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Gausset & Whyte Ny.Fm Gausset & Whyte ny.fm Page 1 Monday, February 14, 2005 11:36 AM BEYOND TERRITORY AND SCARCITY EXPLORING CONFLICTS OVER NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT edited by Quentin Gausset, Michael A. Whyte and Torben Birch-Thomsen NORDISKA AFRIKAINSTITUTET 2005 Gausset & Whyte ny.fm Page 2 Monday, February 14, 2005 11:36 AM Indexing terms Resources management Environmental degradation Natural resources Conflicts Boundaries Living conditions Burkina Faso Cameroon Democratic Republic of the Congo Ghana Lesotho Niger Nigeria Senegal Sudan Cover photo: Andreas de Neergaard/SLUSE Language checking: Robert Parkin © the authors and Nordiska Afrikainstitutet, 2005 ISBN 91-7106-540-7 Printed in Sweden by Elanders Gotab, Stockholm 2005 Gausset & Whyte ny.fm Page 3 Monday, February 14, 2005 11:36 AM Foreword Neo-Malthusian theories have been extremely influential in inspiring interpreta- tions of conflicts on natural resource management. Most environmental pro- grammes in the South still limit themselves to those resources that are fixed within delimited territories. Management becomes a matter of sharing finite re- sources among an increasing number of people. However, recent research in an- thropology and geography suggests that territory as a bounded unit defining scarcity plays a contingent role in environmental management. People and key re- sources flow across boundaries. Local actors do not just undergo environmental changes passively; they are active agents able to mobilize natural and political re- sources far from the sites of conflict or management. Scarcity is moreover a rela- tive concept. The same territory, landscape or resource can be perceived very differently by different people, and what has been interpreted as conflict over scarce resources often appears to be conflict of perspectives, over the definition of resource, and over the resource management rules. A group of researchers at the Institute of Anthropology and the Institute of Geography, University of Copenhagen, organised an international seminar in Copenhagen on the 7–9th of November 2002 in order to explore further issues related to conflicts over natural resources, and to strengthen existing experience and expertise within the field of natural resource management. National and in- ternational researchers were invited to present case studies of conflicts over natu- ral resource management where social, cultural and political dimensions were given full weight, and social actors and their strategies were foregrounded. At the seminar 11 papers were presented and nine are published in this volume. The ed- itors have added an introduction to the volume, which is indebted to three days of stimulating exchanges that took place during the seminar. The seminar was directed towards further developing interdisciplinary ap- proaches to the study and analysis of environmental degradation and conflicts over resources. This is a theme that is central for the Danish University Consor- tium on Environment and Development (DUCED) and, in particular, for its fo- cal program on Sustainable Land Use and Natural Resource Management (SLUSE) in which both the organizing institutes participate. Funding for DUCED-SLUSE was from the Danish International Development Agency (Da- nida). Within the funding period (1998–2006) the DUCED-SLUSE universities (University of Copenhagen, the Royal Veterinary & Agricultural University and Roskilde University) have worked to strengthen educational and research capac- ity internally, as well as in collaboration with partner-country universities in Ma- laysia, Thailand, South Africa, Swaziland and Botswana. Gausset & Whyte ny.fm Page 4 Monday, February 14, 2005 11:36 AM The organizing of the seminar and publication of this volume was funded by the North–South Research Area of the University of Copenhagen, by the two or- ganizing Institutes of Anthropology and Geography, and by the DUCED- SLUSE, all of whom I thank warmly for their support. Torben Birch-Thomsen Associate Professor, Institute of Geography and Coordinator of DUCED-SLUSE collaboration at University of Copenhagen 4 Gausset & Whyte ny.fm Page 5 Monday, February 14, 2005 11:36 AM Table of Contents Introduction. 7 Quentin Gausset and Michael A.Whyte Land and Labour: Agrarian Change in Post-Retrenchment Lesotho . 27 Christian Boehm Social Resilience in African Dryland Livelihoods: Deriving Lessons for Policy. 46 Michael Mortimore The Making of an Environment: Ecological History of the Kapsiki/Higi of North Cameroon and North-Eastern Nigeria . 70 Walter E.A. van Beek and Sonja Avontuur Agro-pastoral Conflicts in the Tikar Plain (Adamawa, Cameroon) . 90 Quentin Gausset Transhumance, Tubes and Telephones: Drought Related Migration as a Process of Innovation. 112 Kristine Juul Understanding Resource Management in the Western Sudan: A Critical Look at New Institutional Economics . 135 Leif Manger Within, and Beyond, Territories: A Comparison of Village Land Use Management and Livelihood Diversification in Burkina Faso and Southwest Niger. 149 Simon Batterbury Moving the Boundaries of Forest and Land Use History: The Case of Upper East Region in Northern Ghana. 168 D. Andrew Wardell Transnational Dimensions to Environmental Resource Dynamics: Modes of Governance and Local Resource Management in Eastern DRC . 195 James Fairhead About the Authors . 216 Gausset & Whyte ny.fm Page 6 Monday, February 14, 2005 11:36 AM Map of Case Studies 5 2 7 7 2 8 3 6 4 9 1. Lesotho (Boehm) 2. Nigeria/Niger (Mortimore) 3. Cameroon/Nigeria (van Beek & Avontuur) 4. Cameroon (Gausset) 5. Senegal (Juul) 6. Sudan (Manger) 7. Burkina Faso/Niger 1 (Batterbury) 8. Ghana (Wardell) 9. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (Fairhead) Gausset & Whyte ny.fm Page 7 Monday, February 14, 2005 11:36 AM Introduction Quentin Gausset and Michael A. Whyte Sound and sustainable environmental management is one of the greatest chal- lenges that humanity will face in this century. It is evident that some natural re- sources are currently being exploited beyond the rate at which they can be renewed, thus threatening the ability of future generations to live from these re- sources. We need to find new ways to exploit resources ‘sustainably’ so as not to undermine the chances of survival for future generations (WCED 1987). Al- though the specific phrasing of this idea can be discussed at length (Redclift and Woodgate 1997), few people would challenge the statement that unlimited pop- ulation and consumption growth are impossible in a finite world (Gowdy 1998; Meadows et al. 1992, Trainer 1998). Beyond a certain threshold, more people must necessarily mean a reduction in resources per capita. Disagreement starts with the analysis of particular terms. Where is the threshold, what are the limits, and have we reached them yet? When is consumption too much? What levels are sustainable? What is the scale at which we should measure sustainability – local, regional, national, global? How should limits to population or consumption be distributed in the world? Are conflicts over natural resources symptomatic of their scarcity? These questions reflect real issues in an Africa that is characterised by social, historical and geographic diversity, as well as by real dilemmas for policy and planning at different levels. The answers will themselves always be partial, con- tingent and context-dependent, part of a continuing process of discovery and col- laboration. It is therefore important to avoid seeing Africa as ‘the symbol of worldwide demographic, environmental, and societal stress’ (Kaplan 1994: 46) and reducing the cause of African social, economic and political problems to a presumed scarcity of resources. This well-known framework for discussing future policy, which focuses on the scarcity of resources, springs from the Malthusian idea that, all things being equal, population increase must outpace available resources, leading to ‘misery and vice’. In this framework, future security relies on limiting population growth. A second and equally well-known framework, often called neo-Malthusian, fo- cuses more specifically on the environmental consequences of population growth. Here the imbalance between population and resources is believed to lead to envi- ronmental degradation, which in its turn, reinforces the imbalance in a down- ward spiral. These two positions predict – indeed, guarantee – outcomes for which no pol- itician would like to be held responsible: social misery and the increasing degra- 7 Gausset & Whyte ny.fm Page 8 Monday, February 14, 2005 11:36 AM Quentin Gausset and Michael A. Whyte dation of the environment. Malthus was, of course, not only the founder of academic demography but also an active political voice in the policy discourses of his time. His ideas have inspired policy-making by politicians and bureaucrats alike for two centuries, and they have also been extremely influential in the green movement and the mass media, as well as, most certainly, among the general pop- ulation. The strength of the Malthusian and neo-Malthusian approaches has been their capacity to reduce complex problems to very simple equations. But this has also been their weakness. Our goal in this volume is not to reject Malthusian and neo-Malthusian in- sights entirely. Population growth does have an impact at many levels, from the strategies of actors to the social, cultural and environmental consequences of those strategies. It is important to understand the consequences of growth, and setting territorial limits is one useful way to identify and model these consequenc- es. But it
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