AAH GRAPHICS, INC. / (540) 933-6210 / FAX 933-6523 / 05-30-2001 / 10:39 A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional Design Robert A. Reiser This is the second of a two-part article that In Part I of this article, I presented the follow- discusses the history of the field of ing definition of the field of instructional design instructional design and technology in the and technology: United States. The first part, which focused on the history of instructional media, appeared in The field of instructional design and technology the previous issue of this journal (volume 49, encompasses the analysis of learning and performance number 1). This part of the article focuses on problems, and the design, development, implementa- the history of instructional design. Starting tion, evaluation and management of instructional and with a description of the efforts to develop noninstructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and performance in a variety of set- training programs during World War II, and tings, particularly educational institutions and the continuing on through the publication of some workplace. Professionals in the field of instructional of the first instructional design models in the design and technology often use systematic instruc- 1960s and 1970s, major events in the tional design procedures and employ a variety of development of the instructional design instructional media to accomplish their goals. More- over, in recent years, they have paid increasing atten- process are described. Factors that have tion to noninstructional solutions to some performance affected the field of instructional design over problems. Research and theory related to each of the the last two decades, including increasing aforementioned areas is also an important part of the interest in cognitive psychology, field. (Reiser, in press) microcomputers, performance technology, and constructivism, are also described. As was pointed out in Part I, the major fea- tures of this definition include (a) its listing of six categories of activities or practices (analysis, design, development, implementation, evalua- tion, and management) often associated with the field; (b) its identification of research and theory, as well as practice, as important aspects of the profession; and (c) its recognition of the influ- ence the performance technology movement has had on professional practices. Moreover, the definition highlights two practices that have, over the years, formed the core of the field. These two practices are (a) the use of media for instructional purposes and (b) the use of systematic instructional design procedures (often simply called instructional design). As was mentioned in Part I, although many have argued about the value of employing these practices, they remain as the key defining elements of the field of ETR&D, Vol. 49, No. 2, 2001, pp. 57–67 ISSN 1042–1629 57 AAH GRAPHICS, INC. / (540) 933-6210 / FAX 933-6523 / 05-30-2001 / 10:39 58 ETR&D, Vol. 49, No. 2 instructional design and technology. Individu- viduals, including Robert Gagné, Leslie Briggs, als involved in the field are those who spend a John Flanagan, and many others, exerted con- significant portion of their time working with siderable influence on the characteristics of the media, or with tasks associated with systematic training materials that were developed, basing instructional design procedures, or with both. much of their work on instructional principles In Part I, I discussed the history of instruc- derived from research and theory on instruction, tional media. In Part II, I will focus on the history learning, and human behavior (Baker, 1973; of instructional design. This is a natural separa- Dick, 1987; Saettler, 1990). tion because, from a historical perspective, most of the practices related to instructional media Moreover, psychologists used their knowl- have occurred independent of developments edge of evaluation and testing to help assess the associated with instructional design. It should skills of trainees and select the individuals who also be noted that although many important were most likely to benefit from particular train- events in the history of the field have taken place ing programs. For example, at one point in the in other countries, the emphasis in both parts of war, the failure rate in a particular flight training this article is on events that have taken place in program was unacceptably high. In order to the United States. overcome this problem, psychologists examined the general intellectual, psychomotor and per- ceptual skills of individuals who were able to HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN successfully perform the skills taught in the pro- gram, and then developed tests that measured Over the past four decades, a variety of sets of those traits. These tests were used to screen can- systematic instructional design procedures (or didates for the program, with those individuals models) have been developed, and have been who scored poorly being directed into other pro- referred to by such terms as the systems approach, grams. As a result of using this examination of instructional systems design (ISD), instructional entry skills as a screening device, the military development, and instructional design (which is the was able to significantly increase the percentage term I will usually employ in this article). of personnel who successfully completed the Although the specific combination of proce- dures often varies from one instructional design program (Gagné, personal communication, model to the next, most of the models include 1985). the analysis of instructional problems, and the Immediately after World War II, many of the design, development, implementation and eval- psychologists responsible for the success of the uation of instructional procedures and materials military training programs continued to work intended to solve those problems. How did this on solving instructional problems. Organiza- instructional design process come into being? tions such as the American Institutes for This article will focus on answering that ques- Research were established for this purpose. Dur- tion. ing the late 1940s and throughout the 1950s, psy- chologists working for such organizations started viewing training as a system, and devel- The Origins of Instructional Design: World War II oped a number of innovative analysis, design, and evaluation procedures (Dick, 1987). For example, during this period, a detailed task The origins of instructional design procedures have been traced to World War II (Dick, 1987). analysis methodology was developed by Robert During the war, a large number of psychologists B. Miller while he worked on projects for the and educators who had training and experience military (Miller,1953, 1962). His work and that of in conducting experimental research were called other early pioneers in the instructional design on to conduct research and develop training field is summarized in Psychological Principles in materials for the military services. These indi- System Development, edited by Gagné (1962b). AAH GRAPHICS, INC. / (540) 933-6210 / FAX 933-6523 / 05-30-2001 / 10:39 A HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 59 More Early Developments: The The Popularization of Behavioral Programmed Instruction Movement Objectives The programmed instruction movement, which As indicated above, those involved in designing ran from the mid-1950s through the mid-1960s, programmed instructional materials often proved to be another major factor in the devel- began by identifying the specific objectives opment of the systems approach. In 1954, B.F. learners who used the materials would be Skinner’s article entitled The Science of Learning expected to attain. In the early 1960s, Robert and the Art of Teaching began what might be Mager, recognizing the need to teach educators called a minor revolution in the field of educa- how to write objectives, wrote Preparing Objec- tion. In this article and later ones (e.g., Skin- tives for Programmed Instruction (1962). This ner,1958), Skinner described his ideas regarding book, now in its third edition (Mager,1997), has the requirements for increasing human learning proved to be very popular, and has sold more and the desired characteristics of effective than 1.5 million copies. The book describes how instructional materials. Skinner stated that such to write objectives that include a description of materials, called programmed instructional desired learner behaviors, the conditions under materials, should present instruction in small which the behaviors are to be performed, and steps, require overt responses to frequent ques- the standards (criteria) by which the behaviors tions, provide immediate feedback, and allow are to be judged. Many current-day adherents of for learner self-pacing. Moreover, because each the instructional design process advocate the step was small, it was thought that learners preparation of objectives that contain these three would answer all questions correctly and thus elements. be positively reinforced by the feedback they Although Mager popularized the use of received. objectives, the concept was discussed and used The process Skinner and others (cf. Lumsda- by educators at least as far back as the early ine & Glaser, 1960) described for developing 1900s. Among those early advocates of the use of programmed instruction exemplified an empiri- clearly stated objectives were Bobbitt, Charters, cal approach to solving educational problems: