CONTRIBUTIONS IN NEW WORLD ARCHAEOLOGY Volume 14 Contributions in New World Archaeology ( ISSN 2080-8216 ) is a semi-annual journal dealing with various aspects of North and South American archaeology, anthropology and ethnohistory. Its main aim is to publish results of archaeological excavations and surveys conducted in various parts of the New World as well as to present papers devoted to the studies of collections of archaeological artefacts discovered in either American continent. Moreover, the journal addresses such subjects as theory, methodology and practice in New World archaeology. www.cnwajournal.org E-mail: [email protected]
EDITORIAL OFFICE: EDITORS: 'HSDUWPHQWRI1HZ:RUOG$UFKDHRORJ\ -DQXV].U]\V]WRI.R]áRZVNL ,QVWLWXWHRI$UFKDHRORJ\ -DURVáDZħUDáND -DJLHOORQLDQ8QLYHUVLW\ 5DGRVáDZ3DORQND *ROHELD6WUHHW 0LFKDá:DVLOHZVNL .UDNRZ 3RODQG Telephone: +48 126631595
EDITORIAL BOARD: Robert H. Brunswig Department of Anthropology, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, USA Víctor González Fernandez Instituto Colombiano de Antropología e Historia, Bogotá, D.C., Colombia Christophe Helmke ,QVWLWXWHRI&URVV&XOWXUDODQG5HJLRQDO6WXGLHV8QLYHUVLW\RI&RSHQKDJHQ'HQPDUN 0LFKDá.REXVLHZLF] ,QVWLWXWHRI$UFKDHRORJ\DQG(WKQRORJ\RIWKH3ROLVK$FDGHP\RI6FLHQFHV 3R]QDĔ%UDQFK 3RODQG .U]\V]WRI0DNRZVNL 3RQWL¿FLD8QLYHUVLGDG&DWyOLFDGHO3HU~/LPD3HUX $OHNVDQGHU3RVHUQ=LHOLĔVNL 'HSDUWPHQWRI(WKQRORJ\DQG&XOWXUDO$QWKURSRORJ\$GDP0LFNLHZLF]8QLYHUVLW\3R]QDĔ 3RODQG 0DULXV]6=LyáNRZVNL &HQWUHIRU3UHFROXPELDQ6WXGLHV8QLYHUVLW\RI:DUVDZ3RODQG
Publishing House
-$*,(//21,$181,9(56,7< ,167,787(2)$5&+$(2/2*<
CONTRIBUTIONS IN NEW WORLD ARCHAEOLOGY Volume 14
Proceedings of the 24th European Maya Conference Cracow, November 11-16, 2019 3DUW
Edited by &KULVWRSKH+HOPNH+DUUL.HWWXQHQDQG-DURVáDZħUDáND
.UDNyZ Cover image: Details of the murals from the chapel of Santa María Xoxoteco, Mexico. 3KRWRE\0LNNHO%¡J&OHPPHQVHQ
/LQJXLVWLFHGLWRUV English: 6WHYH-RQHV *% %$LQ0RGHUQ/DQJXDJHV – English, Director of Distinction /DQJXDJH&HQWUH*GDĔVN3RODQG &ROOHHQ6XQGHUODQG 86$ 0$LQ0RGHUQ/DQJXDJHV± (QJOLVK72()/WHVWVHYDOXDWRU%HOOLQJKDP86$ Spanish: (ZD3DOND 3/ 'HSDUWDPHQWRGH)LORORJtD5RPiQLFD±8QLYHUVLGDG-DJXHOyQLFD .UDNyZ3RORQLD
6FLHQWL¿FHGLWRUV &KULVWRSKH+HOPNH+DUUL.HWWXQHQDQG-HVSHU1LHOVHQ
Cover art design )LOLS6]W\EHU
*UDSKLFVHGLWLQJDQG'73 3UR¿O$UFKHR3XEOLVKLQJ+RXVHDQG(OĪELHWD)LGOHUħUDáND
© Copyright by: Jagiellonian University – Institute of Archaeology .UDNyZ
ISSN 2080-8216 '2, FQZD
The print version of Contributions in New World Archaeology is the primary, reference version of this journal
3XEOLNDFMD¿QDQVRZDQDSU]H]8QLZHUV\WHW-DJLHOORĔVNL
=ZLĊNV]HQLHSR]LRPXXPLĊG]\QDURGRZLHQLDRUD]SRSUDZDGRVWĊSQRĞFLF]DVRSLVPD Contribtutions in New World Archeology ]DGDQLH¿QDQVRZDQHZUDPDFKXPRZ\ QU3'81 ]HĞURGNyZ0LQLVWHUVWZD1DXNLL6]NROQLFWZD:\ĪV]HJR SU]H]QDF]RQ\FKQDG]LDáDOQRĞüXSRZV]HFKQLDMąFąQDXNĊ
Indexed on Contents
)rom the editors
9DVLMDVQRFRQTXLVWDGDV3DWURQHVGHFRQWLQXLGDGGHODFHUiPLFDPD\D Dora Maritza García Patzán
33 Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco, Hidalgo, Mexico Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen
&KLODP%DODP³SURSKHFLHV´DQGWKH6SDQLVKLQYDVLRQDQGRFFXSDWLRQRI /LQJXLVWLFDUFKDHRORJ\LQWKH3RTRPFKL¶VSHDNLQJDUHD WUDFLQJODQJXDJHFRQWDFWV before and after the conquest Igor Vinogradov 97 New World words and things LQWKH2OG:RUOG KRZWKH$PHULFDVFRQTXHUHG the world Harri Kettunen 7KHSHQLQVXODU0D\D¶VXQ¿QLVKHGVSLULWXDOFRQTXHVW Lorraine A. Williams-Beck FROM THE EDITORS This issue of the Contributions in New World Archaeology journal contains the second set of papers presented at the 24 th (XURSHDQ 0D\D &RQIHUHQFH (0& WKDW WRRN SODFH LQ .UDNyZEHWZHHQWKH th and 16 th of November, 2019. The title of the 24 th EMC was Contact and Conquest in the Maya World and Beyond , and it concentrated on the events 500 years ago, since the start of the conquest of Mexico, as well as the colonization and collision of cultures from the early sixteenth century onwards, the changes it brought about, and the dawn of globalization. The conference also addressed the subject of conquests and contacts between GL൵HUHQW0HVRDPHULFDQVRFLHWLHVDQGFXOWXUHVEHIRUHWKH(XURSHDQDUULYDO 'XULQJ WKH FRQIHUHQFH PRUH WKDQ WZHQW\ SDSHUV ZHUH SUHVHQWHG 7KH ¿UVW SDUW RI contributions has been published in volume 13 of CNWA. The present volume contains another set of six papers that are mostly concentrated on the subject of Spanish conquest and changes it brought to Mesoamerica as seen in the art, ceramic production, languages, and religion, and how WKH&ROXPELDQH[FKDQJHLQÀXHQFHGQRWRQO\WKH1HZ:RUOGEXWDOVRWKH2OG 7KH YROXPH EHJLQV ZLWK DQ DUWLFOH E\ 'RUD 0DULW]D *DUFtD 3DW]iQ WLWOHG Vasijas no conquistadas: Patrones de continuidad de la cerámica maya . The author describes changes brought by conquest and colonization in the process of ceramic production in Guatemala and Mexico. The author also shows that despite the introduction of new European ceramic modes, many production techniques and decorations of pre-Columbian origin were maintained in the manufacture of ceramics not only during the colonial period but even up until today. The following article, Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco, Hidalgo, Mexico E\0LNNHO%¡J&OHPPHQVHQUHSRUWVRQ the fascinating colonial period murals that were used in the process of evangelization and conversion of indigenous people of central Mexico. Clemmensen concentrates on presenting many iconographic elements of pre-Columbian origin that were used by friars and local artists to describe the most important concepts and elements of the Christian religion. 7KHQH[WSDSHULQWKHYROXPHLVE\%UXFH/RYHDQGLVWLWOHG Chilam Balam ‘prophecies’ and the Spanish invasion and occupation of Yucatan . The author discusses the famous passages IURPWKH%RRNVRI&KLODP%DODPDWWULEXWHGWR¿YH ah kin , the ritual specialists and diviners who LQWHUSUHWHGWKHZRUGVRIWKHJRGVLQVL[WHHQWKFHQWXU\ ,JRU9LQRJUDGRY¶VSDSHU Linguistic archaeology in the Poqomchi’-speaking area: tracing language contacts before and after the conquest focuses on language contacts in the Maya DUHDE\DQDO\]LQJHDUO\FRORQLDOPDQXVFULSWVZULWWHQLQ3RTRPFKL¶7KHVHZULWWHQGRFXPHQWV FDQEHXVHGLQUHFRQVWUXFWLQJWKHVRFLDOFRQWH[WRIWKHVSHDNHUV)RUH[DPSOHVLPLODULWLHVLQ WKHJUDPPDWLFDOGHYHORSPHQWGXULQJWKHFRORQLDOSHULRGFDQEHREVHUYHGEHWZHHQ3RTRPFKL¶ DQG4¶HTFKL¶,QWHUHVWLQJO\KRZHYHU3RTRPFKL¶PDLQWDLQVWKHWHQGHQF\WRERUURZOLQJXLVWLF VWUXFWXUHV UDWKHU WKDQ LQGLYLGXDO OH[HPHV ZKLFK PD\ EH GXH WR WKH GHOLEHUDWH H൵RUWV RI WKH VSHDNHUVWRSUHVHUYHWKHLUOLQJXLVWLFLGHQWLW\ In the next paper, New World words and things in the Old World: How the Americas conquered the world, +DUUL .HWWXQHQ H[DPLQHV WKH OLQJXLVWLF DQG ELRORJLFDO H൵HFWV RI WKH Columbian exchange by analyzing the history of lexical borrowings from Indigenous languages RIWKH$PHULFDVDURXQGWKHZRUOGDVZHOODVWKHKLVWRU\RI1HZ:RUOGLWHPVLQWKH2OG:RUOG Whereas the Columbian exchange brought numerous plants and animals, as well as technology DQGGLVHDVHVWRWKH1HZ:RUOGWKHÀRZRI1HZ:RUOGLWHPVWRWKHUHVWRIWKHZRUOGZDVPXFK more restricted, involving primarily cultivated plants. However, the author points out that if we consider the Columbian exchange to be an ongoing process, there are numerous species RIÀRUDDQGIDXQDWKDWDUHFRQWLQXDOO\VSUHDGLQJWRQHZDUHDVPDLQO\ZLWKWKHLQWHQWLRQDORU XQLQWHQWLRQDOKHOSRIKXPDQV)XUWKHUPRUH.HWWXQHQSRLQWVRXWWKDWXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHRULJLQV of the species and cultigens, the history of their global dispersal, and the Indigenous methods that foster diversity, provides us with better tools to understand the interconnectedness of culture DQGELRGLYHUVLW\,QDGGLWLRQXQOLNHWKHµLWHPV¶WKHPVHOYHVWKHFXOWXUDONQRZOHGJHDQGGLYHUVLW\ RI1HZ:RUOGSODQWVDQGIRRGVWX൵VGLGQRWDOZD\VWUDYHODORQJZLWKWKHSURGXFWVOHDGLQJDW times, to unwanted consequences, as in the case of malnutrition or famines caused by maize in Africa and potatoes in Ireland. Besides these, the study discusses loanwords that originate in Indigenous American languages and reveals interesting generational patterns in their usage outside the area of the origin of the terms: some terms that were common a few decades ago have all but disappeared today, while others have started a new life in popular culture. 7KHYROXPHFORVHVZLWKDQDUWLFOHE\/RUUDLQH$:LOOLDPV%HFNWLWOHG The peninsular Maya’s XQ¿QLVKHG VSLULWXDO FRQTXHVW The author continues with the topic of indigenous responses WR WKH LGHRORJLFDO DQG UHOLJLRXV FKDQJHV EURXJKW WR WKH DIDACTICS AND COSMOS: HEAVEN AND HELL IN THE EARLY COLONIAL MURALS OF SANTA MARÍA XOXOTECO, HIDALGO, MEXICO 0ංൾඅ%&අൾආආൾඇඌൾඇ Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. E- mail: [email protected] Abstract The 16 th FHQWXU\PXUDOVLQWKHFKDSHORI6DQWD0DUtD;R[RWHFR+LGDOJRDUHGLGDFWLFDUWZRUNVSDLQWHGZLWKLQWKH ¿UVWGHFDGHVDIWHUWKHFRQTXHVWZLWKWKHSXUSRVHRIFRQYHUWLQJWKHLQGLJHQRXVSRSXODWLRQWR&KULVWLDQLW\,QWKLVDUWLFOH I analyse the representations of heaven and hell in the murals, and I demonstrate how the artists chose motifs with PHDQLQJERWKLQ&KULVWLDQDQG0HVRDPHULFDQFRVPRORJ\,GLVFXVVKRZWKHPXUDOVUHÀHFWDZLGHVSUHDGPHWKRGDPRQJ the friars and the indigenous authors and artists of using Mesoamerican concepts and motifs to convey Christianity and IDFLOLWDWHWKHWUDQVLWLRQWRWKHQHZUHOLJLRQ)LUVWO\,SURYLGHDGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHPXUDOVDQGDUHYLHZRIWKHLUGLGDFWLF function from the perspective of the Augustinian mission. I then turn to some of the lesser-studied parts of the murals: WKHSDUDGLVHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVLQWKHYDXOW±WKHÀRUDWKH]RRPRUSKLFDQGDQWKURSRPRUSKLFFUHDWXUHVDQGWKH6RODU&KULVW – the mouth of hells on the sidewalls and the adjacent representations of Satan mixed with the characteristics of the tzitzimime , an Aztec class of deities branded by the early missionaries as devils. .H\ZRUGV Indo-Christian art, Colonial art, cosmology, Colonial Mexico, Mictlan, wall paintings, Solar-Christ, tzitzimime Resumen /RVPXUDOHVGHOVLJOR;9,HQODFDSLOODGH6DQWD0DUtD;R[RWHJR+LGDOJRVRQREUDVGHDUWHGLGiFWLFDV)XHURQ SLQWDGRVGXUDQWHODVSULPHUDVGpFDGDVGHVSXpVGHODFRQTXLVWDFRQHOSURSyVLWRGHFULVWLDQL]DUODSRSXODFLyQLQGtJHQD (QHVWHDUWtFXORDQDOL]RODVSUHVHQWDFLRQHVGHOFLHOR\GHOLQ¿HUQR\SRQJRHQHYLGHQFLDFyPRORVDUWLVWDVHOLJLHURQWHPDV TXHUHSUHVHQWDURQXQVLJQL¿FDGRWDQWRHQODFRVPRORJtDFULVWLDQDFRPRPHVRDPHULFDQD([DPLQRFyPRORVPXUDOHV UHÀHMDQXQPpWRGRH[WHQGLGRHQWUHORVIUDLOHV\ORVFUHDGRUHV\DUWLVWDVLQGtJHQDVGHXVDUFRQFHSWRV\WHPDVPHVRDPHUL - FDQRVSDUDWUDQVPLWLUODFULVWLDQLGDG\IDFLOLWDUODWUDQVPLVLyQDODUHOLJLyQQXHYD3ULPHURSURSRUFLRQRXQDGHVFULSFLyQ GHORVPXUDOHV\XQDUHVHxDGHVXIXQFLyQGLGiFWLFDGHVGHGHODSHUVSHFWLYDGHODPLVLyQDJXVWLQD/XHJRHQIRFRPL LQYHVWLJDFLyQHQODVSDUWHVGHORVPXUDOHVSRFRHVWXGLDGDVHVGHFLUODVSUHVHQWDFLRQHVGHOSDUDtVRHQODEyYHGD±OD ÀRUDODVFULDWXUDV]RRPRUIDV\DQWURSRPyU¿FDV\HO&ULVWR6RODU±ODVERFDVGHOLQ¿HUQRHQODVSDUHGHVODWHUDOHV\ODV representaciones adyacentes de Satán mezcladas con las características de tzitzimime , una categoría de dioses aztecas marcados como diablos por los primeros misionarios. Palabras clave: Arte indocristiano, arte colonial, cosmología, Mexico colonial, Mictlan, pintura mural, Cristo-Sol, tzitzimime 34 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen INTRODUCTION This article revisits the murals of the 16 th century Augustinian chapel of Santa María Xoxoteco, a small village northeast of Mexico City in the mountains of the state of Hidalgo. The murals are famous for their elaborate illustrations of indigenous people tempted by devils WRGULQNSXOTXHRID6SDQLVK encomendero ZLHOGLQJDÀDJHOOXPRIDFRQYHUWWXUQLQJKLVEDFN on his old religion rendered as a codex-style temple pyramid, and of the elaborate torture of both indigenous and European sinners in hell. In a unique and direct fashion, they attest to the complex interplay of religion, social life and politics in the early colonial period. The murals also illustrate the paradoxical nature of colonial art as they address the violence and suppression of the era, while also bearing witness to the religious and artistic creativity that resulted from the early contact between the Christian and the Mesoamerican cultures. Since the local inhabitants of Santa María Xoxoteco discovered the murals under layers of whitewash during restoration in the 1970s, the chapel has attracted scholarly attention. Shortly after the discovery, the architect Juan Artigas became involved in the restoration of the murals, and he published a monograph with descriptions and drawings of the chapel and murals (Artigas 1979, 2009). The year before, the art historian Elena Estrada de Gerlero had published an article comparing the murals to those of the open chapel of nearby Actopan (Estrada de Gerlero 1978). In her article, she discusses the emphatic focus of the two chapels on the torments in hell and WKH/DVW-XGJHPHQW6KHSURSRVHVWKDWWKH$XJXVWLQLDQV¶FKRLFHRILPDJHU\ZDVJRYHUQHGE\ an eschatological frame of mind, characteristic of the 16 th century when devastating smallpox and cocoliztli epidemics raged. More recent publications by the historians Arturo Hernández DQG5REHUW-DFNVRQSURYLGHLQGHSWKDQDO\VHVRIWKHVRFLRFXOWXUDOFRQWH[WRIWKH$XJXVWLQLDQ PLVVLRQLQWKHDUHDQRUWKRI0H[LFR&LW\±7HQRFKWLWODQ +HUQiQGH] -DFNVRQ ,Q VKRUWERWKDXWKRUVFRQFOXGHGWKDWWKHPXUDOV¶HVFKDWRORJLFDOIRFXVUHÀHFWHGWKH$XJXVWLQLDQV¶ resort to a more heavy-handed indoctrination approach, due to the severe challenges they met being few in numbers and missionising on the fringe of Mesoamerica in challenging geographical VXUURXQGLQJV +HUQiQGH] DQG -DFNVRQ DOVR ERWK DUJXHG WKDW WKH ZDU ZLWK WKH VHPLQRPDGLF Chichimecs would have created a need for explicit imagery that could have forced or threatened WKH2WRPtSRSXODWLRQRIWKHUHJLRQLQWRDOOLDQFHVZLWKWKH6SDQLDUGV +HUQiQGH] -DFNVRQ ൵ $SDUWIURPWKHVHZRUNVRQ;R[RWHFRWKHPXUDOVKDYHEHHQPHQWLRQHGLQ GLVFXVVLRQVRQYDU\LQJDVSHFWVRIWKHHYDQJHOLVDWLRQ HJ&OHPPHQVHQ .OHLQ /DUD /ySH]$XVWLQ 0DFXLO0DUWtQH] 3HWHUVRQ In previous publications, the overarching focus has been on the parts of the murals that FRQFHUQVLQIXOEHKDYLRXUDQGHWHUQDOVX൵HULQJLQKHOO HJ(VWUDGDGH*HUOHUR +HUQiQGH] -DFNVRQ ,QWKLVDUWLFOH,ZLOOZLGHQWKHIRFXVWRLQFOXGHWKHSDUDGLVLDFDOWKHPHRI WKHYDXOWZKLFKKDVUHFHLYHGDOPRVWQRDWWHQWLRQLQWKHOLWHUDWXUH)XUWKHUPRUH,H[DPLQHPRWLIV ZLWKLQWKHVLGHZDOOV¶GHSLFWLRQVRIKHOOWKDWOLNHZLVHKDYHUHFHLYHGOLWWOHDWWHQWLRQLQSUHYLRXV ZRUNV,GHPRQVWUDWHKRZWKHDUWLVWVSRUWUD\HGERWKKHDYHQDQGKHOOXVLQJWKHVSDWLDOSRWHQWLDO of the chapel, and how they chose motifs for these realms that held a meaning not only within Christian iconography but also within the Mesoamerican religion. In doing this, they adhered to the colonial norms of including indigenous elements in the presentation of Christianity. 7KHDUJXPHQWLQWKLVDUWLFOHLVEDVHGRQWKHWKHRUHWLFDOSUHPLVHWKDWFRORQLDODUWUHÀHFWVDQ LQWHUWZLQLQJRILQGLJHQRXVUHOLJLRQDQG&KULVWLDQLW\WKDWWRRNSODFHLQWKHGHFDGHVIROORZLQJ WKH FRQTXHVW 7KLV SUHPLVH LV VXSSRUWHG E\ UHFHQW FRPSDUDWLYH ZRUNV VXFK DV WKRVH RI DUW KLVWRULDQV6DPXHO<(GJHUWRQ -DLPH/DUD DQG(OHDQRU:DNH ZKR Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 35 have been able to demonstrate recurring themes, styles and motifs in the architecture, murals and sculptural art of a large number of colonial churches. Although they sometimes disagree ZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHH[DFWLQWHUSUHWDWLRQWKH\XSKROGWKHFRPPRQK\SRWKHVLVWKDWWKHVHDUWZRUNV V\VWHPDWLFDOO\UHÀHFWDPL[WXUHRILQGLJHQRXVDQG&KULVWLDQUHOLJLRQ6XFKDK\SRWKHVLVFRQWUDVWV to earlier views on both colonial art and the conquest itself. Writing in the 1960s, art historian George Kubler claimed that the pre-Columbian art motifs created within the colonial society ZHUHµIUDJPHQWV¶DQGµVXUYLYDOV¶GHSULYHGRIPHDQLQJUDWKHUWKDQHYLGHQFHRIDFRQWLQXLW\RI LQGLJHQRXV FXOWXUH .XEOHU /LNH VHYHUDO RI KLV FRQWHPSRUDULHV .XEOHU GRXEWHG WKDW indigenous religion had made it through the trauma of the conquest. Since then, however, a steadily growing body of translations of texts from indigenous languages and many important VFKRODUO\SXEOLFDWLRQVKDYHFDXVHGDFKDQJHLQDWWLWXGHWRZDUGVWKHFRQTXHVW HJ/RFNKDUW 0DWWKHZDQG2XGLMN 5HVWDOO 5HVWDOO et al. 2005). Importantly, scholars have demonstrated the active participation of indigenous intellectuals in the development of the PDWHULDOXVHGLQWKHLQGRFWULQDWLRQSURFHVV HJ%XUNKDUW &KULVWHQVHQ )DUULVV /HHPLQJ 6HUPRQVUHOLJLRXVSOD\VDQGRWKHUGRFWULQDOWH[WVZHUH DXWKRUHGE\WKHVHLQGLYLGXDOVDQGEHDUDGLVWLQFWLQGLJHQRXVPDUNUHYHDOLQJPDQ\LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV of Christianity, some of them perhaps less Christian and more indigenous than the friars would KDYHKRSHGIRU)XUWKHUPRUHWKHGLVFRYHU\DQGUHVWRUDWLRQRILPSRUWDQWPXUDOSURJUDPVIURP the 16 th FHQWXU\WRJHWKHUZLWKZRUNVWKDWKDYHV\VWHPDWLFDOO\UHJLVWHUHGLQGLJHQRXVHOHPHQWV in the art and architecture of the early colonial period, have made the visual arts accessible as VRXUFHVRIFRORQLDOUHOLJLRQ HJ5H\HV9DOHULR 3DUWRIWKLVSURFHVVLVWKHUHDOLVDWLRQ that indigenous artists were responsible for almost all the murals painted in the early colonial period, and that there was a high degree of collaboration between the friars and the artists, DQGVRPHWLPHVHYHQDQLQGLJHQRXVDXWRQRP\LQWKHFKRLFHRIPRWLIV 3HWHUVRQ 5H\HV9DOHULR %XLOGLQJRQWKLVLQVLJKWWKHZRUNVVXFKDVWKRVHRI(GJHUWRQ /DUDDQG:DNHPHQWLRQHGEHIRUHFRQWULEXWHWRDPRUHFRKHUHQWXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIFRORQLDODUW and its place within the larger narrative of the religious development during the 16 th century. 7KHVHDXWKRUVWKRURXJKO\RSSRVHWKHHDUOLHULGHDRIµIUDJPHQWV¶RUµVXUYLYDOV¶E\IRFXVLQJRQWKH EURDGHUWHQGHQFLHVZLWKLQWKHPDQ\FRORQLDODUWZRUNV,QWKLVDUWLFOH,DSSO\DVLPLODUDSSURDFK DV,VHHNWRJDLQDEHWWHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKH;R[RWHFRPXUDOVWKURXJKDFRPSDULVRQZLWKRWKHU contemporary sources, both written as well as visual. Comparing the murals with other doctrinal material of the time is necessary in establishing how they relate to the evangelisation of the 16 th FHQWXU\2ISDUWLFXODUUHOHYDQFHDUHVRXUFHVUHODWHGWRWKH$]WHFVDVWKHPXUDOVRI;R[RWHFR FRQWDLQVHYHUDO$]WHFHOHPHQWVLQGLFDWLQJWKDWWKHDUWLVWVZHUH$]WHFVKDG$]WHFD൶OLDWLRQVRU WKDWWKH\ZRUNHGZLWKLQ$]WHFDUHDV Before examining the representations of heaven and hell in the vault and on the sidewalls, LQWKHIROORZLQJ,SURYLGHDGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHGL൵HUHQWSDUWVRIWKHPXUDOV THE CHAPEL AND THE MURALS In pre-Columbian times, Xoxoteco was part of Metztitlan, an independent altepetl with a SULPDULO\2WRPtVSHDNLQJSRSXODWLRQ 1. Shortly after the conquest, Metztitlan was subjugated by the Spaniards, and Hernán Cortés turned the region into an encomienda (Gerhard 1993: 1 See Hernández (2008) for a deeper historical review of the area before and after the conquest. 36 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen 7KH$XJXVWLQLDQVZHUHWKH¿UVWWRDWWHPSWDV\VWHPDWLFLQGRFWULQDWLRQRIWKHSHRSOH of Metztitlan, and from 1536 and in the following decades, they established a series of mission VWDWLRQVLQWKHUXJJHGDQGPRXQWDLQRXVDUHDVRI+LGDOJR 5XELDO*DUFLD ൵ 7KH\ were few in numbers, and in Metztitlan a mere 4-5 resident missionaries faced the challenge of converting a population of some 20,000 individuals spread over many small villages throughout WKH UHJLRQ -DFNVRQ ,Q WKH LQGLJHQRXV ZRUNHUV PDQDJHG WR ¿QLVK DQ LPSUHVVLYHFKXUFK/RV6DQWRV5H\HVZLWKDEUHDWKWDNLQJYLHZRQWRSRIDKLOOLQWKHWRZQRI Metztitlan. However, throughout the region, the Augustinians established mostly small visita chapels without resident friars, among these the chapel of Xoxoteco. The chapel of Xoxoteco, RULJLQDOO\DµRSHQFKDSHO¶ZLWKDQRSHQIDFDGHFRQVLVWVRIDVLQJOHQDYHWKDWPHDVXUHVPHWHUV in length and 7 meters in width, and a small adjoining building (Hernández 2008: 215). The murals, which are all located in the nave, can be divided into three categories: Biblical scenes, KHOODQGWHPSWDWLRQDQGDSDUDGLVLDFDOWKHPH )LJXUH 2. These themes are typical for the late medieval period, and the murals are in many ways very similar to the iconography found in contemporary churches throughout Europe. The biblical scenes are located on the wall behind the altar with depictions from Genesis, DQGD/DVW-XGJHPHQWPRWLIEDVHGRQWKHERRNRI5HYHODWLRQV )LJXUHDF 7KHVFHQHVIURP *HQHVLVLQFOXGH*RG¶VFUHDWLRQRI(YHIURPWKHULERI$GDPDQGRQWKHRWKHUVLGHRIWKHDOWDUWKH Figure 1. 7KHFKDSHORI;R[RWHFR3KRWRE\WKHDXWKRU 2 6HH+HUQiQGH] IRUDZDONWKURXJKRIDOOWKHVFHQHV Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 37 Figure 2. 6NHWFKRIFKDSHODQGSODFHPHQWRIPXUDOVZLWKWKHULJKWZDOORQWRSDQGOHIWZDOOEHORZD /DVW Judgement, b) creation of Eve, c) the original sin and expulsion from paradise, d) mouth of hell and rep- resentation of Satan, e) idolatry vs Christianity, f) temptation of adultery (?), g) temptation of stealing (?), K WKHHYDQJHOLVWVL PRXWKRIKHOODQGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRI6DWDQMN ÀDJHOODWLRQSXQLVKPHQWO WHPSWDWLRQ of imbibement. Graphics and photos by the author. 38 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen Figure 3. 6FHQHVIURPWKHVLGHZDOOV D ÀD\LQJ ULJKWZDOO E GLVPHPEHUPHQW OHIWZDOO F GLVHPERZ - elment and cannibalism (left wall). Graphics by the author. WHPSWDWLRQLQWKH*DUGHQRI(GHQDQGWKHVXEVHTXHQWH[SXOVLRQ7KH/DVW-XGJHPHQWPRWLI follows a standard composition with Jesus sitting on an orb parting the righteous from the GDPQHGDQGVHQGLQJWKHODWWHUÀ\LQJLQWRDQRSHQPRXWKRIKHOOWRKLVOHIW2QWKHRSSRVLWH ZDOODERYHWKHHQWUDQFHWRWKHFKDSHOWKHDUWLVWVSDLQWHGDEODFNDQGZKLWH*ROJRWKDVFHQH relating the story of the resurrection of Christ. The scenes of temptation and torments in hell WRJHWKHUZLWKWZRHQRUPRXVPRXWKVRIKHOOWDNHXSWKHPXUDOVRQERWKVLGHZDOOV )LJXUH 0RVW RI WKH VSDFH LV GHGLFDWHG WR VLQQHUV ZKR XQGHUJR WRUPHQWV RI YDULRXV NLQGV LQFOXGLQJ GLVPHPEHUPHQW GLVHPERZHOPHQW EXUQLQJ LQJHVWLRQ RI ERLOLQJ ZDWHU ÀD\LQJ LPSDOHPHQW DQGPRUH )LJXUH :LWKWRUWXUHYLFWLPVRIERWK(XURSHDQDQGLQGLJHQRXVHWKQLFLW\WKHVH VFHQHVFRQVWLWXWHDIDVFLQDWLQJ1HZ:RUOGYHUVLRQRIWKHPHGLHYDOJHQUHGXEEHGµPRUDOLWLHV¶E\ Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 39 WKHDUFKDHRORJLVW&OLYH5RXVH5RXVHGHVFULEHVWKHJHQUHDVµPRUDODQGGLGDFWLFRUDOOHJRULFDO WKHPHVXVXDOO\FRQWDLQLQJZDUQLQJVDJDLQVWSDUWLFXODUVLQVRUPRGHVRIOLIH¶ 5RXVH )ROORZLQJ WKH FRQYHQWLRQV RI WKLV JHQUH WKH DUWLVWV LQ ;R[RWHFR DOVR LQFOXGHG VL[ YLJQHWWHV GHSLFWLQJVSHFL¿FWHPSWDWLRQVWKDWFRXOGOHDGWRVLQ,QWKH2OG:RUOGWKLVYLVXDOIRUPDWZRXOG KDYHVHUYHGWRUHPLQGSHRSOHRIZKDWWKH\DOUHDG\NQHZ WKDWWKH\ZRXOGJRWRKHOOLIWKH\ sinned. To the convert in the New World, however, this logic was not necessarily so obvious. In Mesoamerica, it was not your deeds in life that decided your fate in the afterlife, but the type RIGHDWK\RXVX൵HUHG'\LQJLQEDWWOHZRXOGVHQG\RXWRRQHSODFHGURZQLQJZRXOGODQG\RX in another place, and so on. Most people – all those who died an undramatic death – went to the underworld, to the place the Aztecs called Mictlan 6DKDJ~Q ,,, 7KH µPRUDOLWLHV¶IRUPDWDVLWLVSDLQWHGLQ;R[RWHFRPXVWKDYHEHHQDXVHIXOWRROIRUWKHIULDUV LQWKH1HZ:RUOGZKHQLQVWUXFWLQJWKHLQGLJHQRXVFRQYHUWVLQWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQRQH¶V comportment in life and the afterlife. 2QHRIWKHPRUHLOOXVWUDWLYHRIWKHVL[YLJQHWWHVFHQHVVKRZVWZRLQGLJHQRXVSHRSOHEHLQJ VHUYHG SXOTXH E\ D VHUYDQW ZKLOH GHPRQV OXUN EHKLQG WKHP V\PEROLVLQJ WHPSWDWLRQ IRU D FORVHU VWXG\ RI WKLV PRWLI VHH 3HWHUVRQ 7KH IULDUV VDZ SXOTXHGULQNLQJ DV D serious problem, not least because they experienced a clear connection between intoxication DQG LGRODWU\ 1LHOVHQ DQG +DQVHQ VHH DOVR &yUGRYD 7KH YLJQHWWH RSSRVLWH WKH SXOTXHGULQNHUVSUREDEO\GHSLFWVDSHUVRQEHLQJWHPSWHGE\GHPRQVWRVWHDOIURPDFKHVWEXW the painting has badly deteriorated. Another vignette depicts two men and two women with GHPRQVVLWWLQJRQWKHLUVKRXOGHUVOLNHO\LQGLFDWLQJWKHWHPSWDWLRQRIDGXOWHU\,QWKHYLJQHWWH above, a cogent and instructive scene shows a baptised indigenous man turning away from his old religion represented by a pre-Columbian temple pyramid and two indigenous priests with ORQJEODFNKDLULQFHQVHEXUQHUVDQGWREDFFRFRQWDLQHUV )LJXUH :LWKKLVEDFNWRKLVROG UHOLJLRQWKLVLQGLYLGXDOIROORZVWKHH[DPSOHRID(XURSHDQORRNLQJSHUVRQDQGSUD\VWRZDUGVD small emblem with the initials IHS, the monogram of Christ. The last two vignettes seem to have a more acute and political dimension, as they both show a Spaniard wielding a weapon on an indigenous man. In one image, the latter is well dressed, DQGLWVHHPVWKDWKHLVDFFHSWLQJKLVSXQLVKPHQWZKLOHLQWKHRWKHUKHLVÀHHLQJDFFRPSDQLHG E\DGHYLO7KHPHVVDJHLVPRVWOLNHO\WKDWRQHVKRXOGDFFHSWRQH¶VSXQLVKPHQW$V$UWLJDV QRWHGWKLVZRXOGEHORJLFDOFRQVLGHULQJWKHIULDUV¶REVHVVLRQZLWKÀDJHOODWLRQDQG PDVRFKLVWLFSXQLVKPHQWDQGPRUHRYHUFRUSRUDOSXQLVKPHQWRIWKLVNLQGZDVDVWDQGDUGPHDVXUH WDNHQWRZDUGVSHRSOHIRUQRWDWWHQGLQJFKXUFKDQGRWKHUR൵HQFHV IRUDQRWKHULQWHUSUHWDWLRQVHH Hernández 2008: 188-189, 225). $VPHQWLRQHGSUHYLRXVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRIWKHPXUDOV (VWUDGDGH*HUOHUR +HUQiQGH] -DFNVRQ KDYHYLHZHGWKHWHPSWDWLRQDQGWRUWXUHVFHQHVDVDQHVSHFLDOO\KDUVKZD\ RI JHWWLQJ SHRSOH WR FRPSO\ ZLWK WKH IULDUV¶ GLUHFWLRQV UHÀHFWLQJ WKH$XJXVWLQLDQV UHVRUW WR more desperate measures in the region of Metztitlan. However, devils and hellish torture were standard components in medieval art and not that surprising in the murals of Xoxoteco, especially considering the pronounced eschatological beliefs of the New World-friars and their concern ZLWKWKHSUHVHQFHDQGSRZHURI6DWDQ VHH&HUYDQWHV (GJHUWRQ /DUD 3HWHUVRQ 3KHODQ LGHQWL¿HGIXOOEORZQPLOOHQQLDOLVPLQWKHZULWLQJV RI VHYHUDO KLJKVWDQGLQJ )UDQFLVFDQV DQG DOWKRXJK WKLV WKHRORJLFDO H[WUHPH PD\ KDYH EHHQ less prevalent among the Augustinians, the latter did see themselves in a wider cosmological- KLVWRULFDOSHUVSHFWLYHZKHUHWKH¿JKWZLWKWKH'HYLOZDVWKHWXUQLQJSRLQW 5XELDO*DUFLD -DFNVRQ 7KHIULDUVH[SHULHQFHGWKLV¿JKWDVYHU\UHDOLQFOXGLQJLQ0HW]WLWODQDVLV 40 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen Figure 4. 9LJQHWWH IURP VLGH ZDOO VKRZLQJ DQ LQGLJHQRXV SHUVRQ WXUQLQJ KLV EDFN WR KLV ROG UHOLJLRQ 3KRWRE\WKHDXWKRU evident from a telling anecdote recorded by the Augustinian chronicler Juan de Grijalva writing in the 17 th FHQWXU\$FFRUGLQJWR*ULMDOYDRQHRIWKH¿UVWIULDUVWRHQWHU0HW]WLWODQLQWKHV $QWRQLRGH5RDKDGWKHGRXEWIXOSOHDVXUHRIWDONLQJWRWKH'HYLOKLPVHOILQWKHJXLVHRIDVWRQH sculpture of the deity Mola worshipped by the population of Metztitlan. When interrogated by Roa, MolaDGPLWWHGZKRKHUHDOO\ZDV±DIDOOHQDQJHO±DQGWKDWDOOWKRVHZKRPKHKDGWULFNHG into venerating him for generations were now burning in hell (Grijalva 1985: 90). The devil was OLWHUDOO\FRQVLGHUHGWREHZDLWLQJRXWVLGHWKHFKXUFKZDOOVZKLFKPDNHVWKHPXUDOVOHVVDEVWUDFW and more realistic than a modern viewer might imagine. ,QFRQWUDVWWRWKHVLGHZDOOV¶VFHQHVRIWRUWXUHDQGVX൵HULQJWKHPXUDOVLQWKHYDXOWLQVWLO DFDOPSOHDVDQWDQGGUHDP\IHHOLQJLQWKHEHKROGHU )LJXUH /DUJHEOXHUHGDQGJROGHQ DFDQWKXVDQGJUDSHYLQHVGRPLQDWHDQG¿OOWKHYRLGVLQWKHULEEHGYDXOW:HOOKLGGHQZLWKLQ WKHYHJHWDOLPDJHU\]RRPRUSKLFDQGDQWKURSRPRUSKLFEHLQJVZLWKÀRZHUVHPDQDWLQJIURPWKH PRXWKVXUSULVHWKHH\H )LJXUHDE 5RXQGWKHORZHUHGJHVRIWKHYDXOWWKHIRXUHYDQJHOLVWVVLW FDOPO\LQZKLWHFORXGVWKDWIRUPDSURWHFWLQJOD\HUDJDLQVWWKHWRUWXUHVFHQHVEHORZ )LJXUHK In the middle of the vault, a large round motif encircled by yellow sun rays and an outer circle ZLWKDUHGÀHXUGHOLVSDWWHUQIUDPHDODUJHSHUVRQDRIZKRPRQO\WKHVLOKRXHWWHLVYLVLEOHGXH WRGHWHULRUDWLRQ )LJXUHD +RZHYHUWKHRXWOLQHRIWKHVLOKRXHWWHUHYHDOVDKDQGKROGLQJD globus cruciger – an orb with a cross – as well as a halo around the head. The silhouette appears to portray Christ as salvator mundi framed as the sun. The artists also painted another circular Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 41 Figure 5. 7KHYDXOW3KRWRE\WKHDXWKRU Figure 6. 'HWDLOVRIWKHYDXOW D ]RRPRUSKLFEHLQJVLQJLQJÀRZHUVE ELUGPDQVLQJLQJÀRZHUVF SODQW OHDYHV3KRWRVE\WKHDXWKRU 42 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen Figure 7. D 6RODU&KULVWLQWKHµ]HQLWK¶RIWKHYDXOW3KRWRE\WKHDXWKRUE $]WHFVRODUGLVFDIWHU3HxD¿HO 1890: III: 306. Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 43 Figure 8. Detail from the grotesque. 3KRWRE\WKHDXWKRU motif in the vault between the Christ-motif and the wall behind the altar, but the central image in this circular form, if there ever was one, is gone today. 2QHODVWPRWLIGHVHUYHVPHQWLRQ:HOOKLGGHQZLWKLQWKHUHSHWLWLRXVPRWLIVRIWKHJURWHVTXHV the head of a small reptilian, reminiscent of the mouth of hell just below it, bites the arm of an DQJHO )LJXUH +HUHWKHDUWLVWVSRVVLEO\JDYHWKHLURZQLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIWKHEDWWOHEHWZHHQ good and evil, as a humorous comment on the overall theme of the murals. 3UHYLRXVGDWLQJRIWKHPXUDOVKDVSODFHGWKHPZLWKLQDWLPHVSDQIURPWR7KHVH GDWHVDUHEDVHGRQFLUFXPVWDQWLDOHYLGHQFHDVWKHUHLVQRLQDXJXUDWLRQSODWHRUDQ\RWKHUNLQG of inscribed or written year. Artigas proposed that the paintings were made between 1540 and 1556, primarily based on the type of clothing worn by the individuals in the paintings (Artigas 1979: 82). Estrada de Gerlero compared the style of the paintings to contemporary codices, but VKHDOVRDUJXHGWKDWHVFKDWRORJLFDOPRWLIVOLNHWKRVHRI;R[RWHFRZHUHPRVWSRSXODUGXULQJ ODUJHVFDOHVRFLDOFULVLVVXFKDVHSLGHPLFV,QOLJKWRIWKLVVKHGHHPHGLWPRVWOLNHO\WKDWWKH PXUDOVZHUHSDLQWHGLQWKHZDNHRIWKHGHYDVWDWLQJFRFROL]WOLHSLGHPLFRIEXWSUREDEO\ before 1585 where most murals were whitewashed on the order of the Third Mexican Council (Estrada de Gerlero 1978: 86-87). More in line with Artigas, Hernández argued that the murals were painted in the mid-16 th century. However, he based his argument on an analysis of the VRFLRUHOLJLRXVVLWXDWLRQRIWKHDUHD +HUQiQGH] -DFNVRQDJUHHGZLWK+HUQiQGH] IRFXVLQJ HVSHFLDOO\ RQ WKH PXUDOV DV WKH UHDFWLRQ RI WKH$XJXVWLQLDQV WR FRQÀLFWV ZLWK WKH &KLFKLPHFVFRXSOHGZLWKWKHIULDUV¶UHDOLVDWLRQWKDWWKHFRQYHUVLRQZDVWRRVXSHU¿FLDODPRQJ WKH2WRPt$FFRUGLQJWR-DFNVRQ WKLVZRXOGLQGLFDWHDGDWHVRPHZKHUHLQWKHV A unique circumstance regarding the murals of Xoxoteco is that almost the exact same composition and motifs exist in another chapel from the same period, in the town of Actopan VRPHNLORPHWUHVWRWKHZHVWRI;R[RWHFR7KHPXUDOVLQ$FWRSDQZHUHGLVFRYHUHGLQWKH late 1970s, a few years after those of Xoxoteco, and they turned out to be almost identical %DOOHVWHURV (VWUDGDGH*HUOHUR 7KHFKDSHOLQ$FWRSDQLVODUJHUDQGWKHDUWLVWV had room to paint a few more scenes from the Bible, but it remains obvious that the murals in the two chapels must have been painted either from the same template or by copying the other. Apart from the extra additional scenes, only a few details in the composition and some minor changes to the motifs set the two mural programs apart. The artists who painted Xoxoteco, KRZHYHUZHUHQRWWKHVDPHDVWKRVHZKRSDLQWHG$FWRSDQZKLFKLVFOHDUIURPWKHGL൵HUHQW VW\OHV7KHDUWLVWVRI;R[RWHFRDUHXQNQRZQEXWLQWKHPXUDOVRI$FWRSDQDVLJQDWXUHUHDGLQJ µ-2*(5¶FRXOGSRLQWWRWKHLQGLJHQRXVDUWLVW-XDQ*HUVRQZKRDOVRSDLQWHGWKHPXUDOVRI Tecamachalco (Ballesteros 1999: 72). 44 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen +DYLQJUHYLHZHGWKHGL൵HUHQWSDUWVRIWKHPXUDOVZLWKDEULHIGLVFXVVLRQRQWKHLUUROHZLWKLQ the Augustinian mission, I now return to the representations of paradise in the vault and the underworld on the sidewalls. CONVERGING COSMOLOGIES: THE COLONIAL INTERPRETATIONS OF HEAVEN AND HELL IN XOXOTECO A severe challenge for the friars consisted in conveying the Christian concepts of heaven and hell to the indigenous population 3. To implement the Christian cosmos, the friars and their indigenous assistants chose to model it upon indigenous cosmological realms, and they W\SLFDOO\NHSWWKHLQGLJHQRXVZRUGVIRUWKHVHUHDOPVLQVWHDGRIµSDUDGLVH¶DQGµKHOO¶ %XUNKDUW ൵ )DUULVV ,Q$]WHFFRVPRORJ\WKHDIWHUZRUOGFDOOHG Mictlan µDPRQJ WKHGHDG¶ %XUNKDUW EHFDPHPRUHRUOHVVV\QRQ\PRXVZLWKKHOODIWHUWKHFRQTXHVW $FFRUGLQJWRWKHVRXUFHVLWZDVDQXQSOHDVDQWSODFHEXWQRWDSODFHRIWRUWXUHDQG¿UHOLNHWKH &KULVWLDQKHOO5DWKHULWZDVDFROGGDUNSODFHO\LQJVRPHZKHUHZLWKLQWKHHDUWKDQGUXOHG by the death deity Mictlanteuctli and his consort Mictlancihuatl %XUNKDUW VHHDOVR 0LNXOVND 6RPHIULDUVZHUHDZDUHRIWKHFDYHDWVRIGUDZLQJDSDUDOOHOEHWZHHQKHOODQG Mictlan RQHSUREOHPEHLQJWKDWPRVWSHRSOHDOUHDG\H[SHFWHGWRJRWKHUHVFDUFHO\PDNLQJLW H൵HFWLYHDVDWKUHDWWRIROORZ&KULVWLDQPRUDOVWDQGDUGV %XUNKDUW 1HYHUWKHOHVV it became the commonly used model for hell, although some further explanation was needed WRLOOXVWUDWHWKHµUHDO¶QDWXUHRIWKLVSODFH7KHIULDUVGHVFULEHGGHPRQVWUDWHGDQGGHSLFWHGKHOO ZLWKYLYLGLPDJHU\LQRUGHUWRLPSRVHD&KULVWLDQFRQFHSWLRQRIWKHXQGHUZRUOG /HHPLQJQG 7KLVQRWRQO\WRRNSODFHLQVHUPRQVEXWDOVRLQUHOLJLRXVWKHDWUHZKHUHKHOOZDVUHFUHDWHGZLWK actors playing the role of demons and sinners (Schuessler 2013: 128-175). Some friars also held local demonstrations of the torments in hell by burning live animals or pouring hot water over WKHPVHOYHV %XUNKDUW In the same way as the friars reused the concept of Mictlan , they exploited various indigenous DIWHUZRUOGVWRLPSRVHWKHFRQFHSWRISDUDGLVH %XUNKDUW 0LVXQGHUVWDQGLQJVDOVRDURVH KHUHDVWKHVHDIWHUZRUOGVKDGGL൵HUHQWIXQFWLRQVIURPWKH&KULVWLDQSDUDGLVHMXVWDV Mictlan was YHU\GL൵HUHQWIURPKHOO7\SLFDOO\DVPRGHOVIRUWKH&KULVWLDQSDUDGLVHWKHPLVVLRQDULHVFKRVH those of the indigenous afterworlds that were lush gardens and characterised by a wealth of SUHFLRXVÀRUDIDXQDDQGVWRQHVZLWKSRVLWLYHUHOLJLRXVFRQQRWDWLRQVIRUWKHLQGLJHQRXVSHRSOH %XUNKDUW /DUD 3HWHUVRQ 6DKDJ~Q¶V ERRN RI K\PQV in Nahuatl is an illustrative example, where heaven – as well as Bethlehem and other holy ORFDWLRQV±LVFRQVHTXHQWO\DWWULEXWHGZLWKµVZHHWVPHOOLQJÀRZHUV¶µJROGHQÀRZHUVZLWKSHWDOV UDLQLQJGRZQ¶µÀRZHUVVKLQLQJOLNHJROGHQGHZ¶HWF 6DKDJ~Q VHHDOVR%XUNKDUW +RO\¿JXUHVVXFKDV-HVXV0DU\DQGWKHVDLQWVDUHDOVRUHIHUUHGWRDQGVXUURXQGHGE\ 3 $PRQJWKH2WRPtRIWKH6LHUUD0DGUHQRWIDUIURP;R[RWHFR)UHQFKHWKQRJUDSKHU-DFTXHV*DOLQLHU KDVGHPRQVWUDWHGWKDWWKHFRQFHSWVRIKHDYHQDQGKHOOQHYHUWRRNKROGLQWKHZD\LQWHQGHGE\WKHIULDUV (Galinier 2004: 22). Neither did the concepts of virtue and sin, and today – just as in the 16th century – µWKH¿QDOKRPHRIWKHGHDGLVGHWHUPLQHGE\WKHFDXVHRIWKHLUGHDWK VLFNQHVVGURZQLQJPXUGHUHWF DQGQRWWKHLUEHKDYLRXUDPRQJKXPDQV¶ *DOLQLHU $OVRRILQWHUHVWKHUHLVWKHVWULFWO\GXDOLVWLF FRVPRORJ\REVHUYHGE\WKH2WRPtZLWKDYHUWLFDOGLYLVLRQSHUPHDWLQJWKHFRQFHSWLRQRIWKHFRVPRVDQG of the human body. Galinier argues that this dualism has pre-Columbian roots and that it is not a result of &KULVWLDQLQÀXHQFH *DOLQLHU Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 45 SUHFLRXVÀRZHUV$V$QGHUVRQ [[YL[[[L SRLQWHGRXWWKHÀRZHU\PHWDSKRUVXVHGLQ these psalms were derived from pre-Columbian Nahuatl poetry and now served a Christian SXUSRVH7KHLQGLJHQRXVµVDFUHGJDUGHQ¶DQGWKH&KULVWLDQSDUDGLVHZHUHVXSHU¿FLDOO\DOLNHEXW WKHUHZHUHIXQGDPHQWDOGL൵HUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHP$V%XUNKDUWH[SODLQVWKHLQGLJHQRXVJDUGHQ ZDVµQRWDSODFHRIUHZDUGIRUWKHULJKWHRXVH[LVWLQJRQVRPHWUDQVFHQGHQWSODQHRIUHDOLW\ VHSDUDWHIURPWKHPDWHULDOZRUOG¶EXWUDWKHUµDVDFUHGDVSHFWRIUHDOLW\WKDWRQHFDOOHGLQWREHLQJ E\PDQLSXODWLQJWKLVJDUGHQLPDJHU\LQULWXDOFRQWH[WVSDUWLFXODUO\WKURXJKVRQJ¶ %XUNKDUW ,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHJDUGHQLPDJHU\ZKLFKLQFOXGHGÀRZHUVDQGSODQWVVKLPPHULQJ JHPVSUHFLRXVVWRQHVELUGVDQGEXWWHUÀLHVZDVQRWDV\PERORIDSDUDGLVLDFDOUHDOPDVLQ the Christian conception, but something else, or more, that could be called upon during ULWXDO6HYHUDOIULDUVUHFRUGHGKRZWKHLQGLJHQRXVSRSXODWLRQ¿OOHGWKHFKXUFKHVZLWKÀRZHUV =DUDJR]DQG ZKLFKLQGLFDWHZKDW%XUNKDUW KDVFDOOHGµWKHWUDGLWLRQDOSUDFWLFHRI HQÀRZHULQJVDFUHGVSDFH¶DQGSRVVLEO\DFRQFHSWLRQRIWKHFKXUFKHVDVIXQFWLRQDOO\LGHQWLFDOWR SUH&ROXPELDQULWXDOORFDWLRQVVXFKDVWHPSOHVRUFDYHV)XUWKHUPRUHDPRQJWKHPDQ\SODQWV DQGÀRZHUVGHSLFWHGWKURXJKRXWWKHPXUDOVDQGVFXOSWXUHRIWKHUHOLJLRXVDUFKLWHFWXUHRIWKH th FHQWXU\VHYHUDOZHUHQDWLYHWRWKH1HZ:RUOGDQGKDGDVSHFL¿FXVHZLWKLQLQGLJHQRXVUHOLJLRQ SUREDEO\JLYLQJULVHWRDGRXEOHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKHYHJHWDOLPDJHU\ 3HWHUVRQ :DNH Both cosmological realms were obvious candidates for mural painting with the purpose RIYLVXDOO\XQGHUOLQLQJZKDWKHOODQGKHDYHQUHDOO\ORRNHGOLNH7KHPXUDOVRI;R[RWHFRDQG Actopan are some of the most illustrative depictions of hell in the context of colonial mural SDLQWLQJ VHH-DFNVRQ IRUDIHZPRUH 7KH$XJXVWLQLDQ ex-convento of Malinalco has the most famous colonial depiction of paradise in the form of an ambitious mural cycle, with WKHLQFOXVLRQRIPDQ\SODQWVDQGDQLPDOVQDWLYHWRWKH1HZ:RUOG VHH3HWHUVRQ $SDUW from Malinalco, many churches and convents have beautifully painted vaults that surely depict SDUDGLVH ZLWK ÀRZHUV DQG DQJHOV RQH PDJQL¿FHQW H[DPSOH EHLQJ WKH FKXUFK RI /RV 6DQWRV Reyes of Metztitlan. The Xoxoteco-murals contain both a depiction of paradise and a depiction of hell, and I treat these in the following sections. )ORZHUV%XWWHUÀLHVDQG6XQ'HLWLHV 7KH3DUDGLVLDFDO9DXOW In the churches of medieval Europe, paradise was typically depicted in the vault, due to the association of this realm with the above and the celestial abode (Davidson 1994a: 4-7). The WUDLWVPRVWRIWHQXVHGWRGHSLFWSDUDGLVHZHUHFORXGVVDLQWVDQJHOVDQGÀRZHUVDQGGXULQJ FHUHPRQLHV DQG OLWXUJLFDO GUDPDV PXVLF LQFHQVH DQG UHDO ÀRZHUV DOVR ¿OOHG WKH FKXUFKHV WR LQYRNH D SDUDGLVLDFDO DPELDQFH 'DYLGVRQ D E 0H\YDHUW 5DVWDOO 5KRGHVDQG'DYLGVRQ 7KHPRWLIVWKDW,GLVFXVVIURPWKHYDXOWRI;R[RWHFRDUH the vegetal motifs, the zoomorphic and anthropomorphic creatures, and the large sun-disc surrounding a Christ-motif. Together with the other elements in the vault, they denote paradise from a Christian viewpoint, but, as I aim to show, the artists in Xoxoteco selected motifs from the Christian tradition that aligned the Christian paradise with indigenous afterworlds. Flora and Fauna /DUJHOHDYHVDQGSODQWVDUHWKHGRPLQDQWPRWLIVRIWKHYDXOWDQGWKHDUWLVWVGHSLFWHGWKHP in warm colours with a high degree of detail and variation. This imagery would no doubt have 46 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen EHHQPHDQLQJIXODVDULWXDOO\LPSRUWDQWHOHPHQWIURPERWKWKHIULDUV¶DQGLQGLJHQRXVEHKROGHUV¶ SHUVSHFWLYHV7KHOHDYHVDUHHODERUDWHO\GHWDLOHGZLWKPDQ\GL൵HUHQWDQGXQLTXHVKDSHVDQG VRPHRIWKHPEHDUDVWULNLQJUHVHPEODQFHWREXWWHUÀLHVDQGELUGV )LJXUHF $VPHQWLRQHG LQGLJHQRXVDXWKRUVDQGDUWLVWVDSSURSULDWHGEXWWHUÀLHVDQGELUGV±SDUWRIWKHLQGLJHQRXVµVDFUHG JDUGHQ¶±WRVHUYHD&KULVWLDQSXUSRVH3UHFLRXVELUGVDUHIRXQGLQ6DKDJ~Q¶VK\PQERRNZKHUH WKH\GHQRWHDPRQJRWKHUWKLQJVWKHUHDOPRIKHDYHQ 6DKDJ~Q 7KLVKDVDUHODWLRQWR $]WHFP\WKRORJ\ZKHUHWKHKHDYHQO\UHDOPRIWKH6XQZDV¿OOHGZLWKELUGVDQGEXWWHUÀLHVZKR were the transformed souls of dead warriors and of women who died during labour (see Berlo 6DKDJ~Q ,,, 7DXEH ,QRWKHUYDXOWVZLWKLQWKH$XJXVWLQLDQPLVVLRQ ]RQHDQJHOVZHUHVRPHWLPHVGHSLFWHGUHVHPEOLQJEXWWHUÀLHVLQWKHYDXOWV :DNH DQGLQWKHFKXUFKRI,[PLTXLOSDQHOHJDQWOLWWOHELUGVDQGEXWWHUÀLHVDUHKLGGHQZLWKLQWKH ÀRUDOPLOLHXRIWKHYDXOW 'XYHUJHU 9LYDU&UDYLRWR 0RUHRYHULQ WKHYDXOWRI;R[RWHFRWZR]RRPRUSKLFEHLQJVDQGDVPDOOELUGPDQSHHNRXWDPRQJWKHOHDYHV )LJXUHDE %RWKKDYHÀRZHUVSURWUXGLQJIURPWKHLUPRXWKV7KLVDWWULEXWHLVQRWXQFRPPRQ LQWKH(XURSHDQJURWHVTXHJHQUHEXWLQ0HVRDPHULFDVLQJLQJÀRZHUVZDVDPHWDSKRUIRU SRHWLFVRQJDQGVWUXFWXUDOO\FRQQHFWHGWRWKHUHOLJLRXVGLPHQVLRQ +LOO ൵ 7KHDUWLVWV would have recognised this metaphor in their recycling of a European grotesque motif in the present context. Christ as a Solar Deity 3ODFHGLQWKHµ]HQLWK¶RIWKHYDXOWRI;R[RWHFRDQGVXUURXQGHGE\WKHOHDYHVDQGSODQWV WKH6RODU&KULVW )LJXUHD LV\HWDQRWKHUH[DPSOHRID&KULVWLDQHOHPHQWWKDWUHVRQDWHGZLWK LQGLJHQRXVUHOLJLRQ,QWKH2OG:RUOGWKHDVVRFLDWLRQRI-HVXVZLWKWKHVXQZDVFRPPRQSODFHDQG with roots in the Jewish and Christian adoptions of solar cults from the Near Eastern, Egyptian, %DE\ORQLDQDQG*UHFR5RPDQUHOLJLRQV /DUD 7KHIULDUVEURXJKWWKHFRQFHSWRI the Solar-Christ with them to the New World, where they promoted the parallel between the sun DQG-HVXVE\LQWHJUDWLQJDUDQJHRIVRODUPHWDSKRUVLQWKHLUVHUPRQV %XUNKDUW VHH/DUD 2004: 174-175). In Mesoamerica, however, the sun played an important role in myth and ritual, ¿OOLQJWKHVHPHWDSKRUVZLWKDSRWHQWLDOO\XQLQWHQGHGPHDQLQJ 0LOOHUDQG7DXEH ,Q the Aztec religion, Tonatiuh ±WKHSHUVRQL¿HGVXQ±ZDVDµV\PERORIJRGKHDG par exellence and WKHWKHRUHWLFDOUHFLSLHQWRIDOOEORRGVDFUL¿FH¶ 1LFKROVRQ $V%XUNKDUWKDVSRLQWHG out, misunderstandings could easily arise if the converts understood the sun not as an analogy for Christ – as the friars intended – but as identical with Christ himself in the same way that Tonatiuh LVWKHVXQLWVHOI %XUNKDUW 0RUHRYHUDOWKRXJKOLJKWKDGSRVLWLYHPRUDO FRQQRWDWLRQVIRUWKH$]WHFVWKHVXQLWVHOIGLGQRWEHDUWKLVPHDQLQJ5DWKHUWKHVXQµKDGFUXFLDO roles in the creation and maintenance of earthly life, the ordering of time and space, and as the ORUGRIDFHOHVWLDOUHDOP¶UROHVWKDWKDGµQRVHQVHRI³VDOYDWLRQ´RUVSLULWXDO³HQOLJKWHQPHQW´¶ %XUNKDUW 7KHVXQUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQ;R[RWHFRLVSDUWRIWKLVSDUDOOHOGUDZQGXULQJ the evangelisation process. Apart from the conceptual overlap of the two notions of the sun, there was also an overlap LQWKHYLVXDOUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHVXQLQWKH0HVRDPHULFDQDQG&KULVWLDQWUDGLWLRQV2QSUH Columbian monuments, objects, and codices, the Mesoamerican sun deity was depicted within D VXQ GLVF )LJXUH E 0DWRV DQG 6ROtV (QFLUFOLQJ WKH GHLW\ \HOORZ DQG UHG sun rays alternated with other symbols in varying ways. The visual tradition of depicting a GHLW\ZLWKLQDVXQGLVFDOVRH[LVWHGLQWKH2OG:RUOGZKHUH-HVXV0DU\RUWKHVDLQWVRUWKHLU Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 47 PRQRJUDPVFRXOGDSSHDUZLWKLQDFLUFOHRUHOOLSVHRIVXQUD\V /DUD Schiller 1971: II:109). In Xoxoteco, the sun disc with its yellow sun rays and red ÀHXUGHOLV symbols encircling Christ elegantly accommodates the sun-deity motif of two visual traditions. It ought to be mentioned that the Solar-Christ in the vault of Xoxoteco was one of several, perhaps many, depictions of Christ within a sun disc in the vaults of the Augustinian mission zone. In spite of the relatively few preserved murals, similar Solar-Christs can be found in other chapels in the vicinity, such as that of Iztacoyotla, where a baby Jesus-motif encircled by sun UD\VWDNHVWKHFHQWUDOSODFHLQWKHYDXOWLQDZD\WKDWLVYHU\VLPLODUWRWKRVHLQ;R[RWHFR VHH 3HUXVTXtDDQG%HOWUiQ +HUQiQGH]DOVRQRWHVWKDWORFDOLQIRUPDQWVUHPHPEHUHGD ODUJHVXQPRWLILQWKHWRSRIWKHYDXOWRIWKHROGFKXUFKLQ2FXLOFDOFRQRZLQUXLQV +HUQiQGH] )XUWKHUVXQGLVFVGHFRUDWHWKHYDXOWVLQWKHFKDSHOVRI7HSDWHWLSD7ODWHPDOFRDQG Tlaxco, and although these are of a later date, they could very well be restorations of the original PRWLI *DOOHJRV ¿J An Indigenous-Christian Paradise Basically, the vault of Xoxoteco depicts a paradise with a medieval Christian iconography WKDWKDVEHHQVHOHFWHGDQGDGDSWHGWR¿WWKHVSHFL¿F1HZ:RUOGFRQWH[W7KHHODERUDWHXVHRI vegetal symbolism in other colonial descriptions and depictions of paradise is repeated in the YDXOWRI;R[RWHFRUHÀHFWLQJDSDQFRORQLDOZD\RISUHVHQWLQJSDUDGLVH7KHPRGL¿FDWLRQVRI WKHIRUPRIWKHOHDYHVWRUHVHPEOHEXWWHUÀLHVDQGWKHLQFOXVLRQRIÀRZHUVLQJLQJ]RRPRUSKLF and anthropomorphic entities would also have pitched well with contemporary representations in the doctrinal material. The Solar-Christ was an important hybrid symbol in colonial religion, DQGWKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQLQ;R[RWHFRWKXVWDSVLQWRWKHZLGHUFRORQLDOUHOLJLRXVSURFHVVRIPDNLQJ &KULVWDPHDQLQJIXO¿JXUHIRUWKHLQGLJHQRXVFRQYHUWV Devils and Caves: The Colonial Underworld 7KHWKHPHRIKHOOWKDW¿OOVWKHVLGHZDOOVZDVDOVRDGDSWHGE\WKHDUWLVWVLQVHYHUDOZD\V 7KHLQFOXVLRQRIERWK(XURSHDQDQGLQGLJHQRXVVLQQHUVDVWRUWXUHYLFWLPVRI6DWDQ¶VHYLOKHOSHUV LV RQH H[DPSOH RI WKLV )XUWKHUPRUH LW LV UHPDUNDEOH WKDW DOWKRXJK DOO WKH W\SHV RI WRUWXUH RQ WKH VLGHZDOOV DUH NQRZQ IURP FRQWHPSRUDU\ (XURSHDQ PXUDO SURJUDPV WKH DUWLVWV VHHP WR KDYH FKRVHQ WKRVH WKDW KDG D GLUHFW SDUDOOHO ZLWK LQGLJHQRXV ULWXDO VDFUL¿FHV DV KDV DOVR EHHQSUHYLRXVO\SRLQWHGRXW (VWUDGDGH*HUOHUR +HUQiQGH] .OHLQ 7KHÀD\LQJVFHQHFDQEHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKWKHULWXDOSUDFWLFHRIÀD\LQJWKDWZDVDQ integrated part of pre-Columbian rituals, such as the Aztec tlacaxipehualiztli and ochpaniztli 6DKDJ~Q ,, 'LVPHPEHUPHQWFDQQLEDOLVPDQGGHFDSLWDWLRQZHUHOLNHZLVH practiced systematically before the conquest, and the placement of two heads on the top beam of a wooden stand give associations to the tzompantli, WKHVNXOOUDFNRQZKLFKKHDGVRIZDU SULVRQHUVZHUHH[KLELWHG6FD൵ROGLQJDQGEXUQLQJDOVRDPRQJWKH;R[RWHFDQWRUWXUHPHWKRGV ZHUHOLNHZLVHNQRZQIURPWKH$]WHFZRUOG $JXLODU0RUHQR )LQDOO\RQHRI the devils blows a conch shell-trumpet (Artigas 1979: 91-92), an instrument used by priests at the high points of rituals. By choosing these torture methods and placing them on the central SDUWVRIWKHVLGHZDOOVWKHDUWLVWVDGDSWHGWKHFRQYHQWLRQDOPXUDOJHQUHRIµPRUDOLWLHV¶DQGJDYH KHOODQHZIDFHRQHWKDW¿WWHGWKH1HZ:RUOG7KLVDOVRLQFOXGHGWKHDGDSWLRQVPDGHWR6DWDQ himself, as described in the following. 48 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen Figure 9. a) Hell mouth with representation of Satan on right wall, b) mouth of hell with representation of Satan on left wall. Graphics by the author, c) Codex Tudela fol. 46. The Satan- tzitzimime Hybrids 2QHRIWKH¿UVWWKLQJVWRQRWLFHLQWKHPXUDOVLVWKHPRXWKRIKHOOPRWLISDLQWHGRQERWK VLGHZDOOVÀDQNLQJWKHDOWDU,QIURQWRIHDFKPRXWKRIKHOOWKHDUWLVWVSDLQWHGD¿JXUHRISURPLQHQW VL]HVXUHO\UHSUHVHQWLQJ6DWDQRU$QWLFKULVW /DUD )LJXUH DE 7KLVFRPSRVLWLRQ with a mouth of hell and a Satan-representation in front of it has clear models in medieval iconography: the mouth of hell was a medieval symbol of hell invented in the 10 th century, VLJQLI\LQJWKHHQWUDQFHWRWKH&KULVWLDQXQGHUZRUOG 6KHLQJRUQ 6FKPLGW DQG Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 49 Figure 10. 2WKHUUHSUHVHQWDWLRQVRIWKHPRXWKRIKHOO D 'HWDLOIURPWKHYDXOWRI+¡ME\.LUNH'HQPDUN late 14 th FHQWXU\3KRWRE\WKHDXWKRUE &KLFRPR]WRFLQ&RGH['XUiQ VRPHWLPHVWKLVPRWLILQFOXGHGDGHSLFWLRQRI6DWDQLQWKHPRXWKRSHQLQJ VHH)LJXUHD 7KH artists in Xoxoteco clearly deemed the mouth of hell to be an important part of the murals, SRUWUD\LQJ WKHP WZLFH SHUKDSV UHÀHFWLQJ D 0HVRDPHULFDQ SUHIHUHQFH IRU V\PPHWU\ >-HVSHU 1LHOVHQSHUVRQDOFRPPXQLFDWLRQVHHDOVR%RRQH @ DQGSDLQWLQJWKHPWR¿OOWKH entire height of the sidewall friezes. Their prominent place within the murals may not only be GXHWRWKHLUH൶FLHQF\LQVFDULQJWKHFRQYHUWVWRIROORZ&KULVWLDQPRUDOVWDQGDUGVEXWPD\DOVR stem from the meaning of the symbol of the animal mouth in pre-Columbian iconography. In Mesoamerica, animal jaws symbolised cave entrances, which were places of ritual potency and FRQFHLYHGRIDVSRUWDOVWRWKHXQGHUZRUOG %UDG\DQG3UXIHU +H\GHQ 7DXEH Some missionaries exploited this coincidence, describing the Christian underworld as a cave in VHUPRQVDQGRWKHUZULWLQJV %XUNKDUW 6DKDJ~Q ;, &RORQLDODUWLVWV also made use of the visual overlap between the two traditions. In the Codex Durán (1581), the mythological origin cave of the Aztecs, Chicomoztoc – in pre-Columbian contexts depicted as DVW\OLVHGDQLPDOPRXWK±LVUHSURGXFHGDVDIXOO(XURSHDQVW\OHPRXWKRIKHOO )LJXUHE ,Q WKLVUHPDUNDEOHLOOXVWUDWLRQWKHOLIHJLYLQJDVSHFWVRIWKHFDYHDQGWKHXQGHUZRUOGDVDSODFHRI 50 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen origin in Mesoamerican thought is portrayed through a Christian symbol signalling the entrance WRDSODFHRIHWHUQDOVX൵HULQJ7KHIXQGDPHQWDOGL൵HUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHWZRFXOWXUHV¶FRQFHSWLRQ of the underworld are thus clearly exposed (Nielsen 2020: 245). In composing the murals of ;R[RWHFRWKHDUWLVWVOLNHO\ZDQWHGWRKDUQHVVWKHELFXOWXUDOPHDQLQJRIWKHDQLPDOPRXWK symbol to consolidate the theme of the underworld. The placement of a deity – Satan mixed with traits from the tzitzimime , as explained below – in front of the mouths of hell furthermore accords with the Mesoamerican concept of caves as places of residence for fertility deities (see DOVR6RWHOR 2VRULRDQG6DQWR\R 7KXVWKHZKROHFRPSRVLWLRQZLWK the mouth of hell and Satan could be seen as meaningful within two cultural traditions. 7KHWZR¿JXUHVUHSUHVHQWLQJ6DWDQDUHERWKEDGO\GHWHULRUDWHGDQGWKHIDFLDODQGERGLO\ IHDWXUHV DUH KDUG WR GLVWLQJXLVK 7KH ¿JXUH RQ WKH ULJKW ZDOO IURP WKH SHUVSHFWLYH RI WKH EHKROGHUORRNLQJWRZDUGVWKHDOWDU)LJXUH D LVKHDGOHVVDQGIRXU¿UHEHOFKLQJVHUSHQWVULVH IURPWKHQHFNRSHQLQJ2QO\WKHRXWOLQHRIWKHXSSHUERG\LVYLVLEOHDQGDSDUWIURPWKHODUJH FODZV ZLWK ORQJ QDLOV WLPH KDV XQIRUWXQDWHO\ HUDVHG DQ\ GHWDLO7KH ¿JXUH RQ WKH OHIW ZDOO )LJXUH E LVVLPLODULQVL]HDQGSRVHEXWLWKDVDKHDGDQGZHDUVDFURZQIURPZKLFKWKUHH smaller serpents rise. While the facial characteristics have mostly vanished, a few details on the WRUVRFDQVWLOOEHLGHQWL¿HG7KHULEVDUHYLVLEOHUHYHDOLQJVNHOHWDOIHDWXUHVDQGIURPWKHDUPV GDQJOHZKDWDSSHDUWREHSLHFHVRIVNLQ$URXQGWKHQHFNWKH¿JXUHEHDUVDQHODERUDWHO\SDLQWHG QHFNODFHZLWKKXPDQKDQGVDQGKHDUWV7KLV¿JXUHDOVRKDVODUJHFODZVDQGRQHRIWKHHOERZV features what seems to be an outgrowth of some sort, perhaps once depicting a devilish face. 7KH¿JXUHRQWKHOHIWZDOOKDVEHHQGLVFXVVHGEULHÀ\E\VHYHUDOFRPPHQWDWRUV &OHPPHQVHQ +HUQiQGH] /DUD /ySH]$XVWLQ 0DFXLO0DUWLQH] whereas the being on the opposite, right wall has received little or no scholarly attention (apart from Clemmensen 2018). Descriptions and depictions of Satan have been inspired by various local deities throughout the history of Christianity, not least during the New World-mission (Báez- -RUJH 5XVVHOO $ OLNHO\ VRXUFH RI LQVSLUDWLRQ IRU WKH WZR 6DWDQ¿JXUHV LQ ;R[RWHFR DUH WKH tzitzimime , a complex group of supernatural beings branded as devils in the colonial era. Klein (2000) LGHQWL¿HG WKH GLDJQRVWLF IHDWXUHV RI WKH tzitzimime . The hands and hearts, worn in the form RISHQGDQWVRQDQHFNODFHE\WKH¿JXUHRQWKHOHIWZDOO )LJXUH E DQGWKHVNHOHWDOIHDWXUHV YLVLEOH RQ WKH WRUVR RI WKH VDPH ¿JXUH DUH LQGLFDWLRQV RI D൶OLDWLRQV ZLWK WKH tzitzimime 4. These two traits are also reminiscent of the illustrations of a tzitzimitl in Codex Magliabechiano IROU DQG&RGH[7XGHOD IRO )LJXUH F 7KHFRQQHFWLRQWRWKH tzitzimime IRUWKH¿JXUH RQWKHULJKWZDOOLVOHVVREYLRXVEXWWKHVLOKRXHWWHRIWKHWRUVRDQGWKHFODZVRQWKLV¿JXUHDUH VLPLODUWRWKHRWKHURQH'HFDSLWDWHGDQGZLWKVHUSHQWVULVLQJIURPWKHQHFNRSHQLQJWKLV¿JXUH EHDUVDOLNHQHVVWRWKHJUHDW Coatlicue statue exhibited in the Museo Nacional de Antropología, that also has serpent heads rising from the torso instead of a human head (Boone 1999). This VWDWXHIXUWKHUEHDUVDQHFNODFHRIKDQGVDQGKHDUWVDQG%RRQHKDVFRQYLQFLQJO\DUJXHGWKDW 4 7KLV KDV DOVR EHHQ SRLQWHG RXW E\ &OHPPHQVHQ /ySH]$XVWLQ DQG 0DFXLO 0DUWtQH] /ySH]$XVWLQKRZHYHULGHQWLI\LHVWKH¿JXUHDV Tlaloc based on similarities with a Tlaloc GHSLFWLRQ LQ 6DKDJ~Q¶V Primeros Memoriales. Macuil Martínez states that the Mesoamerican SRSXODWLRQ ZRXOG KDYH VHHQ WKH ¿JXUH DV D UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ RI WKH /DG\ RI WKH (DUWK ZKLFK GRHV QRW QHFHVVDULO\FRQÀLFWZLWKWKHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQJLYHQKHUHIROORZLQJ.OHLQ¶V FRQFOXVLRQWKDWRWKHUHDUWK and fertility deities had tzitzimime aspects. Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 51 it is in fact a tzitzimitl , together with other female deities associated with fertility such the cihuapipiltin, ZKRDOVRZRUHWKLVQHFNODFH %RRQH .OHLQ 7KHFURZQRIVHUSHQWVZRUQE\WKHOHIW¿JXUHLVQRWFKDUDFWHULVWLFRIWKH tzitzimime , nor is it a typical Aztec headdress. However, as Macuil Martinez (2017: 66-67) has noted, it has models in other non-Aztec sources, for example the Codex Vindobonensis where certain persons bear a FURZQZLWKLQWHUWZLQHGVHUSHQWVEXWWKHFRQQHFWLRQLVXQFOHDU,QFRQWUDVWWKHVHUSHQWVNLUWZDV one of the characteristic traits of the tzitzimime (Klein 2000: 41-45), but in Xoxoteco this trait LVDEVHQW6RWKH¿JXUHVLQ;R[RWHFRGRQRWDSSHDUWREHH[DFWRQHWRRQHLOOXVWUDWLRQVRIWKH tzitzimime or other deities, but rather hybrids combining many of the traits from the tzitzimime, or certain related fertility deities, and those of Satan. The serpent crown was, for example, most OLNHO\DFUHDWLYHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQE\WKHDUWLVWSOD\LQJZLWKWKHVHUSHQWDVDV\PEROFKDUDFWHULVWLF RIWKHVHLQGLJHQRXVGHLWLHVDQGWKHGHYLODOLNH7KHFURZQDOVRUHFDOOVWKHVHUSHQWPDQHRIWKH *UHHNP\WKRORJLFDOEHLQJ0HGXVDZKRGXULQJWKH0LGGOH$JHVUHSUHVHQWHGVH[XDOLW\VLQDQG WKHOHWKDOWHPSWDWLRQRIZRPHQ /HHPLQJ ±DOOWKHPHVWKDWWKHPLVVLRQDULHVZRXOG have wanted to infuse in this portrait. The iconographic indications pointing to the tzitzimime as a source of inspiration for the motifs in Xoxoteco are supported by the fact that these deities were favourite objects for the PLVVLRQDULHV¶GHPRQLVDWLRQRILQGLJHQRXVGHLWLHV $OFiQWDUD5RMDV %RRQH %XUNKDUW .OHLQ ൵ ,QWHUHVWLQJO\ EHIRUH WKH FRQTXHVW WKH tzitzimime appeared to have had several benevolent aspects. They were, for example, called XSRQE\PLGZLIHVDV6DKDJ~Q 9, UHODWHVDQGIURPDQLFRQRJUDSKLFDO SHUVSHFWLYHWKHLUVNHOHWDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDVVRFLDWHWKHPZLWKIHUWLOLW\ VHH)XUVW 1LHOVHQ 2019: 246-247), as does the symbol of hands and hearts (Klein 2000: 45). Nevertheless, according to the written sources, their reputation appears to have accentuated their frightening appearance DQGOHWKDOEHKDYLRXUZKLFKWRWKHPLVVLRQDULHVZRXOGKDYHPDGHWKHPUHDGLO\LGHQWL¿DEOHDV devils. Reviewing the sources describing and depicting the possible pre-Columbian conceptions of the tzitzimime , %RRQH FKDUDFWHULVHVWKHPDVµFHOHVWLDOPRQVWHUV¶7KH\UHVLGHGLQ heaven, sometimes in the form of stars, from where they had the ability to descend to earth to HDWPHQ VHHDOVR0LNXOVND 7KLVFRXOGKDYHWDNHQSODFHGXULQJWKH1HZ)LUH ULWXDOLIWKHSULHVWKDGQRWVXFFHHGHGLQGULOOLQJD¿UHLQWKHFKHVWFDYLW\RIWKHYLFWLPDQGWKXV EULQJOLJKWEDFNWRWKHZRUOG,WFRXOGDOVREHLQWKHIRUPRIWKHGHL¿HGZRPHQWKH cihuapipiltin , ZKRGLHGGXULQJODERXUDQGZHQWWRWKHUHDOPRIWKHVXQEXWGHVFHQGHGWRHDUWKORRNLQJIRUWKHLU KXVEDQGVRUWU\LQJWRD൷LFWFKLOGUHQZLWKFHUWDLQGHFHDVHVDWQLJKW %RRQH 6DKDJ~Q 1950-1982: VI: 163). Here, the missionaries saw a parallel between the descent of the tzitzimime and the fallen angels (Boone 1999: 198), and with a general fear of the tzitzimime among the population, they were a good match for the demons of hell. The eschatological aspects of these EHLQJV±HYLGHQWLQWKHLUDVVRFLDWLRQZLWKWKH1HZ)LUHULWXDODQGWKHHQGRIWKH\HDUF\FOH 0LOOHUDQG7DXEH ±ZRXOGDOVRKDYHDFFRUGHGZHOOZLWKWKHIULDUV¶DSRFDO\SWLFDO beliefs. Some of the more vivid descriptions of the tzitzimime as demons come from the hands of LQGLJHQRXVDXWKRUV,QDSDVVDJHRIRQHRI6DKDJ~Q¶VVHUPRQVDXWKRUHGE\KLV1DKXDDVVLVWDQWV the residents of Mictlan are described with a range of indigenous characteristics: µ,QGHHGWKH\DUH7]LW]LPLPHWKH\KDYHPRXWKVOLNH7]LW]LPLPHWKH\KDYH PRXWKVOLNHKXWVWKH\KDYHJDSLQJPRXWKV7KH\KDYHPHWDOEDUVIRUWHHWK WKH\KDYHFXUYHGWHHWKWKH\KDYHWRQJXHVRIÀDPHWKHLUH\HVDUHELJEXUQLQJ 52 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen HPEHUV7KH\ KDYH IDFHV RQ ERWK VLGHV7KHLU PRODUV DUH VDFUL¿FLDO VWRQHV Everywhere they eat people, everywhere they bite people, everywhere they JXOSSHRSOHGRZQ7KH\KDYHPRXWKVRQDOOWKHLUMRLQWVOLNHPRQVWHUVZLWK ZKLFKWKH\FKHZ$QGWKH\KDYHELJORQJQDLOV¶ 4XRWHGIURP%XUNKDUW Some of the traits, such as the long nails, are present in the depictions in Xoxoteco, while VRPHDUHDEVHQWDQGRWKHUVLPSRVVLEOHWRVHHGXHWRGHWHULRUDWLRQ/LNH6DKDJ~Q¶VDVVLVWDQWVWKH artists in Xoxoteco seem to have chosen certain traits – although not necessarily the same – from the tzitzimime KRSLQJWRPDNH6DWDQLQWHOOLJLEOHWRDQLQGLJHQRXVDXGLHQFH$VVXFKWKHPXUDOV FDQEHVHHQDVDYLVXDOSHQGDQWWRWKLVSDVVDJHIURP6DKDJ~Q¶VVHUPRQ The artists may also have intended a connection between the Satan- tzitzimime ¿JXUHVDQG the Solar-Christ painted in the vault. In Aztec mythology, the tzitzimime participated in a cosmic EDWWOHZLWKWKHVXQQRWRQO\GXULQJWKH1HZ)LUHULWXDODVPHQWLRQHGDERYHEXWDOVRGXULQJ eclipses where the tzitzimime were perceived as stars that became visible next to the eclipsed VXQDQGWKUHDWHQHGWRRYHUZKHOPLW %RRQH )XUWKHUPRUHDGRSWLQJZKDWDSSHDUVWR be a benevolent role, the tzitzimime, in their form as the souls of women who died in childbirth, HDFKGD\GRQQHGZDUUHJDOLDDQGIRXJKWIRUWKHVXQ¶VSDWKDFURVVWKHVN\DLGHGE\WKHVRXOVRI PHQZKRKDGGLHGRQWKHEDWWOH¿HOG 6DKDJ~Q 9, 7KHPHQDFFRPSDQLHG the sun until its zenith, passing on the responsibility to the women who led the sun the rest of the way until it set. Here they delivered it into the hands of the inhabitants of Mictlan . These close associations between the tzitzimime and the sun and the celestial realm add another dimension to the murals of Xoxoteco: The cosmic battle, or relationship, between the tzitzimime and the sun in Aztec mythology becomes the Christian cosmic battle between Satan and Jesus. It must be mentioned that apart from the tzitzimime , the artists may have fused another LQGLJHQRXVFODVVRIVXSHUQDWXUDOHQWLWLHVLQWRWKHGHSLFWLRQRI6DWDQRQWKHULJKWVLGHZDOO )LJXUH D 7KHVHUSHQWVUDGLDWLQJIURPWKHQHFNRSHQLQJKDYHIHDUIXOVHUSHQWKHDGVEHOFKLQJEDOOV RI¿UHDQGWKHVHKHDGVKDYHODUJHKRUQV,Q&KULVWLDQLFRQRJUDSK\WKHPDQ\KHDGHGGUDJRQ UHSUHVHQWLQJ6DWDQVRPHWLPHVKDVVHUSHQWKHDGVZLWKKRUQV +DOO 2¶+HDUDQG2¶+HDU 2015: 140-148). However, in the Aztec religion, the deer-serpent, mazacoatl , also has these characteristics. Mazacoatl LV LQFOXGHG LQ WKH LOOXVWUDWLRQV SHUWDLQLQJ WR 6DKDJ~Q¶V FDWDORJXH RIVHUSHQWVLQWKH)ORUHQWLQH&RGH[DQGLWLVDOVRUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKHFRORQLDOPXUDOVRIWKH )UDQFLVFDQ FRQYHQW RI $WOLKXHW]LD 7OD[FDOD 7KLV ODWWHU GHSLFWLRQ ZDV DSSDUHQWO\ LQVSLUHG E\)UD\,RDQ%DSWLVWDDQGKLVFRORXUIXOGHVFULSWLRQVRIWKH mazacoatl in sermons and plays (Alcántara Rojas 2013: 117-118). As with the tzitzimime , mazacoatl had both curing abilities and dangerous aspects, and during the colonial era, it was branded as a devilish creature by the friars (Nielsen 2020). CONCLUSIONS &RORQLDODUWZRUNVRIWKH th century are characterised by a presence of both Christian and Mesoamerican iconography and concepts, one of the reasons being that friars and indigenous artists modelled Christianity upon elements from indigenous religion (Edgerton 2001: 2). In WKLVDUWLFOH,KDYHVRXJKWWRGHPRQVWUDWHKRZWKHPXUDOVLQWKHFKDSHORI;R[RWHFRUHÀHFWWKLV colonial mixture of traditions. Even though the murals formally remain within the boundaries Didactics and cosmos: heaven and hell in the early colonial murals of Santa María Xoxoteco 53 of Christian iconography, they accommodate graphic and conceptual changes to the Christian cosmos. These changes comprise a certain way of presenting paradise through an adapted vegetal symbolism with meaning within both cultures, the employment of the Solar-Christ compatible with both Mesoamerican and Christian beliefs, the choice of certain torture methods that are reminiscent of indigenous ritual, the emphasis on the mouth of hell signalling an entrance to the XQGHUZRUOGLQERWKWUDGLWLRQVDQG¿QDOO\WKHDWWULEXWLRQRI tzitzimime traits to Satan that draw a parallel between these beings of the night and the evil god of the Christian cosmos. :KHUHDVWKHPXUDOVZHUHSDLQWHGLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKWKH$XJXVWLQLDQIULDUV¶LQWHQWLRQRI conveying the concept of sin and the connection between the deeds in life and the fate in the DIWHUOLIH (VWUDGDGH*HUOHUR +HUQiQGH] -DFNVRQ WKLVDUWLFOHKDVGHVFULEHG another layer of didactics in the form of a well-planned and thoroughly colonial presentation of WKHFRVPRV,QFKRRVLQJWKLVVSHFL¿FFRPSRVLWLRQDQGWKHVHVSHFL¿FPRWLIVIRUWKHLUSRUWUD\DORI KHDYHQDQGKHOOWKHDUWLVWVOLNHO\IROORZHGWKHVWDQGDUGVRIWKHGD\DVPRVWRIWKHLUFKRLFHVZHUH UHÀHFWHGLQRWKHUFRQWHPSRUDU\GRFWULQDOPDWHULDO+RZHYHUFHUWDLQFKRLFHV±VXFKDVWKHYLVXDO juxtaposition of heaven and hell with the Solar-Christ and the tzitzimime DVµUHSUHVHQWDWLYHV¶RI these realms – are unique within the corpus of preserved visual sources from the 16 th century. $&.12:/('*(0(176 ,DPWKDQNIXOWRWKHRUJDQL]HUVRIWKH th European Maya Conference in Cracow. I would DOVROLNHWRWKDQN-HVSHU1LHOVHQIRUPDQ\XVHIXOFRPPHQWVRQHDUOLHUYHUVLRQVRIWKLVDUWLFOH &KULVWRSKH+HOPNHIRUJHQHURXVKHOSLQVHYHUDOUHVSHFWVDQG(YD&OHPPHQVHQ,DPJUDWHIXO WRWKH9HOX[)RXQGDWLRQIRUWKHJUDQWQRWKDWPDGHWKLVZRUNSRVVLEOH$Q\HUURUV misinterpretations or shortcomings remain my sole responsibility. REFERENCES $/&¬17$5$52-$6%(5(1,&( 2013 (O 'LDEOR HQ HO GLVFXUVR GH HYDQJHOL]DFLyQ QRYRKLVSDQD GHO V ;9, Cuernos y colas: 5HÀH[LRQHVHQWRUQRDO'HPRQLRHQORV$QGHV\0HVRDPpULFD HGLWHGE\$OIUHGR/ySH]$XVWLQDQG /XLV0LOORQHVSS/LPD )RQGR(GLWRULDOGHOD$VDPEOHD1DFLRQDOGH5HFWRUHV $*8,/$5025(120$18(/ 2006 Handbook to Life in the Aztec World /RV$QJHOHV )DFWVRQ)LOH $1'(5621$57+85-2 1993 Introduction. Bernardino de Sahagún’s Psalmodia Christiana (Christian Psalmody) , WUDQVODWHGE\$UWKXU-2$QGHUVRQSS[Y[[[Y6DOW/DNH&LW\ 8QLYHUVLW\RI8WDK3UHVV ARTIGAS, JUAN B. 1979 La piel de la arquitectura: Murales de Santa Maria Xoxoteco. 0p[LFR') 8QLYHUVLGDG Nacional Autonoma de México. /DVSLQWXUDVPXUDOHVGH;R[RWHFR 0p[LFR XQHVWtPXORSDUDODLPDJLQDFLyQ Restauro: Revista internacional del patrimonio histórico 3: 68-73. %È(=-25*()e/,; 2003 Los disfraces del diablo: Ensayo sobre la reinterpretación de la noción cristiana del Mal en Mesoamérica. Xalapa: Universidad Veracruzana. 54 Mikkel Bøg Clemmensen %$//(67(5269,&7250 1999 La pintura mural del convento de Actopan – Mural Paintings of the Actopan Convent. 3DFKXFD 8QLYHUVLGDG$XWyQRPDGHO(VWDGRGH+LGDOJR %221((/,=$%(7++ 2000 The “Coatlicues” at the Templo Mayor. Ancient Mesoamerica 10(2): 189-206. 2007 Cycles of Time and Meaning in the Mexican Books of Fate. Austin: University of Texas 3UHVV %85.+$57/28,6( 1988 The Solar Christ in Nahuatl Doctrinal Texts of Early Colonial Mexico. Ethnohistory 35(3): 234-256. 1989 The Slippery Earth : Nahua-Christian Moral Dialogue in Sixteenth-Century Mexico. Tucson: 7KH8QLYHUVLW\RI$UL]RQD3UHVV 1991 Encounter of Religions. The Indigenization of Christianity: The Nahua Scholar-Interpreters. Occasional Papers in Latin American Studies. 6WRUUVDQG3URYLGHQFH 8QLYHUVLW\RI&RQQHFWLFXWDQG Brown University. 7KH$HVWKHWLFRI3DUDGLVHLQ1DKXDWO'HYRWLQDO/LWHUDWXUH RES: Anthropology and Aesthetics 21: 88-109. &(59$17(6)(51$1'2 1994 The Devil in the New World: The Impact of Diabolism in New Spain. New Haven and /RQGRQ )8567-,///(6/,( 6NHOHWRQL]DWLRQ LQ 0L[WHF$UW $ 5HHYDOXDWLRQ The Art and Iconography of Late Post- Classic Central Mexico, HGLWHG E\ (OL]DEHWK 3 %HQVRQ DQG (OL]DEHWK +LOO %RRQH SS :DVKLQJWRQ'& 'XPEDUWRQ2DNV *$/,1,(5-$&48(6 2004 The World Below: Body and Cosmos in Otomí Indian Ritual. %RXOGHU 8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVRI Colorado. *$//(*260$5Ë$(8*(1,$&$0326 6HOHFFLyQGHGLH]FDSLOODVGHYLVLWDGHODYHJDGH0HW]WLWOiQ+LGDOJR8QSXEOLVKHGVSHFLDOLVW GLSORPDWKHVLV0H[LFR )DFXOWDGGH¿ORVRItD\OHWUDV8QLYHUVLGDG1DFLRQDO$XWyQRPDGH0p[LFR *(5+$5'3(7(5 1993 A Guide to the Historical Geography of New Spain (Revised Edition) 1RUPDQDQG/RQGRQ 8QLYHUVLW\RI2NODKRPD3UHVV *5,-$/9$-8$1'( 1985 Crónica de la Orden de N.P.S. Agustín en las provincias de la Nueva España: En cuatro edades desde el año de 1533 hasta el de 1592. 0p[LFR') (GLWRULDO3RUU~D +$//-$0(6 2008 Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art , 2nd HGLWLRQ%RXOGHU :HVWYLHZ3UHVV +(51È1'(=$578529 2008 (OLQ¿HUQRHQODSLQWXUDPXUDODJXVWLQDGHOVLJOR;9, $FWRSDQ\;R[RWHFRHQHOHVWDGRGH Hidalgo. +LGDOJR 8QLYHUVLGDG$XWyQRPDGHO(VWDGRGH+LGDOJR +,//-$1(+ 7KH )ORZHU :RUOG RI 2OG 8WR$]WHFDQ Journal of Anthropological Research 48(2): 117-144. -$&.62152%(57+ 2013 &RQÀLFWDQG&RQYHUVLRQLQ6L[WHHQWK&HQWXU\&HQWUDO0H[LFR . Boston: Brill. 2625,2/,$1$-,0e1(=(00$18(/3266(/76$172<2 2016 The sanctuaries of the Rain God in the Mixtec Highlands, Mexico: a review from the present to the precolonial past. Water History 8: 449-468. 2¶+($51$7$6+$ $17+21<2¶+($5 2015 Picturing the Apocalypse: The Book of Revelation in the Arts over Two Millennia. New /((0,1*%(1 $1DKXD&KULVWLDQ7DONV%DFN )DELiQGH$TXLQR¶V$QWLFKULVW'UDPDVDV$XWRHWKQRJUDSK\ Words & Worlds Turned Around: Indigenous Christianities in Colonial Latin America , edited by 'DYLG7DYiUH]SS %RXOGHU 8QLYHUVLW\3UHVVRI&RORUDGR QG 7KH3RHWLFVRI7HUURU 'HSLFWLRQVRI+HOOLQ(FFOHVLDVWLFDO1DKXDWO/LWHUDWXUHKWWSV ULYHUV DFDGHPLDHGX%HQ/HHPLQJ>$FFHVVHG 6HSWHPEHUVW @ /2&.+$57-$0(6 1992 The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth through Eighteenth Centuries. 6WDQIRUG&$ 6WDQIRUG8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV /Ï3(=$867,1$/)5('2 (QODVIDXFHVGH/HYLDWiQ Arqueología mexicana 157: 18-27. 0$&8,/0$57Ë1(=5$Ô/ 2017 Los tlamatque, guardianes del patrimonio: dinámicas interculturales en la sociedad naua (México). /HLGHQ /HLGHQ8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV 0$77+(:/$85$0,&+(/528',-. (',7256 2007 Indian Conquistadors: Indigenous Allies in the Conquest of Mesoamerica. Norman: 8QLYHUVLW\RI2NODKRPD3UHVV 0$726('8$5'2)(/,3(62/Ë6 2004 El calendario azteca y otros monumentos solares. Mexico City: Grupo Azabache. 0(<9$(573$8/ 1986 The Medieval Monastic Garden. In Medieval Gardens edited by Elizabeth B. MacDougall, pp. 23-54. Washington, D.C.: Harvard University. 0,.8/6.$.$7$5=<1$ /RV&LHORVORVUXPERV\ORVQ~PHURV $SRUWHVVREUHODYLVLRQQDKXDGHOXQLYHUVH,Q Cielos e inframundos: Una revisión de la cosmología mesoamericana edited by Ana Díaz, pp. 109-173. 0H[LFR&LW\ ,QVWLWXWRGH,QYHVWLJDFLRQHV+LVWyULFDV81$0 0,//(50$5<$1'.$5/7$8%( 2015 An Illustrated Dictionary of The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya. New and His Nueva corónica edited by Rolena Adorno and Ivan Boserup, pp. 233-268. Copenhagen: 0XVHXP7XVFXODQXPDQG'HW.JO%LEOLRWHN 3(f$),(/$1721,2 1890 Monumentos del arte mexicano antiguo: Ornamentaticion, mitologia, tributos y monumentos, 3 vols.%HUOLQ $$VKHU &R 3(58648Ë$1$7+$/,(027$-26e('8$5'2&58=%(/75È1 2016 Juárez Hidalgo: En busca de nuestros ancestros. Juárez Hidalgo: Ediciones Mayahuel. 3(7(5621-($1(77() 1993 The Paradise Garden Murals of Malinalco: Utopia and Empire in Sixteenth-Century Mexico. $XVWLQ 8QLYHUVLW\RI7H[DV3UHVV 6\QWKHVLVDQG6XUYLYDO 7KH1DWLYH3UHVHQFHLQ6L[WHHQWK&HQWXU\0XUDOVRI1HZ6SDLQ Phoebus 7: 14-36. 3+(/$1-2+1/ 1970 The Millennial Kingdom of the Franciscans in The New World. %HUNHOH\DQG/RV$QJHOHV 8QLYHUVLW\RI&DOLIRUQLD3UHVV 5$67$//5,&+$5' 1994 Heaven: The Musical Repertory. The Iconography of Heaven HGLWHGE\&OL൵RUG'DYLGVRQ pp. 162-198. Michigan: Western Michigan University. 5(67$//0$77+(: 2003 Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. 2[IRUGDQG1HZ 6&+,//(5*(5758' 1971 Iconography of Christian Art, 2 vols. *UHHQZLFK 1HZ