DOCSLIB.ORG

A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: a History of Instructional Design

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: a History of Instructional Design AAH GRAPHICS, INC. / (540) 933-6210 / FAX 933-6523 / 05-30-2001 / 10:39 A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II: A History of Instructional Design Robert A. Reiser This is the second of a two-part article that In Part I of this article, I presented the follow- discusses the history of the field of ing definition of the field of instructional design instructional design and technology in the and technology: United States. The first part, which focused on the history of instructional media, appeared in The field of instructional design and technology the previous issue of this journal (volume 49, encompasses the analysis of learning and performance number 1). This part of the article focuses on problems, and the design, development, implementa- the history of instructional design. Starting tion, evaluation and management of instructional and with a description of the efforts to develop noninstructional processes and resources intended to improve learning and performance in a variety of set- training programs during World War II, and tings, particularly educational institutions and the continuing on through the publication of some workplace. Professionals in the field of instructional of the first instructional design models in the design and technology often use systematic instruc- 1960s and 1970s, major events in the tional design procedures and employ a variety of development of the instructional design instructional media to accomplish their goals. More- over, in recent years, they have paid increasing atten- process are described. Factors that have tion to noninstructional solutions to some performance affected the field of instructional design over problems. Research and theory related to each of the the last two decades, including increasing aforementioned areas is also an important part of the interest in cognitive psychology, field. (Reiser, in press) microcomputers, performance technology, and constructivism, are also described. As was pointed out in Part I, the major fea- tures of this definition include (a) its listing of six categories of activities or practices (analysis, design, development, implementation, evalua- tion, and management) often associated with the field; (b) its identification of research and theory, as well as practice, as important aspects of the profession; and (c) its recognition of the influ- ence the performance technology movement has had on professional practices. Moreover, the definition highlights two practices that have, over the years, formed the core of the field. These two practices are (a) the use of media for instructional purposes and (b) the use of systematic instructional design procedures (often simply called instructional design). As was mentioned in Part I, although many have argued about the value of employing these practices, they remain as the key defining elements of the field of ETR&D, Vol. 49, No. 2, 2001, pp. 57–67 ISSN 1042–1629 57 AAH GRAPHICS, INC. / (540) 933-6210 / FAX 933-6523 / 05-30-2001 / 10:39 58 ETR&D, Vol. 49, No. 2 instructional design and technology. Individu- viduals, including Robert Gagné, Leslie Briggs, als involved in the field are those who spend a John Flanagan, and many others, exerted con- significant portion of their time working with siderable influence on the characteristics of the media, or with tasks associated with systematic training materials that were developed, basing instructional design procedures, or with both. much of their work on instructional principles In Part I, I discussed the history of instruc- derived from research and theory on instruction, tional media. In Part II, I will focus on the history learning, and human behavior (Baker, 1973; of instructional design. This is a natural separa- Dick, 1987; Saettler, 1990). tion because, from a historical perspective, most of the practices related to instructional media Moreover, psychologists used their knowl- have occurred independent of developments edge of evaluation and testing to help assess the associated with instructional design. It should skills of trainees and select the individuals who also be noted that although many important were most likely to benefit from particular train- events in the history of the field have taken place ing programs. For example, at one point in the in other countries, the emphasis in both parts of war, the failure rate in a particular flight training this article is on events that have taken place in program was unacceptably high. In order to the United States. overcome this problem, psychologists examined the general intellectual, psychomotor and per- ceptual skills of individuals who were able to HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN successfully perform the skills taught in the pro- gram, and then developed tests that measured Over the past four decades, a variety of sets of those traits. These tests were used to screen can- systematic instructional design procedures (or didates for the program, with those individuals models) have been developed, and have been who scored poorly being directed into other pro- referred to by such terms as the systems approach, grams. As a result of using this examination of instructional systems design (ISD), instructional entry skills as a screening device, the military development, and instructional design (which is the was able to significantly increase the percentage term I will usually employ in this article). of personnel who successfully completed the Although the specific combination of proce- dures often varies from one instructional design program (Gagné, personal communication, model to the next, most of the models include 1985). the analysis of instructional problems, and the Immediately after World War II, many of the design, development, implementation and eval- psychologists responsible for the success of the uation of instructional procedures and materials military training programs continued to work intended to solve those problems. How did this on solving instructional problems. Organiza- instructional design process come into being? tions such as the American Institutes for This article will focus on answering that ques- Research were established for this purpose. Dur- tion. ing the late 1940s and throughout the 1950s, psy- chologists working for such organizations started viewing training as a system, and devel- The Origins of Instructional Design: World War II oped a number of innovative analysis, design, and evaluation procedures (Dick, 1987). For example, during this period, a detailed task The origins of instructional design procedures have been traced to World War II (Dick, 1987). analysis methodology was developed by Robert During the war, a large number of psychologists B. Miller while he worked on projects for the and educators who had training and experience military (Miller,1953, 1962). His work and that of in conducting experimental research were called other early pioneers in the instructional design on to conduct research and develop training field is summarized in Psychological Principles in materials for the military services. These indi- System Development, edited by Gagné (1962b). AAH GRAPHICS, INC. / (540) 933-6210 / FAX 933-6523 / 05-30-2001 / 10:39 A HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN 59 More Early Developments: The The Popularization of Behavioral Programmed Instruction Movement Objectives The programmed instruction movement, which As indicated above, those involved in designing ran from the mid-1950s through the mid-1960s, programmed instructional materials often proved to be another major factor in the devel- began by identifying the specific objectives opment of the systems approach. In 1954, B.F. learners who used the materials would be Skinner’s article entitled The Science of Learning expected to attain. In the early 1960s, Robert and the Art of Teaching began what might be Mager, recognizing the need to teach educators called a minor revolution in the field of educa- how to write objectives, wrote Preparing Objec- tion. In this article and later ones (e.g., Skin- tives for Programmed Instruction (1962). This ner,1958), Skinner described his ideas regarding book, now in its third edition (Mager,1997), has the requirements for increasing human learning proved to be very popular, and has sold more and the desired characteristics of effective than 1.5 million copies. The book describes how instructional materials. Skinner stated that such to write objectives that include a description of materials, called programmed instructional desired learner behaviors, the conditions under materials, should present instruction in small which the behaviors are to be performed, and steps, require overt responses to frequent ques- the standards (criteria) by which the behaviors tions, provide immediate feedback, and allow are to be judged. Many current-day adherents of for learner self-pacing. Moreover, because each the instructional design process advocate the step was small, it was thought that learners preparation of objectives that contain these three would answer all questions correctly and thus elements. be positively reinforced by the feedback they Although Mager popularized the use of received. objectives, the concept was discussed and used The process Skinner and others (cf. Lumsda- by educators at least as far back as the early ine & Glaser, 1960) described for developing 1900s. Among those early advocates of the use of programmed instruction exemplified an empiri- clearly stated objectives were Bobbitt, Charters, cal approach to solving educational problems:
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Celebrating 50 Years of LRDC (PDF)
    UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH Celebrating 50 Years of LRDC This report was published in 2014 by the University of Pittsburgh Learning Research and Development Center. THIS REPORT CELEBRATES THE UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH LEARNING RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER’S (LRDC) 50 YEARS AS A LEADING INTERDISCIPLINARY CENTER FOR RESEARCH ON LEARNING AND EDUCATION. IT PROVIDES GLIMPSES OF LRDC OVER THE YEARS AND HIGHLIGHTS SOME OF THE EXCITING WORK THAT OCCUPIES OUR CURRENT RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT AGENDA. The Center’s interconnected programs of research and development have reflected its mission of stimulating interaction between research and practice across a broad spectrum of problems, from the neural basis of learning to the development of intelligent tutors to educational policy. Among research institutions in learning and education, this interconnected breadth is unique. The Center’s research has been equally wide-ranging in the domains of learning it has studied. Reading, mathematics, and science—staples of education—have been a continuing focus over much of LRDC’s 50 years. However, the Center also has addressed less-studied learning domains (e.g., history, geography, avionics, and law) as well as the reasoning and intellectual abilities that serve learning across domains. Moreover, social settings for learning, including those outside schools; teaching effectiveness; and technol- ogy for learning are all part of LRDC’s research story. LRDC’s ability to sustain research programs across these diverse, intersecting problems owes much to the cooperation of its partnering schools and depart- ments in the University. The leadership of the University of Pittsburgh has made possible what is often very difficult: a research center that has been able to effectively pursue truly cross-disciplinary research programs.
    [Show full text]
  • Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412­624­7485
    Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412­624­7485 Education A.B., History (magna cum laude, Radcliffe History Prize): Radcliffe College, 1957 A.M., Teaching: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1958 Ed.D., Research in Instruction: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1962 Professional Appointments University of Pittsburgh: University Professor, Psychology /Cognitive Science 2006­present Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh 1972­present Director, 1977­present; Associate Director, 1973­77; Director of Research and Development, 1972­73; Research Associate, 1966­72 Institute for Learning, LRDC, University of Pittsburgh: Founder and Director 1995­present Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh 1966­present Professor, 1977­2006; Associate Professor, 1971­77; Assistant Professor, 1966­71 Achieve, Inc.: Senior Associate, 1999­present Center for Philosophy of Science, University of Pittsburgh: Resident Fellow 1989­present School of Education, University of Pittsburgh 1966­2005 Professor, 1977­2005; Associate Professor, 1971­77; Assistant Professor, 1966­71 New Standards, Co­Founder and Co­Director 1990­1999 National Center on Education and the Economy, Senior Fellow 1996­1999 Basic Systems, Inc.: Senior Scientist and Staff Consultant 1963­1966 City University of New York, Office of Research and Evaluation, Division of Teacher Education: Lecturer 1962­1963 Harvard University Committee on Programmed Instruction and Laboratory for Research
    [Show full text]
  • Foundations of Instructional and Performance Technology
    Foundations of Instructional and Performance Technology Seung Youn Chyung HRD Press, Inc. • Amherst • Massachusetts Copyright © 2008 by HRD Press, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this text may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by: HRD Press, Inc. 22 Amherst Road Amherst, MA 01002 1-800-822-2801 (U.S. and Canada) 413-253-3488 413-253-3490 (fax) www.hrdpress.com ISBN 978-1-59996-136-1 Cover design by Eileen Klockars Editorial services by Suzanne Bay and Sally Farnham Production services by Anctil Virtual Office Table of Contents PREFACE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS CHAPTER 1. TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY.................. 1 TECHNOLOGY AND INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY.......................................... 3 Who, When, and Where: Instructional Technologists .............................. 5 Why: Linking Means to Ends ................................................................... 7 What: Using Hard and Soft Technology .................................................. 8 How: Using Systematic and Systemic Approaches.................................. 9 REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 13 CHAPTER 2. FOUNDATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT .................. 15 FOUNDATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT .................. 17 Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949) ......................................................
    [Show full text]
  • A Century of Research Behind Summit Learning
    ThE ScIeNcE oF SuMmIt A CeNtUrY oF ReSeArCh BeHiNd SuMmIt LeArNiNg More than 100 years of learning science, psychology, and workforce development research informs Summit Learning — our personalized approach to teaching and learning inspired by the vision to equip every student to lead a fulfilled life. We translate the science of learning into the intentional design of our schools to achieve student success in four outcomes: Cognitive Skills, Content Knowledge, Habits of Success, and Sense of Purpose. This comprehensive research timeline includes a diverse range of perspectives and groundbreaking works that have been formative influences on Summit Learning and each of our student outcomes. 1969 1968 Jean Piaget details the 1962 intricate relationship 1902 1960 Benjamin Bloom argues between mental and that all students should physical growth Everett Rogers be given the necessary , from birth John Dewey advocates for development Jerome Bruner makes presents a five-point time and opportunities through adolescence a community- and child- the case for a spiral framework for how to master content centered curriculum that starts innovations are before moving on to that offers socially-based curriculum in early childhood adopted by users learn new content experiences aligned with over time rigorous content standards 1988 1988 Donna R. Recht and Lauren 1986 1978 Leslie find prior knowledge has Robert Glaser and Michelene significant effect on learners’ Chi draw attention to the Albert Bandura reveals Lev Vygotsky emphasizes retention and summarizing
    [Show full text]
  • Cognition and Learning: a Review of the Literature with Reference to Ethnolinguistic Minorities
    DigitalResources SIL eBook 49 ® Cognition and Learning: A Review of the Literature with Reference to Ethnolinguistic Minorities Patricia M. Davis Cognition and Learning A Review of the Literature with Reference to Ethnolinguistic Minorities Patricia M. Davis SIL International® 2014 1 2 SIL e-Books 49 2014 SIL International® ISBN: 978-1-55671-354-5 ISSN: 1934-2470 Fair-Use Policy: Books published in the SIL e-Books (SILEB) series are intended for scholarly research and educational use. You may make copies of these publications for research or instructional purposes free of charge (within fair-use guidelines) and without further permission. Republication or commercial use of SILEB or the documents contained therein is expressly prohibited without the written consent of the copyright holder(s). Editor-in-Chief Mike Cahill Volume Editor Mary Ruth Wise Managing Editor Bonnie Brown Compositor Margaret González Contents Preface Acknowledgments Introduction: An Overview of Learning Theories Some definitions Important learning theories of the twentieth century Disclaimers Value of this study Chapter 1 Developmental Theories Introduction Genetic programming Piagetian theory Piaget’s stages of human development The concrete operational stage The formal operations stage Applications in Western society Applications in ethnolinguistic minority groups Successive equilibration Educational implications Application Chapter 2 Behaviorist Theory Important themes Educational usefulness Reaction Application Chapter 3 Information Processing Theories Introduction
    [Show full text]
  • Definitions of Instructional Design
    Definitions of Instructional Design Instructional Design as a Process: Instructional Design is the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning and instructional theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It is the entire process of analysis of learning needs and goals and the development of a delivery system to meet those needs. It includes development of instructional materials and activities; and tryout and evaluation of all instruction and learner activities. Instructional Design as a Discipline: Instructional Design is that branch of knowledge concerned with research and theory about instructional strategies and the process for developing and implementing those strategies. Instructional Design as a Science: Instructional design is the science of creating detailed specifications for the development, implementation, evaluation, and maintenance of situations that facilitate the learning of both large and small units of subject matter at all levels of complexity. Instructional Design as Reality: Instructional design can start at any point in the design process. Often a glimmer of an idea is developed to give the core of an instruction situation. By the time the entire process is done the designer looks back and she or he checks to see that all parts of the "science" have been taken into account. Then the entire process is written up as if it occurred in a systematic fashion. Instructional System: An instructional system is an arrangement of resources and procedures to promote learning. Instructional design is the systematic process of developing instructional systems and instructional development is the process of implementing the system or plan. Instructional Technology: Instructional technology is the systemic and systematic application of strategies and techniques derived from behavioral, cognitive, and constructivist theories to the solution of instructional problems.
    [Show full text]
  • The-Culture-Of-Education-Jerome-Bruner.Pdf
    THE CULTURE OF EDUCATION THE CULTURE OF EDUCATION Jerome Bruner HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS Cambridge, Massachusetts London,England 1996 PREFACE This is a book of essays about education. But it is by no means limited to education in the usual sense of classrooms and schools. For it is surely the case that schooling is only one small part of how a culture inducts the young into its canonical ways. Indeed, schooling may even be at odds with a culture'_s other ways of inducting the young into the requirements of communal living. Our changing times are marked by deep conjectures about what schools should be expected to "do" for those who choose to or are compelled to attend them--or for that matter, what schools can do, given the force of other circum­ stances. .Shquld schools aim simply to reproduce the culture, to "assirrtilate". <to use a word now considered odious) the young into the ways of being little Americans or little Japanese? Yet uaimilation was the unexamined faith even as recently as the beginning of this century. Or would schools, given the revolutionary changes through which we are living, do better to dedicate themselves to the equally risky, perhaps equally quixotic ideal of preparing students to cope with the changing world in which they will be living? And how shall we decide what that changing world will be and whatjt.:will demand of them? These are no longer abstract issues: we live with them daily, and they form the substance of the educational debates that reverber­ ate everywhere in the world.
    [Show full text]
  • Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412-624-7485 [email protected]
    Lauren B. Resnick Learning Research and Development Center University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260 412-624-7485 [email protected] http://www.lrdc.pitt.edu/ Education A.B., History (magna cum laude, Radcliffe History Prize): Radcliffe College, 1957 A.M., Teaching: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1958 Ed.D., Research in Instruction: Harvard Graduate School of Education, 1962 Professional Appointments Distinguished University Professor, Learning Sciences and 2008-present Education Policy, University of Pittsburgh Distinguished University Professor, Psychology and Cognitive Science, 2006-present University of Pittsburgh Learning Research and Development Center, University of Pittsburgh 1966-present Senior Scientist, 1972-present; Director, 1977-2008; Associate Director, 1973-77; Director of Research and Development, 1972-73; Research Associate, 1966-72 Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh 1966-present Professor, 1977-present; Associate Professor, 1971-77; Assistant Professor, 1966-71 Institute for Learning, LRDC, University of Pittsburgh: Founder and Director 1995-present Achieve, Inc.: Senior Associate 1999 Center for Philosophy of Science, University of Pittsburgh: Resident Fellow 1989 New Standards, Co-Founder and Co-Director 1990-2007 Basic Systems, Inc.: Senior Scientist and Staff Consultant 1963-1966 City University of New York, Office of Research and Evaluation, Division of Teacher Education: Lecturer 1962-1963 Harvard University Committee on Programmed Instruction and Laboratory for Research in Instruction:
    [Show full text]
  • Becoming a Nation of Readers: the Report of the Commission on Reading. INSTITUTION Illinois Univ., Urbana
    DOCUMENT RESUME ED 253 865 CS 007 985 AUTHOR Anderson, Richard C.; And Others TITLE Becoming a Nation of Readers: The Report of the Commission on Reading. INSTITUTION Illinois Univ., Urbana. Center for the Studyof Reading.; National Academy of Education, Washington, D.C. SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington,DC. PUB DATE 85 CONTRACT 400-83-0057 NOTE 155p. AVAILABLE FROMUniversity of Illinois, Becominga Nation of Readers, P.O. Box 2774, Station A, Champaign, IL 61820-8774 ($4.50 ea., including postage;overseas orders, add $1.00). PUB TYPE .3ooks (010) Reports Descriptive (141) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC07 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Classroom Environment; Classroom Techniques; Elementary Secondary Education; *Literacy; *Literacy Education; Professional Development; *Reading Improvement; *Reading Instruction; *Reading Processes; *Reading Tests; Teacher Education; Teacher Effectiveness ABSTRACT Fulfilling a need for careful and thorough synthesis of an extensive body of findingson reading, this report presents leading experts' interpretations of both current knowledgeof reading and the state of the art and practice of teaching reading.The introduction contains two claims:(1) the knowledge is now available to make worthwhile improvements in reading throughout the United States, and (2) if the practices seen in the classrooms of thebest teachers in the best schools could be introduced everywhere, improvement in reading would be dramatic. The firstchapter of the report stresses reading as the process of constructing meaningfrom written texts, a complex skill requiring the coordinationof a number of interrelated sources of information. The secondchapter, on emerging literacy, argues that reading must beseen as part of a child's general language development and notas a discrete skill isolated from listening, speaking, and writing.
    [Show full text]