48); and also David Shavin, "Leibniz to Franklin on 'Happi­ whose name later gained notoriety because of Raspe's ness,' " p. 44, this issue.

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