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Docteur D'aix-Marseille Universite THESE Pour obtenir le grade de DOCTEUR D’AIX-MARSEILLE UNIVERSITE Formation doctorale : Anthropologie Présentée et soutenue publiquement Par Céline Coderey Le 21 janvier 2011 TITRE : Les maîtres du “reste” : La quête de l’équilibre dans les conceptions et les pratiques thérapeutiques en Arakan (Birmanie) Directeur de thèse François Robinne JURY Bénédicte Brac de la Perrière Yves Goudineau François Robinne Ilario Rossi Guillaume Rozenberg Les maîtres du “reste” À ma mère 1 Les maîtres du “reste” 2 Les maîtres du “reste” Remerciements Ce travail est avant tout le fruit d‘une rencontre avec un pays unique, magnifique et terrible, et avec son peuple. Les habitants de trois villages côtiers d‘Arakan sont les premiers acteurs de cette thèse. Merci à eux, et tout spécialement à Kyaw Shway, Aye Aye Pyone et Sho Sho, à leur accueil et à la patience avec laquelle ils m‘ont peu à peu dévoilé leur monde. Merci à Kahty Hla Kyi, interprète, amie, a ma (sœur), qui a été à mes côtés pendant tous les terrains et sans laquelle ce travail n‘aurait pas été possible. J‘exprime une profonde gratitude à François Robinne, qui m‘a transmis sa passion pour la Birmanie, et qui, pendant cinq ans, m‘a soutenue et encouragée, en croyant en moi plus que moi-même. Merci à Daw Yin Yin Myint, Sabe Shway de Maria et Marie-Hélène Cardinaud, pour m‘avoir consacré du temps et de l‘énergie bien souvent « extra universitaires » en vue d‘améliorer ma connaissance de la langue et de la culture birmane. Plusieurs personnes ont bien voulu lire tout ou partie de ce travail et me faire bénéficier de leurs remarques et suggestions. Je remercie tout particulièrement Claude Delachet-Guillon, Bénédicte Brac de la Perrière, Anne Guillou, Jean-Louis Arnaud et Dominique Gouguenheim. Je suis également reconnaissante à Jacqueline Filliozat, à Guillaume Rozenberg pour les discussions toujours enrichissantes, et à Ko Zaw et à San San pour les précieux éclaircissements. Merci également à l‘Institut de Recherches sur l‘Asie du Sud-Est, à l‘Université de Lausanne et à l‘École française d‘Extrême-Orient qui ont contribué au financement de mes recherches. Pour fermer le cercle, je remercie Mondher Kilani et Ilario Rossi qui m‘ont fait connaître et aimer l‘anthropologie et sans lesquels les expériences et les rencontres ici évoquées n‘auraient pas été possibles. Mais le support majeur, je le dois à ma famille, en particulier à ma mère et à Alessandro que je remercie de m‘avoir soulagée dans les moments difficiles, d‘avoir partagé mes joies et surtout d‘avoir supporté mes absences et ma dévotion à ce travail. 3 Les maîtres du “reste” 4 Les maîtres du “reste” Avant-propos Un an après la prise du pouvoir en 1988 par la junte birmane, le nouveau gouvernement a modifié l‘appellation de Burma (Birmanie) en Myanmar, Yangon en Rangoon, etc. « À en croire les intellectuels du régime, Burma serait étroitement associé à l‘ethnie majoritaire Bamar, tandis que le terme Myanmar serait neutre de référence ethnique […]. En réalité, l‘étymologie du nom Myanmar rejoint celle de Burma, Myanmar constituant la forme littéraire de Burma » (Guillaume Karila, 2008 : 171). En adoptant la position d‘autres auteurs, j‘utiliserai ici le terme de Birmanie. Concernant la transcription des termes birmans, il n‘existe pas de système unanimement adopté par tous les auteurs. Ceux-ci ont le choix parmi plusieurs systèmes existant. Dans ce travail, les termes vernaculaires sont rendus sur la base du système de « transcription conventionnelle » proposé par John Okell dans A Guide to the Romanization of Burrmese, en tenant compte des modifications successivement apportées par l‘auteur. La graphie des termes vernaculaires les plus usuels dans la littérature académique reproduisent la graphie la plus courante ; c‘est le cas par exemple de nat, de karma ou encore de kyat. Le birman est une langue tonale (à trois tons). Toutefois, par souci de simplifier la romanisation et afin de faciliter la lecture, le choix difficile a été fait de ne pas marquer les tons. Les termes birmans, de même que les termes d‘origine pāli – langue du bouddhisme Theravāda – et les rares termes en sanskrit sont tous signalés par des caractères italiques. Les noms propres qui apparaissent dans le texte correspondent aux noms véritables des personnes rencontrées sur le terrain. Ce choix a été fait suite à l‘obtention de l‘accord de la part des intéressés (du moins dans le cas des thérapeutes). Seuls ont été substitués les noms des personnes pour lesquelles les informations ici rapportées sont susceptibles d‘être problématiques. Enfin, bien que des multiples révisions et corrections de ce travail ont été faites, il est probable que le lecteur rencontre des fautes engendrées par le fait que ma langue maternelle est l‘italien. Puisse-il m‘en excuser. 5 Les maîtres du “reste” 6 Les maîtres du “reste” Résumé en français À partir de l‘étude ethnographique de la maladie en milieu arakanais, cette thèse réfléchit sur le rapport individu-cosmos et sur le caractère pluriel, hybride et intégrateur de ce rapport. Une telle approche, innovatrice pour la Birmanie, s‘éloigne de toute catégorisation et suggère en revanche que la médecine locale, la médecine d‘origine occidentale, le bouddhisme Theravāda, l‘astrologie, etc. forment un seul et même système de conceptualisation et de maîtrise de l‘état de santé comme fruit du rapport au cosmos. La problématique développée s‘appuie sur le postulat selon lequel la cohérence structurelle de l‘ensemble – de son hybridité et de sa souplesse – réside dans le fait que les composantes sont liées entre elles par des rapports hiérarchiques et complémentaires. La hiérarchie, visible principalement dans l‘hégémonie du référent bouddhique, est nuancée par le fait qu‘aucune composante, y compris le bouddhisme, ne se suffit à elle même ; il y a toujours des restes qui échappent et qu‘il revient à d‘autres composantes de concevoir ou de gérer. Quant au caractère intégrateur du système, il est ici montré à travers l‘exemple de la biomédecine dont l‘intégration n‘a été rendu possible qu‘à travers de nécessaires adaptions du système lui- même. La thèse est organisée en cinq parties : la première est dédiée aux conceptions de la maladie ; la seconde partie est consacrée aux approches mises en œuvre par les villageois en vue de maintenir l‘équilibre à tous les niveaux ; les troisième et quatrième parties portent sur la diversité des thérapeutes, de leurs formations et de leurs pratiques – aussi bien en termes de prévention que de soin – et de leur statut social ; la cinquième et dernière partie est quant à elle consacrée aux itinéraires multiples et complexes des malades. Titre et résumé en anglais Masters of ―remainder‖ : the search for balance in the therapeutic conceptions and practices in Arakan (Burma) Based on the author‘s personal ethnographic research on sickness-related conceptions and practices in an Arakanese context, this thesis examines the relationship between the individual and the cosmos with particular emphasis on the plural, hybrid and integrating nature of such relationship. 7 Les maîtres du “reste” This approach, rejecting any form of categorisation, represents an innovation in the context of Burma and suggests that both Burmese and Western medicine, as well as Buddhism, astrology, spirit cult, etc. form a single system of conceptualisation and management of the state of health as a fruit of the relationship with the cosmos. The central point of this structure – its hybridity and plasticity – relies on the fact that the links between the various components are hierarchical and complementary. The hierarchy, notably the hegemony of Buddhism at various levels (conceptual, practical and of values) is counterbalanced by the fact that no component is enough to cope with all factors; there is always something missing, a remainder that other components can conceive and manage. The integrative nature of the system is showed through the example of western medicine, whose integration has produced some changes in the previous system. This thesis is structured in five parts : the first part is dedicated to sickness related conceptions, the second one to the practices the villagers rely upon in order to maintain the balance at all levels, while the third and the forth parts examine different kind of healers, their trainings, their (preventive and healing) practices and their social status; finally in the last one, health seeking behaviours of sick people are discussed. Mots clés en français et en anglais Anthropologie de la santé, Arakan, astrologie, biomédecine, bouddhisme, complémentarité, conceptions de la maladie, culte des esprits, équilibre, hybridité, hiérarchie, intégration, médecine locale, maladie, pratiques thérapeutiques, rapport individu-cosmos. Anthropology of Health, Arakan, astrology, balance, biomedicine, Buddhism, complementarity, conceptions of sickness, hybridism, hierarchy, indigenous medicine, individual-cosmos relationship, integration, medicine, sickness, spirits cult, therapeutic practices. Formation doctorale Anthropologie Laboratoire Institut de Recherche sur le Sud-Est Asiatique (IRSEA)-3, place Victor-Hugo, 13003 Marseille 8 Les maîtres du “reste” Illustration I : Carte de la Birmanie 9 Les maîtres du “reste” 10 Les maîtres du “reste” Sommaire SOMMAIRE ................................................................................................................... 11 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 13 CARREFOUR CONCEPTUEL
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