Kim Groop

Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality The Finnish Missionary Society and the emergence of the first Church Rules in the Ovambo mission field in South West Africa

Introduction This article scrutinises the work of the Finnish Missionary Society as regards the creating of a Church Law in the emerging Ovambo Lutheran Church, in what is today the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia. The work resulted, in1924 , in the church’s first Church Rules. In this endeavour, the Finnish missionaries took as a model the Finnish Church Law of 1869, but also utilised elements from the old Swedish Church Law from 1686. The aim of the missionaries was to create a law that could establish proper foundations for a Lutheran Church of their own preference. In the two last chapters of the art­ icle, the issue of transculturality is discussed. It is suggested that the Finnish mission’s undertaking in Namibia was not simply character­ ised by the imposition of a new religion and new rules, but rather that this work was a fitting example of cultural exchange and transfusion. In this cultural exchange, various hybridised groups and individuals interacted in what would eventually result in a Lutheran church built on different cultural traditions, religious practices, and memories.

42 Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 43 ; “Stadgar 1–4; för

2 and Suomen Lähetysseura . As was the As was was founded1859. in ; Paunu 1909, Paunu 231–233; 1 218–221, 150, 84, 1908, , the Finnish Missionary Society1985, as the Finn­ has been known , when it gained independence, and the Russian Emperors and the Russian Emperors when it gained independence, 1917, atism. As a consequence of all this, some of the early some initiators of of all As a consequence this, ­atism. Since in The name Finnish and ish Evangelical Lutheran (FELM). Mission unchanged: remained has however, Swedish, Finska Missionssällskapet respectively. Finska Missionssällskapet ” in Paunu in Paunu Stadfästade den 6 Oktober 1863” Finska missionssällskapet. 2013, 292–295. Groop 2013, 145–153; Groop 1909; The coming into existence of the the of existence into coming The MissionaryFinnish Society was ridden. At the heart of the problem lay the question “what to the question the heart lay At of the problem -ridden. conflict of the nineteenth for much PietisticChristianity, Pietism?”. with do and the Pietists’ been at odds with the Lutheran had Church, century, the been effectivelyrestrained had through of movement freedom private outside the services meetings prohibiting Conventicle Act of ­ to its predomi threat viewedThe any church the Lutheran Church. oftenwas it as the Pietists propagated who and, suspicion with nance What is mistrusted. be to tended also movement mission the mission, Finland was a Grand Duchy 1809 in the Russian from Empire more, until activityviewedas potential seeds of the church religious outside separ had early the in -mid nineteenth century, societymission a Finland, in case with most Protestant mission societies, this societythis foundedwas societies, mission case most Protestant with of Pietismin the wake evangelical and the eighteenth and revivals of its founders numer­ among and members It had nineteenth centuries. Lutheran Lutheran many them among – individuals prominent ous to various revival movements. people with connections pastors and lay The MissionaryFinnish at Protestantism revivalSociety with shared characteristic features other also but Christocentrica large theology, and tradition the bible above such as placing movements, of the revival sober lifestyle. a humble, to live urging its followers 1 Paunu 2 Paunu The Finnish Missionary Society The Backdrop 44 Kim Groop who, itsaw, failedtotaketheirfaithseriously. had little understanding of “name-Christians” or “culture-Christians” other Protestant mission societies, Society Missionary theFinnish way.behave in a certain and to its peers in revivalist circles Similar strictness.theological True were Christians and supposedtobelieve emphasised humbleness, degree by of acertain itwascharacterised its own standards. ing proper Church foundationsandcreating according aLutheran to afresh oftheworld; inforeignsibilities ofstarting parts establish­ by was driven a fascination with the pos­ Society Missionary Finnish this society, by itsown will, surrenderedFinland. thefightin The gospel tothe theChristian “pagans”,carry one couldalsoarguethat by Godto itselfsawthatitwascalled Society Missionary Finnish at home inorder tofindgreener pastures abroad. Thus, whereas the did quitetheopposite. from Itdeparted this “deprived” Christianity Society Missionary theFinnish engaging inmission work inFinland many bible-andtractsocietiesattempted to change the situation by Murtorinne 3 Murtorinne re (somechaplains). ofthemappointed prison -located breakingeither been sentenced for Act the Conventicle or had been witness and to missionise non -Christians. tobea Christian ofevery theduty proclaimed Society Missionary Amboland asitwasreferred toby inSouth West themissionaries) 6 Groop 5 Groop 4 Hirn Like many otherProtestant societies, missionary theFinnish intended to forbid operationsinsideFinland. intended toforbid Empire” (Paunu 1908, that itsoperation “should notbeextendedtothearea ofthe [Russian] on one condition: Society Missionary ing thefoundation oftheFinnish by Paunu,written regard accepted the proposal Senate oftheGoverning ­ b, 288–289,293294. 2013b, 1901, 1–6. a, 145–147. 2013a, a, 2013a, 2000, 156, 6 It chose as its first mission field Ovamboland(or asitsfirstmission Itchose field 93–94, 168. ItcouldbenotedthatEmperor AlexanderII, as 221). Itisunlikely, however, thatthiscondition was 108–110, a, 116; Groop 2013a, 4 At the same time as it 5 Nonetheless, whereas 3 138–139; Groop Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 45 Due to the cri­ 9 7 When ­ was publi the law proposal 8 . Schauman behind the of the forces was also one 158. 2000, ; Leino Suokunnas 2012, 67–69. 2011, 112; 2000, 160–161; 1909, 84, 97, 119. founding of the Finnish He Missionary Society and its first chairman. in dioceses of the three one in 1865 be elected Bishop of Porvoo, would Finland (Hirn, 9). 1901, 2–4 At the same time as the Finnish the same time At Missionary Society was founded, another set of events took place which importanceof was place eventsof set another took founded, Edvard Archbishop In 1854, to the Lutheran in Finland. Church Ludvig Schauman with the Frans entrustedBergenheim Professor task of writing for a new Law a proposal Church for the Evangelical the old replace This newwould law Lutheran in Finland. Church 1686. Swedish Law Church from tique, the text in the first paragraph was amended and given a more a more the text in the first paragraph was amended and given tique, para­ the confession Apart from Lutheranconfessional character. suchOne raised. were issues other some regarding questions graph, ­ con undergone whichdiscipline church had on section the was issue will later in this article. and to which return we siderable changes, Law Church was ratified with Schauman’s however, On the whole, ­ fewrelatively it was to its prede changes considering different how after paragraph even amendments in the confession the and, cessor, cised it was met with considerable criticism, especially with regard to especially regard with criticism, considerable with met was it cised This was confession. the church’s which presented the first paragraph, the statement regarding “soften” because Schauman attempted to had Those criticising this paragraph saw Lutheran confession. the church’s posi­ confessional that it was too liberal and undermined the church’s to vari several the critics­ pastors with connections were Among tion. (such movements revival ous Evangelicalsthe as Pietists)the and who felt of the Lutheran that the confession in Finland Church be would Law Church be ratified. diluted should the proposed Paunu 7 Paunu 8 Murtorinne 9 Murtorinne Africa. The first missionaries and mission dispatched carpenters were Africa. to this new. field in 1868/1869 mission 46 Kim Groop 12 Peltola 11 10 Schmidt longer inwork experience inSouth West thantheFinns. Africa by ally, itsneighbouring theRheinische Missionsgesellschaft, had which were inspired thinkingandmore by missiological directly German Church inFinland. Thirdly, many missionaries, atleast before WWI, to andleanedon thetraditions Lutheran andlawsoftheEvangelical we have mentioned above. Secondly, adhered missionaries the Finnish degrees orrevivalisttheology, –thePietistic invarying naturally which stand outandshouldbementioned. Firstly, shared mostmissionaries – amples asthere were missionaries, thatthree Ibelieve characteristics brought toAfrica? Though there were atleastasmany probably ex­ theFinns which Christianity theLutheran thencharacterised What Pietism, Paganism, and theChurch Law stand behindtheChurch Law. pastorswere andPietistic Evangelical prepared critical to previously the stations. director himself, incharge of tothemissionaries wasofimportance Society, Missionary of theFinnish themission cases andinparticular ferences. Moreover, asMattiPeltola stresses, theadvice oftheboard con­ orbebroughtmissionary missionaries with fellow tothelocal intheirwork.ibility problems arose, When thesecouldbediscussed astooproblematical.not view itgave themfreedom Rather andflex­ grewaccustomedwas astatethatthemissionaries to, did andprobably orinstructions. rules the mission stations withoutany corporate This For decades, almostfour theirwork ran missionaries at theFinnish where Missionary Liljeblad decidednot toallowtobacco ortradingin where Missionary endnote 272). among in Amboland the missionaries (Peltolalenged authority 1958, Gustav Warneck’sGustav Peltola were missionaries strongly influenced notesthattheFinnish by 1958, 12 1948, 241; 2011,114. Suokunnas

213. for instanceinthetobaccocase struggle This wasthe Evangelische, Missionslehre ­ andunchal was a true which 10 11 303, ­ Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 47

13 . I have had had I have 26–27. The missionaryThe guidelines 14 Guidelines for Missionaries ofthe Finnish Missionary were Society the opportunity of studying a few copies of these instructions different in in the comments notes and the many Based on and in Finland. Namibia margins it can of all be assumed that the missionaries did not approve rather seen but that the instructions were parts of the instruction manual, in Helsinki with­ the leadership from above” ”from dictated as something and needs in Africa. of the situation out full knowledge 26–27; XVI, SuomenOhjeita Lähetysseuran lähettejä varten, 1906 för den evangeliskKyrkolag -lutherska kyrkan i Finland 1870, 25–26. tobacco on his station, whereas most missionaries saw that it was unwise most missionariessaw that it was unwise whereas his station, on tobacco the relationship an issue which could endanger on position to take a strong 220–225). 1996, with the kings and chiefs (Peltola who wanted tobacco SuomenOhjeita Lähetysseuran lähettejä varten 1906, The first The first printed missionary instructions only in 1906. emerged These to serve forof rules as a set Finnish the regulations and ­ missionar Africa. West ies and missionary in German in their work workers page manual resembled the text in the the text in the manual resembled text in this 32 page of the Parts and of particular­ inter Most striking, Finnish Law Church of 1869. in the 1869 Finnish As church discipline. on section is the est here, the 1906 missionary the issue of guidelines dealt with Law, Church discipline Church for a Christian who briefly. church discipline quite start been foundhad guilty a line of action followed ­ of wrongdoing fol­ of the parish the head (the missionary), ing with a warning by then a witnesses, or three two of a warning in the company by lowed it intransigent cases, in Finally, of the congregation. warningin front and some Holyled to the exclusion Communion from of the person ­ it was empha As in the Finnish Law, Church rights. other church was Holysised that that the individual excluded Communion from He or she was furthermore to attend to be allowed for. to be prayed ordinary and he or she was to services church word to listen to God’s seemingly without fur­ full rights, and returned church be forgiven after sins. her or his repenting due, ther describediscipline as follows: church 14 13 48 Kim Groop was, atleastintheory, pertaining withcrimes tobeconcernedonly exist withsome measure ofinterdependence, the1869Church Law citizens.and notall Althoughthe church andthestatecontinued to Church theLutheran able changeinthesensethatitconcerned only brought eachother–the1869Church Law consider ­ and supporting ofthechurch and stateintermingling the state–withlegalsystems Church of1686had with undertheChurch lived Law in symbiosis 16 15 ing aboutdisorderachurchservice. during dependantsfromor hindering attendingthesame,­ aswell asbring §104: practicingheresy; §105: meetings failure to attend catechetical other dependants; disobediencetowards parents orirreconcilability; inmarriage,unity orharshness againstchildren, or domestic servants ants; §103: showing contemptGod’s for exercise; word andgodly dis ­ toone’s instruction or toprovide Christian children orotherdepend ­ the two, thelatterwaslessdetailedandrigid. singledoutin The offences offences,singled outcertain but, which wereforbidden tobe out of the andsubsequentregulations.Church Law Boththe1686and1869laws asregulated andSweden by the1686 with pre inFinland -1869 praxis of1869,Church Law it wasmore itisapparent congruent thatinpart Though the paragraphs on church discipline followed the Finnish churchfollowedThough the paragraphs on discipline the Discipline. wise commits publicoffence, besubjecttoChurch heorsheshall exercises,and godly dissension and so on in marriage or other­ ness, theft, adultery, fornication, paganism, contempt ofGod’s word intopublicsinandevil,If someone fallen iscaught ­ likedrunken Church Law were:1869 Church Law §102: refusal tohave one’s baptised child sevice and without the consent of the vicar [kyrkoherde] andwithouttheconsent of the vicar wasalsodeclined. sevice § 1870, iFinland -lutherska kyrkan Kyrkolag denevangelisk för ­lation.trans 1906, lähettejävarten Lähetysseuran Ohjeita Suomen XVI, 26. My 30 on page 15 9. the Sunday during of conventicles In §33 the arranging 16 Whereas the Lutheran theLutheran Whereas 26. also See Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 49 The 20 ; Sveriges 26; 19 Drunkenness, for Drunkenness, 17 Theft, adultery, and fornication adultery, Theft, 18 2000, 158–162. Kyrkolag för den evangeliskKyrkolag -lutherska kyrkan i Finland 1870, kyrkolag107, 735–736. af år 1686, 106– för den evangeliskKyrkolag -lutherska kyrkan i Finland 1870, 26. 11, 22. XVI, SuomenOhjeita Lähetysseuran lähettejä varten 1906, Instead of directly of applyingInstead the Finnish Law Church to the Ovambo mission work, the paragraphs on church discipline in the church discipline in the the paragraphs on Ovambo work, mission 1906 missionary the needs and to meet tailored guidelines were the hand, one On the of the Finnishdemands MissionarySociety. ­ be consid at that time in Finland, what would, beyond guidelines went churchly they as ered could be regarded domains touched what upon printed in 1906, when the guidelines were However, as secular laws. Ovamboland was an isolated part which of a German knew colony the guidelines why This explains very secular laws. little of European also dealt with ways of being and behaving outside of the church’s the missionary guidelines also touched On the other hand, domain. depar­ of point a as theyas took pertainingissues upon culture, to in essence sinful. s were practice and pagan that paganism ture guidelines demonstrate the encounter between different cultures: put cultures: different the encounter between guidelines demonstrate simply the Pietistic between Finnish Missionary Society the one on The guidelines can hand and the Ovambo the other. on ethnic groups be viewed as an early of an encounter between display and sketchy little which had cultures a Pietistic cultures; with different mission Church Law. Yet, heresy was heresy Yet, Law. at all in the 1869 Church not mentioned were and subject to church discipline. listed as prohibited 18 17 Murtorinne to Christian life within the Lutheran Church. instance, was not forbidden been forbidden not it had (and in fact as instance, Rather in it was causing disorder such Law). even in the 1686 Church duringa church Sunday Service case (and in the Church of the 1686 “being drunk Law: in church during a Sunday Service”) which was subject to penalty. and prohibited 19 20 50 Kim Groop or sisters, buttoholdthemasworse thanapagan”. nottotreat brothersbe thoseunderdisciplineasChristian “instructed ofexcommunication were aboutcases andtheChristians informed to conference. at a missionary jointly thisdecision shouldbemadeted into the parish by themissionaries from throughbe excluded theparish excommunication orre -admit­ icle. made three remarksSaari interest thatare thisart­ for ofparticular sionary instructions from instructions 1906. sionary work inOvamboland, wasnotmentioned butwhich inthemis­ yearshad of Finnish been frompracticed as a last resort the early alsodealtwiththesensitive issueofexcommunication,briefing which from thefireforhim/herto and ofhell remaininChrist”. was the purpose “only … andexclusively ofthe humansoul salvation parishioners”.the “black and Christians Churchall disciplinewasfor the teachers”“white any shouldnotconsider betterthan themselves cipline. ahumblestance, highlightedtheneedfor Saari that warning meeting. church issuesof dis­ dealtwiththeological This briefing had prepared providedfordiscussion which abasisatthe abriefing in1918. annual conference inOvamboland HeikkiSaari Missionary onthe paragraphs church disciplineinsufficient. mented. Itwould found soonthatthemissionaries become evident West Africa, andwhere had yet nowestern legalsystem beenimple­ in South of the Finns to the arrival prior exposure toChristianity Saari 23 Saari 22 Saari 21 Saari to Saari thosealready confirmedwho wereto Saari church subjecttodis­ The issue of church discipline was discussed at the missionary churchThe issueofdisciplinewasdiscussedatthemissionary ). mid-1880s (Varis 1988, 173). munication, inthe work wasintroduced inOvamboland intotheFinnish 1906.tejä varten Varis thatchurch discipline, believes excom­ including he pointed out that in cases whereFirstly, hepointedoutthatincases atransgressor wasto 1917, 6. made references to1Cor. Saari 5:11and2John 1:10. 1917, 1–3. Mytranslation. 1917, 3–6; Peltola 1958, ; Ohjeita Suomen Lähetysseuran lähet­ 112; Lähetysseuran Ohjeita Suomen 22 Towards theendofdocument, Secondly, were parishes all to be 23

Thirdly, according 21 Saari’s cipline Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 51 5). jointly nutrition or poverty According to Peltola, to Peltola, According 26 ). Liljeblad also had a more a more also had Liljeblad 221–223). It is probable that Liljeblad resisted resisted that Liljeblad It is probable 25 Emil Liljeblad had had In 1902 and 1903 Emil Liljeblad 308–309. Though various opinions were aired it seems aired were Though various opinions 27 5. 220–225, 24 1918, § 1996, 1917, 6. was, however, to end (Peltola 1996, (Peltola to end however, was, to the giving an ox i.e. ox, of the wedding the custom strict attitude towards Liljeblad Varis, Tuula to According than Rautanen. of the bride, parents for criticised“payment it harshly as pagan and immoral because it was a the considered for his part, Rautanen, whoring of virginity”. and removal already refused to give tobacco to Ondonga’s King Nehale and to the king and to the king King Nehale to Ondonga’s tobacco to give refused already made also had he and Natshilongo, Tsha Tshaanika Ongandjera, the of doers and did not go wrong were of the teachers believe smokers that one Liljeblad who was a smoker, When Rautanen, by confronted to heaven. in Helsinki the leadership despite instructions from in, to give refused was not forbidden of tobacco that payment with or the donating as such. to people suffering mal­ with tobacco from Payment One of Liljeblad’s arguments against the suggestion for a joint decision in fordecision joint a suggestion against the arguments of Liljeblad’s One that if such was that he feared a all cases touching excommunication upon parishes their teachers through “neighbouring materialisedcentralisation 1918, § (Pöytäkirja business” interfering come would in another parish’s Based on the minutes, it is difficult to discern how divided or to discern it is difficult the minutes, Based on Peltola 27 Peltola at the missionary conferences. united the missionaries were over these or other issues, because one these or other issues, over missionariesunited the were than more opinions his aired to have seems Emil Liljeblad, missionary, What to have appears Liljeblad all missionaries the other together. strict rules the mis­ guiding how allopposed was above things: two that suggestion and Saari’s their judgements to make sionaries were with be dealt to were allexcommunication issues concerning the suggested policythe suggested the members not because he wanted to protect and flexibility but because to he wanted freedom of his congregation, parish. in his own course-of-action a decide on 24 Saari Pöytäkirja 25 Pöytäkirja 26 attend confirmation education before being admitted back admitted being education before confirmation -attend re to were into the parish. Liljeblad had a stricter approach in various matters, such drinking as in various a stricter had matters, approach Liljeblad than local (the chewing and smoking and brew) omagongo tobacco, the other missionaries. 52 Kim Groop last sectionadirect lacks correspondence in the Church Law. constitutes a combination sections in the Church of several Law. The of1869, Church Law the Finnish whereas thesecond tolastsection sections intheRegulations correspond tosections 1to9, Church.the Amboland-Lutheran Evangelical The first 11 (outof13) would thenbeapproved astheRegulations of in1924andprinted basis, orframework, thedirectives, whenthecommittee drafted which 1906, of1869provided Church a Law thattheFinnish itisobvious Namibia. towards Church afuture innorthern for aChurch Lutheran Law 30 29 28 Lutheran Church. theAmboland Evangelical- underthetitleRegulations of instructions in1924released therevised Society Missionary Board oftheFinnish Ovamboland field, four years,Finnish after nearly in the effect and the usewithimmediate These directives were introducedfor temporary Directives theAmboland Evangelical-Lutheran for Church Society), Missionary Board andin1920the Governing oftheFinnish beapproved by would which eventually the (orthedraft church rules Society.Missionary Acommittee wasgiven thetaskofpreparingthese a Church Law, by would theFinnish asthey becalled orchurch rules makedecisions on would excommunication.the missionaries jointly where detailedrules behind theideaofcreating common andfairly that –withtheexception ofLiljeblad were –themissionaries united As had been the case with the missionary instructions emergingin instructions withthemissionary As had beenthecase would eventually lead to annualmeetingin1918would eventually The missionary lutherska kyrkan i Finland 1870. iFinland -lutherska kyrkan denevangelisk för 1924; kirkonAmbomaan-luterilaisen järjestyssäännöt Kyrkolag evankelis 213. kirkonAmbomaan-luterilaisen järjestyssäännöt. evankelis Peltola 1958, Toimintaohjeita kirkolle. Ambomaan Evankelis -Luterilaiselle 1988, 135). wedding ox custom, to be a folk involved which pagan elements (Varis 29 These regulations would provide thenextstep 11 and13in 28 emerged. 30 Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 53 33 . It should also be noted that the major milestone in It should also be noted that the major milestone 214.

32 Further down in paragraph four under the section “Church “Church paragraph in four down under the section Further 31 the history of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Namibia, the ordin­ the history of the Evangelical Lutheran in Namibia, Church indicates that Missionary Perheentupa easily. did not come in 1925, ation Finnishin the transformation slow a process undergone missionaries had missionaries would many notes, Perheentupa ago, long Not mind-set. their ideas of the Rheinisch missionaries the opinion in regarding shared have [kauhistavaa gullibility” “shocking of local pastors as of the ordination 1923, 6–7). (See Perheentupa hyväuskoisuutta] 1. § evankelis järjestyssäännöt, -luterilaisenAmbomaan kirkon My translation. evankelis järjestyssäännöt. -luterilaisenAmbomaan kirkon 1958, See Peltola Whereas Council in 1924 still of the mis­ consisted the Church [T]he by is managed Church of the Ambo administration topmost of the Finnishthe Board Missionary Society as this [Ambo] as long government of the The local executive church needs its support. body is the Council and the legislative is the Church Church Ambo General Synod. ­ head Though the title similarities as far as the go. however, This is, sionary the missionary as four in charge as well missionaries by elected ­ was to gradually the intention responsibil more over hand conference, as half of the parishes as soon notes that Peltola ity to the local church. and teachers (and evangelists, salariescould provide for their pastors, it should be noticed that the first in ordained were Ovambo pastors Ovambo1925) two Council be elected to the Church members would of the Finns. two to replace ings are similar, the Ovambo the sim­ much are Regulations Church similar, ings are first paragraph in the title under the “The Church’s instance, For pler. of the actual confession of defining the instead the text, Confession” Evangelical Lutheran childthe is Church “Amboland’s reads, church, of the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran­ its confes and adopts Church sion.” 32 33 31 Administration” the text reads: the text reads: Administration” 54 Kim Groop graph consisted ofalong listofexampleson transgressions: asinappropriatetoaChristian. wasviewed thing which ­ The para Christian’smade every abrother towarn orsisterwhodidsome ­ duty by leader (i.e. theparish asafirstmeasure, missionary) in1924itwas 35 34 paragraphs to paragraphs predecessor. Nevertheless, ithad expandedconsiderably, from four Regulations introduced asits1906 thesamepattern in1924follows ments animals, greed, usury, assign­ payment oneself takingfor during slandering, lying, fraud, pride, contentiousness, against ruthlessness bes­tiality, with awoman (okuhagela),, [itsesaastutus] masturbation … enjoying omagongo [brew], pilferage, andsleeping night running taking God’s nameandword invain. different teachingthanGod’s wordchurch’s andour confession, day holy,-raising, child helpingbrothers orsistersetc. spreading a neglecting churchservice, devotions, [neglecting]keepingtherest inthesame,practices andparticipating quacksalvers, utilisinglocal ohula etc. meat, eatingofsacrificial kindsofotherminormagic all older],against parents [alternatively ­ intentional partici The section on church discipline in the Ovambo Church The section churchon disciplineinthe My translation. 47. 1924,§ kirkonAmbomaan-luterilaisen järjestyssäännöt evankelis Church Discipline” Church Law. intheFinnish [Omkyrkotukt] the Church Regulations andexpansion was amodification of§ emphasis on care. the church discipline aspects of pastoral The text in instead put Society Missionary church setting and the Finnish African initstone tofitina young found tooconciliatory The latterwasprobably in thiscontext, § of Women” Church Regulations altogether were § of theOvambo out wereLaw of1869which Finnish Church left twoThe sections inthe [maksatusretkillä itselleen anastamisesta][maksatusretkillä , laziness, dis ­ 11. [Om barnaföderskors kyrkogång][Om barnaföderskors and, more perhaps importantly 34 Whereas wrongdoers been warned had previously Whereas 12: Care”“On IndividualSoul [Omenskildsjälavård]. 35

10:Churching “On obedience pation in 13: “On

Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 55

39 such as: 36

37 38 My translation. evankelis järjestyssäännötAmbomaan -luterilaisen kirkon 1924, § 49. My translation. evankelis järjestyssäännötAmbomaan -luterilaisen kirkon 1924, § 50. . pahennusta julkista In Finnish: evankelis järjestyssäännötAmbomaan -luterilaisen kirkon 1924, § 48. If the transgressor repented and mended his or her ways, and mended his or her ways, and repented If the transgressor … aggravated theft and robbery, demanding a wedding ox, seizing ox, a wedding demanding theft aggravated and robbery, … adultery and , fornication [salavuoteus] field, of [another individual’s] sleeping with a man. Should the transgressor fail to repent he or she was to be warnedShould fail to repent the transgressor … practicing magic, visiting a seer, assisting in or attending pagan assisting in or attending visiting a seer, magic, practicing … assault­ allowing unchristianthe household, behaviour in weddings, spouse or other fellowmen and allowing or encouraginging ones fornication. [haureus] Christians who wronged and failed to mend their ways, despite their ways, failed to mend and Christians who wronged compensated any potential material damage, he or she would be would she or he material potential any damage, compensated a chance to confess publiclygiven ­ of the whole congrega in front full after member rights.-awarded be re which he or she would tion, publicly parish of the further and he or she should until in front notice participation instruction in confirmation or from be withheld from ­ com also applied to those who had step This third Holy Communion. mitted particular crimes offenses and such as: being warned by fellow Christians, should be reported should be to the parish fellow Christians, being warned by This warninga issue question. in the individual to would who leader Regulations the 1924 Church discipline in step in church second public sins committing also applywould to those who were Should the transgressor fail to repent, however, he or she would be he or she would however, Should fail to repent, the transgressor 38 39 36 37 56 Kim Groop brought churchdocument. tothefore inthenew to1924, prior in Ovamboland ithad, which thatitwas butrather field Society Missionary munication had notexistedintheFinnish 1924 introduced excommunication. This doesnotmeanthatexcom ­ not from church membership, Church Regulations of theOvambo ism” as such andtothosewhohadcrimes committed serious repented. However, italsoappliedtothose had intopagan­ fallen “who been withheld from Communion Holy earlier but who had not still individual missionaries, butby the church council. thatexcommunicationdeclared would notbeanissuedealtwithby Society the version approved by Missionary theBoard oftheFinnish the work ofthecommitteethat makingpreparations theLaw) for excommunication, be noted (without much knowledge it can about regard to the discussion above, as to who should make the decision on excommunicated, i.e. from andchurch. excluded theparish With 40 Church Law of Church Law law text. (liketheFinnish instructions the1906missionary Whereas was initselftheintroducing ofexcommunicationcharacteristics inthe field. missionary Quite obviously,well ason theFinnish one ofthe as inFinland praxis Church Regulations incomparisonwithearlier This fourth step and last resort was reserved for thosewhohad was stepandlast reserved resort fourth This Let us for a while look at what was characteristic ofthese1924 awhilelook usfor atwhatwascharacteristic Let becoming aconcubine. ing [ones] spouse[i.e. divorce] withoutlegalreason, and polygamy pation inpaganwedding] andconducting paganweddings, leav­ toanother[man],wife ­ through [partici tomarry right acquiring … murder, arson, removing[i.e. afetus abortion], lending[ones] My translation. 51. 1924,§ kirkonAmbomaan-luterilaisen järjestyssäännöt evankelis ) spoke of exclusion from1869) spoke of exclusion 40

Holy Communion but

Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 57 In 43 Church Law1869 Church The The Ovambo Church The 44 42 , which was the prevailing law before which before law prevailing the was 1686, 1976, 22. 1985, 166–169. The larger ban, on the other hand, implied that an individual implied that an the other hand, on ban, larger The 41 Sveriges kyrkolag. af år 1686, 115–119 för den evangeliskKyrkolag -lutherska kyrkan i Finland 1870, 3. Excommunication, in the sense of exclusion from the rightsexclusion in the sense of of from Excommunication, . the smaller both as and larger ban with excommunication dealt 1869, Holy the smaller member subject to A church from ban was withheld Should an other churchly possiblyand rights. from also Communion or for year one fail to attend Holy Communion however, individual, -Chrisnon a as ­ “wasprosecuted and considered be to she or he more tian”. church membership, was no novelty in Finnish church history. The was no novelty Finnish in history. church membership, church SwedishLaw Church of fact, Frans Ludvig Schauman Law­ the Church who was leading com Frans fact, ­ but due to resist also wanted to abolish the smaller ban, mittee had What this mode of punishment was retained. ance in the committee in cer­ which had confession was the public was abolished though, for absolution. tain cases prerequisite been a were inspired by the Finnish by Rules Church inspired of of 1924 were Regulations the by – inspired – and perhaps also even more but they were 1869, What I am considering here previous Swedish Rules Church of 1686. of humiliation relative the also but ban, larger the of introducing the is Regulations of the 1924 Church the introduction Through “sinner”. the only readmitted would be transgressors the Finnishon field, mission in the case and, of the congregation, in front a public confession after 41 Halmesmaa 42 43 44 Pirinen was excluded from the church for a certain time. Should­ the wrong for the church was excluded a certain from time. he or she year of excommunication within the first doer not repent Sweden (and Finland). be exiled from would had a much more conciliatory tone than its predecessor, and the only conciliatory more a much had than its predecessor, tone of parting the issue instance where mentioned was the church with was when individuals voluntarily left as dissenters. the church 58 Kim Groop had to sit in a particular location during the Sunday service. theSunday during location had tositinaparticular excommunication,of individualsreadmitted after theseindividuals 46 Tuupainen 45 was feared as a serious threatwas feared asaserious againstsalvation. life, inChristian important life ticularly immoral andlivingasexually Chastity, fidelity, marital in andmorals general were aspar­ viewed missionaries’of theFinnish biaswithregard andsexuality. tomorals andtheFinns.Ovambo asa demonstration alsobeinterpreted Itcan differences asasign of persistentcultural between the be interpreted cases, inthedisciplinary on sexualmorality however,in particular can culture).nections tolocal focus onmorality,overwhelming The and cultureation (withorwithoutdirect between local andmorals con­ customs, local for tolerance sionary oratleast enhanceddifferenti­ here.mentioned specifically This may suggest some measure ofmis­ concerned adultery, divorce, andimmorality. treated cases by the administrative boards beforedisciplinary Väänänen, Maija Tuupainen thatsome 90percentofall writes in general. Nestori provided toinformation by Missionary Referring sexuality,dominantly procreation life, and family butalsoimmorality leadershipthe attentionappeartohave oftheparish concerned pre­ b) sexuality, procreation, life. and married brought Also the cases to customs, a)local Regulations related tocategory directly andcategory notethatmosttransgressionswe can highlightedinthe1924Church byas crimes secular lawin Finland. of this division, In theapplication ingeneral,c) immorality and, d)transgressions were which considered customs,local life, b)transgressions andmarried related tosexuality begrouped categories;can intofour a)transgressions connected to andbyin theparishes thechurch leadership. These transgressions sinsshouldbetreated specificastohow certain was thatitvery inFinland pared andthe1869Church Law tothe1906instructions Another characteristic ofthe1924Church Regulations Another ascom characteristic ­ luterilaisen kirkonAmbomaan-luterilaisen järjestyssäännöt, evankelis §50and53. 1970, 118. 46 Local practiceisnot Local 45 1939

Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 59 49 , it cannot that the Finnish be denied the , 47 1970, 118. 2014, 85–89. Yet the rigidity of the rules met with been seems to have Yet 48 Quoted in Miettinen 2005, 120–121. Even if it has been argued, as for instance by Missionary Walde Missionary as forby instance Walde if it has been argued, Even s, that the Finnish that Missionary Society the late 1930s, Kivinen in did onlybut fought culturalthose which habits were culture, oppose not “surviv­ on or ignorancesuperstition” heathen and “savagery, on based customs” ing superstitious Groop 48 Groop 49 Tuupainen 47 Church Regulations and Regulations of the 1924 Church In discussing the preparation the Finnish Missionary in northerntheir implementation Namibia, or blackwhite, and Society easily appears as a rather intolerant, I do not wish While be true, may impression this Pietistic movement. shortcomingsthe on Finnsthe of linger to Ovamboor the – – people of One way this perception. behind or beyond rather reach as I would The Transculturality of the Christian Mission Transculturality The s, in the 1960 her research who conducted Tuupainen, As resistance. Lutheran Ovambo and in the Ondonga “most ministers working says “lost had that the church discipline considered tribes” Uukwanyama Disciplinarycases handle to became numerous too and, meaning.” its disciplined. were ones “guilty” only of the a fraction of this, as a result As a justice was not served. Tuupainen, to according Consequently, strict of the church implementation of the missionaries’ consequence rules to discipline. church indifferent people grew many missionaries had a great struggle with Ovambo culture. With hind­ struggle great missionaries a with Ovambo had culture. it can the Finnish be argued that what Missionary Societysight, tried to achieve in Ovamboland Regulations the 1924 Church through as I have was, This short a little appears to be a situation of utopia. of the Finnish a result ­ missionar discussed in my earlier research, ­ aspiration to found in Africa a church to their pref according ies’ erences. 60 Kim Groop fore,Samuel Huntington’s disqualifies of a theory of acclaimed “clash of the trad­ Welsch discusses the concept of transculturality. ent anddiverse cultures andtraditions. ­ differ consistedcrewrepresenting ofamotley surprisingly Ovambo mentation andliterature abouttheenterprise. Finns as asthe well The docu­ was much more intheearly tothisencounterthanisobvious tifacetedness. suggesttwo chapters, AsIwill inthefollowing there tively dangeroustively anduntenable.” unserviceable,of culture descriptively isnotonly ­ but also norma – aculture ofone people. According to Welsch, this “classical model alimitedpopulation for givingmeaningtothewholeoflife entity tique attheway beenviewed; culture hastraditionally asasingle 50 around intothe20 theturn andOvambo Finns the mission endeavour. abouttheencounterbetween isstriking What of andhybridisation hybridity the cultural doing thisistoscrutinise itself, presuppose it.” conceptually still they because “almost asinappropriatethetraditional concept [ofsinglecultures] diverse natureally of human society. Both are, in Welsch’s opinion, diverse refers cultures–which tothecultur­ –andmulticulturality refers –which tointeractionthe concepts between ofinterculturality ous cultures”. distinguished,from theexistenceofclearly homogen­ inthemselves ent cultures have livingtogether withinonesociety”, andit “proceeds asittakesuptheproblemsconcept ofinterculturality ­ differ “which multi­ 53 Welsch 52 Welsch 51 Welsch In an article publishedin1999,In anarticle philosopher theGerman Wolfgang turación converging todescribe cultures instanceJaidka 2010, (seefor by the Cuban Fernando Fernández Ortiz who coined the word Welsch culturality, according to Welsch, similartothe issurprisingly 1999, 196(emphasis inoriginal). 1999, 196. alsoUNESCO See 2006,17. 1999, 195. itional single entity cultureitional discourse. single entity Bergmann, there ­ 1999. wasalready usedinthe1940s The concept transculturality 53 Sigurd Bergmann elaborates on Bergmannelaborates Sigurd Welsch’s criticism 51 However, Welsch also criticises th 50 century isitsmul­ century Welsch­ aims cri 52 The concept of transcul- 2–3). Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 61 ization. … Also individu­ Also … ization. ­ under to Erll’s According 57

54 According to Bergmann: According 55 fiable civilisations.” 2010, 142. 2010, 143–144. 56 (emphasis in original).1999, 197 (emphasis 2010, 306–309. Welsch’s idea of transculturality as culture of challenges notion this Welsch’s Astrid Erll discusses Welsch’s notion of transculturality notion a from Astrid ErllWelsch’s discusses als construe their cultural identity in processes of selective mixtures. als construe their cultural mixtures. identity of selective in processes This dimension cultural becoming hybrids. of us are and more More of hybridization iden­ makes it extremely difficult to define national tity today. Cultures today are much more externally more much the single than connected are today Cultures The modernsociety and highly is complex dif­ shows. concept culture Migration silent zones of the world. also in the economic ferentiated, to a single territory. belonging make you longer not any do processes are Cultures Mobility or less global or regional. more makes people modernityin late characterized hybrid­ by a single entity. Culture today, he argues, (and, as I will argue later, also willI as later, argue (and, argues, he today, Culture entity. single a inter­ in the Finnish missionary characterised past) is pluralism, by ethnic social homogenisation, of by and hybridisation instead change, through“passes it words Welsch’s In and delimitation. consolidation, classical cultural boundaries.” memory studies perspective. She that the as far as suggesting goes memory studies perspective. transcultural can dimension of memory be viewed as a third phase stud­ the 1920s from mémoire collective Erll views Maurice Halbwachs’s ies. as Jan and Aleida Assmann’s as well phase and Pierre Nora’s as the first such and religious nations as ”large formations, mnemonic studies on . a second phase as representing groups” standing, the third phase is a phase in which scholars, “increasingly in whichscholars, is a phase phase the third standing, 54 Bergmann Welsch 55 Welsch 57 Erll 56 Bergmann civilisations” as “controversial and untrue” as it is “founded on the idea on “founded it is as untrue” and “controversial as civilisations” of clearly­ identi 62 Kim Groop transcultural memory asa: memory transcultural more memory”. complex modelsoftranscultural substitute notions of national culture and national remembrance with 61 60 59 Erll 58 Erll – can and should be viewed through andshouldbeviewed thelensoftransculturality.– can the Danish-Halle Tranquebar untiltoday Mission inthe18thcentury and Pietism German theway movement –all from 17thcentury ary oftoday,ample theglobalisingworld thatthemission­ Iwould claim write about transcultural memory asfollows: memory abouttranscultural write whointheirintroduction Rapson and Jessica toThe Transcultural Turn Though the discussion on transculturality often takesastheex­ often Though thediscussion on transculturality ders ascontainers ourunderstandingofthepast. for move beyond religious collectives; secondly, ofremembrance thataimto forums national, withinandbetween ofmemory the travelling ethnicand commemorative practice: incontemporary firstly, dynamics separate that Building upon Welsch’s definition oftransculturality, we suggest Bond elaborated on Lucy isalsosharedby This view andfurther and methodologies. studies’ by looking beyond establishedresearch assumptions, objects thebordersIt meanstranscending oftraditional ’cultural memory towards mnemonicandbeyond processes across unfolding … research perspective certain , ofattention, afocus isdirected which they they “… donotdeny inthenineteenth thatthere wasaprofound shift Welsch’s on focus today inhisdiscussion on transculturality, thatwhilst asregardsI thusshare Schöttli’s Antje Flüchter’s andJivanta analysis Bond 2014,19. andRapson mightbestberegardedtranscultural two asdescribing memory 2011, 9(emphasis inoriginal). 2010, 306. theideaofpolitical, ethnic, linguistic, orreligious bor­ 59

58 She understands She 60 cultures. 61 ­

Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 63

62 ) For 3) For Missionaries in Contact century towards a more tightly connected world, we [they]­ also under we century tightly world, a more connected towards shifta been have to this stand terms. rather than qualitative quantitative in occurs not only everywhere in our [their] understanding, Transculturality It is not bound and societies. but also at all in all times and human cultures structural element in all human a timeless, but represents to a certain time, (Flüchter & Schöttli, 2015 and institutions.” practices, societies, a recent study on German Pietism from a transcultural perspective, see a transcultural German Pietism study on perspective, from a recent 2015. Groop Remembering Africa: be mentioned; studies could here quite recent Two by The Rediscovering German Literature of in Contemporary Colonialism volume edited Göttsche Becker’s Judith and Dirk These World. in a (post-)Colonial through Interaction Transformation Zones: dealing with cultural encounters and perspectives, different from are, and colonialism. transformation mission in foreign An increased emphasis on the hybridity on emphasis increased missionary of the An movement this hybridised the memories as on as well and hybrid surrounding ­ the could open newising movement beyond perspectives theoretical and earlylate twentieth in the focus globalisation on twenty-first cen­ turies scholarly and thus be of benefit to the on transculturality debate such shifta ­ per research of addition, In transculturaland memory. enable historians would scholars and other spective dealing with the (legacyof enduring sim­ and beyond Christianthe ) reach to mission one of which being that – – or misconceptions plified conceptions misapprehension, This local culture. Christianthe destroyed mission a time upon that once an obsolete notion departs from claim, I would authentic but vul­ arrival the were (before of the missionaries) there a in intolerantbut missionaries forceful the that were nerablecultures Much of the scholarly to destroy. and managed to, wanted to, position of slightlydebate has tended to be tied to two simplified perceptions of processes One side has emphasised the Christian in action. mission has been understood through endeavour the mission where including, the missionaries where – mission of missio Dei – as God’s the concept Very little attention has so far been paid to studyinghas so far been paid attention little history the of the Very Christian missionary a transcultural perspective. from movement 62 64 Kim Groop and gives handsineachdirection.” withfull –itstandsthere oftheChristians mildandwarm and [theworld] mission stands ofthepagans on theborder between the world “The and being a blessing to them all.as standing between different worlds it served. intolerant,dominantly disdainful, cultures thelocal for anddestructive processes ofexcluding, theagents ofthemission aspre­ portraying mankind withGod’s grace. salvific aiming at embracing all have been seen as being within a divine effort Silén 65 Silén 64 63 posed to be. sup- according orwere comprehensions tovarious were ofwhothey instead beengrouped,have sooften insources aswell asinstudies, , were individualsandgroupsinfact nised asthetranscultural they and and cultures. However, thesecultures, failedtoberecog­ have sooften changing traditions from constantly came oridentifiedwith various andmissionisedsionaries we find individuals andcommunities who Yet, andthisismypoint, inthenumerous encountersbetween mis­ upon touched some ofthisrelationshipmyself inthepreviouschapter. ship between themission andthereceivers ofthemission, andIhave to go beyond amere stateofdisappointmentanddisapproval. latter, inmyopinion, ofmakingitselfirrelevantifitfails therisk runs direction,secular academiaiftakentoofarinachurch theological the as an example of transculturality than the Christian mission. than theChristian as anexampleof transculturality The very understanding, beany fitsbetter movement which therehardly can to cross bordersnamely of thepagans”. andenter the “world Inmy ofatleasttheProtestant characteristic mission:also pointstothevery words, standpointshe dualisticmissionary rather aPietistic describes In unequalandsometimes relation stormy I amaware­ oftheoften See for instanceMiettinen2005. for See instanceImberg2008. for See , Elin Silén wrote very vividly about the Christian mission abouttheChristian 1917, vividly wrotevery ElinSilén 64 1917, 5. Whereas the former may struggle tomakeitself heard may in struggle theformer Whereas 63 focused The othersidehason 65 Silén,Though withher Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 65 He saw it as far 67 However, the Finnish Missionary However, 66 In line with this, the Finnish Missionary Society In line with this, Suomen Lähetys-Sanomia and the Swedish -language 68 century was not that it was a Finnish or a Lutheran th 2008, 179. the Finnishthe Missionary missionariesits and Society were cul- b, 2013 see Groop 287–296. this, For See for instance Bridges2008, 58. Firstly, Firstly, more important that the missionaries “[fulfil] their ‘holy duty’ of ‘holy“[fulfil] their duty’ importantmore that the missionaries than that they aligned with nationality and proclaiming the gospel” interests. national 67 68 Ballard 66 essence of the Christian mission was (and still is) to belong to, move move the Christianessence of to, (and still was is) to belong mission Scrutinising worlds different and cultures. beyond and reach between, and missionarythe mission of transcul the lens ­ through movement Let examples from three me give makes sense. my opinion, in turality, the Finnish Missionary Society. . What was most characteristic of this society the around hybrids. tural turn 20 of the Society to other Lutheran-Lutheran also related and non Protestant Britain – and Great Germany, – not least in Sweden, societies mission journals. two in the society’s and frequently reported about their work the German evangelicalWarneck theologian Gustav Furthermore, as both an authoritywas considered to the Finnish and an inspiration did not view Missionary SocietyWarneck and the Pietist minded as a crucial culture part of Christianity. Western society; rather, as much as it was a Finnish as much society mission was a it society; rather, as it was a Lutheran and as much one European society a reviv­ it was ­ estab was it missionarythe Like large, at movement movement. alist of Germanlished in the wake Pietism and the evangelical revival and its supportit drew the bulk of various and supporters revivalist from Theologically, the Lutheran Church. or bordering, within, movements the Finnish Missionary Society to the Lutheran confession, adhered which Pietism inclinationan with but thinking, and revivalist towards is noticeable in the articles the journals: two published in the society’s Finnish -language Missions-Tidning för Finland. 66 Kim Groop a quite different curriculum to the school in Helsinki. totheschool a quitedifferent curriculum but inGermany, mission attheHermannsburg seminar, had which school missionary attheFinnish training received theirmissionary with time to consider himself more African thanFinnish. with timetoconsider himselfmore African Petersburg nearSt –wasborn Rautanen andcame Martti inRussia ies were whatone couldtoday call men”.“ordinary Finnish One– 74 Peltola 73 72 71 70 69 to build. were trying adent Christianity” would destroy thechurchheandhiscolleagues ities, outofOvamboland. Hefeared thattheinfluxofEuropean “dec­ on keepingtheGerman, author­ African andlatertheBritish/South reasonsof thekey Rautanen wassokeen why thefieldleader Martti work, bothfrom andareligious apolitical perspective. This was one the colonial authorities, whomconsidered they dangerous totheir nial perspective. fromchose todistancethemselves The missionaries could have beenexpectedofthemfrom anational orEuropean colo­ attimeswent beyond,in Ovamboland andsometimes against, what knowledge astowhere stoodwithregard missionaries theseseven missionaries demonstrates this. missionaries andreligioustural contexts.Finnish Justlooking atthefirstseven Namibiafrom came to whatistoday quitedifferent northern cul­ families. To add tothis, two from were the missionaries -speaking orcame Swedish eitherSwedish Jurvelin andMalmström. Jurvelin Weikkolin andAlexanderMalmström. EmmanuelJurvelin,Karl BotolfBernhard Björklund, August Karl Finland, Ihave heaven andAmboland.” Mytranslation. in Finland: have two home“I countries, likeothers. You have heaven and Peltola (1996, (Peltolabeen unabletofulfilthetraining 1958,32). Africa. tobecomebuthad training missionaries twoThe latterhad started Heinonen, andErkki Juntunen were Antti Piirainen senttoSouth West JuhoNissinen, from carpenters four Apart missionaries theseseven Juho For this, seePeltola 1996,164–169253259. 1958, 32; Paunu 1909,50– 51, 575968. ) quotes Rautanen who in 5) quotes Rautanen 69 As for the missionaries, As for travelling the Finns 73 of the first seven missionaries had missionaries not ofthefirstseven 70 Only two of the seven missionar two oftheseven ­ Only told friends in 1903 toldfriends Tampere 74 71 Ihave no Four 72 of Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 67

The kings and 78 This cultural diversity 76

77 or by pious religiosity in general, and they and had pious religiosityin general, or by 75 1970, 42–45. the Ovambocul­ the were hybrids therefore and cultural ty and support such as the slave against outside threats 1996, 220–225, 252, 309–310. Peltola 2014, 97; 1909, 27–28, 95–97. ­­ loyal In Finnish: Herännäisyys.In Finnish: Secondly, Secondly, ­ other’s Added they and sometimes raided each other. trade and colonisation; Ovambo that many to this it should also be mentioned were customs One example worth mentioning constantly changing or transforming. which was widely else­ practiced that male circumcision, is the fact the Ndonga from almost disappeared already had in Africa, where the missionaries arrived before in 1871. kingdom tural setting providing the context for the Finnish the context tural providing setting endeav­ mission The the whom Ovambo among our was in itself highly pluralistic. Finns of tried in 1870/1871 consisted stations to establish mission tribes multi­ nine different or sub tribes and a dialects with different These in iso­ groups did not live Ovambo customs. tude of different ­ interde but rather interaction, other each in constant from lation essentially communicated and They shared friction. and pendence, they each depended on belief system traditions; a mutual and many was typical not only for the first group of missionaries, but the small was typical not only of missionaries, for the first group society to draw continued missionary candidates supporters and from age, diversityThis terms in personalities, of various culturaltraditions. naturally would theological and so on tradition background, language, conflicts to lead also times at but would enrichenterprise, the mission to relate should be developed and how issues such the work on as how to Ovambo cultural traditions. Paunu 76 Paunu 77 Groop 78 Tuupainen 75 to theological tradition, but they were described by Uuno Paunu as as Paunu Uuno described by but they were to theological tradition, either serious and devout Christians been influenced or as having by the “awakening” been recommended to the Finnish to been recommended Missionary Society influential by Lutherans society. to the connections with 68 Kim Groop to “understand what to “understand approval ofthemissionaries; Frans orasputby Missionary Hannula, how tolearn tolive andbehave inorder struggling verts towinthe on reports pupils,fusion isalsoseeninmissionary workers, andcon­ not to, where tofindwater, andso on. buildingmaterial Thiscultural werethey indire needof, ashow such tofarm, whattoeatand alsoacquiredthey knowledge areas local inthemany practical that languages, thelocal tolearn tried dialects, andfolklore. Inaddition, pursue theirwork, andoutofpersonal interest. energetically They acquiredsionaries knowledge local inorder tosurvive, inorder to in Ovamboland. This isseeninthedocumentation on how themis­ Finnish arrival instance the first contacts the werevery made after process. Infact, on atthe thisprocess anindividuallevel started hosts would lead to an unstoppable transculturation and Ovambo differences,tural Finnish missionaries the relationship between the isation. cul­ unbridgeable andseemingly start Despiteaturbulent tion to new circumstances.tion tonew had walkedover thepastdecades, thatofchangeandadapta­ namely menandwomen continuedonand fashions apaththatOvambo only and/orwhoadopted European Christians trends andbecame schools missionaries,to welcome theFinnish mission whowent toFinnish ing cultures. Nonetheless, men and women who chose those Ovambo ­ receivedmissionaries transform exposure sets of constantly to new spreadthe work tootherkingdoms alsoeventually andchieftains, the manyies for years concentratedtheirwork withtheNdonga. When tribes, totheotherOvambo missionar­ ing Christianity theFinnish messengers. oftheFinnish to thearrival initialfailures­ inbring After ethnicgroups reacted differently rather Ovambo ofthevarious chiefs 79 Hannula Thirdly, even toowilling,even for, notes, Löytty asOlli converted “pagans experienced men andwomen were tocross willing boundaries; the cultural sometimes ­ implied hybrid andOvambo the encounterFinns between 1888, in Kirkollisia Sanomia (myemphasis).13 inKirkollisia Sanomia Many young isandwhatitisn’t.” Christianity true 79 Though Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 69 Needless 80 However, this transcultura­ However, 81 There are numerous other examples of how other examples of how numerous are There 82 1958, 47, 66. 2014, 108–109. ­ pagan from “deriving Rules 1924 Church forbade ceremonies … Christianitywestern cultural in differently lived than people who had … consequently and this would trigger a fear missionaries among that circles” (Löytty Christianthe joined motives converts the wrong with the church 2006, 192–193). 31. § evankelis järjestyssäännöt, -luterilaisenAmbomaan kirkon and Ovambo cultures grew together. There were were There Finnish missionary - and Ovambo together. grew cultures extraordinary missionaries some and kings or between relationships died and were and children missionaries and their wives Many chiefs. Ovambo and many Christians Finnish took buried African on soil, or midwives. teachers, these or other missionaries, names to honour the memoriesThis is a vivid example of how of the Finnish missionary It touches and Ovambo been cherished have in Namibia. connection the missionaries had their own quite specific understanding of what it understanding quite specific their own the missionaries had they also – reluctantly or voluntarily “true Christian” be a implied to – came Ovambo to accept own whichinto their did not fit customs dis­ as I have In due time, Christianity. “true” of this understanding into be assimilated would customs many my earliercussed in research, Finnish mis­ This was also trueversa: vice local Lutheran Christianity. sionaryLutheranism incorporatedbe would local into Ovambo cul­ to Christianweddings. This was the regard case for instance with ture. The singing, night time includingox, of a wedding the demanding ism” celebrations with relatives. and extensive drinking sprees, 80 81 Groop 82 Peltola to say these customs would not disappear. With ­ time the church cer not disappear. would these customs to say to be only come a small itself would part tradi­ emony of a wedding involving of old Ovambo a wide array tion of which most the customs eventually missionaries would accept. tion process went even further. Some Finnishthe of missionaries mar­ even further. went process tion Their This was the case for Rautanen and Björklund. ried local women. and Katharina) to the grandmother belonged (the sisters Frieda wives’ ethnic group. Nama 70 Kim Groop 86 would celebrate African participation,would African celebrate encounters astheearly such individual mindsandsocialformations” kept in motion, in order to ‘stay alive’, to have an impact both on needsto in linewithErll’s“’travel’, notionmemory thatcultural be mobility ofmnemonic asshared practices such imagesmobility andprac­ , travelling calls memory Erll upon whatAstrid pointsatthe which Erll 85 Erll 84 Erll 83 Erll such asbooks,such magazinesandphotographs. site ofthefirstmission station inOmandongo –orthrough media old church, orthe graves atOlukonda mission houses andmissionary visible at, andhonoured through, national monuments asthe such Church inOvamboland.of theLutheran would be These memories “new memories” beginnings ofthevery memories would beOvambo church, connections. missionary albeitwithFinnish ofthese Some ofanAfrican andcommemorations thehistory celebrating memories ories. sentimentswould soon give local way tonew missionary Old mem­ Mission Church could not end withthe Finnish the Finnish other, ortouseErll’s words, mediaandminds”. “between hand andwritten, painted, mnemonic interpretationson the orcrafted alsotravels between individualsor collectives on theone how memory ature, hymns, sacralimages, biblequotations andsoon. This shows lective were –which keptalive liter­ andmaintainedby particular –individualas ascol­ well memories carried Finnish missionaries The individuals and collectives across national boundaries. and cultural travels with andisolatedmemory thanbeingsomething local Rather Evangelical Lutheran Church inNambia. Lutheran Evangelical Nambala. Nambala has since2012beenthepresiding bishop inthe by Gerhard L. waswritten which and Shekutaamba Vaino Buys Vaino One influentialbook the Church in in Namibia of Namibia istheHistory tostaylike aswimmerkeepsmoving afloat. 2008,345. See Rigney isconstantly theworks”“in swimmer toshow how collective memory and 2011, 2011, 18–19. 2011, 18. 17. gives credit toAnnwhousesthe metaphor Rigney ofa Erll 85 , attachedto thememories 86 Other Other “new memories” 84 However, tices. 83

Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 71 87 Finnish Lutheran 89 ; the Finnish­ mission ; 88 2013, 279. Buys 2003, 162–163. and Nambala 2004, 345. see for instance Nordbäck of sin, conception the Pietist’s For , the Ovambo between an amalgamation Rules Church were First, aries tended to read Luther through the lenses of Pietism. This is seen This the lenses of Pietism. Lutheraries through tended to read dealing with baptism. section Rules’ for in the 1924 Church instance stressed is paganism than fourless renounce to need the times No This demonstrates the contrast between for baptism. as a prerequisite the other. on hand and baptism and grace the one paganism and sin on This thought structurereading Luther can be seen as an example of penance of sin versus the Pietistic conception Pietisticthrough glasses; and rebirth applied to paganism and baptism. is pastors had little experience in baptising adults and therefore the little experience and therefore pastors had in baptising adults with in common more in this respect, Lutheran missionaries had, it However, such Methodists. as Baptists and “heirs of Pietism” other transfusion of ideas is the baptism where is not only on in the section a number of other examples of hybridisation in the are as there seen, Rules. Church the Swedish Law of Church Law 1686 and the Finnish of Church 1869. of to assess the reception It is not within the scope of this research a Yet Finnishthe Law Church in revivalist circles 1869 of in Finland. 88 Shantz 89 87 Cultural Hybridity Rules 1924 Church and the Cultural The transcultural of the character Finnish Missionary Society endeav­ Finnishmis­ our in Ovamboland Rules. is also visible in the Church sionary theology was a hybridisationvarious of theological ­ perspec what but in line with It was thoroughly Lutheran in dogma, tives. Shantz writes about as the early of Luther PietistsDouglas H. reading radical Spiritualists” the lenses of … “through , and of and of baptism in 1883, the first with Finnish missionary Christianity, first seven of the the ordination 1925. Ovambo pastors in 72 Kim Groop is the child of the Finnish Evangelical Lutheran Church andadopts Lutheran Evangelical oftheFinnish is thechild ChurchChurchLutheran –thetextreads Amboland Evangelical “The thisthought.supports – Inthefirstparagraph The Confession ofthe the other.Rules Alookdifferent intheChurch atfour paragraphs revivalmovements andfree churches,sions withinLutheran found on Church, Lutheran within theFinnish on theone hand, andtheexpres­ Lutheranism andrevivalist thinking; orbetween thoseexpressions found adapted ittofitboththesendingandhostingcontext. best” of; it had of the two Church experience Laws simplified it and took Society “the its likinginOvamboland, Missionary theFinnish context.enough intheOvambo achurch of Initsattempttofound didnotdeemthislawstrict Society Missionary ous thattheFinnish on ofthisChurch themission­ Law fielditseemsobvi applicability considered still alittletooliberal.they the1869Law Regarding the relieved,probably but not thrilled, and it is reasonable to assume that fession wasabolished. Consequently, therevivalistmovements were banwasretained,smaller butthelarger banaswell asthe public con­ promise wasreached. The confession wasamendedandthe paragraph was alsovisibleinthediscussion. considerations andcritique andconservative astheliberal peasantry); estates(nobility, ofthefour the pointofview clergy, bourgeoisie, and discussed inthesenate, within, handled it was not only by, and from notionsmall may beofrelevance. Schauman’s When lawproposal was Pirinen 91 Pirinen 90 Pirinen ishment ofthepublicconfession. thelarger,to abolishnotonly ban, butalsothesmaller andtheabol­ gates, by Pirinen, asreported Kauko resisted Schauman’s suggestion produced discussion inthelawcommittee. lively Asection ofthedele­ confession and the issue of church discipline both of which paragraph Second, were the Church Rules a 1985, 166–169. 1985, 217–220. 91 90 After this arm wrestling acom thisarm ­ After case This wastheregarding the result of hybridisation between between hybridisation of result Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 73

93 1924, § This 62. emphasises the emphasises 13 able that the Finnishable that These paragraphs show how the These paragraphs how show 95 can concionandi viewed be func­ venia dual a having as venia concionandi was a written in venia introduced permission Given the controversy that the confession paragraph that the confession the controversy Given 92 Finally, in the last section and paragraph – Free Christian paragraphand Free – section last the in Finally, 94 custom had probably been inspired by the Lutheran in Finland by Churches probably been inspired had custom The and Sweden. centurylate 19th the chap the ­ grantedcould be by person which a lay by ter or bishop the right a Sunday to lead Service in a Lutheran or to preach The church context. revivalist the many derived from preachers lay that of acknowledging tion: them. whilst also controlling movements, evankelis järjestyssäännöt-luterilaisenAmbomaan kirkon 1924, § 69. Ambomaan evankelis järjestyssäännöt-luterilaisenAmbomaan kirkon , § 1924 1. evankelis järjestyssäännötAmbomaan -luterilaisen kirkon 1924, §13. evankelis järjestyssäännöt-luterilaisenAmbomaan kirkon had created in revivalist circles in revivalist in Finland created had for the proposal when the ­ it is remark Law public, 1869 Church made was all embracing Lutheran movements, revivalist MissionarySociety, it is noteworthy Nonetheless, opted for simple statement. this quite AfricaFinnish to the that the society in SouthWest work tied the Evangelical Lutheran and not only Church the Finnish to Missionary paragraph Sunday on Service, section the In Society. role of lay people in the Church service stating that “As preacher may may preacher service in the Church people “As of lay role stating that Christians as sincere ”. known people who are also lay be employed This is also emphasised in the section on the spiritual the section and financial in This is also emphasised and pious” “mature that it is stressed of the parishmanagement where laymenshould be encouraged to serve as evangelists“take after they the Church before and perform demonstration” a degree a preaching Board. 95 93 94 92 its confession.” Activity – the Finnish Missionary Society importancethe emphasises -, youth “SundaySchool, such as Christian activity” free “diverse a of as activity as well in work and pagan mission -, diakonia temperance-, workers”. Ambo of residing favour Finnish Missionary Society stood between theological traditions, i.e. Finnish i.e. Missionary Society theological stood between traditions, and but at the same time expressing adhering to Lutheran theology, 74 Kim Groop customs ofsettlingconflicts. asanattemptatpreserving,also beviewed inwith, andtying Ovambo conservatism.sionary Ontheotherhand, thismodeofconfession can Mission Church couldtherefore asanexpression beviewed ofmis­ Keeping orintroducing thismeansofchurch disciplineintheFinnish Law, while ithad disappeared from the succeeding1869 Church Law. hand, thepublicconfession had beenbrought from the1686Church for instancewiththepublic confession.case This isthe Onthe one customs. asattemptsatanadaptation alsobeviewed toOvambo can mixture inFinland, between thetwo Church Laws some paragraphs encounter.ful cultural beseenasa many can oftheparagraphs While visibledisplay ofaremarkable pain­ andattimesrather dramatically habitsandcustomsdesirable inthesection on Church Disciplineisa ofhumans–inmind.complete transformation The long listofun­ were asthey wereChurch withtheendresult Rules written –the thinkingwere considered missionary asopposites.in Finnish The dualism between paganism and salvation,of the contemporary which . andEuropean cultures seeninlight clearly African most This ismaybe had itsroots. Society Missionary where theFinnish oftherevivalist movements, someencouraging ofthecharacteristics 96 coloured by had taken. some oftheroutes Christianity We take can ies” from were brought thisjourney toAfrica deeply from Finland limitedselection.a highly also the Naturally “memory” or “memor­ be only couldnaturally Society Missionary by theFinnish to Africa less routes, whatwas “remembered” from andbrought thisjourney count­ hastravelled toOvamboland.Jerusalem Christianity While ofthegospel long from two millennium journey the extraordinary message itself theChristian .turality of here Iamconsidering is What ,Third are theChurch an encounter Rules demonstration a of between Fourth, andfinally,Rules makevisible theChurch thetranscul - , § 26. 1924,§ kirkonAmbomaan-luterilaisen järjestyssäännöt evankelis 96 ­ Divine Law Enforcement and Mission Transculturality 75 and the stance on Christian on and the stance 97 For the transformation of the concept, see for instance Forward 2005, 8. see for instance Forward the transformation of the concept, For morals. While the notion of the pagans goes back to biblical times, the the While back goes to biblical of the pagans the notion times, morals. ­ Rules the 1924 Church and understood in it was embraced resem way th centurybled the 18 German Pietistic of the concept understanding morals to applies same The and mis­ Finnish than anything else. more which Christian, sionary“true” what characterised as to opinions a by by been highly had Lutheran influenced thinking and more even cultural both how memoryThis demonstrates in Pietistic thinking. historythe and transformstravels ­ of the Church con it is and how It also demonstrates nected with theological and domicile. tradition is just a What“remembered” is of cultural memory. the limitations viewedthousand-year If two almost an as history. of selection tiny and paths before the Christian routes travelled many tradition journey, at the when looking Yet, it came northern to what is today Namibia. such Rules as the 1924 Church it is obvi­ written sources, mission ous that the Finnish and for in the emerging missionaries working Ovambo Lutheran certain cherished Church tra­ and remembered Clearly or than others. and events more historical stages, ditions, vaguely certain in this document are visible historical chapters such and the German Pietism, reformation, Luther’s as the early Church, count­ whereas Swedish and Finnish Laws Church of 1686 and 1869, in the historyless other stages tended of the Christian have Church to be forgotten. 97 as an example the concept of paganism the concept as an example 76 Kim Groop 2004 Bergmann, Sigurd 2015 Becker, Judith 2008 Ballard, Martin Bibliography Kirkollisia Sanomia. 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