DOCSLIB.ORG

Definitions of Instructional Design

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

Definitions of Instructional Design Instructional Design as a Process: Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities. Instructional Design as a Discipline: Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies. Instructional Design as a Science: Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity. Instructional Design as Reality: Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion. Instructional System: An instructional system is an arrangement of resources and procedures to promote learning. Instructional design is the systematic process of developing instructional systems and instructional development is the process of implementing the system or plan. Instructional Technology: Instructional technology is the systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems. Instructional technology is the systematic application of theory and other organized knowledge to the task of instructional design and development. Instructional Technology = Instructional Design + Instructional Development Instructional Development: The process of implementing the design plans. A Brief History of Instructional Design Douglas Leigh As a formal discipline, Instructional Systems Design has been a long time in the making. The early contributions of thinkers such as Aristotle, Socrates and Plato regarding the cognitive basis of learning and memory was later expanded by the 13th century philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas who discussed the perception of teachings in terms of free will. Four hundred years later, John Locke advanced Aristotle's notion of human's initial state of mental blankness by proposing that almost all reason and knowledge must be gained from experience. Then, at the turn of the 20th century John Dewey presented several tenets of the philosophy of education which promoted the idea that learning occurs best when married with doing, rather than rote regurgitation of facts. As the 1920's approached, a behaviorist approach to educational psychology became increasingly predominant. Thorndike's theory of connectionism represents the original stimulus-response (S-R) model of behavioral psychology, and was expanded on some twenty years later by Hull in his exposition of drive reduction – a motivational model of behavior which emphasizes learner's wants, attention, and activities. With the Industrial Revolution came an increased attention to productivity, and educational behaviorists during the 1920's such as Sidney Pressey applied mechanized technology to increase the efficiency of the learning process. Though their initial incarnation did not see much use after the Depression, many of the lessons learned research into these teaching machines regarding the delivery of standardized instruction contributed to the instructional media research & development movement of World War II. The advent of the Second World War presented a tremendous instructional dilemma: the rapid training of hundreds of thousands of military personnel. Ralph Tyler's work a decade before WWII indicated that objectives were most useful to instructional developers if written in terms of desired learner behaviors. Armed with this knowledge and the experience of creating standardize methods of instructional delivery using teaching machines, military researchers developed a bevy of training films and other mediated materials for instructional purposes. In part, the United States' heavy investment in training and R&D was credited with the country's victory in the war. With the economic boom that followed, federal dollars followed researcher's desire to better flesh out the underpinnings of learning, cognition, and instruction. The 1950's are characterized by a shift away from the uninformed application of instructional technology to the formulation of theoretical models of learning. The publication of B. F. Skinner's The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching in 1954 canonized the basic behaviorist principles of S-R, feedback, and reinforcement. As the key element of his theory of operant conditioning, the reinforcement of desired learner responses was also incorporated into Skinner's implementations of programmed instruction. Considered by many the progenitor of contemporary instructional design, programmed instruction emphasizes the formulation of behavioral objectives, breaking instructional content into small units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Another substantial instructional theorist of the 1950's was Benjamin Bloom. His 1956 taxonomy of intellectual behaviors provided instructors a means by which to decide how to impart instructional content to learners most effectively. Advocating a mastery approach to learning, Bloom endorsed instructional techniques that varied both instruction and time according to learner requirements. While this approach provided instructional developers a means by which to match subject matter and instructional methods, Bloom's taxonomy was not in and of itself capable of satisfying the desire of large organizations to relate resources and processes to the performances of individuals. To achieve this researchers in the military's Air Research and Development Command borrowed from Ludwig von Bertalanffy's General Systems Theory of biological interactions to integrate the operations of a wide range of departments, such as training, intelligence, and staffing. Combined with the Bloom's Taxonomy, the systems approach to instructional and organizational development allowed planners and policy-makers to match the content and delivery of instruction in a fashion which considered both super- and sub-systems (the organization as a whole, as well as groups and individuals within the organization). These advances of Skinner, Bloom and von Bertalanffy were usually employed to develop instruction in what was only assumed to be an effective an efficient manner. The formalization of a standardized design process still had yet to be devised. Again it was a crisis that spurred the next evolution of instructional technology – a shift away from an emphasis in the development of instructional programs to one which focused on the design of entire curriculum. Again the crisis was a war, but this time the war was a political one. In 1957 the Soviet Union launched the Sputnik satellite and began the "space race". America was taken by surprise and the government was forced to reevaluate the education system and its shortcomings. Science and math programs were the first to be targeted, and the government employed experts in these fields to bring the content up to date. In 1962 Robert Glaser synthesized the work of previous researchers and introduced the concept of "instructional design", submitting a model which links learner analysis to the design and development of instruction. Interestingly, Glaser's contribution to the current field of instructional systems is not so much in the advancement of his model, but in work concerning Individually Prescribed Instruction (IPI), an approach whereby the results of a learner's placement test are used to plan learner-specific instruction. At the same time Glaser was developing his theories of instructional design and IPI, Robert Mager published his treatise on the construction of performance objectives. Mager suggested that an objective should describe in measurable terms who an objective targets, the behavior they will have exhibited, the conditions or limitations under which they must carry out this behavior, and the criteria against which their behavior will be gauged. As early as 1962 when he published "Military Training and Principles of Learning" Robert Gagné demonstrated a concern for the different levels of learning. His differentiation of psychomotor skills, verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, and attitudes provides a companion to Bloom's six cognitive domains of learning. Later, Gagné extended his thinking to include nine instructional events that detail the conditions necessary for learning to occur. These events have long since been used for the basis for the design of instruction and the selection of appropriate media. The mediation of instruction entered the computer age in the 1960's when Patrick Suppes conducted his initial investigations into computer-assisted instruction (CAI) at Stanford University. Developed through a systematic analysis of curriculum, Suppes' CAI provided learner feedback, branching, and response tracking
Recommended publications
  • A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: a History of Instructional Design

    A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: a History of Instructional Design

    AAH GRAPHICS, INC. / (540) 933-6210 / FAX 933-6523 / 05-30-2001 / 10:39 A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional Design Robert A. Reiser This is the second of a two-part article that In Part I of this article, I presented the follow- discusses the history of the field of ing definition of the field of instructional design instructional design and technology in the and technology: United States. The first part, which focused on the history of instructional media, appeared in The field of instructional design and technology the previous issue of this journal (volume 49, encompasses the analysis of learning and performance number 1). This part of the article focuses on problems, and the design, development, implementa- the history of instructional design. Starting tion, evaluation and management of instructional and with a description of the efforts to develop noninstructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and performance in a variety of set- training programs during World War II, and tings, particularly educational institutions and the continuing on through the publication of some workplace. Professionals in the field of instructional of the first instructional design models in the design and technology often use systematic instruc- 1960s and 1970s, major events in the tional design procedures and employ a variety of development of the instructional design instructional media to accomplish their goals. More- over, in recent years, they have paid increasing atten- process are described. Factors that have tion to noninstructional solutions to some performance affected the field of instructional design over problems.
  • Celebrating 50 Years of LRDC (PDF)

    Celebrating 50 Years of LRDC (PDF)

    UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH Celebrating 50 Years of LRDC This report was published in 2014 by the University of Pittsburgh Learning Research and Development Center. THIS REPORT CELEBRATES THE UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH LEARNING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER’S (LRDC) 50 YEARS AS A LEADING INTERDISCIPLINARY CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON LEARNING AND EDUCATION. IT PROVIDES GLIMPSES OF LRDC OVER THE YEARS AND HIGHLIGHTS SOME OF THE EXCITING WORK THAT OCCUPIES OUR CURRENT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENDA. The Center’s interconnected programs of research and development have reflected its mission of stimulating interaction between research and practice across a broad spectrum of problems, from the neural basis of learning to the development of intelligent tutors to educational policy. Among research institutions in learning and education, this interconnected breadth is unique. The Center’s research has been equally wide-ranging in the domains of learning it has studied. Reading, mathematics, and science—staples of education—have been a continuing focus over much of LRDC’s 50 years. However, the Center also has addressed less-studied learning domains (e.g., history, geography, avionics, and law) as well as the reasoning and intellectual abilities that serve learning across domains. Moreover, social settings for learning, including those outside schools; teaching effectiveness; and technol- ogy for learning are all part of LRDC’s research story. LRDC’s ability to sustain research programs across these diverse, intersecting problems owes much to the cooperation of its partnering schools and depart- ments in the University. The leadership of the University of Pittsburgh has made possible what is often very difficult: a research center that has been able to effectively pursue truly cross-disciplinary research programs.
  • Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412­624­7485

    Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412­624­7485

    Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412­624­7485 Education A.B., History (magna cum laude, Radcliffe History Prize): Radcliffe College, 1957 A.M., Teaching: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1958 Ed.D., Research in Instruction: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1962 Professional Appointments University of Pittsburgh: University Professor, Psychology /Cognitive Science 2006­present Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh 1972­present Director, 1977­present; Associate Director, 1973­77; Director of Research and Development, 1972­73; Research Associate, 1966­72 Institute for Learning, LRDC, University of Pittsburgh: Founder and Director 1995­present Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh 1966­present Professor, 1977­2006; Associate Professor, 1971­77; Assistant Professor, 1966­71 Achieve, Inc.: Senior Associate, 1999­present Center for Philosophy of Science, University of Pittsburgh: Resident Fellow 1989­present School of Education, University of Pittsburgh 1966­2005 Professor, 1977­2005; Associate Professor, 1971­77; Assistant Professor, 1966­71 New Standards, Co­Founder and Co­Director 1990­1999 National Center on Education and the Economy, Senior Fellow 1996­1999 Basic Systems, Inc.: Senior Scientist and Staff Consultant 1963­1966 City University of New York, Office of Research and Evaluation, Division of Teacher Education: Lecturer 1962­1963 Harvard University Committee on Programmed Instruction and Laboratory for Research
  • Foundations of Instructional and Performance Technology

    Foundations of Instructional and Performance Technology

    Foundations of Instructional and Performance Technology Seung Youn Chyung HRD Press, Inc. • Amherst • Massachusetts Copyright © 2008 by HRD Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this text may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by: HRD Press, Inc. 22 Amherst Road Amherst, MA 01002 1-800-822-2801 (U.S. and Canada) 413-253-3488 413-253-3490 (fax) www.hrdpress.com ISBN 978-1-59996-136-1 Cover design by Eileen Klockars Editorial services by Suzanne Bay and Sally Farnham Production services by Anctil Virtual Office Table of Contents PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS CHAPTER 1. TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY.................. 1 TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY.......................................... 3 Who, When, and Where: Instructional Technologists .............................. 5 Why: Linking Means to Ends ................................................................... 7 What: Using Hard and Soft Technology .................................................. 8 How: Using Systematic and Systemic Approaches.................................. 9 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 2. FOUNDATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT .................. 15 FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT .................. 17 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) ......................................................

  • A Century of Research Behind Summit Learning

    ThE ScIeNcE oF SuMmIt A CeNtUrY oF ReSeArCh BeHiNd SuMmIt LeArNiNg More than 100 years of learning science, psychology, and workforce development research informs Summit Learning — our personalized approach to teaching and learning inspired by the vision to equip every student to lead a fulfilled life. We translate the science of learning into the intentional design of our schools to achieve student success in four outcomes: Cognitive Skills, Content Knowledge, Habits of Success, and Sense of Purpose. This comprehensive research timeline includes a diverse range of perspectives and groundbreaking works that have been formative influences on Summit Learning and each of our student outcomes. 1969 1968 Jean Piaget details the 1962 intricate relationship 1902 1960 Benjamin Bloom argues between mental and that all students should physical growth Everett Rogers be given the necessary , from birth John Dewey advocates for development Jerome Bruner makes presents a five-point time and opportunities through adolescence a community- and child- the case for a spiral framework for how to master content centered curriculum that starts innovations are before moving on to that offers socially-based curriculum in early childhood adopted by users learn new content experiences aligned with over time rigorous content standards 1988 1988 Donna R. Recht and Lauren 1986 1978 Leslie find prior knowledge has Robert Glaser and Michelene significant effect on learners’ Chi draw attention to the Albert Bandura reveals Lev Vygotsky emphasizes retention and summarizing
  • Cognition and Learning: a Review of the Literature with Reference to Ethnolinguistic Minorities

    Cognition and Learning: a Review of the Literature with Reference to Ethnolinguistic Minorities

    DigitalResources SIL eBook 49 ® Cognition and Learning: A Review of the Literature with Reference to Ethnolinguistic Minorities Patricia M. Davis Cognition and Learning A Review of the Literature with Reference to Ethnolinguistic Minorities Patricia M. Davis SIL International® 2014 1 2 SIL e-Books 49 2014 SIL International® ISBN: 978-1-55671-354-5 ISSN: 1934-2470 Fair-Use Policy: Books published in the SIL e-Books (SILEB) series are intended for scholarly research and educational use. You may make copies of these publications for research or instructional purposes free of charge (within fair-use guidelines) and without further permission. Republication or commercial use of SILEB or the documents contained therein is expressly prohibited without the written consent of the copyright holder(s). Editor-in-Chief Mike Cahill Volume Editor Mary Ruth Wise Managing Editor Bonnie Brown Compositor Margaret González Contents Preface Acknowledgments Introduction: An Overview of Learning Theories Some definitions Important learning theories of the twentieth century Disclaimers Value of this study Chapter 1 Developmental Theories Introduction Genetic programming Piagetian theory Piaget’s stages of human development The concrete operational stage The formal operations stage Applications in Western society Applications in ethnolinguistic minority groups Successive equilibration Educational implications Application Chapter 2 Behaviorist Theory Important themes Educational usefulness Reaction Application Chapter 3 Information Processing Theories Introduction
  • The-Culture-Of-Education-Jerome-Bruner.Pdf

    The-Culture-Of-Education-Jerome-Bruner.Pdf

    THE CULTURE OF EDUCATION THE CULTURE OF EDUCATION Jerome Bruner HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, Massachusetts London,England 1996 PREFACE This is a book of essays about education. But it is by no means limited to education in the usual sense of classrooms and schools. For it is surely the case that schooling is only one small part of how a culture inducts the young into its canonical ways. Indeed, schooling may even be at odds with a culture'_s other ways of inducting the young into the requirements of communal living. Our changing times are marked by deep conjectures about what schools should be expected to "do" for those who choose to or are compelled to attend them--or for that matter, what schools can do, given the force of other circum­ stances. .Shquld schools aim simply to reproduce the culture, to "assirrtilate". <to use a word now considered odious) the young into the ways of being little Americans or little Japanese? Yet uaimilation was the unexamined faith even as recently as the beginning of this century. Or would schools, given the revolutionary changes through which we are living, do better to dedicate themselves to the equally risky, perhaps equally quixotic ideal of preparing students to cope with the changing world in which they will be living? And how shall we decide what that changing world will be and whatjt.:will demand of them? These are no longer abstract issues: we live with them daily, and they form the substance of the educational debates that reverber­ ate everywhere in the world.
  • Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412-624-7485 Resnick@Pitt.Edu

    Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412-624-7485 [email protected]

    Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412-624-7485 [email protected] http://www.lrdc.pitt.edu/ Education A.B., History (magna cum laude, Radcliffe History Prize): Radcliffe College, 1957 A.M., Teaching: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1958 Ed.D., Research in Instruction: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1962 Professional Appointments Distinguished University Professor, Learning Sciences and 2008-present Education Policy, University of Pittsburgh Distinguished University Professor, Psychology and Cognitive Science, 2006-present University of Pittsburgh Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh 1966-present Senior Scientist, 1972-present; Director, 1977-2008; Associate Director, 1973-77; Director of Research and Development, 1972-73; Research Associate, 1966-72 Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh 1966-present Professor, 1977-present; Associate Professor, 1971-77; Assistant Professor, 1966-71 Institute for Learning, LRDC, University of Pittsburgh: Founder and Director 1995-present Achieve, Inc.: Senior Associate 1999 Center for Philosophy of Science, University of Pittsburgh: Resident Fellow 1989 New Standards, Co-Founder and Co-Director 1990-2007 Basic Systems, Inc.: Senior Scientist and Staff Consultant 1963-1966 City University of New York, Office of Research and Evaluation, Division of Teacher Education: Lecturer 1962-1963 Harvard University Committee on Programmed Instruction and Laboratory for Research in Instruction:
  • Becoming a Nation of Readers: the Report of the Commission on Reading. INSTITUTION Illinois Univ., Urbana

    Becoming a Nation of Readers: the Report of the Commission on Reading. INSTITUTION Illinois Univ., Urbana

    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 253 865 CS 007 985 AUTHOR Anderson, Richard C.; And Others TITLE Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading. INSTITUTION Illinois Univ., Urbana. Center for the Studyof Reading.; National Academy of Education, Washington, D.C. SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington,DC. PUB DATE 85 CONTRACT 400-83-0057 NOTE 155p. AVAILABLE FROMUniversity of Illinois, Becominga Nation of Readers, P.O. Box 2774, Station A, Champaign, IL 61820-8774 ($4.50 ea., including postage;overseas orders, add $1.00). PUB TYPE .3ooks (010) Reports Descriptive (141) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC07 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Classroom Environment; Classroom Techniques; Elementary Secondary Education; *Literacy; *Literacy Education; Professional Development; *Reading Improvement; *Reading Instruction; *Reading Processes; *Reading Tests; Teacher Education; Teacher Effectiveness ABSTRACT Fulfilling a need for careful and thorough synthesis of an extensive body of findingson reading, this report presents leading experts' interpretations of both current knowledgeof reading and the state of the art and practice of teaching reading.The introduction contains two claims:(1) the knowledge is now available to make worthwhile improvements in reading throughout the United States, and (2) if the practices seen in the classrooms of thebest teachers in the best schools could be introduced everywhere, improvement in reading would be dramatic. The firstchapter of the report stresses reading as the process of constructing meaningfrom written texts, a complex skill requiring the coordinationof a number of interrelated sources of information. The secondchapter, on emerging literacy, argues that reading must beseen as part of a child's general language development and notas a discrete skill isolated from listening, speaking, and writing.