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Foundations of Instructional and Performance Technology Foundations of Instructional and Performance Technology Seung Youn Chyung HRD Press, Inc. • Amherst • Massachusetts Copyright © 2008 by HRD Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this text may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by: HRD Press, Inc. 22 Amherst Road Amherst, MA 01002 1-800-822-2801 (U.S. and Canada) 413-253-3488 413-253-3490 (fax) www.hrdpress.com ISBN 978-1-59996-136-1 Cover design by Eileen Klockars Editorial services by Suzanne Bay and Sally Farnham Production services by Anctil Virtual Office Table of Contents PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS CHAPTER 1. TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY.................. 1 TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY.......................................... 3 Who, When, and Where: Instructional Technologists .............................. 5 Why: Linking Means to Ends ................................................................... 7 What: Using Hard and Soft Technology .................................................. 8 How: Using Systematic and Systemic Approaches.................................. 9 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 2. FOUNDATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT .................. 15 FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT .................. 17 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) ....................................................... 18 Ralph Winfred Tyler (1902–1994)........................................................... 20 Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904–1990).................................................... 24 Benjamin Samuel Bloom (1913–1999).................................................... 34 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 40 CHAPTER 3. THE SYSTEMATIC INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN .................................. 43 SYSTEMATIC PROCESS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN ......................................... 45 Robert Gagné’s Instructional Theories..................................................... 46 Robert Mager’s Method of Preparing Instructional Objectives................ 49 Dick and Carey’s Model of Instructional Design..................................... 54 John Keller’s ARCS Model...................................................................... 56 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 60 CHAPTER 4. EVALUATION OF TRAINING PROGRAMS.......................................... 63 SYSTEMATIC AND SYSTEMIC EVALUATION OF TRAINING PROGRAMS.............. 65 Donald Kirkpatrick’s Four-Level Model of Evaluation ........................... 66 Constructing “Smile” Sheets .................................................................... 69 Measurement Scales................................................................................. 71 Response Modes....................................................................................... 73 Conducting Four-Level Evaluations: An Example................................... 74 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 77 CHAPTER 5. SYSTEMS APPROACHES TO INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT ....................................................... 79 INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT....................................................... 81 The ADDIE Model................................................................................... 82 Training Needs Assessment ..................................................................... 85 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 88 CHAPTER 6. HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY ........................................... 91 EVOLUTION OF HUMAN PERFORMANCE TECHNOLOGY .................................... 93 Learning, Behavioral Change, and Performance...................................... 94 Human Performance Technology............................................................. 97 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 101 CHAPTER 7. ENGINEERING HUMAN COMPETENCE .............................................. 103 ENGINEERING HUMAN PERFORMANCE............................................................. 105 Thomas Gilbert’s Leisurely Theorems..................................................... 106 Worthy Performance ................................................................................ 107 Potential for Improving Performance....................................................... 109 Behavior Engineering Model ................................................................... 111 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 117 CHAPTER 8. FRONT-END ANALYSIS ............................................................................ 119 FRONT-END ANALYSIS..................................................................................... 121 Joe Harless’s Front-End Analysis ............................................................ 122 Smart Questions to Ask during Front-End Analysis ................................ 123 Front-End Analysis: A Case Study........................................................... 128 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 131 CHAPTER 9. SYSTEMIC ORGANIZATIONAL ELEMENTS....................................... 133 SYSTEM THINKING ........................................................................................... 135 Roger Kaufman’s Organizational Elements Model.................................. 136 Different Levels of Needs ........................................................................ 138 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 143 CHAPTER 10. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR............................................................. 145 UNDERSTANDING ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR.............................................. 147 Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management .............................................. 148 The Hawthorne Studies ............................................................................ 151 Kurt Lewin’s Field Theory....................................................................... 153 Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory.................................. 155 Theory to Practice .................................................................................... 158 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 160 CHAPTER 11. SUMMING UP .............................................................................................. 163 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IT AND HPT ..................................................... 165 The Historical and Theoretical Relationships .......................................... 166 Final Comments ....................................................................................... 169 ABOUT THE AUTHOR Preface The field of human performance technology, which emerged from its parent field of instructional technology, is based on the realization that instruction is not a cost-effective solution to all performance problems. Because of this historical relationship between the two fields and the fact that they are built on similar operational principles (such as systematic and systemic approaches to solving problems), one good way to learn about the two related fields is to study their historical and theoretical foundations. That is how my colleagues and I in the Department of Instructional and Performance Technology (IPT) at Boise State University educate our students in the first semester of their master’s degree and certificate programs. I started teaching a Foundations of Instructional and Performance Technology course at Boise State University in the fall of 1996. As the title of the course implies, the main goal of the course is to help new students successfully build foundational knowledge about the fields of instructional technology and human performance technology. I was hoping to find a textbook that would help students gain a good understanding about the historical and theoretical foundations of the two related fields, but no available texts seemed to serve the purpose. The only available option left to me was to provide students with a collection of published articles and book chapters. However, students had difficulty making connections among some of the articles written by different authors because formats and tones of voice were so varied. I spent a considerable amount of time each year helping students combine and synthesize the information from different sources. After doing so for ten years, I realized that my lecture-notes files became thick enough to be converted to a book! I finally decided to write a textbook so that our students would have an overview of the development of foundational principles and practices of the fields of instructional technology and human performance technology in one coherent voice. In this book I also included statements from original sources so that students will have an opportunity to learn about
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