TROPICS Vol. 15 (3) Issued June 30, 2006

Inland water resources and limnology in

SULASTRI Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Bogor, Indonesia. Telephone: 6221−8757071; Facsimile; 6221−8757076; Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Indonesia has a vast area of extent of inland waters in Indonesia, the have inland waters, consisting mainly of lakes, not been studied entirely. Many inland waters Reservoirs, rivers and swamps. There are have been researched, however data has not an estimated 14 million ha of inland waters, been compiled to allow to the construction consisting of 220 significant rivers, 50 big of an environmental information system, lakes and reservoirs, all over the country. which is crucial to balance development and The high population density and rapid conservation of inland water resources. development in all sectors has raised a lot of environmental issues, including those inland Key words: inland water, limnology, status, waters. The increasing demand for space, potential resources, problems, Indonesia. food, water and industrial products, forces Indonesia to its utilization of inland waters. The utilization of inland water resources INTRODUCTION creates some problems, such as water Indonesia is a vast archipelagic country with a total 2 pollution, siltation, eutrophication and the area of approximately 5 million km . It consist of more spreading of aquatic weeds and decreasing than 17,000 island, with a total line of 80,000 km. The 2 of indigenous species. Limnological on largest island is Kalimantan with an area of 547981 km Indonesia is still limited. Due to the large (Sugiharto and Poulin 1980 in Nontji, 1989).

Table 1. Area, population density (1995) and population growth rate (1980−1995) of the main island of Indonesia (source: Statistical Yearbook of Indonesia, 1996). Island/ Area Population Population Population Province density Growth rate 2 −2 (km ) (%) (x 1000) (%) (km ) (%) 482,363 24.90 32,763 20.96 85 2.57 & Madura 127,499 6.54 144,734 58.91 900 1.13 Bali 5,633 0.29 2,896 1.49 514 0.83 Nusa Tengggara Barat (NTB) 20,153 1.04 3,646 1.87 181 1.59 Nusa Tenggara Timur (NTT) 47,349 2.44 3,577 1.87 76 1.82 Timor Timur 14,606 0.75 840 0.43 57 2.35 Kalimantan 547,891 20.28 10,470 5.38 11 2.99 Sulawesi 191,800 9.90 13,732 7.05 72 2.18 Irian Jaya & Maluku 499,852 25.8 4,030 2.07 8 2.84 Total/average 1,937,179 100 194,755 100 101 1.9 Year 1997: estimated population 200 million; growth rate 1.7 %. 286 SULASTRI

The inland water area is estimated Table 2. Area of open water in Indonesia (source: Directorate at 14 million ha, consisting mainly of General of Fisheries, 1981 in Nontji, 1989) Natural and man- Rivers, swamps, lakes, reservoirs and swamps. They Island Total (ha) made lakes (ha) peatland etc. have multifunctions: water supply, Sumatra 919,800 3,134,000 4,053,480 transportation, energy, fisheries and tourism. Indonesia is a big country with Java 23,780 72,590 96,730 population estimated of 194 ha in 1995 Kalimantan 637,410 8,391,530 9,028,940 and average population density of 101 Sulawesi 154,660 337,520 492,180 people km−2. The population however, Bali 2,450 460 2,910 is not evenly distributed; about 60% of Nusa Tenggara 2,680 11,860 14,540 total population lives in Java. On the Maluku & Irian Jaya 63,300 − 63,300 other hand in other islands like Irian Total 1,804,080 11,947,000 13,571,080 Jaya and Maluku, the population is still sparse with a density of only 8 people −2 Tabel 3. Number of lakes and reservoirs in Indonesia divided by km (Table 1). In Kalimantan, the area (source, Uchida,1997) population density is 11 people km−2 and 2 2 Lokacation Lake (km ) Reservoir (km ) the population is 10,470 million, or 5.38% >10 10< Total >2 2< Total of the total population. Compared to its Sumatra 7 11 18 (15.1%) 0 3 3 (7.7%) land area, Kalimantan has open spaces for development of many sectors such as Java 0 23 23 (19.3%) 23 10 33 (84.6%) industry, agriculture, or settlement, since Kalimantan 13 22 35 (29.4%) 1 0 1 (2.6%) Kalimantan is rich in natural resources Sulawesi 9 5 14 (11.8%) 0 0 0 (0.0%) and is fertile. Bali 1 3 4 (3.4%) 1 0 1 (2.6%) The increase of agriculture and Nusa Tenggara 0 0 0 (0.0%) 1 0 1 (2.6%) industrial development, as well a growing Irian Jaya 16 24 24 (20.2%) 0 0 0 (0.0%) urbanization, cause a lot of problems, East Timor 1 1 1 (0.8%) 0 0 0 (0.0%) especially for the environment. Problems Total 48 72 119 (100%) 25 13 39 (100%) for water includes eutrophication, siltation and pollution. Over-exploitation of inland water of inland water resources damages Uchida (1997) has compiled a list of several natural fisheries and decreases indigeneous species lakes and reservoirs from several references and maps. This paper aims to review inland water resources, He divided the water bodies into two categories: larger their use and associated problems and limnological than 10 km2 (major lake) and smaller than 10 km2. The research activities in Indonesia. same was also done for reservoirs: more than 2 km2 (major reservoir) and less than 2 km2 (Table 3). There are 119 lakes and 39 reservoirs in Indonesia mainly STATUS OF THE INLAND WATERS distributed in Kalimantan, Sumatera, Sulawesi and Java IN INDONESIA and Irian Jaya. The large-scale lakes are distributed in Lakes. Kalimantan and Irian Jaya, while lakes larger than 10 Since a great number of natural lakes are distributed km2 are not in Java. However approximately 65 % of the in Indonesia, many lake have not yet been inventoried reservoirs are in Java (Table 3). and completely investigated. Silvius et al. (1986) made a Some major lakes in Indonesia have been surveyed, preliminary inventory of exiting information on wetlands however many more are practically unknown, particularly (including lake) in Indonesia. In this inventory, 189 sites some major lakes in Irian Jaya. A list of major lakes are described with the aim of providing basic information and their surface area , maximum depth and elevation for developing nature conservation strategies. Lake is presented in Table 4. The largest lake is Lake Toba however, have not been included in it. The total area of (122,970 ha) in Sumatra, with a maximum depth of 450 Indonesian lake has been estimated by the Directorate m. The second largest is Lake Towuti (56,108 ha) in General of Fisheries (1981) in Nontji (1989) of 1.8 million Sulawesi. With a maximum depth of 203 m. While the ha (Table 2). deepest lake in Indonesia is Lake Matano (540 m), also in Inland Water Resources and Limnology in Indonesia 287

Tabel 4. The major lakes in Indonesia. Province Lake Max area Max Depth Elevation Type Source (ha) (m) (m) /Sumatra 1. Laut Tawar 7,000 80 1,100 Tectonic A 2. Toba 122,970 450 905 Tecto-vulcanic E 3. Maninjau 9,373 165 461.5 Tecto-vulcanic H 4. Singkarak 10,780 268 362 Tectonic E 5. Dibawah 1,200 80 800 Caldera E 6. Dibawah 1,200 44 1,531 Caldera E 7. Kerinci 5,200 110 783 Caldera E 8. Ranau 12,813 221 538.5 Tecto-vulcanic C West Kalimantan 9. Sentarum 80,000 8 35 Floodplain B East Kalimantan 10. Semayang 13,000 0.4−3.0 − Floodplain F 11. Jempang 15,000 − − Floodplain F 12. Melintang 10,000 0.4−3.0 − Floodplain F Central Kalimantan 13. Sembuluh 7,500 5 30 Low land B South Kalimantan 14. Panggang <1000 2.0−3.2 − Floodplain B 15. Sembujur <1000 1.8−2.4 − Floodplain B 16. Bangkau <1000 − − Floodplain B North Sulawesi 17. Tondano 5,000 20 600 − D 18. Limboto 5,600 2,5 25 − D Central Sulawesi 19. Poso 323,200 450 500 Tectonic D South Sulawesi 20. Lindu 3,200 100 1,000 Tectonic D 21. Matano 16,408 590 382 Tectonic D 22. Mahalona 2,440 73 310 Tectonic D 23. Towuti 56,108 203 293 Tectonic D 24. Tempe 35,000 2 5 Low land D Bali 25. Batur 1,590 88 1,031 Caldera E Irian jaya 27. Ayamaru 2,200 − − − 28. Anggi 2,000 − − − 29. Yamur 37,200 − − − 30. Tigi 3,000 − − − 31. Paniai 30,000 − 4000 − 32. Sentani 96,300 52 72 G Source: A: Saanin (1986); B: Silvius et al.(1986); C: Harsono &Wibowo (2002) D. Whiten E: Ruttner (1930); F: Lukman & Gunawan (1987). G: Sulastri & Sulawesty (1996). H: Sulastri et al, (2001).

Sulawesi. The bottom of this lake is actually 208 m below small typical crater lakes found in around Lamongan sea level. Mountain, . In Sulawesi, lakes are grouped into Most natural lakes were formed by volcanic or three major types: tectonic, volcanic and flood lakes. tectonic forces or a combination of both, or river action. Lake Tondano was formed as result of volcanic activity. In Sumatera, the majority of the lakes are volcanic. Mahalona, Matano and Poso were formed on flooded rift Lake Maninjau, Diatas, Dibawah, Kerinci and Ranau valley. Tempe, and Limboto are flood lakes. Most lake in are volcanic while Lake Laut Tawar and Singkarak Kalimantan were formed by river action. are tectonic. Lake Toba is both volcanic and tectonic There are three large floodplain system: the (Uchida, 1997). Caldera lakes are found in Bali, such as in West Kalimantan, the Lake Batur, Bratan, Buyan and Tamblingan. Java has no in East Kalimantan, The Barito and Niagara Rivers natural lake larger than 10 km2. However there are many in South Kalimantan. Lake Sentarum is a part of this 288 SULASTRI ) , 2000 1996 , 38 . 21 202 0065 8 99 751 467 211 944 314 ...... , Sembuluh 3 1 29 0 4 4 0 − 1 1 0 − 2 Tabellaria, Navicula, Rhizosolenia 1995 1997 Sulastri & Hrtoto ( 1 003 . . 0 49 . . ) − 0 − 28 − 8 − 119 5 − 10 . 0 93 001 94 160 . . . . . 1992 Poso 450 9 27 117 − 7 0 nd 0 0 − − 121 Staurastrum limneticum 1991 Okino & Sihotang ( ) ) 1992 1997 Tondano 20 2 . 3 25 . 8 − 26 1 218 − 228 − 8 . 0 − 5 0 . 07 − 10 0 . 11 − 014 0 . 50 0 . 380 − − 26 , 025 Anabaena sp. Synedra ulna, Melosira 1991 Okino & Sihotang ( Uchida ( ) 1995 Mahalona 60 8 . 0 28 . 0 − 31 7 − 4 . 1 − 8 0 7 . 6 − 8 − − − − − − 116 Peridinium, Staurastrum 1994 Sulastri ( ) ) 1992 1995 Towuti 240 22 . 25 . 4 − 27 9 149 − 155 7 . 2 − 9 8 7 . 6 − 8 0 0 . − 323 0 . − 018 − − 39 − 40 292 Chroococccus, Staurastrum 1992 , 1994 Okino et al ( Sulastri ( ) 1992 Matano 590 22 . 19 26 . 4 − 30 1 182 − 186 0 . 5 − 8 7 . 0 − 8 6 0 . − 05 0 . − 006 − − − 34 − 50 468 Peridinium, Staurastrum 1992 Okino et al ( ) , 1996 Kerinci 110 − 24 . 6 − 26 7 52 − 149 1 . 2 − 7 6 8 . 2 − 6 − − − − 65 , 184 Synedra sp 1995 , 1996 Hartoto& Sulawsty 1996 Sulawesty ( ) 1996 Ranau 221 8 . 0 25 . 4 − 27 8 235 − 265 1 . 8 − 9 0 6 . 7 − 8 2 0 . 041 − 348 − 1 . 125 − 3 , 103 0 . 221 − 700 0 . − 660 324 − 3119 5 , 150 Synedra ulna 1995 Sulastri ( ) 1993 Singkarak 268 − 28 . 4 − 26 1 − 7 . 2 7 . 3 − 8 5 0 . 060 − 090 − 0 . 340 − 847 0 . 034 − 091 − − − − 1993 Boer ( ) 1997 Toba 529 14 . 5 − − 8 . 1 − 0 . 04 0 . 010 0 . 33 0 . 920 − 0 − Microcystis sp Uchida ( ) ) − 1 ) ) ) − 1 − 1 ) − 1 − 1 − 1 ) − 1 ) − 1 (mg l (mg l 3 3 ) (mg l 4 − 1 Parameter Max depth (m) Transparency (m) temperature Water ( ̊ C) Conductivity (µS cm DO (mg l pH N-NO P-PO N (mg l Total P (mg l Total N-NH Chlorophyll-a (µg l Phytoplankton density (ind. L Dominant species observationYears Reference Table 5 . Physical, chemical and biological characteristic of several I ndonesia natural lakes Inland Water Resources and Limnology in Indonesia 289 floodplain and consist of interconnecting shallow lakes volcanic, deep lakes are oligotrophic, such as Lake and inundated forests, located at the upper Kapuas Matano, Towuti and Mahalona. Eutrophic Lake are Lake River basin. During the wet season the Kapuas Lake Tempe, Kerinci, Tondano, Semayang and Melintang system is a complex of interconnecting waterways and and other shallow lakes. Most Eutrophic lakes have an flooded forests (MackKinnon et al, 1996). It has been excessive growth of aquatic weeds and a high density of reported there are 83 lakes, with a total area of 27,500 phytoplankton. Distropphic lakes are found in Central ha, which are classified in to four groups, according to Kalimantan and Mesotrophic lakes, such as Lake Ranau their surface area: < 100 ha (31 lakes), 100−500 ha (31), in South Sumatera. The physical, chemical and biological 500−1,000 ha (7) and >1000, (7) (Giesen, 1987). In the features of the lakes are presented in Table 5. Central Negara river basin, lie three lakes, Danau (lake) Panggang, Danau Sembujur and Danau Bangkau. Lake Reservoirs Semayang, Melintang and Jempang are major lakes in Many reservoirs were built in Indonesia to meet the East Kalimantan. The lake ecosystem is influenced by the increasing demand for irrigation (agricultural purposes), fluctuation of the Mahakan River. Sembuluh is a low land electricity, industry and flood control. The total area lake located in Central Kalimantan. Most natural lakes of reservoirs in Indonesia is estimated of 53,000 ha in Kalimantan are shallow and fed by the floodwater of (Hardjamulya and Suwignyo 1988). The largest is nearby rivers. Gajahmungkur reservoir (90 km2), Riam Kanan, South Lakes in Indonesia are classified as oligotrophic, Kalimantan (92 km2), Jatiluhur (83 km2), Cirata (62 km2) mesotrophic, eutrophic or distrophic. Generally, the Kedung Ombo (76.2 km2) are also large. In term of the

Tabel 6. The major reservoir and their characteristic (Hardjamulya & Suwignyo, 1988). Volume Area Max depth Length Reservoir 6 3 2 Purpose (x 10 m ) (km ) (m) (km) Jatiluhur 2,970 83 105 36.5 F, E, I Cirata 2,160 62 125 F, E, I Saguling 882 53.4 099 18.44 F, E, I Wonogiri 736 89 008.5 13.9 F, E, I Kedung Obo 723 76.2 090 23.1 F, E, I Wadas Lintang 443 14.3 − 06.8 F, E, I Gajah Mungkur 74 90 136 17 − East Java Karangkates 343 12.1 050 − F, E, I Wlingi 24 38.8 006 09.5 F, E, I Wonorejo 122 03.8 − − F, E, I Lahor 37 04.2 030 05.3 F, E, I Selorejo 62 02.1 032 03.5 F, E, I Pacal 4 04.5 − − F, E, I Bening 37 05.7 − − F, E, I Way Jepara 50 − − − F, E, I Way Rarem 72 − − − South Kalimantan Riam Kanan 1,200 92 − − F, E, I Nusa Tenggara Batujai 17 8,9 − − F, E, I F: Flood Control; E: Electricity; I: Irrigation. 290 SULASTRI

Table 7. The physical and chemical properties of major reservoir (source: Uchida, 1997) Parameter Saguling Cirata Jatiluhur Karangkates Selorejo Kedung Ombo Tranparency 0.6 1.2 3.2 1.7 0.8 5.0 (m) −1 DO (mg l ) 6.7 6.5 5.9 9.4 8.5 6.9 −1 TN (mg l ) 0.44 0.63 0.35 1.49 0.63 0.59 −1 TP (mg l ) 0.001 0.060 0.004 0.011 0.010 0.100 −1 N-NO3 (mg l ) 0.010 nd 0.080 0.010 0.030 nd −1 P-PO4 (mg l ) 0.460 nd 0.050 0.480 0.002 0.015 Chlorophyll-a 2.9 2.1 0.63 1.18 6.08 0.77 −1 (µg l ) volume however, Jatiluhur is four times as large as Gajah rivers, where water conditions are often turbid. Lowland, Mungkur. Jatiluhur was the first modern reservoir and slow-flowing water streams are found in flat areas. this large multipurpose reservoir was constructed in Water levels are affected by rainfall; water flow may 3 Indonesia to hold 2,970 million m of water (Table 6). The change according to weather, river flooding or receding. physical and chemical of selected major reservoirs are These streams host extremely rich animal including large presented in Table 7. number of prawns, crabs and aquatic insect larvae, among other species. In acid or peaty conditions the water is tea Rivers coloured and known as blackwater streams. In conditions There are a lot of river systems in Indonesia and 220 of very low pH, the fauna is greatly reduced. Freshwater rivers are classified as large rivers (Wirjoatmodjo 1986 tidal river have rich riparian vegetation characteristic by in Nontji, 1986). In the lowland many large rivers have Pandanus, Eugenia and Palaquium trees. extensive floodplains such as those found in Kalimantan, In Java there are no wild major rivers and no free Sumatera and Irian Jaya. A few big rivers include the flowing water ways. All of the large river have reservoirs Brantas, Bengawan Solo and Citarum Rivers located in for electricity, irrigation, water supply, and flood control. Java, The Musi, Batanghari and Siak Rivers in Sumatera, For example on the three reservoirs ((i. the Kapuas, Mahakam and Barito Rivers in Kalimantan e., Jatiluhur, Cirata and Saguling reservoir) were built and Membramo River in Irian Jaya. Kapuas Rivers is for multi purposes. The condition is the same for Brantas the longest river in Indonesia with a length of 1,143 km2 River. River in Irian Jaya though are more natural. Forest and a catchment area of 100,000 km2 (Giesen, 1987). It clearance and traditional sifting cultivation are cause soil is estimated to drain two-thirds of the whole province of erosion and siltation in the river water. West Kalimantan. The characteristics of river discharge are determined Swamps (Peatland). by the vegetation cover and topography of the catchment In Indonesia, the area of rivers and swamps estimated by area. Riverine habitats in Kalimantan are classified as Directorate Genderal of Fisheries (1981 in Nontji 1989) montaine stream, upland stream, lowland rivers, lowland is 11,947,000 ha. This figure does not include the island slow-flowing stream or freshwater tidal river (Chan et al. of Maluku and Irian Jaya. Triwasono (1987) estimated in MacKinnon, 1996). Montaine rivers above 1000 m are peatland in Kalimantan as 12,764,000 including coastal cold water, little vegetation and small fauna mostly aquatic swamps and inland swamp. In Kalimantan, there are three insects. Many fish have adapted to this environment such major types of swamp (peatland): Mangrove swamp, as suckers. Suckers attach themselves to the substrate peat swamp forest and freshwater swamp forest. There to avoid being swept away. Upland stream at 100−100 are many areas of open swamp vegetation which were m are cold water with diverse riparian vegetation. These originally covered with freshwater swamp or peat swamp streams support a richer fauna, including a great diversity forest, but have been cleared by fire, logging agricultural of aquatic insects. Lowland rivers, below 100 m have activities to create open swamp grassland, as in Sungai a riparian fringe of tall trees that provides shade and Negara wetland and Mahakam basin (MacKinnon, 1996). nutritive food for water that the natural fauna is very rich Reclamation of swamp areas has been done in Indonesia, and diverse. Many larger fish are restricted to the larger including in Central Kalimantan, to increase agriculture Inland Water Resources and Limnology in Indonesia 291 land. Besides providing food resources, fishing for ornamental fish is also done. Species such as Botia The utilization of potential resources macracanthus, Sclerophagus formosus, Balantiocheilus Inland waters are potential resources for Indonesia’s melanopterus, Rasbora sp and others caught for the national development. Lake water can be used not only national and international aquarium trade. for traditional uses of domestic duties and fisheries, but also for electricity, industry and tourism. Reservoirs also can have multifunctions of flood control, irrigation, THE PROBLEM OF INLAND WATER electricity, industry and fisheries. Many rivers are used Pollution for transportation, especially in Kalimantan where the The major form of pollution in inland waters is organic road system is still very poor. waste from domestic and industrial waste, such as textiles, Lake and other freshwater systems are important pulp and leather. The organic pollution are indicated by sources of fish for local communities. The inland water very high COD and BOD levels, particularly near major fisheries production in 1995 was estimated of 329,710 urban and industrial areas, for example in , tons (Directorate Genderal of Fisheries, 1997). The catch , Citarum River or other large rivers. Generally, includes mainly fish, crustaceans, mollusk and other low river water quality occurs particularly during the dry aquatic animals (Table 8). season. BOD content of Citarum River is 3.38 to 30.50 mg −1 l in January, while the range BOD content in August (dry season) Table 8. The inland water fisheries production 1995 (source: Anonymous, range from 26.514 to 889.936 mg 1996) −1 l (Henny, 1996). Polluted river Fish species Production −1 water is also indicated by coliform Ton year Local name English name bacteria content of 2, colonies −1 Fish ml (Puslitbang Pengairan, 1990), Ikan mas Common carp 5,613 which exceeds the standard value Jelawat Hoven’s barb 5,613 recommended by the government. Lampam Asian barb 12,344 Major studies have been Tawes Java barb 18,102 made to control industrial water Mujaer Mosambique Tilapia 13,293 pollution through the prokasih (cleaning river water) program. Jambal Catfishes 13,215 The objective of Prokasih is Gabus Snake head 31,940 to reduce industrial pollution Lele Catfishes 9,911 by determining acceptable Lais Glass catfishes 15,283 water quality standards, setting Toman Indonesian snake head 9,021 agreed targets and deadlines Sepat siam Snakeskin gouramy 24,904 for monitoring and evaluating, Tambakan Kissing gouramy 19,166 applying sanctions and enhancing Belida Knife fishes 4,790 the legal apparatus. It must be Betutu Sleeper gobies 1,514 stressed, however, that domestic Sidat River ell 926 waste is also a dominant source Lainnya Others 122,550 of water pollution in both rural Crustacean and urban areas. Tackling this Udang Galah Freshwater giant prawn 5,524 problem will probably be more difficult than preventing industrial Udang tawar Freshwater shrimp 3,944 pollution. Udang graga Athyids 86 Industrial development Udang lainnya Other, shrimp 6,768 projects in Kalimantan is still small Moluscs Snail, red clamp and others 2,092 but their local impacts on natural Other aquatic animals Frog, river and lake turtle and other 3,261 ecosystems has been significant. Total catch 329,710 The lower Mahakam River 292 SULASTRI

East Kalimantan is badly polluted and one of the rivers Selorejo Reservoir and Lake Semayang East Kalimantan. receiving attention under Prokasih (MacKinon, 1986). In Selorejo Reservoir, the siltation rate from 1973 to 3 −1 Kalimantan is rich in natural resources, such as timber, 1977 was reported as 700,000 m year (Biotrop & P. oil and other minerals. It has attracted the attention of U. Pengairan 1982). The silt content of Mahakam River industry for development in this area in the future which cause siltation 1−2 cm year−1 in Lake Semayang (DPU. will undoubtedly have environmental consequences. Kaltim, in Anonymous, 1993).The siltation of this lake was related to the forest fire in 1983, logging, mining Siltation and sifting cultivation (Anonymous, 1991). Integrated The decrease of vegetation cover in a catchment area watershed management programs have been launched has resulted in erosion. Eroded top soil is washed into in many areas, and one of the objectives is to control soil rivers or lakes causing turbid water. A large portion erosion. of the transported material may be deposited in the reservoir or lake. Siltation problem were found at some Eutrophication. inland waters, such as Lake Limboto, Lake Kerinci, Eutrophication, the excessive nutrient enrichment of

Table 9. Important aquatic plants found in some inland water habitats in Indonesia (source: Puslitbang Pengairan 1986, Biotrop 1983, Unsri 1983 in Sulastri & Harsono, 1994) Species Name of inland water Singkarak Maninjau Danau Danau Ranau Semayang Selorejo Bening Saguling Diatas Dibawah Azola pinata + + + + Aneilema nudiflora + Antruontera philoxeroides + + Ceratophylum sp + Chara filerosa + + Cyperus sp + + + + Cledemia herta + Salvinia molesta + + + Cyclosorus gongloi + Fimbristylis sp + Mimosa pigra + + Eleoclaris dulcis + Eichornia crassipes + + + + + + + + Hydrilla verticilata + + + + + Ipomea aquatica + Jessena repens + + + Lemna sp + + + + Luwitgia adesendenv + + Leersia hexandra + + Nymphaea sp + Monochaeria sp + + Marcilea crenata + Nelumbo nucifera + + Potamogeton oblongus + + + Pistia stratiotes + + + + Pygonim barbatum + + + + + Panicum repens + + + + + Scirpus grossus + Inland Water Resources and Limnology in Indonesia 293 the water bodies, may enhance the growth of unwanted have an impact on local fisheries. The most commonly- aquatic plants. The source of eutrophication may be traded species include Botia macracanthus, Schelophagus domestic waste, washing of agricultural fertilizer or formosus, Rasbora sp, Orizias celebensis and others. erosion of catchment areas. Explosive growth has been found in some reservoirs and lakes in Indonesia. In Lake Kerinci, 40 % of the LIMNOLOGICAL RECEARCH surface area is covered by aquatic plants, especially water ACTIVITY hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) (Hartoto & Sulawesty, The first study on limnology in Indonesia was presented 1996). Lake Semayang was reported to have 75 % of by German Sunda Expedition on Limnologischen its surface area covered by aquatic plants, with the Forschungsreise auf Java, Sumatra und Bali, in 1928−1929. dominant species being Eichornia crassipes, Salvinia This study included some lakes in Java, Sumatra and molesta, Mimosa pigra (Anonymous, 1993). The list of Bali. Most of the papers are taxonomic giving strong aquatic plants found in some inland waters in Indonesia foundation for freshwater ecology studies. The physical is presented in Table 9. Excessive growth of aquatic and chemical studies were presented by Ruttner (1930) weeds may disadvantageously effects fisheries, irrigation, who also wrote on plankton (Ruttner, 1952). In 1949 transportation, aesthetics and human health. and 1952, ecology and freshwater fisheries in Java were studied by Vaas and Sachlan. Studies on Rivers of Ogan Decreasing indigeneous species populations and Komering were conducted by Vaas et al. (1953). Another problem of inland water in Indonesia is the Later important freshwater research was done not only decreasing of indigeneous aquatic animal such as fish. for fisheries but also for environmental management. The 1990 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species lists The establishment of BIOTROP (Biological Centre for 29 fish species found in Indonesia. Of these, 27 are Tropical Biology) played an important role in the study endemic to Sulawesi and the remaining two species are on the ecology and fisheries of various lake and reservoir. Asian bonytongue (Sclerophagus formosus) and silver The office of State Minister for Environment (established shark (Balantichocheillus melanopterus) (Whitten et in 1978) has encouraged the establishment of Centre al., 1993). Schlerophagus formosus is found in Sumatera for Natural Resource and Environmental Studies in and Kalimantan. A number of threats to fish include many state universities. These Centers have studied heavy fishing pressure, forest loss, pollution, introduced or monitored water quality and made environmental species and aquarium fish trade. The effect of fishing in impact assessments which include aquatic environments. Indonesia has been little studied. Wargasasmita (1987) The Research and Development Centre for Irrigation in Whitten et al. (1993) has suggested that indigeneous (Department of Public Works) has also conducted a species and endemic fish species of Lake Singkarak have lot of lake and reservoir water quality monitoring. To decline because of overfishing. The reason that forest lost restore and conserve many freshwater systems more has an impact is many species in the tropics depend on studies are needed. In fact, studies on the impact of major animal and plant material falling into the water as direct projects on aquatic environment have been conducted. food or later from detritus, which the basis of the food Research and Development Center for Limnology, LIPI, chain for many invertebrate, as well as for many fishes. was established in 1986 and conducts research and Generally pollution in rivers and lakes is indicated by a development of limnology. Research thus far have been high BOD level and low oxygen. Under these conditions done on some small lakes in West Java, most of which fish and other aquatic organisms die leaving only those have eutrophication problems and Lake Kerinci which species capable of breathing atmospheric air. The effect has a special problem of eutrophication and declining of introduced fish into Indonesian inland water has not fish species population (Tor sp). The purpose of the been studied in depth, but it is known they have had a project is to reduce aquatic plants by introducing the negative effect on indigeneous fish communities. For herbivorous fish Ctenopharingodon idella and to restore example, some of indigeneous fauna both from Lundu fish population by conserving fish habitat, recover and Poso in Central Sulawesi may have been lost because riparian vegetation of fish habitat and domesticate fish of snakehead (Chana striata) and tilapia (Oreochromis through induced breeding. The same study was also sp.) (Whitten at al., 1993). The capture of wild fish for the done in Lake Semayang, East Kalimantan, which have national and international trade is probably less important problems of eutrophication, siltation and declining fish than the impact of using explosive or poison. These may production. Some studies have been done to reduce 294 SULASTRI aquatic plants and develop a fish hatchery for local p 24. people. Besides those lakes we have also studied some Giesen, 1987. Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve oligotrophic, mesotrophic and eutrophic lakes such as Inventory, Ecology and Management Guidelines. Lake Matano, Towuti, Mahalona, Ranau. The purpose of A World wildlife Fund report, for the Directorat this research is to determine how to conserve the lake of Forest Protection and Nature (PHPA), Bogor, before the lake becomes damaged due to environmental Indonesia, p. 284. changes. There are many inland waters of different types, Giesen, 1990. 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