Life at sea in the age of sail Heaving a lead by John Augustus Atkinson, 1 January 1807. Repro ID: PU7765 ©National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, Over a period of hundreds of years, seafarers from the age of the early explorers to the time of the Battle of Trafalgar shared many common experiences. Men working at sea had much to endure. Cut off from normal life on shore for months, even years, they had to accept cramped conditions, disease and poor food and pay. Above all, they faced the daily dangers of sea and weather. Were there laws to improve conditions for seamen? There have been many attempts by Governments, both to improve the seaman's lot and to increase his efficiency. One of the earliest was a charter of Richard I (the Lionheart) which set out rates of pay, conditions of service and levels of punishment for sailors. Five centuries later, one of the greatest reformers was Samuel Pepys, Secretary to the Navy Office. What food was there on board ship?

Ship's biscuit inscribed 'This biscuit was given – Miss Blacket at Berwick on Tuesday 13 April 1784, Berwick'. Repro ID: D4001 ©National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London Over the centuries this changed little for seamen, whether they were crews of Drake or Nelson. The main rations were salt beef or pork, cheese, fish, ale and some form of ship's biscuit. The quality of the food deteriorated because of storage problems, lack of ventilation, and poor drainage. It was also affected by the presence of rats and other vermin on board. Biscuits were often filled with maggots and weevils, a type of beetle. Many ships' suppliers were dishonest and sent stores that were already rotten before they were taken on board. Who cooked the food? The ship's cook was often selected from seamen who were wounded or maimed and therefore unfit for other duties. InTreasure Island by Robert Louis Stevenson, Long John Silver with his crutch is typical. In the days of the early explorers such as Magellan and Columbus, food was cooked 'barbecue' style on the open deck, but by Nelson's time, a ship had its own kitchen, known as a 'galley'. What were the other sorts of jobs on board?

Argonaut (Reefing a sail) by A. J. V. Chodzco [artist], 1876. Repro ID: PU6484 ©National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London These depended on whether the vessel was a warship or a merchantman, although in earlier times the need to defend cargo meant that the latter would have to be armed. For example, Drake carried a crew of 80 men on The Golden Hind. As well as the cook, special jobs were carried out by the parson, surgeon, master gunner, boatswain (in charge of the sails), carpenter and quartermaster. Other members of the crew would, of course, carry out all the duties, including keeping watch, handling sails, and cleaning decks.

It is interesting to notice that the names for jobs of men responsible for working a ship (boatswain, coxswain – even seamen) are of Anglo-Saxon origin whilst those of officers (Captain, Lieutenant, Admiral) are of Norman-French origin. This is an indication of a class distinction between roles on board.

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