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Yanatame Nisa Yoroni Luhchi ABSTRACT Dictionaries play a unique role in the popular imagination of modern American English speakers; monolingual English dictionaries have the final say in language and are the gatekeepers between “good” language and “bad.” The supreme authority of dictionaries can lend authenticity and legitimacy to Native American languages undergoing revitalization. But revitalization dictionaries are more than just an authority on the language. Revitalization dictionaries can expand language use, legitimize neologisms and chronicle cultural practices associated with certain terminology. However, dictionaries do not appear from thin air, and many decisions made during compilation in regards to everything from content to format have lasting impact on the effectiveness and usability of a revitalization dictionary and on the way in which the language in general is used or valued. This dissertation describes the process of compiling the New Tunica Dictionary. It looks at the social legacy of dictionaries in English-speaking society and discusses the ways in which the authority ascribed to dictionaries is leveraged in Tunica language revitalization. The challenges inherent in revitalizing and codifying a once-sleeping language are explored, such as how ambiguities of meaning were resolved when choosing dictionary headwords. It outlines basic Tunica grammar and the ways in which the Tunica Language Project leverages grammar rules in the creation of neologisms for inclusion in the dictionary. It describes the lexicographic underpinnings of the New Tunica Dictionary and details the technical and practical decisions the author undertook as the primary lexicographer. Sample pages of the print and app versions of the dictionary are given. Finally, as a work grounded in community-engaged scholarship, this dissertation discusses the ways in which the process of dictionary compilation encouraged learner excitement and involvement in the overall revitalization project. The dictionary produced in conjunction with this dissertation is intended to be a resource for scholars, language activists, and Tunica language learners for generations to come. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to first extend my deep appreciation to members of the Tunica-Biloxi Tribal Council and Language and Culture Revitalization Program: Brenda Lintinger, John Barbry, Donna Pierite and Elisabeth Mora. I also want to thank my advisor, Dr. Judith Maxwell, and members of the Kuhpani Yoyani Luhchi Yoroni. My dissertation was made richer by the wealth of knowledge and limitless dedication of Tunica teachers, Tunica learners, and Tulane students and faculty. Thank you for your patience in tackling the fundamental questions of Tunica grammar and meaning. A special thanks to Dave Prine and Skye Anderson for undertaking the initial entry of Tunica legacy data. I want to thank the American Philosophical Society for its support of my work through the Library Research Fellowship. I am deeply grateful for the expertise of Brian Carpenter and Dr. Timothy Powell at the Center for Native American and Indigenous Research, along with the enthusiastic interest of American Philosophical Society archivists Estelle Markel-Joyet and David Gary, all of whom were integral to exploring the depths of Mary Haas’s uncatalogued collection. Also, thank you to my dissertation committee: Dr. Judith Maxwell, Dr. Olanike Orie and Dr. Marc Zender. Many thanks to Dr. Joyce Bennett for invaluable guidance throughout my graduate work. Finally, thank you to my wife, Kirsten Hansen Day, and my extensive family for their encouragement and support. I am supremely grateful to my parents, Catherine and David Anderson, for instilling in me a lifelong love of learning. ii iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. ii List of Tables .......................................................................................................................v List of Figures .................................................................................................................... vi Chapter 1 : Introduction ......................................................................................................1 1.1 A New Tunica Dictionary .....................................................................................1 1.2 Methodology: Community-Engaged Scholarship .................................................3 1.2.1 Defining Community-Engaged Scholarship ................................................. 3 1.2.2 The Ethics and Efficacy of Community Engaged Scholarship ..................... 4 1.2.3 The Author’s Long-term Involvement Prior to Research ............................. 7 1.2.4 Community-Engaged Scholarship Wrap .................................................... 10 1.3 Structure of the Dissertation ................................................................................12 Chapter 2 : Tunica Language ............................................................................................14 2.1 History of the Tunica Language ..........................................................................14 2.1.1 Initial Recording of Tunica Language: 1880-1930 ..................................... 17 2.1.2 Tunica Revitalization: 2010-present ........................................................... 19 2.2 Tunica Language .................................................................................................21 2.2.1 Genetic Relationships & Areal Features ..................................................... 21 2.2.2 A Sketch Grammar of Tunica ..................................................................... 23 2.3 The Haas Tunica Dictionary ...............................................................................53 2.3.1 Organization & Distribution of Linguistic Information.............................. 54 2.3.2 The Need for an Updated Tunica Dictionary .............................................. 57 Chapter 3 : Lexicography..................................................................................................60 3.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................60 3.2 A History of the Social Role of Dictionaries ......................................................61 3.3 Lexicographic Theory .........................................................................................68 3.3.1 Electronic Dictionaries: The New Face of Lexicography ........................... 73 3.3.2 Functional Lexicography ............................................................................ 74 iii iv 3.4 Indigenous Language Lexicography ...................................................................77 3.5 Conclusion ...........................................................................................................86 Chapter 4 : Designing A community Dictionary ..............................................................88 4.1 Pre-Data Entry Decisions: Software & Technology ...........................................89 4.1.1 Data Longevity: Making the data useful to many stake holders ................ 89 4.1.2 Choosing Dictionary Software .................................................................... 91 4.2 Inputting Data ......................................................................................................94 4.2.1 Determining the Headword ......................................................................... 95 4.2.2 Data Entry and Language Standardization ............................................... 102 4.2.3 Standardization and the Dictionary ........................................................... 116 4.3 Outputting the Dictionary: Format and Organization .......................................116 4.3.1 Tun-Eng and Eng-Tun: Order and Legitimacy in the Dictionary ............. 117 4.3.2 Dictionary Entries: Micro and Macrostructures ...................................... 118 4.3.3 Example Sentence Authenticity ................................................................ 121 4.3.4 Digital Dictionary Format ......................................................................... 125 4.4 Conclusion .........................................................................................................127 Chapter 5 : Neologisms ...................................................................................................129 5.1 The Necessity of Neologisms ............................................................................129 5.2 Mechanisms for Creating Tunica Neologisms ..................................................130 5.2.1 New Nouns................................................................................................ 131 5.2.2 New Adjectives ......................................................................................... 132 5.2.3 Compounding ............................................................................................ 132 5.2.4 Affixation .................................................................................................. 133 5.2.5 Use of directional prefixes ........................................................................ 133 5.2.6 Semantic Extension and Specialization .................................................... 134 5.2.7 Metonymy & Synecdoche ......................................................................... 135 5.2.8 Mimicking Patterns Present in Tunica .....................................................
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