A HISTORY OF PERSIA

BY

BRIGADIER-GENERAL SrR PERCY SYKES K.C.I.E., C.B., C.M.G.

GOLD ~U:O .-\LUST O#' TH'E ROYAL CCOG~PKIC:*'r. SOCIE:T\' JOl~T-AU'THOA OP' 'THROUGH OUERTS AN'D OASt,S nr CtNTRAL ,\SI.'\' AND 'THE ClORY or THE SHtA WORLD'

ACHAEMElHAH GOLD PATSRA. (From British Museum.)

WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS I N TWO. VOLUMES-VOL. II

THIRD EDITION /YJTH SUPPLEMENTARY ESSIIYS

·' MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED ... . 1 . . . - ! ST. MARTIN'S ~TRE ET , LONDON.:.·

1930 MACMi b LAN 'AND CO., };JMITED LONDON • li

PRELIM!N.\R.Y Ess.w ·····

CHAPTER L • PAGE TttE G oLOI!..'I AcE OF IsLAM The Splendour of Haroun-al-Rashid, A.tt. 170-193 (786-8o9)-The Hasanite Prince of Daylam, A.tl. 176 (792.)-The Downfall of the Bar­ mecides- The Death of Haroun-al-Rashid, A.tl. ı 93 (809)-Amin and M a m un, A.H. 19 3-198 (So8-8 ı 3)-Mamun proclaimed Caüph · of the East, A.H. 196 (8ı. ı)-The Campaigns of Tah.ir the Ambidextrous and the Death of Amin-Rebellions in the Wesıern Half of the Caliphate, A.K. 198-ıoı (8 13-8ı6)-The P roclamation of Ali Riıa as Heir-Apparent, A.H. 201 (817)-His Sudden Death, A.H. 203 (8ı8)-Tahir, Viceroy of the East, A.H. 204-207 (8ı9-8n)--:The Later Years o_f Marnun and his Death, A. H. 218 (833)-The .Acts, Science, and Literature under M arnun ~Moslem Exploration and Geography-The M utaıila Sect-Motasim, A.R. :u8-n7 (833-8•p)-The Mamelukes and the Fo unding of Samarra -The Revolt of the J:ıtt or Gypsies-Tlıe Capture of Babek, A.H. 21.2. (837)-The Campaign against the Greeks, A.H. 223 (838)-The Later Years ofMotasim's Reign-Wathik, A.R. 227-232 (8+:ı-8.j.7).

CHAPTER LI

THE D ECAY oF THE CALIPHATE :'ND THE·.·~ R,Ev ıvA.L o .F P ERSIAN

lNDEPEN DE~CE • • _' ' .:. ~..; .. ; ... : f ...:.•: ., · :·, . .. ·: .f ;;;-::.. • • • 1 The Orthodox Reaction under Mu~~v;~il, ~.H. ~n-2+7 (847-86ı) -The P:ılace of Samarra and the: Cypl'efs ·of ".K.ishmar~'TfieiTiıhiri' Dynasty, A.H. 2.05-2 59 (Sıo-871.)-A. Period of ~archy,"A,H.iı47-~56 (86ı-87o)-The Rise of the Saffa.r. Dıfnasty-Motamid, A,H ~ ·~ s€-:ı7.9 ..... (S~o:-892)-The Zanj Insur.rectio~ A.H.' ·zs.s:~70 (8ii9-I SJ)-}'he Bnllıant Career of Yakub bın L~!""'The Ongın of the Ismf!lt ·Sect -The Carmathians-The Rise of ~e Samanid Dynasty-The Career.of Amr-ul-Lais,. A.H. :ı65-29o · (878~J)-::'!h~ Samanid D~?-~2:..~ .. iis VOL. U v b VI HISTORY OF PERSIA J•AGE Zenit~-Its Decay and Downfall-The Ziyarid Dynasıy, A.H. 316-434 (9ı.8-ıa42)-:-The Buwayhid or Daylamite Dynasıy, A. H. 32o-.H7 {932- ıos-5)-The Dynasty of Ghazna, A.H. 35ı-s8ı. (962-1186) .

. .. CHAPTER- Lll·

T HE CoMıNG o~ T~E SEıjux T~RKs • :z8 The Importance of tbe.Seljuks-Their Origin-Masud of Ghazna--,­ The Founding of the Seljuk Dynasty, A.H. 429 (ıo37) -The Career ,of Toghril Beg, A.H. 429-455 (ıoJ7-ı06J)-Malik Kaward of Kernıan, A.H. 433-465 (ıo41-1072)-Alp Arslan, A.H. 455-465 (ıo63-1072)-Tbc Seljuk Empire at its Zenith under Malik Shalı, A.H. 465-485 (ıo72- . 1092)-The Do~:!Jfall of Ni~am ~ui-Mulk-T.he Death of.Malik , A.H. 485 (1092)-The Assassins~The Fatirnid Dynasıy, A.H. 297-567 (909-1171)-The Career of Hasan Sabbah-"The Old Man of the Mountain "-The Initiation of the De,•otees- Mahrnud, A.H. 485 (ı 092); Barkiyaruk, A.H. 487 (ıo94); Malik Shah II., A.H. 498 (ııo4); Mohamed, A.H. 498- 511 (1104- 11 17)-The Sdjuks of Kerman, A.H. 433-583 (ı041-1187)-The Origin of the Crusades-The Firsı Crusade, A.D. ıo9s-ıo99-The Defeat of the First Army by the Seljuks- The Capture of Nicaea and of Antioch by the Crusaders-The Stc:ırrning of Jerusalem, A.H. 492 (1099).

CHAPTER Lll!

-~ ~ . ·.· . ·-·· -;--·-·-·· . ·TıiE····-. ·..--- Dıs~?._~ıo~- . . : ~F. :!!i~.. !:!.~~ı~~··.EMPJRE Sultan Sanjar at the Height of his Farne-An Episode of the Assassi!Js -The Ghorid Dynasty, A.H. 54J-6I:ı (1148-.1215)-The Rise of the of Khwaraini-Tiie Kara Khitai Dynasty-The Defcat of Sultan Sanjar by the Kara Khitai, A.H. 536 (ı 141)-The Capture of Sultan Sanjar by the Gliuzz, A.B. 548 (1 153)-The Atrocities committed by the Ghuzz -Their Ravages in the Kerrnan Province-The Escape and D eaılı of Sultan Sanjar, A.H. 552 (ı ı 57)-His Character- The Revival of the Caliphate-Tlıe Khwaraım Dynasty at its Zenith-The Atabegs- The . End of a Great.Periiıd. .. . • . . .. .

CHAPTER LIV

P :usıAN LıTERATURE BEFORE THE MoNG9L !NVASION 5.7 The Birth of Persian Lite'rature...:...Rudagi-AI·Biruni-Avicenna­ Firdausi-The Siasot-Nomo-Nasir-i-Khusru- Omar Khayyam-The Kabus-Nama- Al-Ghazali - Muizzi - Nizami-ai-Arudi-Anwari and Khakani-Nizami-Attar- A Criticism.

CHAPTER LV

THE Mai-lGoL CATA cLvst:ı· •· 'jO The Awful Nature of the Mangol Invasion-:The Origiıı of the Mongols-Yissugay, the Father of Chengiz -The Rise of Chengiı Khan, A.D. 1175-1206- The Downfall ·of the Kara Khitai Dynasty- CONTENTS vıı I'ACE The Mo ngol Inv:ısion of Turkesıan, A.H. 6.ı s (a ı 8)-The Ouıbreak of Hostilities wiıh Khwarazm-The Invasion · of T r:ınso:d:ın:ı, A.H . 616 (1219)-The Pursuit ofMohamed and his Deaıh, A.H. 617 (ı.ı2o)-The Siege of Urganj, A.H. 617 (1220)-The Devastation of Khorasan, A.H. 6ı7 (ı:ı.zo)- The Demuction of Merv and Nishapur-The Campaign against Jalal-u-Din, A.K. '6ı8 ( ı :ı.u)-The Return to Tartary of Chengiz Khan-The Devastation of Western and North-Western Persia-The Deaılı of Chengiz Kh:ın, A.K. 6z-ı. ( ı :ı.27)-His Character and Genius.

CHAPT ER LVI

THE ExTtNCTION oF TH! CALIPKATE BY HuLAOU KHAN 86 The Division of the -Three Great Expeditions­ The Campaign of Jalal-u-Din in India, A.H . 6ı9 (ı:ı.2:ı.)- Hi s Return to Perşia, A.H. 6:ı.o (ı2zJ)-Gbias-u-Din-T he Campaign against the Caliph, A.H. 6u (1:ı.:ı.5)-The Batde of Isfah:ın , A.K. 6:ı.5 (ıı28)-The Single Combats of Jalal-u-Din-His Escapes from the Mongols and his Death, A.H. 6:ı.S (ız3 ı)-The Mongol Campaigns in Asia Minor and Syria-The Kutlugh Khans of Kerman, A.H. 619-703 (ı:ı:ı:ı.- IJOJ)-:- .. Christian-Missions to.the Mongols, A.o: 124s-ızfı_:The Adininistration of Northern Pcrsia before H ulagu Kh:ın-The Aprointmcnt of Hulagu K han to Persia, A.R. 649 (n sı)- The Dynasty ot the Assassins at i ıs Zeni t h-Tiıe Extirpation of the Assassin s, A.H. 6 54 (ız56)-The Sack of and the Execution of the Caliph, A.H: 656 (ıı58)-The Last Years of Hulagu K han and his Death, A.H. 663 (ız6s):

CHAPTER .. LVII--·----·---- . .. • • .:...... •• : · •• • • • • • •• • • • : . •• 40 •• ·~ . . . ·:· ·- TK! HEATHEN IL-KHA.NS OF. P ERSIA • 100

.. . Abaga, A.H. 663-6So (ız6s-nSı)-The lnv:ısion from Russia, A.H. · 664 (ı 266)-Hayıon, King of Armenia and Baybars of Egypt, A.H. 66+- 66s (1:ı.66-ı:ı67)-The l nvasion of Khorasan by Borak, A.H. 668 (1270) -Yusuf Sh ah 1., Atabeg of Lu rist:ın-The Devastation of Khwarazm and Transoxiana by Abaga., ·A.H. 671 (127:)-The Battic of Abulistin, A.H. 675 (ıı77)-The Batıle of Hims, A.H. 68o (ı:ı.8ı)-The Intercourse of Abaga with Europe-The Journeyof Marco Polo in Persia, A.D. 1271- Ahmad, A.H. 68o-683 (ıı.8 ı -u84)-The Reign of , A.H. 683-690 ;~~ ( 1 ı.S+-ız9ı)-Johıi de MonteCorvino-:-, A.H. 69o-694 (ı:9ı- 1Z95), and , A,H: ..69+ (ı:ı. 95)-The Return of Marco Polo to Pcrsia, A. o. ı': 9+.' · · · - ·· ·

CHAPT ER LVIII

GHAZAN KHAN, THE G REAT IL-KHAN. l lO The Accession of Gh~zan , A.H. 694 (u95)-H is First Syrian Cam­ paign, A.H. 699 (ı 299)-The Raiding ofSouthern Persia from Transox~ana -The Defeat of the Monı;ols in Syria, A.H. 702 ( 1303)-'-The Relat ıons of Ghaz:ın with Byzantium and the Western Powers~His Reforms-His Buildings and Endowments- Uljaitu, A.H. 703-716 ( ı J04- ı Jı6)-.'\bu Said, A.H. 716-736 (ıJı6-tJ3S)-The Puppet. Il-Khans-The Ja!ayr Dynasty, A.H. 7J6-8t+ (ıJi6-ı4 ıı )-The Muzalfarids, A.H. 7 13-795 (ıJrJ-1393)-The Ku~ts of Hera~ A._K. 643-791 (ız+S- t J89)· V lll HISTORY OF PERSIA

--. -:- - CHAPTER . LIX PAGE TAMER_LANE ı ı8 .. .. ': .. :-T.r~nsoxia_n,;ı in. the. ~i~~le . of the Fourteenth · Cen.tury-:-The Fame.: , .·· .. of Ta:.merlanc-'Hıs Bırth: ın· . A,H. ·736 ·(1335) .and hıs ·Early Years-· _· .. His Subm.ission to )ıluk Timur Khan-His Early Wanderings--,­ Tamerlane or "Timur the Lame"-The Rallying of his·Relations and Adlıerents-The ·campaigns. with Khoja Ilias-The Struggle between Tameriane and :Amir Husayn, A.H. ?6?-77 ı' (ı 36 s-ı 369)-The COJ1- quest of Jatah and of Khwaraım, II.H •. 771-78ı {1369-1380)-The Surrender of , A.H·. 782. {'q8o)-The Si ege of Kalat-i-Nadiri and .. . of Turshiz-The. Sistan Camp~ign·, A.H • .78 5 (ı 383)-The Campaign in ...... Nonherı~ Persia, A.H .. 786 (ı 384)-:-:-: The.. Campaign in A:ıerbaijan, Georgia, . and Fars, A.H. 788-790 (ı386-ı388)-Tamerlane and Haliz-The Cam-. l'aigns with Toktamish, A.H. 79o-793 (ı388-ıj9ı)-The Campaign in Fars and Ira~, A.H: 794-795. (ı 392.-ı 393)-The Siege ofTakrit, A.H. 796 (ı 393)-The Second Campaign. in Russia, A.H. 797 (ı 394)-The Invasion oflndia, A.H. 8oo-8oı.(ı398-1399)-The.Campaign against the Mame­ lukes, A.H. 803 (ı4oı)-The Defeat of Baya:ıid, A.H. 804 (ı4o:ı)-The Castilian Embassy to the Court of Sa marea nd-The Death of Tamerlane, A.H. 807 (1405)-His Character and ·Achievements. ·

': CHAPTER LX

·. T.HE , :I:_~MURI~ . Mo~~R~H.s_. ~F. -::f~-~sı~ : . 1.36 . . --- · ·.-· ·· ·· .. -·· =· i{ııaursürt'aD,'A: ii ... so;~s·ız--=ci'4o4:.:i-4'69)':_s~iih . Ifiıkh;·;:ıc &ö;-s·5c;.. :- · ------· - (1404-1447)-Ulugh Beg, the · Astronomer-King-Abu Said, A.H. 855- 872. (ı45z-i467)-The Last Princes of the Timurid Dynasty-The "Black 'Sheep" Dynasty, A.H. 780-874 (1378-1469)-The "White Sheep" Dynasty, A.H. 78o-9o8 (1378-ıso:ı)-The Alliance of Uzun Hasan with · Venice~The Rise of the Shaybania Dynasty-Baber-The Literary and Scientific Attainments of the Timurid Dynasty.

CHAPTER LXI

LıTERATURE AND · ARCHITECTURE U NDER THE MoNGOLs The Historians of the Early M on gol Period-The Later Historiaıis -Yakut, the Geographer-Nasir.u-Din, the Philosopher and Man of . Science-The Sulis or Mystics-Jalal-u-Din, Rumi-Sadi-Hafiz-Jami -The Tomb of Khudabanda at Sultania-The Shrine of the Imam Riza -The Mosque of Gauhar Shad-The Madrasa ;ıt Khargird-The Mahun Shrine. .

CHAPTER LXII ç THE Rısit öf- THE, s..\F~vı DvN..\sTv The Ancestors of the. Safavi Dynasty-Ismail; the Founder. of the Dynasty, A.'H·. 965...:930 ·(1499-uı.+)-The Defcat of -the Uzbegs byShah Ismail, A.H. 916 (ı5ıo)-Shah Ismail .and Baber-The Fiııal Defeat of CONTENTS

Baber by the Uzbegs, A.H. 918 ( ısız)-The Camp:ıign of Selim the Grim, A.H. 9zo (1514)-The Death of Shah Isınail and his Char:ıcter­ T:ıhmasp, A .H. 93o-984 (ısı4- 1 576)-The I nvasions of Persia by Sul:ıy­ ı:nan the Magnificent-The Fugitive Emperor H umayun-The Re bellion of Ilkhas Mir.uz, A.H. 954-955 (ıs47-IH8)-Th e Perso-Turkish Treaty of P~ace, A.H. 96z (ı sss)- The Betrayal of Bayazid, son of Sulaym:ın­ The, Embassies of Anthony Jenkinson to Bolcbara and Penia. A.D . 1558- ı s6.J-An Account of Persia by D'Al essandri, A.D. 157 ı -!smail II., A.H. 984 (ı576)-Mohamed Kbudabanda, A.H. 985 (ı 578).

CHAPTER LXIII

SHAH ABBAS THE" GREAT 17t

Shah Abbas I., A.H. 98s-ıoJ8 (t587-i6z9)-The Turk'ish Invasion, A.H. 995-998 (ıs87-159o)-The Uzbeg Invasi

CHAPTER LXIV .

T HE_ STRuccu FoR AscENDANCY ıN THE Pi:RSı Aıı GuLF The Effect on History o( Rounding the Ca pe of Good Ho pe-The _ _ . -·---... I mp.ort~nce oL H ormuz-The First- Portuguese- Expediti?n·: ·against-:·:: :. · · · · : Hormuı, A.D. ı 'so'7...:..The Persian Demand för Tribufe-The Failure of · ~he Expedition-T he Final Occupation of Hormuz by the Portuguese, A. D. (sı s-The Beginning of English Maritiroe Intercou.rse w ith the East-The First English-'Attempt.to T rade with Persia by Sea, i.."o. ı6ı4 - T he Journey of Connock, A.D. ı6ı6-16ı7-The Persian Question of the Period-The Spanish Embassy to Persia, ı 6ı8- ı 6ı9-T~e .Battle ~f Jask, A.O. ı 6:ıo-The Capture of Hormuz by an Anglo-Persıan Expedı­ ·. ;.•· tion, A. o. ı 6ı :ı-The Dutch-The French- The Emhassy of Sir Do'dmore Cotton to Shah Abbas, A.o. ı6:ı7-The Fortunes of the British.. ·

CHAPTER LXV

- ~R_C_I:I~TE.CTU~E - A~l? ft~~ .. .VNJ?E~ 1:RE S.AF... Vl. 0Y.NAST'f . 198 · , the Safavi Capital-The Royal S

CHAPTER LXVI - ·THE: -D~CLINE OF THE · sAFAVI D~-NASTY =:· . . ': . zo8

The Cause of the Decline-Shah Sali;' A.H. ıoJS-ıos:ı (ı629-164:ı) -The Holstein Embassy, ı 637-The Uıbegs-The Capıure ofHamadan by t he Turks, "·li· ~- o~.9 (163o)-The Erivan Campaign, A.H. 1045 (1635) X HtSTORY OF PERSIA PACS -The Capture of Baghdaô, A.H. ı 048 (1638)-Abbas II., A.H. 1052.- 1077 (16p-ı66;)-The Uzbeg ~efugees-The First Russian Embassy to Persia, A.D. ı66t-Sulaymao, A.H. 1077-ıı os (166;-1694-)-The Accession of Shah Sultan Husayn, /ı.H. 11 05 (1694)-Tbe Embassies of , A.D. 1708 and 17 ı s-The Failure in the -;- . Pe~an Dresud~pted by Çbarles II. of England. · . . . ~ .. - .. . . , ......

CHAPTER LXVII

TRE GHıLZAI~ Of · o 216 _ A Sketch of Afgbanistan-lts Inhabitants-The Provin~ of Kandahar ...-Tb( Gbilzais-:rhe Appointment of Gurgin Khan-Mir Vais-The Murder of Gurgin Khan and the Massacre of the Persian Garrison, .A.H. ı ur (1709)-The Consolidation of Power by .Mir Vais-His·Two ~ictories over ~ersian Armies-Mir Abd u ila, A.H. 1 ı z8-11JO (171 s­ ı 7 17)-The Rise of the Abdalis of Herat.

CHAPTER LXVIII

THE Çv.ERTHROW OF THE SAPAVI DYNASTY 223 .. -The First Expedition of Mahmud, A.H. 'llJ3 (172.o)-The Disgrace of the Vizier and of Lutf Ali Khan-Signs and Portents-The Second . · Expedition of Mahmud, A.H. 1135 (ı;:u)-The Afgban and Persian :: ~ ·· ~· ···:··· · ·"<.·...:Ar.mi~1]ıı:.:.»attl~ ·of..Q-qlnabad, _A. _H. . ! US ( ı ;:n)-;The.. Capture of.. _ · Farraliabad and the Capitulation of J ulfa...... ,.The Investment of Isfahan- 1 1 The Heroic Inhabitants of Ben Isfahan-The Unsuccessful Mission of Tahmasp Mirıı:a-The Death of the White Eunuch-Malik Mahmud of Sistan-The Surrender of Isfahan, A.H. 1135 ( ı ;u)-The Downfall r of.the _D~nasty. i CHAPTER LXIX

TaE ExPuı.sıoN oF THE AFCHANS The First Acts o( Mahmud-The Surrender of Kum, Kasban, and Kazvin to the Afghans-The Will of Peter the Grcat-The Occupation of by Peter, A.H. ıı35 (172.2.)-His Occupation of Resht and -The Treaty of Shah Tahmasp ·with Russia, A.D. 172.3-The Pcrsian lnsurrection at Kazvin, A.H: 1136 (1723)-The Massacres at Isfahan, A.D. 172.3-The Cafture of Shiraz, A.H. 1137 (17'24)-An Attack on Bandar Abbas- ntrigues-The Massacre of the Safavi Princes -The Death of Mahmud, A.H. ı 137 (1725)-His Appearance and Char­ acter-The Turlcish lnvasion of Georgia, A.D. ı ;:u-1 723-The Russo­ Turkish Treaty for the Dismembennent of Persia, A.D. 1721c-The Conquest of Wc:;tern Persia by the Turks, A.D. 172.4-1725-The ) Accessian of Ashraf, A.R. 'ılJ7 (ı725)-Tbe Victory of Ashr.ıf over the "' . Turks; A.H. n38 - (17:ı6)-Shah· Tahmasp joined by Nadir Kuli, A.H. 11 39 (ı7z7)-Tbe Conquest of Khorasan by Nadir Kuli-The Defeat of the Afghans at Mehmandosı, A.H . 114-1 (172.9)-Tbe Second Defeat of the Afghans at Murchakhar, A.H. ll41 (1729)-The Reoccupation of Isfahan-The Final Rout of the Afghans, A.H. ı 142 (ı;'3o)-The Death of Asbraf, A.H . ıı42 ( ı 7Jo)-Tbe Flight of the Afghans. CONTENTS Xl

CHAPTER LXX PACU THI! R ısE OF NADIR Kuu TO THE THR.ONE OF PERS!A 2 47 The Origin and Birthplace of Nadir Kuli-His Captivity and Escape -Appointment to Abivard-Service under Malik Mahmod- His Capture of Kalatand Nishapur-His Dreams-The Capturc of Meshed and the Eicecution of Malik Mahmud-The Reward for the Expulsion of the Afghans-Nadir Kuli's First Turkish Campaign-Tahmasp's Disastrous Campaign against the Turks, A.H. ıı44 ( ı 73ı)-His Dethronement in A.H. t1+5 (ı731)-The Battle of Karkuk, A.H. i 146 (ı 733)-The Persian Victory over Topa! Osman, A.H. ı 146 (t7lJ)-Tbe Persian Victory of Bagbav:ınd, A.H. ıı48 (1735)-The Evacuation of the Caspian Provinces by Russia-,-Thc Surrender of Baku and Derbent to Nadir Kuli, 1735- The Accession of Nadir Kuli to the Throne, A.H. ıı48 (ı736)-The Abalition of the Sh i:ı Doctrines-The. . of Nadir Sh ah.

CHAPTER LXXI

THe: C ONQEESTS OF NADIR SHAH The Punitive Expedition against the Bak.htiaris-The Afgh an Cam­ paign, A.H.' ııso-1 ıs ı (1737-1738)- The Exped.ition of Riıa Kuli Mirza against Balkh-The Sta te of India in A.H. 115 ı (ı n S)-The Negotiations -The Invasion oflndia-The BattleofKa.rnal, A. H. It51 (1738)-The Surrender of Delhi and _its Spoils-The Massacre-The M:ı.rriage of Nasrulla K han-The Results of the Campaign-The Si nd Expedition, A.H. ıı sı-up. ( 17 39)-The. Campaign against Bo!

CHAPTER LXXII ··-;. THE LAST YEARS OF NADIR SHAH z66 The Lesgian Campaign, t7+1-ı7+ı-The Blinding cif Riza Kuli .:;:. Mirza-Rebellions in Persia, 1743-1744-The Last Campaign against T urkey, 1743-1745-The Pioneer Journeys of Elton, 1739-1741-The Adventures of Jon:ıs Hanway, 1743-The Closing of British Trade across t he Caspian, ı 746-The Naval Ambitions of Nadir Sh ah-The Assassina- tion of Nadir Shah, A.H. ı ı6o (1747)-H~s Character. . _ ......

CHAPTER . LXXIII

THE SHORT-LIVED ZANO DYNASTY . •

Ahınad Khan, -Adil Shah, A.H. ıı6o-ıı6ı (ı747-ı748)­ Sh:ıh Rukh-The .Origin of the Kaj'!-r Tribe-Mohamed .Husayo K han, . ~ajar.:.._Azad the Afghan and Mardan Ali Khan, Bal{htiari-Karim Khan, Zand-The Triangular Cantest for Power-:The Fina! Campaigo, . A.H. ıı71 ( ı 757)-The Reign of Karim Khan, A.H. 1163-1193 (ı7so:­ t779)-The Occupatioıi of Kharak by the Dutch-The Foundation of the English Factory at Bushire, A.O. 1763-The Expedition ag:ıinst Basra, ·. .

xıı HISTORY OF PERSIA PAGE A.H. J189-ı 190 (ıns-ın6)-Zaki Khan-Abul Fatteh, Ali Murad; and Sadik-The Reign of Ali Murad, A.H. 1196-1199 (1781-1785)-jafar, · A.H. l199-J:ZOJ (1785-1789)-T~e Accessian of'Lutf Ali Khan-The Expedition ofLutf Ali against Kerman, A.H. ı:ıos (1790)-Haji Ibralıim -His Successful Plot-The Campaigns of Lutf Ali Khan against Aga · · Mohamed....,...The Fina! Acı · of the Drama; A.H. ı:ıo8 (1794)-The Fate of ::- Kerman~The Diıwnfall of the·zand Dynasty. · .'. · . · .·. ···..

CHAPTER LXXIV .

THE· FouNDING OF THE KAJAR DYNASTY Aga Mohamed Khan, Kajar-The Expulsion of a .Russian .Expcdi- .. tioiı by. Aga Mohamed, A.D. 178ı-Th~ Indepe'ndent Provinces of.Persia -The Neighbouring States-The Invasion ot Georgia, A.H. ı:ıo9 (1795) ·-The Cor·onation of Aga Mohamı;d Khan, A.H. 1210 (1796)- The Reduction of Khorasan, A.H. 1210 (ı796)-The Rtissian lnvasion, A.H. ı:uo (1796)-The Assassination of Aga Mohamed Khan, A.H. ı:z.n (1797)-His Character- The Accession of FathAli Shah-Various Pretenders.

CHAPTER LXXV

BRITISH AND FRENCH. MıssıoNs AT THE CouRT oF FATH ALi SHAH 298 ..~: __ . . ... - : ....:. . · ?"hı: .lif.ghan Qu~stio.n-::-~heJV.lission ?f M!!h4i. .A~ )ü_an,_ı 799-:- ~-. :· : The Fren ch Peril to India-Malcolm's First Mission, . ı 8oır-The Persian Embassy to India, ı8o2-The Downfall of Haji Iörahim-The Second Rebellion of Husayn Kuli Khan-The Execution of Nadir Mirz,a, A.H. ı:z.t6 (18oz)-The Expulsion of the Afghans from Narmasbir and Sistan -French Overtures to Persia, ı 8oı-ı8o4-The First Fren ch Missi.on, ı8o6-The Treaty of Finkenstein, 1807- The Gardanne Mission, ı8o7- ı8o8-The Figlıt for Power in Afghanistan~ 1799-18o8-Malcolm's Second Mission, ı8o8-The Mission of Sir Harford Jones, ı8o8-ı8 o9- Malcolm's Third Mission, ı8ıô--The Embassy of Haji Mirza Abul Hasan Kbaıı, ı 8oırı8ıo--The Appointment of Sir Gore Ouseley, ıSı ı _; The Delinitiv~ Treaty, ı8ı4.

CHAPTER LXXVI

THE DısASTRous CAMPAIGNs wıTH RussıA 311

The Aımexation of Georgia by Russia, 18oo-The Two Campaigns against Russia.,-The Pcrsian Army under Abbas. Mir:ı:a-The Erivan Campaign, ı8o4-The R ussian Descent on Gilan-The Battle of Aslanduz, ısu_:.Th e Treaty of Gulistan, ı8ı3-Risin gs in Persia­ The Embassy of General Yermoloff, ı 8 ı 7-Afghan Campaigns. ı8o5 and ı8ı7-ı8ı8-Hostilities with Turkey, A.H. 12.36-t2J8 (ı82ı-ı823) -The Dispute.about Gokcha and its Seizure by Russia, ıS:ıs-Initial Persian Successes---The Batıle ·of Shamkar-,-The .Battle of Ganja; September :z6, 1~26--Tbe Avarice of Fath Ali Shah-Tlıe Capture of Erivan, 11!2.7-The Surrender of', 1827-Thc Treaty of Turko- . manchai, 1828-The Modification of the Definitive Treaty with Great Britain-Tilıe Mu.rder of M. Gre_baiodov, ı828. CONTENTS Xl ll

ÇHAPTER LXXVII

PERsıAN AccREssıoN ON · AFCHA~ISTAN JZ3 The Trend of Persi:ın Policy, ı8Jz-ı857-The Campaign of Abbas .... . Min.a in Khorasan, • 8J:ı-Anglo-Russian Antagonism in Central Asia · -The Siegc ofHerat'anu thcDeath of Abbas Mirxa,' ı833-The Death '' 0 of Faıh Ali Shah, ı834-:-The Accessian of Mohamed Shah, ıSJ+-Thc Second British Military Mission-Haji Mirxa Aghasi-The Afghan Policy of Mohamed Shah-The Rise of Doııt Mohamed-The Burn ~.s Mission-The Promisc~ · ofViıka\'ich-The ::iecond Siege ofHerat, ı8J7- ı8J8-The First Afgh:ı.n War, ı8J8-ı84z-The British Mission to Herat, ı8J9-ı84ı-The Setdeme nt w ith Persia-The Rı: bellion of Aga Khan, ı8+o-ı84ı-Pcrso-Turkish Relations, ı84z-ı84J-The' Death of Moh amed Shah, ı 848.

CHAPTER LXXVIII

THE FıNAL Se~LEMENT OF THE PERso~AFGHAN QuESTION • • • 339 ' · · ..... The ·Accession of ' Nasir-u~b'in; ·~84-s....:..Jiıi~~ .Tili .Kh:ın, Amir-i­ Nizam-The Rebellion of the Salar-The Bab-His Doctrines-The Fortunes of the B:ıbis-Babi Plots and Risings, ı8so-ı8sz-Foundation of the Russian Naval Station at Ashurada, ı84o-The Fall of Amir-i­ Nizam, ıSsı-The ' Herat Questioiı, ı8sı-ı8s3-Russian Negotiations with Persia, ıSsJ-ıSss-The Breaclı ,.;ith Grc:ıt Britııin, ıSss-The Anglo-Afghan Alliance, ıS ss-The Change of .Rulers at Herat, ıS ss­ The Occupation of Herat by Persia, ıS s6-The Second British Tre:ıty with Dost Mohamed, ı 8 j7-Dritish oııera~iOf!S . agatnst Persia, ı 8 5~18 57 ·-::.- :­ . , __ , ...... ,..._The . Conclusioır ·. of: Peace, " ı857-The New Ruler of Herat_;.The · ., Assertian. of Persian A uthority on the Persi:ın Gulf Littoral. ·

CHAPTER LXXIX

•·::·..., ;· THE ENVELOPMENT Of' PERSIA 35+ '· . Th~ Advance of Russia in Central Asia-The First Khivan Expedi­ tion, ı839-184o-The Russian .Advance to the Sea of Aral, ı847-The Occupation of the Vall ey of the Sir Darya, ı 849-ıS 64-Russian Relations ·. with Bokhara, · ı84ı-ı868-The Conquest of Khiva, · ıSn-Persi:ın . Campaign~ against the Turkoman, ı8s7-ı86o-ı:he Crushing of the · . TurJComan by Russia, ı88ı-The Elfect on Persıa-The Capture of Herat by Dost Mohamedı ı 863-The Makran Boundary Commission, ı87o-t87ı-The Sistan Question. The· First Phase, ı86J-ı87o-The Sistan Arbitration Commission, ı872- The Perso-Baluch Boundary Commission, ı 896-The Second Sistan Arbitration Commission, t903- t9os-:-The Perso-Turlci3h Bountlary-Summary.

CHAPTER LXXX ·...... ':. ~ ...... :· :' . THE A*A.ıc.ı;ıiaıd . OF PiRsı~ ; . ·_· ·. .- .The Question of Telegraphic Communicati.on between England and India-The First Telegraph Line in Persia, ı864-The Indo-European Telegraph Lines--Their lntluence on Persia-The Cossack Brigade- • Xl V HISTORY OF PERSIA

The Reuter Concession, ı87:ı.-The Opening of the Karun, 1888-The Imperial Bank of Persia, 1889-The Tobacco Regie, . ı89o-ı8p-The Assassination of Nas~r-u-Din-The Financial Difficulties of Muzaifar-u­ Din-The Russian Bank-Persian Loans--The Belgjan Customs Ad­ .ministration-.The New Cusıoms Tariff-A,n Analysis of the New T ariff ' . . ··~ .. - The: Ac ı ion of. the J3riti~h Q~Y!!fD!Dent-AH · Asgh:ır Khan, Atabeg-i- ·c .Aza·~-Anglo-Russian Rivalry. · ··. . · · ·

CHAPTER LXXXI

THE STATE OF PERSIA BEFORE THE REVOLUTION The Old Order·and the New-The Powers of the Shah-His Duties -The Grand Vizier-The Machinery of Govemment-Justice-Punish­ ments-Revcnue-Taxation-A Persian Village-A Persian Peasanı­ T he Tribesmen.

CHAPTER LXXXII

T HE GRANTING OF A CONSTITUTIOI" TO PERSIA 394 'I:'he Origin of the Constitutional Movement-S~.Y,Yid Jamal-u-Din­ Prince Malkom Khan-The AFı~u-Do/a-The Vısit 'to England · of · . Muzaffar.u-Din, ı9o:ı.-The Condition of Persia before the Revolution- ...... · , The first .J!a~!, December. ı.9os-The E~odus to Kum, 1906--The .:... :__ ·- .. .~· - ...:.:..(ireaF.Bast · in-the ··British-Legatiôn, August. 1-906--The · Magna. Ch.tı_t·(q • . of Persia-The Regulations for the Assembly-Thc Opening .of the Na~~on.ru. ~sse~~ly, October 1906--::'The Signing of the Constitution.

CHAPTER LX:XXIII

AN ATTEMPT TO ÜVE.RTHROW THE ' CoNSTJTUTION 406 ·. ' ·Acces5ion of 'ı\..foliamea - Aü -Shah,· January 19o7..:-Assassination of Atabeg-i-A:ı.am, August 1907-The Deputies- T he .Anjuman- Ca bin et of Nasir-ul-Mulk-Abortive Coup d'Et.at, December 1907-The Anglo-Russian Agreemenı, 1907-Turk.ish Encroachı:nents, 1906-7- Successful Coup d'Etat, June :ı.J, 1908-Siege of Tabriz-The Advance from Resht-The Bakhtiaris--March on Teheran, June 1909-Capture ofTeheran and the Abdica ı ion of the Shah, July 1909.

CHAPTER LXXXIV

T HE FAILURE OF Co"NSTITUTJONAL GoVERNMENT f21 Sultan Ahmad Shah- Domesti<> Discord- An Extremist Cabinet­ The Question of the Regency, 19'\Cr--The ex-Shah's A ttempt, 1911- American Financial Mission, 1911__:.Russian Ulıimatum, November 191.1 -Bombardmcnt of the Meshed Shrine, March 191:ı.-A Study of the New Ord er, ı 909-The End of the Damination of the Bakhtiaris--Salar-u­ Dola-German Ac!ivity in Persia and the Persian Gulf-Persia immedi­ ately before the Great W ar. CONTENTS xv

CHAPTER LXXXV I'AGE THE FıRST y EAR OF THE GREAT W;.R 435 · Position of Persia at the Outbreak of the Great W ar-Turkish and Russian Encroachments in Azerbaijan-Russo-Turkish Operations in Azerbaijan and -Capture of Basra, November 1914- 0perations in the Vicinity of Ahwaz for the Defence of the Pipe-line­ German Policy in the Middle East-Activities of Wassmuss--German Bands at Kermanshah, Isfahan, Y ezd, and Kerman-Persia at the Crisis of her Fate-Russian Operations at Hamada n, Kum, and Kashan-Russo­ British Action in Eastern Persia-Tiıe German Mission to Afghanistan -The Position at the Close of 1915.

CHAPTER LXXXVI

I916-::-A. YEAR_ OF. E~B- ~N_D '!!-OW 451 The· Russo-T~,ırlcish Struggle in 'Y"estero Persia-A Mission to Southei-n Persia-Recruiting at Bandar Abbas-Assassinations at Lingah and Panjgur and the Fall of Kut-al-Amara-A Mission to Makran­ The Eastern Persian Cordon, 1916-The Success of Kawam ~ ul-Mulk and his Sudden Death-The Political Situation in the Kerman Province -The Flight of the German Mission from Kerman and its Arrestin Fars -The March to Kerman, z8o Miles-The March to Yezd, z:ıo Miles- The March on Isfahan, 190 Miles-The Position at lsfahan-The Open- · ing. of the Ahwaz Route-The Sirjan Episode, August-Octobe.r ı9ı6:- ... ·The Position in Fars-The March to Shira:t; p6 Miles.

CHAPTER LXXXVII

THe RESTaRATION oF 0RDI!R IN SouTHERI:I PeRsu, 1917 The Origin of the Swedi;h Gendarmerie-The Swedish Oflicers: their Policy aiı~ Failure-Talcing over the Gendarmerie, Novem~r 1916 . ~TheExpedition of K;ıwam-u1-Mulk-The Question of Comm~nications -The Rebellion at Kazecun-The German Prisoners-The Official Recoiaitioiı. of the South Persia Rifles, March 1917-The Arrival of Reinforcements, April 1917-The Organization of the South Persia Rifles-Solat-u-Dola-The Change in Persiaıi Policy, June 1917- 0perations against Robher Tribes in 1917. .

CHAPTER LXXXVIII

THB .CoLLAPSE oP RussıA AND GENERAL DuNSTER.VlLLE's M1ssıoN 485. The·Successful R ussian Spring Campaign, ı 9 ı 7-Disirttegration of the Russian Troops in Persia~The Russian Collapse a.S a Serious Menace -·- ·tO' the Indian Empire-Armenia, Georgia, and the Republic of Azerbaijan -:-Origin of the Dunsterville Mission, January 1918-The Dash across Persia to Enzeli, Febru:ıry 1918-Kuchik Khan and the J:ıng;ılis-The . Retirement to Hamadan-Generals Baraıov and Bicherakov-Protection .. . . XV1 HISTORY OF PERSIA

of Dumterville's Lincs of Communication_-The Raising of Levies­ ArrivaJ of Reinforcements and the Camfaign against the Jangalis-­ Gallan t Attempt to defend Bako-Flight o the Assyrian Christians from Urumia-Military Mission under Major-Gen·eral Sir Wilfrid Malleson -The British Navy in the . . ··'

. CHAPTER LXXXIX . . THe lxVESTM.ENT OF SHIIlAZ BY TB.E KAsHCAIS AND THEIR :FıNAL DeFEA'r 499 Hostility towards the British in South. Persia-Exchaoge of Notes between the British and Persian Governments--Des'ertions from the South Persia Rifles--Punitive Measures against Tribes on the Lines of·Com- . monication-The Position .in May 1918-Supply Difliculties-The Cantonment at Shiraz-Declarativn of Hostilities by Solat-u-Dola- The .Action of Deh Shaykh, M ay 25-· The Mutiny at Khaneh Zinian-The Action of Ahmadabad, June 16--The Seizure of Key-points in Shiraz, June ı 7-The Appointınent of a New Ilkhani and the Dispersal of the Eneriıy-The Action at Chinar Rahdar, July 7 and 8-The Pursuit of Solat-u-Dola-The Defence of Abadeb, an Heroic Episode-The Relief­ of Alıadeh-The Final Defeat.of the Kashgais, October ı918-The Fine Behaviour of the South Persiıı Rifle~The Great Influenza Epidemic­ The P<>sitioh at Kerman-The Opening of the Bushire-Shiraz Route- .. The ~esult. . __ .. . :

... . ·:- ';• . : ...... - ~ :-··· ·' . -. CHAPTER- XC .. --··· --· - ···- ·- ·-- ··--·------· · · · .. -·- ..... · - ·- -. ·--· ·- . ... - ..- ·- --· ...... ··' . P.ERSIA AF'JrER . THE GREAT WAR 5 ıs The. Persian Delegation to the Pea ce Conference-The Anglo-Pcrsian Agı:eement, ı 9 ı 9-Finance and the Custo'ıns Tariff-The Anglo-Persian Military Commission - Th_e Azerbaijan Republic- The Bolshevist lnvasion of Persia-Coınınunications and Transport-Railways--lVlotor Transport-Ports--The Indo-European Telegraph-The Imperial Bank of Pe.r:sia-The Anglo-Persian OH Compa.oy-Commerce-The Present Situatioı'ı-An Appeal...... -

LIST OF AUTHORITIES

INDEX 5+9