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Order the book at this link. Read it online for free at Classic Reader. Listen to a free audio version at Librivox.

How to use this study guide:

This Study Guide is designed to be used in a variety of situations by teachers, homeschool families or in a homeschool co-op or class setting. It may be used by an individual student or a group of students. It’s suitable for upper elementary and high school (as well as parents who would like to learn along with their children!). I like to read stories like this one aloud to my children, and then have everyone participate in the discussions and activities (according to their ages and abilities). We typically read 1-2 chapters per day (or listen to a quality audio version), look at and mark up the maps, visit a link or two, watch a video clip, or explore other books. Use the RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION sections for further research and fun activities. VOCABULARY WORDS: many of these are medieval terms and may not be easily found in modern dictionaries. For these, an online search with the word “medieval” in front of it will help. Example: “What is a medieval prelate?”

By the way, this is a perfect time to learn the spelling of MEDIEVAL.  Not every chapter has extensive research topics or vocabulary words. This study guide is not meant to overwhelm with frivolous content. I want every rabbit trail to be fun and to open the mind of students to more excitement and interest! INTERNET LINKS: I have worked to find links that include factual information, enticing illustrations, and family-friendly content. Each link should go to a site that your student could peruse on their own. However, I always advise parental oversight on the web. Of course, you’ll want to do some kind of costuming, eat some Saxon or Frankish foods, listen to their languages, and examine weapons and warfare. At the end of this guide, I’ve included links to additional resources that you might want to add. NOTEBOOKING: I’ve included a set of pintables at the end of this guide in case you only want to print those for hands-on use (instead of having to print the entire guide if you’re using it on a device). Use them for notebooking, lapbooks, or some other method of hands-on work. And explore the web for more maps and photos!

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HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES: Feel free to choose the activities that appeal to your students! If you have budding artists, ask them to draw some of the scenes in the story, or order some of the recommended coloring books (these are very detailed, not the preschool coloring books). If your kids love to cook, try out the recipes and skip the art work. Boys may really want to recreate the weapons and armor or set up a battle scene with Legos. Girls might want to learn embroidery and learn to stitch a historic scene or even recreate a section of the . Let their interests lead the activities and they will get the most out of this study. Please consider purchasing through my affiliate links to support my business! Check out my other Henty study guides! Please do not forward this PDF. However, I’d love it if you shared a link to my site! http://nickitruesdell.com/ If your family uses this guide, I’d love feedback! Comment on my site, email me, or post on my social media pages. I look forward to your input! Library List

If you want to get additional resources for this study, look for books about

• Saxon England • • Edward the Confessor • Westminster Abbey • The Bayeux Tapestry • The Battle of Stamford Bridge • The Battle of Hastings • Norman castles • Middle ages Specific resources

These are highly recommended, but optional. See if your library has them or if you can get good used copies. They are all useful for several of Henty’s novels on Britain during the Middle Ages. The following four are great for elementary and middle school students.

• Manners and Customs in the Middle Ages, Crabtree Publishing • Medieval Costumes: Paper Dolls by Tom Tierny • Looking at History, Book Two: The Middle Ages by R. J. Unstead

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• Draw and Write Through History: The Vikings, The Middle Ages, and the Renaissance • Castles (Usborne Beginners)

The following three are perfect for high schoolers and will be referenced in numerous Henty study guides:

• The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle • The Birth of Britain by Winston Churchill • DK History of Britain: The Definitive Visual Guide

Language Arts resources

I really like to immerse my students in a time period, so I often pair a study like this with a Language Arts program that focuses on the same time period. Two that I recommend are:

• Medieval History-Based Writing Lessons by Institute for Excellence in Writing (middle and high school) • Total Language Plus Novel studies o The Whipping Boy (grades 3 and 4)

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Setting up the Story… Wulf the Saxon: A Story of the is a fictional retelling of true events that changed the course of history for Europe and the world. The story opens in 1063 but rapidly moves ahead to 1065 when major world events stir up new trouble for Saxon England and its King, Edward.

In this story you will meet a few fictional characters, such as Wulf, Osgod, and Beorn as their lives merge with real people like King Edward the Confessor, Earl Harold Godwinson, William – Duke of Normandy, and many other well-known names. You will get a peek at the building of one of the great abbeys in England: Westminster and witness a major turning point in the history of the English-speaking people. 1. Who were the Saxons? After the Roman Empire began to crumble in the 5th century A.D., Roman rule in Britain ended abruptly. New settlers began to arrive from Germany (Saxons), Denmark (Angles), and Holland (Jutes).

They spoke Germanic languages. These languages (usually lumped together as "Old English" or "Anglo-Saxon") became dominant in most of England and southern Scotland

Read more about Anglo Saxon life at Britain Express. Young kids will enjoy this interactive activity at BBC.

2. Who were the ?

The Norman race descended from Viking raiders of the 9th century. These Vikings (or Danes) raided up and down the English coast as well as France and along the Mediterranean. Near the end of the 9th century, Vikings sailed up the Seine river and attacked Paris. In an attempt to reduce the raids and make peace for his people, the Frankish King Charles (the Simple) offered a large portion of land to the Viking leader Rollo in return for “obedience” to the Frankish king. The Vikings were known as North Men, or Norsemen. Over the years of Rollo’s reign, the word morphed to “Norman” and so the northern region of France became known as Normandy. Read more at The Normans on Etrusia.

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3. The English Throne: There were three people in line for the English throne, should anything happen to King Edward. They were Earl Harold, William – Duke of Normandy, and Edgar – a Saxon prince.

English Kings were not necessarily chosen by birth. They could be royal descendants, but where ultimately chosen by a counsel of nobles from around the country. That’s why there was so much confusion about who COULD become King upon Edward’s death.

Read more at Primary Homework Help.

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Chapter 1: A Quarrel NAMES AND PLACES

Meet Wulf: Wulf is the fictional hero of this tale. As our story opens, he is sixteen years old, and serving as a page in the house of Earl Harold. He will become a Thane of King Edward. He has inherited the estate of Steyning from his deceased father.

What is a thane? (in Anglo-Saxon England) a man who held land granted by the king or by a military nobleman, ranking between an ordinary freeman and a hereditary noble. “The Anglo-Saxon Kings had needed to raise their own armies and finances at times of external threat. Anglo-Saxon thegns, like Norman knights, gave military service in return for land that had been distributed among them by the lord.” (source)

Meet King Edward: Edward was the son of a Saxon King (Ethelred II) and a Norman mother (Emma, sister of Robert, Duke of Normandy), and was raised in Normandy. “Edward was a quiet, pious person without liking for war or much aptitude for administration. According to tradition the King was a kindly, weak, chubby albino…his main interest in life was religious, and as he grew older his outlook was increasingly that of a monk.” (- Winston Churchill)

Edward ruled mainly through his Earl, Harold, who was devoted to Figure 1: King Edward the Saxon race and lineage, allowing the King to spend his life in quite worship and study. He was a kind man and ruler and was loved by his subjects. There was an increasing tension building between the Saxons and the Normans, both in King Edward’s court and among the general populace.

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Meet Earl Harold: Harold II, also called Harold Godwineson or Harold Godwinson. He was from noble Danish and English blood and was King Edward’s successor.

What is an earl? English Earls are an Anglo-Saxon institution. Around 1014, England was divided into shires or counties, largely to defend against the Danes; each shire was led by a local great man, called an earl; the same man could be earl of several shires. When the Normans conquered England, they continued to appoint earls, but not for all counties; the administrative head of the county became the sheriff. Earldoms began as offices, with a perquisite of a share of the legal fees in the county; they Figure 2: Earl Harold gradually became honors, with a stipend of £20 a year; like most feudal offices, they were inherited, but the kings frequently asked earls to resign or exchange earldoms. Usually there were few Earls in England, and they were men of great wealth in the shire from which they held title, or an adjacent one, but it depended on circumstances. (Wikipedia)

Meet Osgod: Wulf’s friend, son of a smith, and soon to be “his man” (squire).

DISCUSSION AND RESEARCH TOPICS

The Anglo-Saxon community in England: it was basically a rural one, where primarily all classes of society lived on the land. At the top of the social system was the royal house. This consisted of the king and princes, who claimed a common ancestry with the king; they had special privileges and responsibilities which included military service and command in the field.

By the middle of the 9th century the royal family of Wessex was universally recognized as the English royal family and held a hereditary right to rule. Succession to the throne was not guaranteed as the witan, or council of leaders, had the right to choose the best successor from the members of the royal house. (Regia Anglorum)  Click this link to read more.

Fitz-names: Many Norman (and later English) names begin with Fitz, such as Fitzgerald. Fitz means “son of.”

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Westminster Abbey: “An architectural masterpiece of the 13th to 16th centuries, Westminster Abbey also presents a unique pageant of British history – the shrine of St Edward the Confessor, the tombs of kings and queens, and countless memorials to the famous and the great. It has been the setting for every Coronation since 1066 and for numerous other royal occasions, including sixteen royal weddings. Today it is still a church dedicated to regular worship and to the celebration of great events in the life of the nation.

In the 1040s King Edward (later St Edward the Confessor) established his royal palace by the banks of the river Thames on land known as Thorney Island. Close by was a small Benedictine monastery founded under the patronage of King Edgar and St Dunstan around 960 A.D. This monastery Edward chose to re-endow and greatly enlarge, building a large stone church in honor of St Peter the Apostle. This church became known as the "west minster" to distinguish it from St Paul's Cathedral (the east minster) in the City of London.” (Source)

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VOCABULARY

Look up the definitions of the following words from the story. Prelate: Varlet: Checkers: Steward: Minster: Witan:

House-carl : HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES Geography: Study the map at the beginning of this guide. Locate London, and familiarize yourself with the different Anglo-Saxon areas. Highlight London.

Costumes: Look up the clothing styles of the Anglo Saxons:

• Octavia Randolph has a nice description here • World4 has very detailed descriptions and illustrations of the Anglo- Saxon clothing pieces • Print out color or black-and-white paper dolls with Anglo Saxon costumes at Paper Thin Persons

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Fitz-names: Think of names you’ve heard that included Fitz (in history, literature, etc.) Draw Westminster Abbey: • Watch this YouTube video for a tutorial • Don’t like to draw? Watch a time-lapse YouTube video of a sketch.

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Chapter 2: Country Life

Wulf is now to learn the management of his estate and how to fight in battle. Harold, if he becomes King, will need many fighting men to protect his title. At the Inn, Wulf and his men are led to a better seat because of their nobility. NAMES AND PLACES

Danes/Norsemen: various factions of the Viking race Egbert: The steward The Prior: the monk Bramber: a village in Sussex Tostig: brother of Earl Harold, and Earl of Northumbria DISCUSSION AND RESEARCH

Medieval Inn: A place to eat and sleep. Guests ate at tables with benches, with the more important guests being given a place of honor at table on a raised platform, called a dais. In medieval times, people ate meat with daggers and fingers; forks were not invented yet. They washed their fingers in a bowl of water that was passed around (sometimes with fragrant flower petals) and dried them on a towel. Entertainment was provided after supper by a “glee singer.”

The Great Hall: an open hall for feasting and entertaining, decorated only with hunting trophies and tapestries. It also serves as makeshift inn for travelers. Visit these websites to see what a great hall looked like:

• Archaeologists unearth 1,300-year-old Anglo Saxon feasting hall • Visit the permanent Saxon reenactment site of Regia Anglorum at Wychurst • Explore the virtual village of Wichamstow at Regia Anglorum Minstrels: Wandering or paid musicians Storytellers: Singers and Bards, who composed songs and poems about great deeds and stories and entertained crowds with them Buffoons: a comedian for Medieval times; also called a jester or clown

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The art of tapestries in Saxon England – tapestries were the artwork of the day, and often depicted great tales of battles and history, woven in thread. • Read about How Medieval and Renaissance tapestries were made at Metropolitan Museum of Art. • Get this Medieval Tapestries Coloring Book from Amazon • Watch this YouTube video of how tapestries are made The sport of falconry: Falconry was a hunting sport, using falcons or hawks (called hawking) to draw the animals out of hiding so the hunter could shoot them. VOCABULARY Missals: Palfrey: Almoner: Illuminating: HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES

Bramber: Locate Bramber on a map of England (or see Wikipedia entry)

Draw a longhouse: The Saxon long house was very similar to a Viking longhouse. Follow the drawing lesson for a longhouse from Draw and Write Through History.

Draw a falcon from Draw and Write Through History (from Resource List on Page 3)

Illuminated Manuscripts: These were lavishly illustrated books, and real works of art. • Kahn Academy has a short video about these • Britannica has a very detailed article about the history and methods of illuminated manuscripts • Get this Dover coloring book of illustrated manuscripts to color

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Chapter 3: At Court

Wulf is admonished several times by Harold that he should have shown respect to the Bishop, whether the Bishop was right or wrong; he should have respected the Bishop’s authority over him. Wulf is summoned back to London and is now to be a gentleman at court. He will reside at Winchester. NAMES AND PLACES

Beorn: a young thane of a neighboring estate, and friend of Wulf Bosham: an English coastal town VOCABULARY

Wallet: Sward: Obeisance: RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION

Nobles: Check out this article at The Finer Times about the life of Medieval nobles. Gleemen: a minstrel who sang the history of their forefathers; also called a scop. Rushes on the floor: Sarah Woodbury has an explanation for what this probably meant on her website. Charcoal burners: Regia Anglorum has an extensive page devoted to this topic in Anglo Saxon and Viking ages. Watch this YouTube video of the process.

HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES

Geography: Locate and highlight Bosham and Dover on the map

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Chapter 4: A Storm

Wulf, Beorn, Earl Harold and their crew take a pleasure cruise in the sea but are caught up in a storm and crashed on the shores of Normandy (France). They are taken prisoner. They fear what William, Duke of Normandy, will do with them because he desires the throne of England. They are taken to the castle at Beaurain.

Map 1: France and Normandy NAMES AND PLACES

Count Conrad: RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION

French Hierarchy and Nobility: King • Prince – The prince was the holder of a principality (country or territory), a territorial fiefdom recognized by the King • Duke (Duc) – Holder of a Duchy (a country or territory) • Marquis – the possessor and holder of a Marquisate • Count – the holder or possessor of a County • Viscount – the holder or possessor of a viscountcy • Baron – holder or possessor of a Barronie or Barony • Lord – possessor or holder of a Lordship or Seigneurie • Gentleman – any noble (from King to untitled Squire); in France they were called Ecuyers

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Saxon ships: very much like a Viking ship

What is the Bayeux Tapestry? This famous tapestry is actually an embroidered cloth that tells the story of the Norman Invasion, similar to a comic strip. • Watch this #60SecondHistory video on YouTube • Explore the website of the Bayeux Museum

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Here, in Chapter 4, is where the Bayeux Tapestry begins its tale. You will see under each illustration the translation from the Latin, followed by a description of the story in each piece.

REX - King Edward Where Harold, duke of the English, and his soldiers ride to Bosham

It is 1064. In the Royal Palace of Westminster Edward the Confessor, King of England since 1042, is talking to his brother-in-law Harold, Earl of Wessex. After this Harold, holding a hawk, makes for the south coast with his followers and hunting dogs. They are heading for Bosham in Sussex, Harold’s family estate.

Church Here Harold crosses the sea and the sails filled by the wind land on Count Guy's lands

Harold and a companion enter the church at Bosham, to pray for a safe voyage. The night before they leave a feast is held in one of Harold's many houses - the manor house at Bosham. Harold boards his ship and sets sail. He is still carrying his hawk.

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Here Guy grabs d'Harold.

Harold’s ship is driven across the channel. From the mast a lookout spies land. It is Ponthieu, north of Normandy, the territory of the fierce Count Guy. Harold is shown twice. At the left he stands on the ship, ready to land. As soon as he climbs down, he is seized by the soldiers of Count Guy who directs operations from horseback.

HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES

Geography: Find the location of their shipwreck on a map (coast of Ponthieu) and trace their journey through France for this chapter. Tapestry: Draw your own version of the Bayeux Tapestry as you go through the story. Create each scene on an 8 ½” x 11” blank paper, taping the completed scenes to each other until you have a long illustrated history. 1. BBC has a PDF document with fun ideas for creating something similar 2. Download these coloring pages of the tapestry for $3.95 Learn embroidery! If you’d like to try to embroider like the artisans of the Bayeux Tapestry, follow this beginner tutorial at The Spruce Crafts. Draw a longship: The Saxon longship closely resembled a Viking longship. Draw the Viking longship in Draw and Write Through History.

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Chapter 5: Rouen

“My life is not my own, Harold’s rescue depends on it. We are bound as men to suffer in patience whatever may befall us.” – Wulf, when he would like to fight back against mistreatment, despite the punishment. Wulf and Beorn make their escape from the Count of Ponthieu’s castle, over the wall, and make their way to Rouen, to meet the Duke of Normandy. William is furious with the count, and immediately sends knights to release Harold. NAMES AND PLACES Rouen – the core location of the Duchy of Normandy, William’s holdings VOCABULARY Fosse: Moat: Duchy: Palfrey: Liege lord: RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION

English succession discussion – As mentioned in the intro to this study guide, King Edward has vaguely promised the throne to William of Normandy, due to his relation to him. HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES

Motte and Bailey Castles: Motte and Bailey castles typically consisted of a fortified courtyard (bailey) overlooked by a wooden castle built on a mound of earth (motte). • Click this link for instructions to build one. • Watch this YouTube video. (Hint: you may want to mute the sound; it’s an annoying song that has nothing to do with the castles.) • Draw the Medieval castle in Draw and Write Through History

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Geography: Looking at a map of France, trace the journey of Wulf and Beorn on your map. Authie river, Noyelle, not far from Abbeville, follow the Somme, St. Riguier, bank of the Somme, make east to south, thirty miles south of the Somme, the monastery at Forges, to Rouen. The Bayeux Tapestry, continued:

ET DVXIT EVM AD BELREM ET IBI EVM TENVIT - And take him to Beaurainville and keep him here VBI HAROLD ET WIDO PARABOLANT - Here Harold and Guy talk

And take him to Beaurainville and keep him here Here Harold and Guy talk

Harold, now a prisoner, is treated with respect; he rides in front, with his hawk, towards Beaurain, Guy’s capital town. Guy sits on his throne and speaks with Harold.

"Where Harold and Guy converse. Where Duke William's messengers came to Guy. Turold William's messengers. "

While Harold talks with Guy, William of Normandy prepares a rescue mission.

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Chapter 6: Release of the Earl

Wulf and Beorn accompany a young man, De Burg (son of a Baron), to his father’s house. NAMES AND PLACES

Eu: a coastal town in Normandy VOCABULARY

Missal: Caparison: RESEARCHAND DISCUSSION

“As to knights, we have not in England the titles and ceremonies which are so much thought of in France and in other courts.” – Wulf Knights and the code of chivalry originated in the French feudal system and were spread to England. Read more about it at Medieval Life and Times. Hawking: a form of hunting usually reserved to the highest classes. Read about it at Bright Hub Education. This YouTube video by Patrick Morel demonstrates a hunt with hawks (but it’s not for the squeamish!). Castellated house: A house that was built in the same style as a castle, but not in the way of a fortress. Do an internet image search and see all the beautiful castellated houses in Britain and Europe.

HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES

Geography: Locate Eu on the map.

Embroidered hangings: These were the artwork of the day, and also served to warm a room built of stone. Read about their history at The Spectator, and watch this beautiful YouTube video of a recreation of medieval embroidery.

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The Bayeux Tapestry, continued:

The next three segments continue the story in reverse order. Here, two messengers arrive from Count Guy's overlord Duke William of Normandy to demand Harold’s release. Turold may be the very short figure, or one of the two messengers. On the right, the messengers ride furiously, with their hair flying in the wind, to take a message from William to Guy.

William's men hurry to Beaurain.

This is really the first of the three scenes: news is brought to William that Guy has seized Harold. Guy obeys William’s order and takes Harold to meet him. Guy points to Harold; both men carry their hawks.

"Here the messengers came to Duke William. Here guy took Harold to William, Duke of Normandy."

William and Harold ride with soldiers to Williams’s palace at Rouen (Now William has the hawk!). William sits while Harold talk to him. The mysterious incident on the far right seems to have nothing to do with the main story, but it may have been well known in the 11th century.

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Chapter 7: The Oath

Chivalry, but recently introduced, has not yet extended to England. NAMES AND PLACES

Bretons: Almost 200 years earlier, during some of the most intense Viking raids on England, many Saxons fled their homes and relocated in France, in a portion called Brittany.

Leech: a doctor or physician

VOCABULARY

Dais: Map 2: The English Channel region Feudatory: Suzerain:

RESEARCHAND DISCUSSION

Oath on religious relics: “Any physical objects tied to famous saints or holy personages, such as body parts, bones, hair, fingernails, or even clothing worn during their lifetime, qualified as relics. In 801 and again in 813 the emperor Charlemagne revived a statute from the Council of Carthage (401) that required all altars to contain relics. The Carolingians went so far as to import relics from Italy and Spain. Pilgrimages to the tombs of saints were also encouraged. Charlemagne even suggested that important oaths were to be sworn upon relics. Not all relics were kept in churches, however. Charlemagne himself kept relics in his throne room for the occasion of oaths. There were even special decorative containers called reliquaries where these holy objects were kept for veneration on ceremonial occasions. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, nobles would swear peacekeeping oaths upon relics. Cults to the physical remains of saints did not take long to develop, an attraction that may have gone back to the practice of pre-Christian hero cults in Europe, and pictures of them were common in churches and religious manuscripts of all sorts, as illustrated in an

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English book of hours now in Oxford. For many ordinary Christians, sacred objects connected to the saints and particularly their remains were often thought to be conduits to the holy.” (Encyclopedia.com) Earl Harold knew that an oath sworn on the religious relics could not be broken, but he also knew that he could not give the throne to anyone of his own will. It must be approved by a counsel of nobles. The Bayeux Tapestry, continued…

Here Duke William comes to his palace with Harold. Where a certain clerk and Aelfgyva.

Harold accompanies William and the Norman soldiers as they set off to fight Duke Conan of Brittany. They pass Mont St. Michel, which is on the border between Normandy and Brittany. To get into Brittany they have to cross the river. They hold their shields above their heads to keep them out of the water. Some soldiers sink into quicksand and Harold rescues them - two at a time!

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Chapter 8: Trouble with Wales

Harold and his companions make it safely back to England, and immediately proceeded to a church where a service of Thanksgiving was held. It is important to see how much Christianity played a role in their lives. Life in the Middle Ages was dangerous for so many reasons, so prayer and thanksgiving to God were very natural.

ALSO READ: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle – A.D. 1063 NAMES AND PLACES

Griffin- the Welsh King Wales – a country on the far west coast of England. VOCABULARY Reeve: Sideboard: RESEARCHAND DISCUSSION

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle: From the earliest days of Britain, monks began compiling the written history of the British people. It is an invaluable source of history! Read online or order a paper copy from Amazon. At court: Life at court was very different than life as a page or on one’s estate. Wulf says, “It will all be very stupid.” Read about it here at Ducksters. Wales: Read this BBC article about Wales in the Middle Ages. Guerilla warfare: Harold instructs the men to wait until Spring and learn the fighting methods of the Welsh described in this chapter. It is a type of guerilla warfare, not the orderly battles that the English were used to. American Indians used similar tactics, as did the early minutemen (against the British) during the American Revolution. Do some research into different peoples and their guerilla fighting styles. Ringed-leather armor: see photo at right

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HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES

Geography: locate and highlight the country of Wales as well as the towns of Hereford, Gloucester, Avon, Worcester, Shrewsbury. Make your own ringed armor: There are a couple of ways to make fun costumes resembling this medieval armor. 1. Purchases a loose-knit sweater at a thrift store and spray paint it with gray and metallic spray paints. Wear it over a brown tunic. 2. Cut out pieces of non-slip shelf or rug matting (like this) and piece it together by big, loose stitches. Or, attach it to a heavy, dark brown fabric with hot glue or strong craft glue.

Figure 4: Faux chain mail (knit sweater) [source] Figure 3 source Make your own weapons: Start at this link for some research into the types of weapons carried and used by the Anglo-Saxons. English Heritage also has some great info and photos. To make your own, you will need cardboard (used boxes), duct tape (we like to get the shiny metallic kind, but any kind will do), and rulers or yardsticks for stability.

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Design your axes and swords, and then draw the outline (twice) onto long pieces of cardboard. For long weapons like swords, put a yardstick in between the two sword cutouts. Then beginning at the pointed end, wrap the duct tape around all three layers (tightly). Use rulers inside short weapons like knives and daggers. If you’re making a spear or arrow, use dowel rods for the wooden stabilizer, and cardboard for the points. The Battle Book at Warfare by Duct Tape is a great download for anyone who really gets into making weapons. Explore their website while you’re at it! And check out this incredible tutorial for making a helmet with the same materials. We made several of these and they hold up very well.

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Chapter 9: In the Welsh Valleys

“It will be a war of skirmishes, of detached fighting, of surprises, long marches, and great fatigues. Every valley in the country is to be harried with fire and sword.” PEOPLE AND PLACES

Gurth: Another brother of Earl Harold VOCABULARY Levies: Bivouacked: Fortalice: RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION

Beacons: Beacons, or fire beacons, were fires which were lit to give warning to local people of the approach of an enemy. They were sited on high hills, usually as part of a defensive signal system, or chain, stretching back from the coast to inland areas. The signal was given by smoke during the day and light by night. Upon seeing the signal, men from the countryside round about would gather together and march to defend whichever coastal landing place was threatened. Download this free PDF booklet from the City of Devon, “Fire Beacons: Warning Signals Across the Countryside.” (Source) “Place-names with elements such as Old English weard and *tōt(e), denoting watchmen or lookout places, are widespread throughout southern England, but can be identified across the country.” Read about a modern experiment with Anglo-Saxon beacons at University College London. If you’ve ever watched The Return of the King, you may remember the light of the beacons of Gondor. Watch it here.

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Chapter 10 - Porthwyn

PEOPLE AND PLACES

Porthwyn castle: the fortress of the Welsh prince Llewellyn ap Rhys VOCABULARY Reconnoiter: RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION

Porthwyn castle: Wikipedia lists a Llywelyn ap Gruffudd ap Rhys (Llywelyn of the Woods [English]) as the nobleman of a Welsh castle, although he lived in the 14th century. It is probably that Henty borrowed the names from another time for this story.

Chapter 11 – The Secret Passage

The defense of Porthwyn castle continues with the Welsh outside the walls, and Wulf and his men waiting inside for the battle to begin. VOCABULARY medicaments: lief: imps:

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Chapter 12 – Edith

“Always remember, Wulf, that though success may be envied, those who are successful may yet be liked if only they themselves do not seem conscious of success.” – Earl Harold After the success in Wales, a new conflict arises in the north of England. PEOPLE AND PLACES

Northumbria: A Saxon kingdom in the north of England, bordering Scotland. Humber: In the Anglo-Saxon period, the Humber was a major boundary, separating Northumbria from the southern kingdom (see Map 4) Edwin: the Earl of Mercia Morcar: the Earl of Northumbria (after Tostig was rejected)

Edith (Swan-neck): Harold’s wife of inferior birth. Map 3: The Mouth of the Humber (Wikipedia) Because she is not of royal blood, she knows that Harold may be called upon to marry a royal in order to align two powerful kingdoms. OCABULARY Fete: Cudgel: Gemot: Cognizance: Witanagemot: RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION

Quarreling: in this story, a quarrel appears the same as a duel, where two men would fight with swords (or later, pistols) to settle a dispute. “Gall and wormwood” This phrase is explained by Idioms/thefreedictionary.com - Strong feelings of bitterness and resentment. ("Gall" is bile and "wormwood" is a bitter plant.)

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Royal marriages: Throughout the middle ages and even in early modern Europe, royal marriages were arranged and were predominantly for political gain. The children and siblings of Kings and Queens rarely had any choice or voice in their marriage partner. Aligning kingdoms was far more important than romantic love. The Washington Post highlights many such marriages from British history. Watch this interesting video of how Queen Victoria (hundreds of years later) would impact world events through the strategic marriages of her children and grandchildren. Houses of Godwin and Leofric:

HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES

Locate Northumbria and Mercia again on Map 1, and see how the alignment of these two countries against Wessex could cause a civil war. The King essentially lost control of his armies, who refused to attack their fellow Englishmen in Northumbria and Mercia, and fell ill and into “fits of passion,” had to turn over temporary rule of the kingdom to Earl Harold. Harold gave the Northern countries what they wished for, and reconciled England.

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Chapter 13 – Harold, the King

Edith is prepared to give up her marriage to Earl Harold in order to unite England again by his marriage to Edwin’s sister. But Harold loves her too much, and is willing to give up the future throne of England to Edwin… NAMES AND PLACES

Ealdgyth: Sister of Edwin and Morcar, the earls of Northumbria and Mercia Canute: A Danish king of England from 1016-1035. It’s a complicated tale! Read about it Brittanica.com. Flanders: a Medieval region of what is now Belgium

Oethelings (or Ætheling): an Old English term (æþeling) used in Anglo-Saxon England to designate princes of the royal dynasty who were eligible for the kingship. Interestingly, the Æthel root is an Old English word meaning "noble". RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION:

Harold proposes marriage to Ealdgyth, sister of the Mercian kings. (Keep in mind that he was given William of Normandy’s sister earlier in the story.) “It was to Harold that all eyes turned (on news of the King’s illness). He had for years exercised at least joint authority with Edward; he was the foremost and most noble of Englishmen. He was silled in war, and wise in counsel and the charm of his manner, the strength of his figure, and the singular beauty of his face rendered him the popular idol.”

Westminster was consecrated on December 18. The Abbey, which was King Edward’s dream, became his tomb.

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Just before his death the King told of his prophetic dream: “within a year and a day of his death fiends should stalk through the whole land and should harry it from one end to another with fire and sword.” On the same day, King Edward is buried, and King Harold is coronated at Westminster Abbey.

Saint Edward the Confessor: A confessor is a saint who suffers for his faith but is one step short of martyrdom. Edward suffered for his faith by resisting the temptations of the world. He lived off the income of his own lands and reached out to the poor. He was made a saint in 1161 and his body was translated to a shrine at Westminster Abbey in 1163. (BBC)

Figure 5: The Shrine of Edward the Confessor at Westminster Abbey

“To thee, Harold, my brother, I commit my kingdom.” Since that day, each English monarch has been crowned in the very same place. Watch the coronation of Queen Elizabeth, England’s current monarch, in 1953. Notice that she is seated in King Edward’s chair. You can read a detailed explanation of the crowning of the British monarchs here. Notice similarities to Queen Elizabeth’s coronation in the Bayeux Tapestry illustrations of King Harold’s coronation.

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The Bayeux Tapestry, continued…

KING EDWARD IN BED ADDRESSES HIS LOYAL FRIENDS. AND HERE HE IS DEAD.

Edward died on the 5th January 1066. The Tapestry reverses the scenes of his death and his burial. Here we see his funeral procession to Westminster Abbey, his great new Church. Edward had been too ill to attend its consecration on 28th December 1065. In the upper chamber King Edward is in his bed talking to his faithful followers, including Harold and Queen Edith - below he is shown dead with a priest in attendance. Two noblemen offer Harold the crown and axe, symbols of royal authority, that will make him King. He accepts the offer.

HERE SITS HAROLD AS KING OF THE ENGLISH. THESE MEN WONDER AT THE STAR HAROLD

THEY HAVE GIVEN HAROLD THE ROYAL CROWN. Harold is crowned King of England on 6th January 1066 - Edward’s funeral was that very morning. The new king sits on a throne with nobles to the left and Archbishop Stigand to the right. At the far side people cheer him. On the right Halley's comet appears; people think it is an evil omen and are terrified. News of the comet is brought to Harold; beneath him a ghostly fleet of ships appears in the lower border- a hint of the Norman invasion to come.

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Halley’s Comet

Even though Wulf the Saxon does not mention the comet, it’s important to note here: Signs in the heavens were very important to people of the Middle Ages. They usually felt that it signaled some sort of doom. In this case, the tapestry confirms this belief; the comet signaled the fall of the Saxon line of kings and the impending Norman invasion. Read more about this comet at Space.com, and also watch this YouTube video.

AN ENGLISH SHIP HAS COME INTO DUKE WILLIAM'S LAND

News of Edward's death and Harold’s coronation is carried across the channel to William, Duke of Normandy. William is furious - he claimed that the throne of England should be his and saw Harold as a usurper. William decides to attack England and organizes a fleet of warships. To his left sits Bishop Odo of Bayeux, his half-brother, making his first appearance in the tapestry.

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Chapter 14: Wulf’s Suspicions

King Harold is summoned by William of Normandy to fulfill his promises, but of course, Harold cannot. Instead, Harold prepares for invasion, while Wulf accompanies Harold’s men to Normandy to counsel with William (and to gather information, if possible). Harold’s men give William a straightforward answer that he can not do as William demands. Back in London, Wulf is suspicious to see Walter Fitz-Urse again, so he sets a spy to watch him.

Chapter 15 – A Meeting by the River

Ulf watches Walter Fizt-Urse, and does witness one secret meeting, but cannot understand what the men are saying. He enlists the help of his boss, who also brings in Beorn.

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Ch 16 – A Voyage North

Ulred and Ulf take a boat to the north to follow the Norman ship, while Beorn rides north on horseback. King Harold has married his new wife. RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION: The tides and sands affected ship’s ability to move out of the Thames. Watch this quick YouTube video about how tides work. HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES: GEOGRAPHY: Follow the ship’s course, and Ulred’s, on the map -Greenwich, Foulness, Wallet, Essex, Sheerness, Harwich, the Humber River, Hull, Selby, and York. (You may need to consult a modern map of England for some of these locations.)

Ch 17 – An Attempt at Assassination

Walter Fitz-Urse and his men attempt the assassination, and Wulf is terribly wounded. VOCABULARY: Score: Mummers: Caitiffs: HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES: GEOGRAPHY: Follow the journey from York back to London on the map via Nottingham.

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Ch 18 – The Northern Invasion

It’s now a double danger from both the Danes (Vikings) and the Normans. England is betrayed by Tostig (King Harold’s brother) and pledges his help and allegiance to William. While King Harold prepares to defend the southern border of England against a Norman invasion, the disgruntled Tostig prepares to invade Northumbria. Wulf meets with Edith, the former queen. NAMES AND PLACES:

King Malcom: King of Scotland Harold Hardrada: King of Norway RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION:

Excommunicated, bull of excommunication, Papal bull: • Bull, papal, in Roman Catholicism, an official papal letter or document. The name is derived from the lead seal (bulla) traditionally affixed to such documents. (Brittanica) • Excommunication is the action of officially excluding someone from participation in the sacraments and services of the Christian Church. “On the continent:” the Continent, known to the English, was the mainland of Europe HANDS-ON ACTIVTIES:

Geography: Locate Scotland and Norway on a globe or map of Europe. Locate the Isle of Wight.

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Ch 19 – Stamford Bridge

King Harold has Norsemen attacking Northern England and the Normans on the way to attack Southern England. But since William and the Normans are delayed, he marches north to fight the Norsemen. RESEARCH AND DISCUSSION:

Geography: Locate Stamford Bridge in Northumbria. Watch this YouTube video for a great visual of the battle of Stamford Bridge. This battled effectively ended the Viking Age in England. But while the English soldiers under Harold are still recovering from the battle, word comes that the Norman invasion has begun…

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Chapter 20 – The Landing of the Foe

After soundly defeating the Norsemen for the last time, Harold and his soldiers are feeling victorious. But now they must rush south and face Duke William and his Norman soldiers. Many of his soldiers are wounded or scattered, so he fears he must fight with a smaller army than he desires… NAMES AND PLACES: Pevensey, Hastings: English coastal towns on the English Channel Waltham: a village north of London Saxon Chroniclers: Monks who took responsibility for keeping a written history of the Saxon people. VOCABULARY: Cavalry: Infantry: HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES: Geography: Trace Harold’s path from London to Hastings.

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The Bayeux Tapestry, continued…

HERE DUKE WILLIAM HAS ORDERED THE BUILDING OF SHIPS William's men prepare for the invasion. Woodmen fell trees and shape them into planks. The planks are used for building boats which men drag down to the sea.

Food and drink are taken to the boats. So are weapons: coats of chain mail, helmets, swords and lances.

HERE THE SHIPS ARE BEING DRAGGED TO THE SEA William leads his army to the boats; they embark and set sail.

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HERE DUKE WILLIAM IN A GREAT SHIP HAS CROSSED THE SEA

The sea is crowded with ships, full of soldiers and horses. William sails in the ship, Mora, bought for him by his wife Matilda.

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Chapter 21: Hastings

A historic, decisive battle is about to take place, one which will forever be remembered by Englishmen…

VOCABULARY:

Chivalry: (in military terms)

HANDS-ON ACTIVITIES:

Watch this YouTube reenactment of the Battle of Hastings. Younger students might enjoy this funny Lego stop-motion version of the battle. Though he fought valiantly with his two brothers by his side, King Harold was pierced in the eye with an arrow and died immediately. Notice the bravery of his men as they stand guard to protect his body from the Normans and strive to keep the royal banners flying. The standard: Why was it necessary to keep the banners flying? The banner, or flag, of the troop served many purposes. One was to identify where troops could be found in a large battle with thousands of soldiers. Another was to inspire; soldiers who could see their flag flying knew that the battle was not lost. Britannica states: Of the main types, the standard was the largest and was intended, from its size, to be stationary. It marked the position of an important individual before a battle, during a siege, throughout a ceremony, or at a tournament. For the monarch it marked the palace, castle, saluting base, tent, or ship where he or she was actually present. Standards were also used at first by the greater nobles, whose personal insignia they bore. They were originally long and tapering toward the fly, ending in two points. Banners were square or oblong and were borne in action (as the standard was not) before royal and noble warriors down to the rank of knight banneret. Those again bore the personal or family device. Have you ever played “Capture the Flag?” “Believe it or not, Capture the Flag originated on the battlefield of some of the most deadly wars in history. In fact, that was exactly how all the soldiers knew when a battle was over – once the

WULF THE SAXON STUDY GUIDE 44 | P a g e enemy’s flag was captured, both sides considered the skirmish settled.” Read all about the game (and the rules) at KidZone. Also, read about the flags represented in the Bayeux Tapestry here. Check out this map of the conquest. Identifying the King’s body: After the battle, no one can find the body of the King because of the terrible mutilation of battle. But Edith knows of a mark on his body that will identify him. Because of this, they are able to recover his body and give him a burial by the sea. “The dead king’s naked body, wrapped only in a robe of purple, was hidden among the rocks of the bay. His mother in vain offered the weight of the body in gold for permission to bury him in holy ground. The Norman Duke’s answer was that Harold would be more fittingly laid upon the Saxon shore which he had given his life to defend. The body was later transferred to Waltham Abbey, which he had founded. Although here the English once again accepted conquest and bowed in a new destiny, yet ever must the name of Harold be honored in the Island for which he and his famous house-carls fought indomitably to the end.” – William Churchill The death of Harold and both of his brothers left no room for confusion about the new King of England… The Bayeux Tapestry, continued…

HAS CROSSED THE SEA AND COME TO PEVENSEY AND HERE THE SOLDIERS HAVE SPED TO HASTINGS TO SEIZE FOOD They reach the south coast of England on the 28th September and land at Pevensey. Soldiers ride off towards Hastings and gather food.

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HERE IS WADARDHERE MEAT IS BEING COOKED ATTENDANTS HAVE SERVED IT

A feast is prepared in the open air - chickens on skewers, a stew cooked over an open fire and food from an outdoor oven. William sits down to a feast with his nobles and Bishop Odo says grace. Servants load food onto shields to carry it to the banquet. Wadard (mounted on the left of the panel) was a follower of Bishop Odo.

THEY HAVE PREPARED A MEAL. BISHOP BLESSES THE FOOD AND DRINK | BISHOP ODO, WILLIAM, ROBERT | THIS MAN HAS ORDERED A DITCH DUG AND CASTLE AT HASTINGS | HERE A HOUSE IS BURNED

Duke William appears in discussion with his half-brothers Odo and Robert, Count of Mortain. A motte, a type of castle, is built to strengthen the Norman invaders' base at Hastings. A messenger brings William news of Harold and his army. On the right a woman and her child flee from a burning house.

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HERE THE SOLDIERS HAVE GONE OUT FROM HASTINGS

On the morning of the battle, 14th October 1066, William, in full armor, is about to mount his horse. William’s Norman cavalry gallops off to face Harold’s English soldiers.

AND COME TO BATTLE AGAINST KING HAROLD William is shown twice: first on a dark horse at the head of his troops; then immediately to the right asking Vital (one of Odo’s followers) if the enemy has been seen yet.

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THIS MAN INFORMS KING HAROLD ABOUT DUKE WILLIAM'S ARMY The scene changes to the English side. A look-out warns Harold that the Norman army is approaching. Back on the Norman side: William, mace in hand, gives a speech to encourage his soldiers.

HERE DUKE WILLIAM EXHORTS HIS SOLDIERS TO PREPARE THEMSELVES BRAVELY AND WISELY FOR BATTLE AGAINST THE ENGLISH ARMY

The Normans charge and the Battle of Hastings has begun.

As the air fills with arrows and lances, men lie dying. The English soldiers, who are all on foot, protect themselves with a wall of shields. The Normans attack from both sides. The lower border of the tapestry is filled with dead and injured soldiers.

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HERE LEOFWINE AND GYRTH HAVE FALLEN, THE BROTHERS OF KING HAROLD

The violence continues as men hack and spear each other to death. Harold’s brothers both die fighting.

HERE THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH HAVE FALLEN TOGETHER IN BATTLE HERE BISHOP ODO, HOLDING A MACE, URGES ON THE YOUNG MEN

The battle rages on; men and horses crash to the ground; the lower border is strewn with slaughtered troops and animals. Bishop Odo appears in the thick of the fighting waving a club and encouraging his followers. Odo uses a club rather than a sword as bishops were not supposed to shed blood.

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HERE IS DUKE WILLIAM HERE THE FRENCH ARE FIGHTING

After a fall from his horse, William raises his helmet to reveal his face. This shows his troops that he is still alive and encourages them to continue fighting. Count Eustace carries an elaborate banner, which may be the one given by the Pope to show his support for William’s invasion of England.

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AND THOSE WHO WERE WITH HAROLD HAVE FALLEN HERE KING HAROLD HAS BEEN KILLED

The Normans seem to be getting the upper hand as the battle continues. Many more soldiers die, one appears to be having his head cut off. On the right is the best known scene in the Tapestry: the Normans killing King Harold. But how is Harold killed? He seems to be shown twice: first plucking an arrow from his eye, and then being hacked down by a Norman knight. The tapestry is difficult to interpret here, but the second figure is probably Harold being killed.

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AND THE ENGLISH HAVE TURNED IN FLIGHT

With Harold dead, the battle is over. The victorious Normans chase the remaining English from the battlefield. The final scene from the tapestry has been lost. It may have shown William being crowned King of England. This would match the scene at the very beginning of the tapestry which shows King Edward, secure on the throne just two years earlier.

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Chapter 22: The Lord of Bramber

“It is hard that Englishmen should be ruled by a foreigner, but it is no new thing for us. We Saxons conquered the Britons, and in turn Danish kings have ruled over us; but Saxon and Dane have become almost one, and the old grudges have died out. Maybe in time you Normans also may become English.” ALSO READ Chapter 10: William the Conqueror in The Birth of Britain by William Churchill (high school students) NAMES AND PLACES: Senlac: VOCABULARY: Lists: Seneschal: HANDS-ON ACTIVTIES:

Very soon, William marches town by town, receiving the submission of the people or ravishing the countryside. London finally submitted and gave the crown to William on Christmas Day, 1066. History remembers him as William the Conqueror. In just one battle he was able to conquer England and become its King. The second to last paragraph of the book briefly mentions “the storm of war that had swept over the north of England, and the terrible vengeance taken by William there.” The kingdoms north of the Humber river had remained under the control of the Saxons, Edwin and Morcar. William unleashed a cruel desolation of this countryside as he conquered the villages and valleys one by one. By 1070, the entire region was under Norman control. Bramber Castle: Read more about the history of the real Bramber Castle here and its location here.

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Conclusion

The story of Wulf ends here, but the story of England goes on in dramatic ways. As you can see, Wulf (and many like him) accepted their new king and lived comfortably. But others resisted the Norman rule and all things related to it, including the many changes that came to England. This Norman-Saxon feud went on for quite some time (have you read Robin Hood?). It was a bitter struggle. The Chronicle states, “Normans built castles…oppressing…people, and things went… from bad to worse.” William ordered castles built in strategic places all throughout England and filled it with his Norman army to keep the resistance at bay. He systematically replaced Anglo-Saxon landholders (nobles) with Frenchmen and did the same with the bishops. The English church was reformed under William. Churchill states that this new dynasty linked the British island with Europe. It also ushered in the Feudal system of rank, identical to that of France. William’s reign was not a peaceful one, and he spent a large amount of time actually residing in Normandy. King William ordered an enquiry of the whole of England to assess his holdings. He sent commissioners to every corner of the country to interview every landholder about their property, down to the last plow and pig. It was an enormous task and is still in print today. It’s called the . You can order a paperback copy for yourself if you’re interested. For anyone with British ancestry, it’s helpful in tracing family lineage. Extension activities:

Hold a medieval feast! I love to round out a study like this with a period feast. The food is simple: meats, vegetables, and breads. It can be as simple as a rotisserie chicken or a beef roast in the slow cooker, with a pile of vegetables and crusty breads. Serve with sparkling grape juice for wine. Oh, and don’t use forks! They weren’t invented yet. If you’d like to get more detailed in the kitchen, check out this downloadable cookbook of Saxon recipes. And try some of the Norman recipes at this cool history cookbook site. Add the Cursive copywork p. 43 of Draw and Write Through History to your projects.

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Explore this interactive site to see what happened in England after the Norman invasion. Note: The term English tends to be used (more-or-less) for the period after the Norman conquest (1066), when England became a single political unit. The English were a mixture of Anglo-Saxons, Celts, Danes, and Normans. Anglo- Saxon gradually merged with Norman French to become a language called "Middle English" (Chaucer, etc.), and that evolved into modern English.

Westminster Abbey conclusion: Unfortunately, when the new church was consecrated on 28 December 1065 the King was too ill to attend and died a few days later. His mortal remains were entombed in front of the High Altar. The only traces of Edward's monastery to be seen today are in the round arches and massive supporting columns of the undercroft and the Pyx Chamber in the cloisters. The undercroft was originally part of the domestic quarters of the monks. Among the most significant ceremonies that occurred in the Abbey at this period was the coronation of William the Conqueror on Christmas day 1066, and the "translation" or moving of King Edward's body to a new tomb a few years after his canonization in 1161.” (Source)

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PRINTABLES: Use these pages to print just the consumables. These are perfect for lapbooking, notebooking, or any other method of keeping up with hands-on work.

Printable 1 St. Edward the Confessor Printable 2 Harold Godwinson

Printable 4 A Motte and Bailey castle

Printable 3 Current Day Westminster Abbey

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Printable 5 Saxon social order

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Printable 6 Saint Edward the Confessor

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Printable 7 England 1066

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Printable 8 France and Europe

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