Inchon Triggered Chinese Intervention

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Inchon Triggered Chinese Intervention No. 105 THE KOREAN WAR JUNE-OCTOBER 1950: INCHON AND STALIN IN THE “TRIGGER VS. JUSTIFICATION” DEBATE Tan Kwoh Jack Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies Singapore JANUARY 2006 With Compliments This Working Paper series presents papers in a preliminary form and serves to stimulate comment and discussion. The views expressed are entirely the author’s own and not that of the Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies The Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies (IDSS) was established in July 1996 as an autonomous research institute within the Nanyang Technological University. Its objectives are to: • Conduct research on security, strategic and international issues. • Provide general and graduate education in strategic studies, international relations, defence management and defence technology. • Promote joint and exchange programmes with similar regional and international institutions; organise seminars/conferences on topics salient to the strategic and policy communities of the Asia-Pacific. Constituents of IDSS include the International Centre for Political Violence and Terrorism Research (ICPVTR) and the Asian Programme for Negotiation and Conflict Management (APNCM). Research Through its Working Paper Series, IDSS Commentaries and other publications, the Institute seeks to share its research findings with the strategic studies and defence policy communities. The Institute’s researchers are also encouraged to publish their writings in refereed journals. The focus of research is on issues relating to the security and stability of the Asia-Pacific region and their implications for Singapore and other countries in the region. The Institute has also established the S. Rajaratnam Professorship in Strategic Studies (named after Singapore’s first Foreign Minister), to bring distinguished scholars to participate in the work of the Institute. Previous holders of the Chair include Professors Stephen Walt (Harvard University), Jack Snyder (Columbia University), Wang Jisi (Chinese Academy of Social Sciences), Alastair Iain Johnston (Harvard University) and John Mearsheimer (University of Chicago). A Visiting Research Fellow Programme also enables overseas scholars to carry out related research in the Institute. Teaching The Institute provides educational opportunities at an advanced level to professionals from both the private and public sectors in Singapore as well as overseas through graduate programmes, namely, the Master of Science in Strategic Studies, the Master of Science in International Relations and the Master of Science in International Political Economy. These programmes are conducted full-time and part-time by an international faculty. The Institute also has a Doctoral programme for research in these fields of study. In addition to these graduate programmes, the Institute also teaches various modules in courses conducted by the SAFTI Military Institute, SAF Warrant Officers’ School, Civil Defence Academy, Singapore Technologies College, and the Defence and Home Affairs Ministries. The Institute also runs a one-semester course on ‘The International Relations of the Asia Pacific’ for undergraduates in NTU. Networking The Institute convenes workshops, seminars and colloquia on aspects of international relations and security development that are of contemporary and historical significance. Highlights of the Institute’s activities include a regular Colloquium on Strategic Trends in the 21st Century, the annual Asia Pacific Programme for Senior Military Officers (APPSMO) and the biennial Asia Pacific Security Conference (held in conjunction with Asian Aerospace). IDSS staff participate in Track II security dialogues and scholarly conferences in the Asia-Pacific. IDSS has contacts and collaborations with many international think tanks and research institutes throughout Asia, Europe and the United States. The Institute has also participated in research projects funded by the Ford Foundation and the Sasakawa Peace Foundation. It also serves as the Secretariat for the Council for Security Cooperation in the Asia-Pacific (CSCAP), Singapore. Through these activities, the Institute aims to develop and nurture a network of researchers whose collaborative efforts will yield new insights into security issues of interest to Singapore and the region i ABSTRACT China’s decision to enter the Korean War in 1950 is a historical puzzle: why would China, a much weaker country, enter into a military confrontation with the United States, a superpower? The rationale for Chairman Mao Zedong’s intervention in Korea carries strategic lessons for the contemporary crisis on the Korean Peninsula, as well as for Sino-American relations. Utilizing newly declassified Russian documents made available at the Cold War International History Project from 1994- 2004, this paper critically assesses this new evidence concurrently with the existing literature that has emerged so far, and seeks to contribute to the “trigger vs. justification” debate surrounding China’s entry. Three shortcomings of this debate are identified: 1) whether Mao would have intervened had the US military stopped at the 38th parallel is difficult to determine; 2) Mao’s vacillations up till the very last minute cast doubt on the justification argument i.e. offensive intervention driven by revolutionary ideology and politics; and 3) as a result, this ignores the complex dimensions of decision-making and interaction between Stalin and the Chinese leadership, as well as within the Chinese leadership itself. This paper argues that one significant variable overlooked heretofore is the American landings at Inchon on 19 September 1950. This is followed by in-depth analyses of the following three main interactions that Inchon engendered – 1) the policy shifts within the Truman administration; 2) the Stalin-Mao manoeuvres; and 3) the debates and dilemmas within the Chinese Politburo. This paper concludes that it was Inchon, along with additional pressure from Stalin, and not the crossing of the 38th parallel, that triggered China’s eventual entry into Korea. ****************** Tan Kwoh Jack is a Research Assistant at the Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies (IDSS), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He completed his Master of Science in International Relations from IDSS in 2005. He also holds a Graduate Diploma in Political Science from the University of Melbourne (2004) and a Bachelor of Commerce from the University of Tasmania (2002). His research interests include Cold War and Korean War diplomatic histories, United States foreign policy, and postcolonial International Relations. He thanks Evelyn Goh, Khong Yuen Foong, and Ang Cheng Guan for comments on earlier drafts of this paper. ii THE KOREAN WAR JUNE-OCTOBER 1950: INCHON AND STALIN IN THE “TRIGGER VS. JUSTIFICATION” DEBATE INTRODUCTION The Sino-American confrontation in the Korean War witnessed the most populous nation as well as the most powerful country at war for the first time. China inflicted on the United States the longest retreat in its military history, and the war spurred American re-armament not undertaken since the end of the Second World War. This watershed event embroiled the two countries in a bitter, expensive, and inconclusive conflict that strained relations for the subsequent two decades. Most importantly, it manifested the Cold War into Asia, in a political and military confrontation of major proportions. 1 Yet, were these foregone conclusions? Why was China, with its stark qualitative and technological inferiority, confident of winning? What compelled China into war, military inferiority and domestic difficulties notwithstanding? This paper focuses on the critical first four months of the Korean War, and engages the pertinent and ongoing contentions about China’s decision to confront the US in Korea. Many earlier scholars attribute China’s entry into the Korean War to be triggered by the US advance across the 38th parallel, and towards the Yalu River.2 Allen Whiting in his classic landmark study China Crosses the Yalu amply explored 1 Jonathan Pollack, “The Korean War and Sino-American Relations”, in Harry Harding and Yuan Ming, eds., Sino-American Relations, 1945-1955: A Joint Reassessment of a Critical Decade, Wirmington, Delaware, A Scholarly Imprint, 1989, p. 213. 2 See, for example, Melvin Gurtov and Byong-Moo Hwang, China Under Threat: The Politics of Strategy and Diplomacy, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980, pp. 25-62; Peter Lowe, The Origins of the Korean War, London and New York, Longman, 1986, pp. 189-201; Ronald Keith, The Diplomacy of Zhou Enlai, New York, St. Martin’s, 1989, pp. 45-7; Robert Simmons, The Strained Alliance: Peking, Pyongyang, Moscow, and the Politics of the Korean Civil War, New York, The Free Press, 1975; Richard Whelan, Drawing the Line: The Korean War, 1950-1953, Boston, Little, Brown, 1990, pp. 236-8. 1 the question, and his conclusions enjoy wide acceptance in the West even today. He contends that Chinese xenophobic attitudes, security concerns, expansionist tendencies and Communist ideology were the reasons the PRC entered the war.3 Writing twenty years later, William Stueck argues that the intervention might have been altogether averted had the US adopted different tactics in the aftermath of Inchon, specifically in not crossing the 38th parallel. 4 A substantial majority of Chinese scholars also share these assumptions, manifested in Chinese publications on the “war to resist America and assist Korea” that appeared in the 1980s.5 In the 1980s,
Recommended publications
  • Sunshine in Korea
    CENTER FOR ASIA PACIFIC POLICY International Programs at RAND CHILDREN AND FAMILIES The RAND Corporation is a nonprofit institution that EDUCATION AND THE ARTS helps improve policy and decisionmaking through ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT research and analysis. HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE This electronic document was made available from INFRASTRUCTURE AND www.rand.org as a public service of the RAND TRANSPORTATION Corporation. INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LAW AND BUSINESS NATIONAL SECURITY Skip all front matter: Jump to Page 16 POPULATION AND AGING PUBLIC SAFETY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Support RAND Purchase this document TERRORISM AND HOMELAND SECURITY Browse Reports & Bookstore Make a charitable contribution For More Information Visit RAND at www.rand.org Explore the RAND Center for Asia Pacific Policy View document details Limited Electronic Distribution Rights This document and trademark(s) contained herein are protected by law as indicated in a notice appearing later in this work. This electronic representation of RAND intellectual property is provided for non-commercial use only. Unauthorized posting of RAND electronic documents to a non-RAND website is prohibited. RAND electronic documents are protected under copyright law. Permission is required from RAND to reproduce, or reuse in another form, any of our research documents for commercial use. For information on reprint and linking permissions, please see RAND Permissions. The monograph/report was a product of the RAND Corporation from 1993 to 2003. RAND monograph/reports presented major research findings that addressed the challenges facing the public and private sectors. They included executive summaries, technical documentation, and synthesis pieces. Sunshine in Korea The South Korean Debate over Policies Toward North Korea Norman D.
    [Show full text]
  • Timeline Korean Conflict-1950
    Timeline Korean Conflict-1950 June 25 North Korean Army invades South Korea. June 25 June 26 June 26 June 27 July 3 United States forces clash with North Korean forces. July 4 July 7 UN Res. 84 request U.S. designate a commander of UN forces in Korea. July 8 Gen. Douglas MacArthur named commander of UN forces in Korea. September 1 North Korean divisions open assault on UN lines. September 1 October 1 South Korean troops cross 38th parallel to North Korea. October 6 October 7 United States forces cross 38th parallel to North Korea. October 15 October 19 UN forces enter the capital Pyongyang, North Korea. November 4 United States troops vacate Pyongyang, North Korea. December 28 Chinese troops cross 38th parallel into South Korea. Student Name: ________________________________ Class Period: _________ Date: ______________ Korean Conflict-1950 Who was really in charge of the Korean War; United Nations or the United States? Description of What evidence supports What evidence supports Why is this evidence Source (Author, the United States? the United Nations? significant? Date & Title) Source 3 Source 4 Source 5 Based on the evidence, who was really in charge of the Korean conflict? Description of What evidence supports What evidence supports Why is this evidence Source (Author, the United States? the United Nations? significant? Date & Title) Source 6 Source 7 Based on the evidence, who was really in charge of the Korean conflict? Student Name: ________________________________ Class Period: _________ Date: ______________ Description of What evidence supports What evidence supports Why is this evidence Source (Author, the United States? the United Nations? significant? Date & Title) Source 8 Source 9 Based on the evidence, who was really in charge of the Korean conflict? Final Assessment: Student Editorial An editorial is a form of persuasive writing that is meant to provide the writer an opportunity to express to the reader their position over a specific topic.
    [Show full text]
  • Warriors, Katchi Kapshida! 2019D 2I /RUC Calendar Inside 2 the INDIANHEAD INDIANHEAD December 2018 Vol
    December 2018 VOL. 55, ISSUE 12 December 2018 1 HEADQUARTERS, CAMP Humphreys, REPUBLIC OF KOREA INDIANHEAD SERVING THE 2ND INFANTRY DIVISION COMMUNITY SINCE 1963 WWW.2ID.KOREA.ARMY.MIL WARRIORS, KATCHI KAPSHIDA! 2019D 2I /RUC CALENDAR INSIDE 2 THE INDIANHEAD INDIANHEAD December 2018 vol. 55, issue 12 PHOTO OF THE MONTH (Photo of the Month) A M109A6 Paladin from Battery B, 1st Battalion, 4th Field Artillery Regiment, 3rd Armored Brigade Combat Team, 1st Armored Division Features fires a 155mm inert training round during the Table VI Gunnery exercise Dec. 5 at Firing Point 95, Republic Of Korea. Table VI Gunnery is an annual training requirement for Field Artillery units to qualify individual howitzer crews and 03 Leader’s Corner platoon Fire Direction Centers. This training focuses on overall readiness and maintaining Field Artillery core competencies at the section level. (U.S. Army 04 Indianhead Legacy photo by 1st. Lt. Sean M. Kealey, 4-1 Field Artillery) 05 Warriors on the Street/Ask the Doc 06 2019 2ID/RUCD Calendar 30 The 2nd Engineer Battalion commemorates Battle of Kunu-ri 32 Travel Korea 34 U.S. Army pilots, first responders to Korean helicopter crash 35 Regiment Page Soldiers assigned to the 2nd Engineer Battalion,30 3rd Armored Brigade Combat Team, 1st Armored Division reenact the Battle of Kunu-Ri in which battalion commander Lt. Col. Alarich Zacherle gave the order to burn the battalion colors to prevent them from becoming a Chinese war trophy Nov. 30 at Camp Casey, Republic of Korea. (U.S. Army photo by Sgt. Alon Humphrey, 3rd ABCT, 1st AD Public Affairs) December 2018 33 INDIANHEAD Maj.
    [Show full text]
  • Military Transformation on the Korean Peninsula: Technology Versus Geography
    THE UNIVERSITY OF HULL Military Transformation on the Korean Peninsula: Technology Versus Geography Being a Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy At the University of Hull By Soon Ho Lee BA, Sungkyunkwan University, Republic of Korea, 2004 MA, The University of Birmingham, United Kingdom, 2005 MRes, King’s College London, United Kingdom, 2006 1 Acknowledgement I am the most grateful to my Supervisor Dr. David Lonsdale for his valuable academic advice and support during the long PhD journey. To reach this stage, I have had invaluable support from my family back in Korea and my dear wife Jin Heon. I would also like to thank my family for being so patient while I was researching. During this journey, I have obtained a precious jewel in my daughter, Da Hyeon. I will pray for you all my life. I would like to give special thanks to my late grandfather who gave me the greatest love, and taught me the importance of family. 2 Thesis Summary This thesis provides an explanation of one RMA issue: the effectiveness of contemporary military technology against tough geography, based upon case studies in the Korean peninsula. The originality of the thesis is that it will provide a sound insight for potential foes’ approach to the dominant US military power (superior technology and sustenance of war). The North Korean defence strategy – using their edge in geography and skill – tried to protect themselves from the dominant US power, but it may be impossible to deter or defeat them with technological superiority alone.
    [Show full text]
  • South Korean Efforts to Counter North Korean Aggression
    http://www.au.af.mil/au/csds/ South Korean Efforts to Counter North The Trinity Site Korean Aggression Papers By Major Aaron C. Baum, USAF http://www.au.af.mil/au/csds/ Recent North Korean nuclear aggression has raised debates Prior to the armistice, President Dwight Eisenhower signaled about how the United States should secure its interests in North- his willingness to use nuclear weapons to end the Korean Con- east Asia. However, any action on the peninsula should consid- flict. He then reiterated his resolve should China and North Ko- er the security preferences of American allies, especially the rea reinitiate hostilities.3 From 1958 to 1991, the United States Republic of Korea (ROK). With militaristic rhetoric coming stationed nuclear artillery, bombs, and missiles in South Korea from the Trump administration, the question arises of how im- to counter a North Korean invasion.4 Further, in 1975 the Ford portant U.S. policy is to the actions of our Korean allies in administration affirmed that the United States would consider countering North Korean (DPRK) nuclear aggression. Thus, it the use of nuclear weapons in a conflict “likely to result in de- is important to review nuclear crises of the past and the align- feat in any area of great importance to the United States in Asia ment of U.S. and ROK policy toward Pyongyang. This paper … including Korea.”5 reviews three periods of nuclear crisis on the Korean Peninsula It was not until 1978 at the 11th Security Consultative and argues that U.S. military policy is not the sole factor deter- Mechanism (SCM) that extended nuclear deterrence was for- mining South Korean response to DPRK nuclear provocation.
    [Show full text]
  • Application of Jus in Bello in the Cheonan and Yeonpyeong Island Attacks
    War on the Korean Peninsula? Application of Jus in Bello in the Cheonan and Yeonpyeong Island Attacks Seunghyun Sally Nam* The media often reports that the Korean Peninsula remains technically in a state of war, but there remains uncertainty about whether its countries are still legally at war. On December 6, 2010, the International Criminal Court (ICC) released a statement that it was initiating a preliminary examination to determine whether it had jurisdiction over the sinking of the South Korean warship Cheonan by a North Korean submarine, as well as over North Korean artillery attacks near Yeonpyeong Island. For the two attacks to fall under the jurisdiction of the ICC, they must be found to be “war crimes,” which would require that the laws of war (jus in bello) be in effect at the times they were committed. Because the signing of the Korean * S.J.D. Candidate, University of Pennsylvania Law School; M.Jur, Oxford University, 2007; LL.M, Korea University, 2009; LL.B, Korea University, 2004. The author thanks Professors Dapo Akande, Jean Galbraith, Boris Kondoch for their thoughts and comments on an earlier draft of the Article. The author also appreciates invaluable comments from Dr. You Ki-Jun and Mr. Hwang Jun-Shik at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade in Seoul, Korea. This Article does not represent the view of the Korean government. Special thanks to the editors at the University of Pennsylvania East Asia Law Review for their excellent editing and feedback. Lastly, the author is grateful to Professors Park Ki-Gab and Jung Kyung-Soo for their mentorship, and her family for their continuous support.
    [Show full text]
  • Korean War Veterans Association Inc
    Staff Officers The Graybeards Presidential Envoy to UN Forces: Kathleen Wyosnick The Magazine for Members and Veterans of the Korean War. P.O. Box 3716, Saratoga, CA 95070 The Graybeards is the official publication of the Korean War Veterans PH: 408-253-3068 FAX: 408-973-8449 Association, PO Box, 10806, Arlington, VA 22210, and is published six times Judge Advocate: Edward L. Magill per year for members of the Association. (See 1st Vice President) EDITOR Vincent A. Krepps Exec. Dir. for Washington, DC Affairs: J. Norbert Reiner 24 Goucher Woods Ct. Towson, MD 21286-5655 6632 Kirkley Ave., McLean, VA 22101-5510 PH: 410-828-8978 FAX: 410-828-7953 PH/FAX: 703-893-6313 E-MAIL: [email protected] National Chaplain: Irvin L. Sharp, MEMBERSHIP Nancy Monson 16317 Ramond, Maple Hights, OH 44137 PO Box 10806, Arlington, VA 22210 PH: 216-475-3121 PH: 703-522-9629 National Asst. Chaplain: Howard L. Camp PUBLISHER Finisterre Publishing Incorporated 430 S. Stadium Dr., Xenia, OH 45385 PO Box 12086, Gainesville, FL 32604 PH: 937-372-6403 PH: 352-332-3548 E-MAIL: [email protected] National Service Director: J. Norbert Reiner National KWVA Headquarters 6632 Kirkley Ave., McLean, VA 22101-5510 PH/FAX: 703-893-6313 PRESIDENT Harley J. Coon TREASURER Dan J. Nickolas National VA/VS Representative: Norman S. Kantor 4120 Industrial Lane, Beavercreek, OH 45430 138 Locust Avenue, New Rochelle, NY 10805-3510 PH: 937-426-5105 or PH/FAX: 937-426-8415 PH: 914-632-5827 FAX: 914-633-7963 Office Hours: 9am to 5 pm (EST) Mon.–Fri.
    [Show full text]
  • Macarthur at Inchon
    Kinni_CH01.qxd 1/4/05 11:13 AM Page 3 Chapter 1 MacArthur at Inchon eneral Douglas MacArthur stood at the bow of the Mount McKinley, the flagship of Task Force 90, facing the coast of South GKorea in the darkness ahead. It was 2:30 a.m. on September 15, 1950. Operation Chromite, MacArthur’s audacious amphibious invasion of the port city of Inchon, was scheduled to begin at dawn. MacArthur’s confidence throughout the planning of Chromite, which he had conceived to wrest control of the Korean War and liberate South Korea from the North Korean invaders, had been complete and seemingly unshakable. Yet, in the tense hours before dawn, he obviously felt the full weight of leadership. “Within five hours, 40,000 men would act boldly, in the hope that 100,000 others manning the defense lines of South Korea would not die,” he later wrote. “I alone was responsible for tomorrow, and if I failed, the dreadful results would rest on judgment day against my soul.” For MacArthur, it was a portentous moment in an extraordinary life. The five-star general (one of only five Army officers who attained the rank) was standing at the pinnacle of a career that had stretched more than half a century. At age 70, MacArthur was the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, a position that made him the de facto leader of Occupied Japan and its 82 million citizens. Simultaneously, he was the Kinni_CH01.qxd 1/4/05 11:13 AM Page 4 4 No Substitute for Victory Commander in Chief of the United Nations Command, a position that made him the military leader of the allied forces in the Korean War, which to this point had been a bitterly fought defensive action.
    [Show full text]
  • The Korean War
    N ATIO N AL A RCHIVES R ECORDS R ELATI N G TO The Korean War R EFE R ENCE I NFO R MAT I ON P A P E R 1 0 3 COMPILED BY REBEccA L. COLLIER N ATIO N AL A rc HIVES A N D R E C O R DS A DMI N IST R ATIO N W ASHI N GTO N , D C 2 0 0 3 N AT I ONAL A R CH I VES R ECO R DS R ELAT I NG TO The Korean War COMPILED BY REBEccA L. COLLIER R EFE R ENCE I NFO R MAT I ON P A P E R 103 N ATIO N AL A rc HIVES A N D R E C O R DS A DMI N IST R ATIO N W ASHI N GTO N , D C 2 0 0 3 United States. National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives records relating to the Korean War / compiled by Rebecca L. Collier.—Washington, DC : National Archives and Records Administration, 2003. p. ; 23 cm.—(Reference information paper ; 103) 1. United States. National Archives and Records Administration.—Catalogs. 2. Korean War, 1950-1953 — United States —Archival resources. I. Collier, Rebecca L. II. Title. COVER: ’‘Men of the 19th Infantry Regiment work their way over the snowy mountains about 10 miles north of Seoul, Korea, attempting to locate the enemy lines and positions, 01/03/1951.” (111-SC-355544) REFERENCE INFORMATION PAPER 103: NATIONAL ARCHIVES RECORDS RELATING TO THE KOREAN WAR Contents Preface ......................................................................................xi Part I INTRODUCTION SCOPE OF THE PAPER ........................................................................................................................1 OVERVIEW OF THE ISSUES .................................................................................................................1
    [Show full text]
  • Surgeon's Circular Letter.) V
    MED, SEC, GHQ, FEC, UOL Ul NO 2 I FEB 1951 A FAR EAST PERIODICAL OF MEDICAL DEPARTMENT INFORMATION SURGEONS CIRCULAR LETTER Maj Gen Edgar Erslcine Hume congrat- ulates Lt Col A. M. Gritsavage upon her award of legion of Merit medal Army Nurse feeds soldier liquid food through nasal tube, Evac Hosp, Korea AF Nurse prepares casualties for Navy Nurses and wounded men leave air evacuation from Korea Pusan on hospital ship Army Nurse assists doctor during I operation at Field Hosp, Korea I Army Nurse bandaging wounded soldier's leg at Sta Hosp, Japan GENERAL HEADQUARTERS FAR EAST COMMAND MEDICAL SECTION SURGEON'S CIRCULAR LETTER APO 500 NO 2 1 February 1951 PART I ADMINISTRATIVE SUBJECT SECTION PAGE ANC Celebrates Fiftieth Anniversary I 21 Danish ... Hospital Ship Adds to UN Medical Facilities ........ II 22 Procedure for Complaints Concerning Unsatisfactory Ordnance Materiel Ill 22 Awards to Army Medical Service Personnel IV 23 Nursing Care of Korean POWs. V 24 Long-Distance Ambulance Haul .................. VI 27 New Military Hygiene and Sanitation Regulations VII 27 Technical Reoonmendations for Small Medical Units Using X-ray VIII 29 Army Medical Service Cataloging Research Scientists . IX 29 Recent Department of the Army and FEC Publications X 30 Index. .... ....... ....... 40 I. ANC Celebrates Fiftieth Anniversary On 2 February 1951, the Army Nurse Corps celebrated its Golden Anni- versary. Just fifty years ago an act of Congress created the Corps as a recognized organization. Before that time, American women had served with distinction as nurses in all our wars, but their lack of permanent status made it difficult for the Army to maintain a nursing service of consistent- ly high order.
    [Show full text]
  • Generic Vs Viagra
    Coming to South Korea’s Aid: The Contributions of the UNC Coalition Terence Roehrig1 U.S. Naval War College ABSTRACT Soon after the North Korean invasion on June 25, 1950, the United Nations Security Council called for assistance to defend the South. Though South Korea and the United States carried the vast majority of the responsibility and costs of the war, 15 countries provided direct military assistance to the UN effort in Korea. This article examines the motivations and contributions of these 15 countries that joined the United States and South Korea in the United Nations Command. Keywords: Korean War, United Nations Command, NATO, South Korea International Journal of Korean Studies · Vol. XV, No. 1 63 Introduction On June 25, 1950, North Korean troops and tanks rolled across the 38th parallel in a bid to reunify the peninsula. After receiving word of the invasion, the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) passed a resolution that called for a halt to the hostilities and for North Korea (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea – DPRK) to withdraw its forces back across the 38th parallel. When it was clear that Pyongyang would not heed the UN call, the Security Council passed another resolution that called on members to provide assistance to repel the North Korean attack and restore peace and security in Korea. Subsequently, the UN formed the United Nations Command (UNC) to organize member contributions for the UN response to North Korean aggression, and authorized the United States to take the lead of the UNC. Many countries offered assistance of some type, but in the end, a total of 16 countries sent military assistance to join the UNC in defending South Korea.
    [Show full text]
  • Bridging the Divide Between Armistice and Peace Treaty: Using Just War Theory to End the Korean War
    https://doi.org/10.33728/ijkus.2020.29.1.011 International Journal of Korean Unification Studies Vol. 29, No. 1, 2020, 271-296. Bridging the Divide Between Armistice and Peace Treaty: Using Just War Theory to End the Korean War David S. Lee* In international law, an armistice agreement provides for a cessation of hostilities in order for the combatants to pursue a permanent peace, usually via a peace treaty. This process remains incomplete for the two Koreas. This article focuses on bridging the divide between the current armistice agreement and a future peace treaty by utilizing just war theory. Specifically, a prong of just war theory that has more recently emerged, jus post bellum (justice after war), provides a beneficial lens by which to achieve a better peace by focusing on both addressing past issues as well as accounting for prospective opportunities for future engagement. This paper argues that a peace treaty influenced by elements of jus post bellum informs the framework necessary for meaningful rapprochement on the Korean Peninsula and a much needed denouement to the Korean War. Keywords: Armistice Agreement, jus post bellum, just war theory, Korean War, peace treaty We must be patient—making peace is harder than making war. Adlai E. Stevenson II * David S. Lee is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Hong Kong, where he is active broadly in the areas of ethics, fintech, law, and the politics and economics of the Korean Peninsula. 272 David S. Lee I. Introduction On March 21, 1946, a few months following the conclusion of World War II, Adlai E.
    [Show full text]